ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This material has been designed and developed by Dr. Samir Kumar

Panigrahi, Associate Professor, Black Diuamond Engineering College.

Part of the material used in this block is taken from e-Pg Pathshala which has

been acknowledged in the “Reference Section” at the end of the unit.

BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONOURS) IN

ENGLISH (BAEG)

BEG-12

Indian Classical Literature

Block-2

Sanskrit Drama-1

“Kalidasa, Abhijanansakuntalam”

Unit-1 Kalidasa: An Overview

Unit-2 Analysis of Texts

Unit-3 Major Themes

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UNIT-1 KALIDASA: AN OVERVIEW

Structure

1.0 Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Kalidasa’s Life: The Problem of Date

1.3 Works of Kalidasa

1.4 Abhijnanashakuntalam: The Origin of the Play

1.5 Let Us Sum Up

1.6 Check Your Progress

1.0 OBJECTIVES

The aim of this unit is to acquaint you with Kalidasa, the man and his literary works.

An attempt has been made to discuss the probable time of Kalidasa and the place

where he lived. The origin of Abhijnanashakuntalam has been discussed at the

backdrop of mythological references.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Kalidasa is the brightest luminary in the firmament of Sanskrit literature. Kalidasa

has been hailed as the greatest dramatist of India and is considered the national poet

of India. The literati have honoured him with superlative epithets – Kavikulaguru

(Mentor of poets), Nikhilakavichakra Chudamani (Crown jewel among poets) and

Kavisiromani (Head among poets). Sir William Jones called him the Shakespeare of

India. He is the trend-setter of Belles-Lettres in Sanskrit literature. The spiritual

ideals of the epic poets Valmiki and Vyasa and the socio-cultural norms laid down in

the law books of Manu and Yajnavalkya have been respected and endorsed by

Kalidasa.

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Kalidasa's imagination holds in perfect fusion the two elements of natural beauty and

human feelings. His fame rests on his sensitivity and close appreciation of the world

of nature and human emotions. A. B. Keith says: “It is in the great writers of Kavya

alone, headed by Kalidasa, that we find depth of feeling for life and nature matched

with perfection of expression and rhythm” (1993: vii). Various psychic traits like

emotions and attitude, feelings and experiences, mental states and calls of

conscience, the degree of patience and the quality of mercy are reflected in his plays.

Kalidasa’s greatness and popularity lies on presenting the musings of the seers

recorded in Upanishads or the Bhagavad Gita professing the realization of truth is

the ultimate goal of liberation (moksha) of self (atman) from desires. The spiritual

ideals of the epic poets Valmiki and Vyasa and the socio-cultural norms laid down in

the law books of Manu and Yajnavalkya have been respected and endorsed by

Kalidasa. The characters of his plays display the patterns of Vedic living and

represent the goals of life as the four purusarthas – (i) dharma (moral life/duty), (ii)

Artha (wealth and political power), (iii) Kama (sensual pleasure) and (iv) Moksha (a

liberation from the bondage of rebirth) and the four Asramas: (i) Brahmacharya, (ii)

Garhasthya, (iii) Vanaprastha and (iv) Samnyasa, which were the features of ideal

life for the man/woman of nobility and royalty. Kalidasa has transcended age-old

Vedic truths into the poetic truth by his ability of fusion of emotions into a scene,

that they not only magnify and mesmerize the audience’s emotional experience with

the character on the stage but such interaction feeds the spectator’s life with

cognition, recognition and realization of truths.

1.2 KALIDASA’S LIFE: THE PROBLEM OF DATE

We have very limited amount of information about his life and time. Kalidasa’s dates

have not been established conclusively. Three different dates have been put forward.

(1) The second century BC, the period of the Sunga Empire ruling from Pataliputra.

(2) The first century BC, in the reign of the celebrated Vikramaditya of story and

legend. (3) The fourth to fifth centuries AD, during the period of the Gupta Empire.

No authentic biographical data are preserved about Kalidasa. There are, among the

several theories current about the date of Kalidasa, some more credible versions that

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enjoy academic merit. He is said to have been belonged to Navaratna (nine jewels), a

court poet of king Vikramaditya. The Indian calendar, known as Vikrama Samvat,

takes its origin from him. It is also suggested that he was a contemporary of King

Vikramaditya of Ujjain who was a patron of learning and the arts. Many Indian

scholars are of the view that Kalidasa lived in the first century BCE. This makes him

a contemporary and protege of King Vikramaditya, the founder of the Samvat era

which is 57 BCE. (Devadhar 198: I).

Most European scholars point out that Vikramaditya was really the Gupta king,

Candragupta II, who assumed the title of Vikramaditya when he succeeded his father

Skandagupta in 375 AC and made Ujjain his capital. Devadhar notes that Vincent

Smith in his "Early History of India" (P304, footnote) is of the opinion that Kalidasa

composed his earlier works before 413 AC during the rule of Candragupta while his

later works were written under Kumaragupta I (413 AC to 455 AC). (Devadhar

1981: i)

On the basis of the assumption that he was a contemporary of Agnivarna Hippolyte

Fauche places Kalidasa in the 8th century BCE. Dr C. Kunhan Raja states that on the

basis of the Bharatavakya of Malavikagnimitram, Kalidasa was a contemporary of

King Agnimitra of the Sunga dynasty, and this places him in the 2nd century BCE

(Singh 1977: 7).

