ancient indian history and culture - e-Gyanagar

Master of Arts in Sanskrit

(MASK)

SK-08

Block -III

UNIT- 1 VARNA SYSTEM: GENESIS AND GROWTH

UNIT-2 ASRAMA SYSTEM

UNIT-3 SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS

UNIT-4 SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS

ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE

Varna and Asrama System

MASK PROGRAMME

EXPERTS COMMITTEE

Prof. Prafulla Kumar Mishra, Former Vice-Chancellor, North Odisha University

Prof. Raghunath Panda , Retd. Prof, Utkal University

Prof. Gopal Krishna Dash, Retd. Prof. , Utkal University

Dr. Madhusudan Mishra, Controller of Exams , Sri Jagannath Sanskrit University, Puri

Dr. Harmohan Mishra , Reader ( Retd.)

Dr. Kadambini Dash , Reader in Sanskrit, SB Women’s College,

Dr. Debabrata Mohapatra , Sr . Lect. In Sanskrit, Emartidevi Women’s College,Cuttack

Dr. Nibedita Pati, Lecturer in Sanskrit , S.B Women’s College

CONVENOR

Dr. Dillip Kumar Nayak , Reader in Odia ,

Former Officer In Charge, Regional Centre, B.J.B Auto. College Bhubaneswar

COURSE WRITER

Dr. Falguni Mahanandia (Retd.), Associate Professor in Sanskrit, Rajendra Auto. College, Balangir

COURSE EDITOR

Dr. Sareeta