The earliest paleographic evidence of Kalidasa is found in a sanskrit inscription

dated C. 473 CE, found at Mandsaur’s sun temple. “The Mandasor inscription by

one Vatsabhatti reveals some indebtedness to Kalidasa’s poem Ritusamharam.

Critics accept 437 A.D. as the upper limit of Kalidasa’s date. The Aihole inscriptions

of Saka era i.e., 633 A.D. suggest the lower limit of the great poet’s time” (Rajan

307).

Scholars have found evidences of Kalidasa’s time in monuments and sculptures too.

The Gupta art of the fourth-fifth century A.D. exhibits a fervor of the poet and

dramatist’s art. The sculptural beauty of Bharhut, Sanci and Sanghol are quite similar

to the word pictures in Kalidasa‟s Meghadutam. Like the word “pramada” which is

very often used by Kalidasa, conveys the self-conscious feeling of young women

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blooming with beauty. The “yaksis” and “devatas” of Bharhut and the figures of

Sanghol are all “pramades”.

From Kalidasa's writings we learn that at least a part of his life was spent in the city

of Ujjain. He mentions Ujjain more than once in his works and in a manner which is

possible only for a person who knows and loves the city. In his poem Meghadutam

(The Cloud Messenger), he writes at length about the charm of Ujjain, which is

associated with contemporary Ujjain in the western part of Madhya Pradesh.

Several legends hover round on Kalidasa. The most popular one is associated with

his name – Kali- dasa – the servant of goddess Kali or the worshipper of goddess

Kali. Ryder presents the legend thus: “Kalidasa was a Brahmin child who was

orphaned at the age of six months and was adopted by an ox-driver. He grew up into

a handsome and graceful young man who had no formal education. He was inveigled

into marrying a beautiful princess who thought that Kalidasa was extremely wise.

When the princess realised that Kalidasa was uneducated she was furious but later

relented and encouraged Kalidasa to pray to the goddess Kali for knowledge and the

gift of poetry. This prayer was granted for knowledge and poetical power descended

miraculously upon the young ox-driver” (1959 vii-viii).

From a historical perspective, we know almost nothing of Kalidasa. There are no

records that tell us accurately where he lived and when. It is by speculating around

secondary evidence that his time can be established. Because the Sunga King

Agnimitra is the hero of one of Kalidasa’s plays, it can be safely assumed that his

time cannot be earlier than the 1st century BCE. And because he is praised by

Banabhatta and in the Aihole inscription of Ravikirti, his time cannot be later than

7th century CE. Today, it is largely agreed that he must have lived sometime between

the 4th and 5th century CE, during the Gupta Golden Age. It is possible that he was

patronized by either Samudragupta or Chandragupta-II or both. His works show his

great love for the city of Ujjain, which was the second capital of the Guptas. Many

scholars also think that it was the hometown of Kalidasa.

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1.3 WORKS OF KALIDASA

Scholars have differing views on the chronology of Kalidasa's works but the popular

consensus is that the works were written in the following order:

i) Ritusamharam (Gathering of the Seasons) - a lyrical poem

ii) Malavikagnimitram (Malavika and Agnimitra) – drama

iii) Kumarasambhavam (The Birth of Kumara) - epic poem

iv) Vikramorvasiyam (Urvasi Won by Valour) – drama

v) Meghadutam (The Cloud Messenger) - lyrical poem

vi) Raghuvamsam (Raghu’s Dynasty) - epic poem

vii) Abhijnanasakuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala)– drama

i) Ritusamharam

Kalidasa’s Ritusamharam is a collection of subhashita, or “well said” poetic

epigrams about the different seasons according to which ancient Indians divided the

whole year. This work consists of six cantos of lyrical verses – one for each season.

It is an assembly of hundred and fifty-three stanzas. These stanzas are a description

of the natural beauty of each season. The seasonal beauty is attached to human

sentiments. There is a very minute description of the geography of the western

Malwa. The poem is probably the first of Kalidasa’s works, for it lacks the artistic

unity one finds in the other mature works of Kalidasa. He captures the beautiful

imagery in a stylized form while attempting to make it appear natural in the poem.

Such experiments with the lyric form refined the literary art of Kalidasa further.

ii) Malavikagnimitram

Malavikagnimitram is the first play composed by Kalidasa. Unlike the other plays

Malavikagnimitram depicts the court life of Agnimitra, the Sunga emperor at

Vidisha. This play is also written in five acts. The plot of the play is cleverly

constructed and it revolves around the King's love for Malavika. The hero,

Agnimitra is a real historical figure. He falls in love with one of his queen’s

attendants, who is finally revealed as Malavika, the princess of Vidarbha. Two of his

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queens oppose his love with the attendant. The eldest queen, Dharini reacts to the

king’s relationship with an attendant, as it is not the dignity of the king to marry an

attendant. On the contrary Iravati, the youngest is jealous. Kalidasa does not show

the heroic details in the play. The intrigue is restricted to the court. It is an intrigue at

court, very different from other Sanskrit dramas. Further, the play contains an

account of the Rajasuya sacrifice performed by Pushyamitra Shunga and an

elaborate exposition of a theory on music and acting. Kalidas’s works are remarkable

for their poetic excellence. But Malavikagnimitra is more prosaic.

iii) Kumarasambhavam

Kumarasambhavam (“Birth of Kumara”) is an epic poem by Kalidasa. The work

describes the courting of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati, the daughter of the

Himalayas; the conflagration of Kamadeva; the birth of Kumara, the war god and

Shiva’s victory over demon. A major highlight of Kumarasambhavam is the

lamentation of Rati set in the viyogini meter. The realistic depiction of feelings is a

supreme achievement of Kalidasa.

The original poem is in eight cantos, unfortunately only seventeen cantos, i.e., only

the first part of the poem is available to us. It is not clear if Kalidasa left it unfinished

or the second part was lost. The poem is more a dramatic poem than an epic.

iv) Vikramorvasiyam

The theme of Vikramorvasiyam has been borrowed from the Rigveda. The play is

composed in five Acts which describes the love of Pururavas, the king of

Pratishthana, and Urvasi, a heavenly nymph (apsaras). Urvashi incurs a curse upon

her, thus separating her from her lover Pururuvas. She is kidnapped by the demons.

King Pururuvas hears this and goes to rescue her. During this he falls in love with

Urvashi. But after some time Urvashi is transformed into a tree as she enters the

forbidden grove of Kumara. Thus the separation begins. As directed by a voice from

the heaven the grief stricken Pururuvas embraces the vine. The tree is transformed

back to Urvashi, thus the reunion takes place. Kalidasa blends the theme with events

both terrestrial and celestial. “Dr. Wilson has rightly pointed out,” says Bhagawat

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Saran Upadhyaya that, “Fate is the ruling principle of the narrative and the monarch,

the nymph and the sovereign of the gods himself are portrayed as subject to the

inscrutable and inevitable decrees of destiny” (Upadhyaya 284). In this play,

Kalidasa seems to have concentrated more on characterization than on plot-

construction.

v) Meghadutam

Meghadutam is a short lyrical poem of exquisite beauty in about 120 verses in

Mandakranta metre. It is a “poem of longing and separation. The “megha” i.e., cloud

is the messenger of the lover. A certain Yaksha, because of his negligence of duty

was cursed by his Lord, Kubera. He was exiled for one year. He had to leave his

newly wedded wife and live in Ramgiri ashrama. It was in the month of asadha i.e.,

June-July he saw the new rain bearing clouds that is propelled by south-east

monsoon. The cloud was on its usual route towards the north. In the north was

Alakapuri in the Himalayas, where his newly wedded wife lived. On seeing the

clouds moving towards Alakapuri he was filled with pangs of separation and thus

addresses to the cloud and entreats it to carry his message. His entreating the cloud to

take a northerly route and go to Alkapuri and pass the message to his beloved wife is

what testifies to the great imaginative ability of Kalidasa. The structure of the poem

is simple but straight and appealing. It is one of the gems of Indian classical

literature.

vi) Raghuvamsham

Raghuvamsham is composed of nineteen cantos. The epic begins with an invocation

of Lord Siva and Parvati. Then the “Line of Raghu” begins with Dilipa, Raghu, Aja,

Dasaratha and the birth of Rama. His youthful exploits are seen in Canto XI, the

poetic description of his victory over Ravana and his return to Ayodhya in Canto

XIII. The following cantos are centred upon Lord Rama’s sons, Luv and Kush. The

two concluding cantos are a shadowy treatment of the last twenty-four

Raghuvanshis. Raghuvamsham dealt more with Lord Rama, the avatar of Vishnu.

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1.4 ABHIJNANASHAKUNTALAM: THE ORIGIN OF THE PLAY

The earliest reference to Shakuntala can be traced in Satapatha Brahmana: In the

last sections of the Satapatha Brahmana that are devoted wholly to a descript ion of

the rituals of the Horse-sacrifice (Asva Medha Yajna), where the names of some of

the Kings who performed them are mentioned, we come across to this line: “In

Nadapit, the Apsara Sakuntala conceived (bore) Bharata”. This is the earliest literary

reference to Sakuntala and her son (the little boy Sarvadamana in the play) who

performed many horse-sacrifices [...]. The original story of Sakuntala referred to in

the Satapatha Brahmana is lost to us; we have only a very long and earthy version of

it is the epic (Mahabharata: 1: chs. 62-69) (Rajan 80).

The Mahabharata, the Bhagavata and the Padmapurana are believed to be the three

major sources of the play Abhijnanasakuntalam. But it is more widely accepted that

Kalidasa is more indebted to the Mahabharata for the making of

Abhijnanasakuntalam. The theme of the play has been drawn from the Mahabharata

but it “deviates at several places from the narrative of its source” (Upadhyaya 282).

In the Adipurva of the Mahabharata Duhsanta –Shakuntala episode provides the

outline for the creation of the play. The episode found in the epic is fairly simple.

King Duhsanta, losing his way while on a hunting expedition, reaches Kanva’s

ashram, meets Shakuntala alone, learns from his own mouth her decent, impatiently

proposes the gandharva marriage, accepts her condition that her son alone would be

his successor, marriages her, leaves for his palace, and later, being afraid of public

censure rejects her when she arrives with their nine years son later. The intervention

of a voice from heaven brings about their re-union. Kalidasa adopts this legend and

gives colour though his creativity. Amal Dhari Singh in his Kalidasa: A Critical

Study has compared and contrasted Kalidasa’s creation and the Mahabharata story

of Shakuntala: “Kalidasa introduces Duhsanta as a childless king. So marriage

becomes a necessity. In the Mahabharata the king marries for pleasure. At first

glance, the proposal for the marriage seems quite abrupt. In the

Abhijnanasakuntalam the lover and the beloved get sufficient time to know each

other and their love affair is known to Sakuntala’s friends” (Singh 54). Kalidasa

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turns the story into an elegant piece of art by giving it the theme of love, passion

separation and reunion.

Kalidasa has invented the episodes of Durvasa’s curse, the giving and losing of the

ring, Menaka’s wafting away of Shakuntala, the figherman’s recovery of the ring,

the reawakening of the king’s memory and his repentance, God Ingra’s invitation to

the king to fight for the Gods against demons, the subsequent visit of the king to

Hemakuta and his re-union with Shakuntala. Kalidasa too creates new characters in

the play. While in the Mahabharata there are only four characters Duhsanta,

Shakuntala, Kanva and Bharata; Kalidasa portrays thirty two new characters in the

play. Priyambada and Anasuya are not present in the story of Mahabharata and are

the creations of Kalidasa. Kalidasa too invents Sarngarava and Saradvata, the two

disciples of Kanva, The motherly matron of the hermitage, Gautami is also

Kalidasa’s invention. Vidusaka is another creation who is often the arranger and

conspires to bring the hero and the heroine together as in the act two of Kalidasa’s

version. Duhsanta’s character is too elevated and the thoughtless, selfish and

opportunist king of the legend in the Mahabharata becomes a noble, dutiful,

righteous and self-controlled individual, fully living up to the ideal prescribed in the

treaties on drama.

Abhijnanasakuntalam’s story is offered as the beginning of Kuru clan, making

Shakuntala, Dushyanta, and their son Bharata the origin point for one of India’s most

famous, and most important royal families.

Conclusion

"Shakuntala" can be compared to the plays based on The Ramayana and consider the

problems of moral choice and fate. The hero Rama is confronted with choices to be

made and is driven by a certain fate. The mood of pity pervades the story. Similarly,

in "Shakuntala", as in The Ramayana, suffering is displayed for the sake of relishing

the state of suffering. The production of Sanskrit literature reached its height of

development in the 1st to the 7th centuries. In addition to sacred and philosophical

writings, such genres as erotic and devotional lyrics, court poetry, plays, and

narrative folktales emerged. The Sanskrit philosophies were the source of

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philosophical writing in the later literatures, and the Sanskrit schools of rhetoric were

of great importance for the development of court poetry in many of the modern

literatures. "Shakuntala" by the author Kalidasa is in the literary form of a drama and

a heroic romance. It is a work which celebrates the harmonious interplay and

ultimate unity of complementary aspects of reality. Unity emerging from diversity

pervades the entire work at many levels.

1.5 LET US SUM UP

Of all the Sanskrit dramas, Abhijnanasakuntalam remains one of the most widely

celebrated and oft-performed in the West. The play has played a significant role in

generating interest in Indian theatre among European audiences. It is the first ever

Indian play to be translated into any western language. Sir William Jones first

translated it into English in 1789.

1.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is the difference between the Shakuntala episode in the Mahabharata and

in Kalidasa’s Abhijnanasakuntalam?

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2. What place does Kalidasa’s play Abhijanam Shakuntalam occupy in the canon

of world litearture?

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3. What are some of the major themes that has been discussed in Abhijnana-

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4. In what ways is Abhijinam-Shakuntalam connected to Mahabharat?

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UNIT-2 ANALYSIS OF TEXTS

Structure

2.0 Introduction

2.1 Objectives

2.2 Textual Analysis

2.3 Title of the play

2.4 Synopsis of Abhijnanasakuntalam

2.4.1 The Prologue

2.4.2 Act I

2.4.3 Act II

2.4.4 Act III

2.4.5 Act IV

2.4.6 Act V

2.4.7 Act VI

2.4.8 Act VII

2.5 Let Us Sums Up

2.6 Check Your Progress

2.7 References

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The aim of this unit is to acquaint you with the storyline of Abhijnanasakuntalam. In

this Unit, you will be introduced to how to analyse plays and appreciate their

effectiveness as dramatic texts. The common approaches to the analysis of literary

texts are content and form. Content deals with the theme and subject matter. Form

comprises such stylistic features as plot, characterization, setting, language and other

dramatic devices used in the play.

2.1 OBJECTIVES

By the time you conclude this unit you will be able to:

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Read and appreciate plays.

Criticize any given play by highlighting its weak and strong points.

2.2 TEXTUAL ANALYSIS

Textual analysis in drama is the evaluation of a play. In the evaluation, you are

expected to read the play very well and highlight how effectively or otherwise the

playwright has utilized the elements and devices of drama in the composition of his

play. As you analyses a play, you are expected to identify the theme and appropriate

the characters.

2.3 TITLE OF THE PLAY

The title of the play Abhijnanasakuntalam has the theme hidden in it. Etymologically

Abhijnana means “Recognition”. Thus Abhijnanasakuntalam means “Recognition of

Shakuntala”. The question arises - recognition by whom? It is the king Dushyanta

who recognizes his wife Shakuntala. He has forgotten her as a result of the curse of

Durvasa. But this recognition is not only of the physical being Shakuntala, but of the

inner beauty of the daughter of Nature. Rajan has explained what the meaning of

recognition stands for in the context of the play:

“What is knowing? The king at first knew Sakuntala carnally, as an object; and

frankly as an object of pleasure. She is a flower to smell, a gem to hold and an

ornament to wear. She is hardly a person to him. It is only at the close of the play

that he sees her as a person and knows her truly” (Rajan 86).

When Dushyanta saw Shakuntala for the first time, he was attracted by the physical

charm of her body. But he has to know her soul. This could be possible only through

a long separation and grief. Shakuntala was cursed by Durvasa and as a result of the

curse Dushyanta refused to accept her. Hence the separation took place between the

lovers. But in the fisherman scene Dushyanta realises his mistake. The guilt of

repudiating Shakuntala opened the eyes of Dushyanta. He could now see the beauty

of her soul. In the seventh act he sees Shakuntala not as beautiful as she was when he

first saw her. She is no more in the prime of her youth. Here she stands “Dressed in

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dusky garments/her face fined thin from observing strictest vows” (VII, Rajan 275).

He sees that the glow of Shakuntala’s skin has reduced with time. But he could see

the soul of Shakuntala is set aglow. In their course of separation Dushyanta thought

is perfected. He is now matured. He could now see the true self of Shakuntala, i.e.,

the beauty of her soul.

2.4 SYNOPSIS OF ABHIJNANASAKUNTALAM

2.4.1 THE PROLOGUE

Abhijnanasakuntalam begins with a prologue that frames the rest of the play. The

play opens with the customary benediction, the Nandi, seeking the Lord Shiva’s

protection of all those present. The benediction calls upon the eight physical

embodiments of Shiva. The eight forms are in order: Water, Fire, The Priest, Sun and

Moon, Space, Earth, Air. The prologue to Abhijnanasakuntalam begins when the

Sutradhara walks onstage, calling into the wings for the Nati to finish dressing and

come join him. When she does he informs her that their esteemed audience has

assembled, and that tonight they are attend to that audience with a performance of

the “new naṭaka (heroic drama), called The Recognition of Shakuntala, the narrative

of which has been prepared by Kalidasa.” To put their spectators in the proper

emotional state for the play, the Sutradhara entreats the Nati to sing a song about

season of summer, and she happily complies. When she is finished, the room is

transfixed and silent—the Sutradhara notes that they are so still they look like a

painting. He is affected by the song’s power as well, turning to his companion to ask

what prakarana (a play with an invented plot) they should perform. It is a subtle slip,

but a crucial one, for as he himself has just told us, Abhijnanasakuntalam is a naṭaka,

not a prakarana. The Naṭi reminds him of this and his memory returns after being

temporarily transported by the mimetic prowess of her song. Here the prologue

opens onto the play, as the Sutradhara compares his own enchantment by the song to

King Duhsanta’s enchantment by a deer he pursues on the hunt. He and the Naṭi exit

as Duhsanta and his charioteer enter, thus ending the prologue. Thus the prologue

provides important background information about the production of the play—the

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playwright’s name (Kalidasa), the genre (nataka) and name of the play to be

performed.

2.4.2 ACT I

Act 1 takes place in the forest on the foothills of the Himalayas and moves to the

sacred hermitage of the great sage Kanva, by the river Malini. King Duhsanta enters

on a chariot, chasing a deer. While the king is about to shoot his arrow at an antelope

pursued by him, he is interrupted by an ascetic, who informs him that the animal

belongs to the hermitage of sage Kanva, and the sanctity of the place must not be

violated by its slaughter. The king refrains from killing. The hermit blesses the king

with the promise of a son. On entering he sees three women - Shakuntala, Anusuya,

and Priyamvada - watering plants. At the first sight he is captivated by glittering

beauty of Shakuntala. He comes to know that Shakuntala is the adopted daughter of

the sage Kanva. She is in fact the daughter of Menaka the celestial nymph, and the

seer Visvamitra. He thus discovers that she is of Kshatriya parentage, and therefore a

suitable bride for him. When a bee troubles Shakuntala, Duhsanta leaves his hiding

place, but does not reveal that he is the king, though he gives to Shakuntala a ring

that suggests his identity. In the meanwhile news comes of an elephant running amok

and causing damage, and at that the girls depart. While leaving Shakuntala passes

cursory glances towards Duhsanta which is sufficient for the king to trace the

unspoken love of Shakuntala for him.

2.4.3 ACT II

Act II takes place in the forest at the hermitage of sage Kaun. The clown Madhavya

enters, complaining. He complains about the physical pains he is undergoing because

of following Duhsanta on his hunting expeditions. Madhavya and the king conspire

to get close to Shakuntala. King Duhsanta wants to stay in the vicinity to materialize

his love. His desire finds the opportunity when some ascetics come and request the

king to stay and look after the safety of their sacrificial rites, which are being

disturbed by evil spirits. He happily accepts the invitation. He sends off Madhavya to

the capital (Hastinapur) to be near his royal mother; and lest he might talk and make

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his love known to others, he tells him, with all appearance of sincerity, that the affair

of Shakuntala is a pure joke, and signified nothing.

2.4.4 ACT III

This Act continues in the hermitage of sage Kaun. It opens with a prelude which

functions to inform the audience of events that have occurred off stage. Here the

audience is told of Duhsanta’s success at thwarting the demons and how Shakuntala

is now suffered by the malady of love. The king is too introduced in a lovesick

condition. He spies on Anusuya, Priyamvada, and Shakuntala, talking obliquely of

romance. When Shakuntala sings a love poem, he steps out of hiding. Anusuya and

Priyamvada leave the two lovers alone and in the process Duhsanta tries to woo

Shakuntala. The lovers are alerted about the arrival of Gautami, the Matron of the

Hermitage, and with heavy heart they bid adieu. The kind leaves to protect the

evening rites of the ascetics.

2.4.5 ACT IV

The act takes place in the hermitage of sage Kaun. The Prelude in this Act reveals

that Shakuntala and Duhsanta have married according to the Gandharva rites.

Duhsanta leaves for Hastinapur, after promising her a due welcome to his palace.

While Anusuya and Priyamvada discuss Duhsanta’s dedication to her, sage Durvasa

arrives at the hermitage. Shakuntala, distracted by the thoughts of Duhsanta, does

not attend to him. The hot-tempered sage curses her, saying: “Do you dare despise a

guest like me? Because your heart, by loving fancies blinded, Has scorned a guest in

pious life grown old, Your lover shall forget you though reminded, Or think of you

as of a story told” (40). Priyamvada dashes offstage and returns to report that

because she implored the sage to reconsider, Durvasas has allowed saying “the curse

shall be lifted when her lover sees a gem which he has given her for a token” (40).

Shakuntala is not aware about the curse.

After the Interlude, the next scene begins after a few days. Priyamvada informs

Anasuya that sage Kanva has returned to the hermitage. He has come to know

through a spiritual voice about Shakuntala’s marriage and pregnancy, and has

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approved of it. The sage arranges to send her to her husband’s place. Shakuntala

prepares to leave for the king’s palace, escorted by Gautami, Sharngarava, and

Saradvata. Shakuntala’s departure from the hermitage is charged with emotion.

2.4.6 ACT V

The act takes place in Duhsanta’s Royal Palace. The ascetics escorting Shakuntala

arrive at the royal palace. One of the ascetics, Sarngarava, conveys Kanva’s message

and asks him to accept Shakuntala as his wife and also informs the king that

Shakuntala is pregnant. Duhsanta, under the influence of the curse does not

remember Shakuntala and refuses to acknowledge her as his wife. Shakuntala tries to

prove her claim by presenting his signature ring as token of recognition but realises

instead that she has lost it. Gautami speculates that Shakuntala has lost the ring while

bathing in the river. Duhsanta casts doubts on Shakuntala’s chastity and honesty. He

tells the ascetics to take her back with them. Her escorts leave her to her fate and

leave the palace at once. The Royal priest takes the responsibility of her custody, but

before it can be implemented, Shakuntala storms out, calling the earth to receive her.

The report returns from offstage that a ray of light seized Shakuntala and carried her

off. King Duhsanta is puzzled and perplexed.

2.4.7 ACT VI

The Prelude informs the audience about a fisherman who has found the lost royal

signet ring. The guards accuse the fisherman of stealing the ring. But the fisherman

claims that he has found it in the stomach of a fish which he caught from the river.

The fisherman’s innocence is proven once Duhsanta sees the ring, and rewards the

man for finding it. King Duhsanta, whose curse is removed at the sight of the ring,

remembers his marriage with Shakuntala. He is now deeply grieved, but is helpless.

In the course of his sorrow Sanumati, a friend of Menaka, closely watches him.

Finding his remorse genuine, she goes back to the Apsara Pool to report her findings

to Shakuntala. Matali, the charioteer of Lord Indra appears and requests Duhsanta to

fight on the behalf of the gods against demons threatening Indra. He readily agrees

and they leave on Indra’s chariot.

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2.4.8 ACT VII

This Act occurs in the realm of the celestial beings and then moves to the Hermitage

of Marica. Having vanquished the demons, Matali and Duhsanta pass through

heaven. Duhsanta asks to visit Maricha’s celestial hermitage. Matali leaves Duhsanta

beneath a hermitage tree. The king hears a disturbance and finds a young boy

wrestling with a lion cub. Duhsanta sees the marks of royalty on the boy. The boy’s

armlet falls off and Duhsanta picksit up. Two ascetics tell Duhsanta that if anyone

but the boy’s parents picks up the armlet, it turns to a snake and strikes the

perpetrator. Shakuntala arrives. She does not, at first, recognize Duhsanta, who

recounts the manner in which the ring restored his memory. Matali, Maricha, and

Aditi arrive. Marica reveals the truth about Durvasa Rishi’s curse. Kanva is also

informed of the events. The family is reunited and returns to Duhsanta’s palace. The

play concludes with bharatavakya (a national prayer).

2.5 LET US SUM UP

Kalidasa’s magnum opus Abhijnanasakuntalam is romantic play dealing the theme

of love between Duhsanta and Shakuntala. The drama is couched within the

traditions of Hinduism- its mythology as well as its philosophical bases. The play

has seven acts with an action spread over six years. Time and fate are two highly

important elements in the play that determine its action. The theme of the play

follows the pattern of meeting, separation and reconciliation – a popular thematic

pattern of Indian classical drama.

2.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Discuss the theme of Abhijnanasakuntalam.

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2.7 REFERENCES

Rajan, Chandra. Kalidasa: The loom of Time, New York, Penguin Books, 1989

“E-PGPathshala.” Inflibnet.Ac.In,

https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=9RA537jM1m7VD3VCoav

4lQ==. Accessed 24 Nov. 2021.

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UNIT-3 MAJOR THEMES

Structure

3.1 Love and Duty

3.2 The Forest and the City

3.3 Art and the Connoisseur

3.4 Conclusion

3.5 Let Us Sums Up

3.6 Check Your Progress

3.7 References

3.1 LOVE AND DUTY

Shakuntala, Barbara Stoler Miller writes, but “all of Kalidasa’s plays focus on the

critical tension between desire and duty that is aesthetically manifest in the relation

of the erotic sentiment (srngararasa) to the heroic (virarasa).” The tension inherent in

Shakuntala, in other words, is between the “four purusarthas” – the “aims of man:

duty, desire, wealth, and freedom” – and not necessarily “personal conflict.” In the

case of both Dusyanta and Shakuntala, duty and passion collide head-to-head:

Dusyanta is pulled between his royal responsibilities (visible in his love of hunting

and his eventual return to the kingdom) and his husbandly responsibilities (to receive

Shakuntala and accept her son as his heir); Shakuntala finds herself in the middle of

her ascetic responsibilities (to receive guests, for example) and her wifely ones (to

leave home and pursue Dusyanta).Just as Dusyanta is a symbol of both royalty and

passion, so is Shakuntala a symbol of both asceticism and passion. Some claim that

Kalidasa integrates these two successfully in the As the sage’s curse makes known,

negative consequences can come of subjugating one’s passion to one’s other

responsibilities. On the other hand, the ring of recollection points toward a possible

integration of both love and duty. Shakuntala. Krishnamoorthy, for one, insists that

Dusyanta is a “paragon of decorum”and that “Kalidasa succeeds [in merging love

and duty] because of his discretion in the choice of his royal heroes…All of them are

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gifted connoisseurs; and they delight in the fine arts of painting, music, dance, and

poetry. Much married though they be, they will yet be open to new attractions, and

the intensity of their new passion is determined by the degree of difficulty in winning

the beloved. In the royal harem, they observe a gentleman’s code of courtesy, and

they will go to any extent in appeasing the anger of jealous queens.” In other words,

Dusyanta is so morally perfect that his (rather less than kingly) pursuit of Shakuntala

could not be anything other than in accordance with his royal obligations. Ingalls

adds: “Dusyanta is so sure of his inner equipoise that when he sees a maiden who

rouses his desire, he immediately knows that she must be of suitable caste and

marriageable. Otherwise his heart would not have responded. ”The pursuit of power

and sex” are, at the hands of Kalidasa, “in accordance with dharma.” How – or if –

the play ultimately achieves this is at the discretion of the reader.

3.2 THE FOREST AND THE CITY

There is little doubt on the part of modern critics that Kalidasa loved nature. As

much as nature may have been a common theme in classical Sanskrit poetry, there is

something about Kalidasa’s particular use of the natural world that stands out. “In

Kalidasa’s treatment of nature there is an emotional suggestiveness that was new to

Sanskrit,” Ingalls writes. “[Because of the suggestiveness of nature,] the prospect of

the life of contemplation is essentially uncreative. It offers solace rather than a cure.”

In Shakuntala, nature has the power to “reintegrate conflicting aspects of life,” Some

go so far as to say that Kalidasa’s use of nature in the becoming a locus of the

“harmonies of man and nature.” Shakuntala is “spiritualized” and that an

“atmosphere of sanctity…pervades the play.” Kalidasa’s “Personification of natural

objects springs from minute observation, and these combine with fancies and

conceits derived from mythology and tradition to produce the unique Kalidasan

image.” Ryder writes of this elevated position of nature: “It is hardly true to say that

[Kalidasa] personifies rivers and mountains and trees; to him they have a conscious

individuality as truly and as certainly as animals or men or gods… Kalidasa’s

knowledge of nature is not only sympathetic, it is also minutely accurate.” He adds,

“It is delightful to imagine a meeting between Kalidasa and Darwin. They would

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have understood each other perfectly; for in each the same kind of imagination

worked with the same wealth of observed fact.” Indeed, Kalidasa was “the only poet

in Sanskrit who conceived of nature, though symbolically, as the central concern of

most of his works, poetic as well as dramatic… the cloud becomes the ‘hero’ of his

poem Meghaduta…” Of the perfection of nature in the Shakuntala, Ingalls writes

that “human love in Kanva’s retreat is expressed entirely in animal and vegetable

images… as opposed to the court, there is no luxury in the asrama, no polygamy, no

jealousy.” The consistent equation of Shakuntala with the natural world, however,

may lead one to believe otherwise. There are, in fact, struggles inherent in

Shakuntala’s character and in her relationship with Dusyanta that are expressed

through natural images. To begin with, many agree that Shakuntala’s character and

the natural world are deeply intertwined throughout the play: “Kalidasa presents the

heroine as Nature’s darling, innocent as a deer and caught up in a love for a highly

sophisticated man,” writes Krishnamoorthy, clearly wishing to represent Shakuntala

(and Nature itself) as willingly submissive to the desires of men. Indeed, he writes,

“Women and nature as so closely identified that it is almost impossible to know

which the poet is speaking of.” Stoler Miller adds that “the heroine is

characteristically interchangeable with elements of nature, whose procreative

energies she personifies. The parts of her body are conventionally equated with

natural objects.” Indeed, as Anderson points out, “we must remind ourselves that

each phase of the nature imagery has a symbolic value to the Indian audience.”

Yet if Shakuntala is so deeply associated with the positive creative forces of the

mango-blossom, and if there is no jealousy or infidelity in nature as there is in the

royal court, we might have to come up with another explanation for the spurned

queen Hamsapadika’s song (in Act V) about Dusyanta’s infidelity. For in this song,

not only are the images of nature used as a metaphor for Vidya Niwas Misra believes

that of these images, the mango-blossom is of particular importance in connection

with Shakuntala’s character: “For Kalidasa the mango-blossom has therefore a treble

meaning, as an object of nature, as an emblem of fruitful love and the Spring of

youth and lastly as a symbol of womanhood realized in its completeness in

motherhood. It also signifies the continuity of human existence and secondarily any

offspring.”

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Yet if Shakuntala is so deeply associated with the positive creative forces of the

mango-blossom, and if there is no jealousy or infidelity in nature as there is in the

royal court, we might have to come up with another explanation for the spurned

queen Hamsapadika’s song (in Act V) about Dusyanta’s infidelity. For in this song,

not only are the images of nature used as a metaphor for the king’s cheating, but

Hamsapadika herself takes the place of the mango-blossom, while Shakuntala is the

lotus preferred by Dusyanta, the errant bee. Sawhney points out that “the

[Shakuntala] who is forgotten is the early Shakuntala, so deer-like as to be almost a

doe herself, so akin to the creeper, the leaf, the petal, as to be simply one more

instance of the natural world whose submission to the king is eroticized (but also

critiqued) by the movement of the drama.” Not all is harmonious in nature. Still,

there is something fantastical about nature that Kalidasa is eager to bring out in

Shakuntala. The very prologue shows us, through the actress’s Prakrit song about

summer, just how easy (and pleasant) it is to lose oneself in the natural perfection of

the forest. Like Kanva’s pupils who accompany Shakuntala to Dusyanta’s court, we

too are reluctant to leave the natural comforts of the forest: they, and we, curse the

city and its king when nature (symbolized by Shakuntala) is rejected from a place

beside urban life (symbolized by the king). The traditional equation of outer beauty

with inner virtue comes out in Kalidasa’s use of nature, especially in the way that

even the most “simple” of the forest’s characters are highly polite.

3.3 ART AND THE CONNOISSEUR

Shakuntala explores an interesting connection between the pleasure of love and the

pleasure of art. “Kalidasa’s heroes are not just kings and lovers,” Stoler Miller notes,

“but connoisseurs of natural beauty and art…According to Kalidasa, aesthetic

pleasure, like deep love, depends on attention to detail and continual discovery of

new associations.” In the An exemplary scene in Shakuntala, connoisseurship

appears with respect to visual art: “Everyone who has read Kalidasa will recall a

verse or two on painting and sculpture,” Ingalls comments, “but it is only when these

references are collected that one sees how deep an impression these arts made on the

poet…One is reminded of the dependence of Virgil’s poetry on art, especially on

mural painting.” Shakuntala is the scene in which Dusyanta examines a picture of

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Shakuntala that he has painted. Here, Sawhney writes, the king has involved himself

in the painting so much that he is unable to relish it at a removed distance, as a

connoisseur should. “The image is a great likeness, so evocative of Sakuntala that it

can even be mistaken for her. But we are also shown that the paining is a

reproduction, not only of Sakuntala, but (in a certain way) of Dusyanta as well: drops

of perspiration and tears have smudged the painting just enough to make it an image

of both the beloved and the lover’s despair. Indeed as the nymph Sanumati notes, the

king’s experience now follows the lines of the painting (yathalikhitanubhavesah);

meaning that he experiences again his meeting with Sakuntala as he paints her, the

act of inscription now governing the movement of memory.” It is as if his inability to

act as a proper connoisseur in this scene symbolizes his psychological shift from the

classic hero he once was to a different sort of person that he will become: a

reflection, perhaps, of the older self that he remembers, yet new in his final union

with Shakuntala.

3.4 CONCLUSION

"Shakuntala" can be compared to the plays based on The Ramayana and consider the

problems of moral choice and fate. The hero Rama is confronted with choices to be

made and is driven by a certain fate. The mood of pity pervades the story. Similarly,

in "Shakuntala", as in The Ramayana, suffering is displayed for the sake of relishing

the state of suffering. The production of Sanskrit literature reached its height of

development in the 1st to the 7th centuries. In addition to sacred and philosophical

writings, such genres as erotic and devotional lyrics, court poetry, plays, and

narrative folktales emerged. The Sanskrit philosophies were the source of

philosophical writing in the later literatures, and the Sanskrit schools of rhetoric were

of great importance for the development of court poetry in many of the modern

literatures. "Shakuntala" by the author Kalidasa is in the literary form of a drama and

a heroic romance. It is a work which celebrates the harmonious interplay and

ultimate unity of complementary aspects of reality. Unity emerging from diversity

pervades the entire work at many levels.

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3.5 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we have discussed the themes and have analyzed those in the light of

how each character has been portrayed in the play. We have also made a

comparative analysis of how each them is entwined with and can be put into the

broader aspect of universal thematic narrative.

3.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Discuss and compare some important themes of Abhijnanasakuntalam.

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2. In what ways the urban and the forest setting play an important part in

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3. What is the significance of nature in Kalidasa’s Abhijnanasakuntalam?

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3.7 REFERENCES

Devadhar, C. R. et al; Abhijnana-Sakuntalam of Kalidasa, Delhi, Motilal

Banarsidass, 1981.

“E-PGPathshala.” Inflibnet.Ac.In,

https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=9RA537jM1m7VD3VCoav

4lQ==. Accessed 24 Nov. 2021.

Keith, A.B. A History of Sanskrit Literature, Delhi Motilal Banarsidass, 1993

Rajan, Chandra. Kalidasa: The loom of Time, New York, Penguin Books, 1989

Ryder, A.W. Kalidasa, Shakuntala and Other Writings, New York, E.P. Dutton and

Co.1959

Singh, A.D. Kalidasa: A Critical Study, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, 1977

Upadhyaya, Bhagwat Saran. India in Kalidasa. 2nd ed. New Delhi: S. Chand and Co,

1968.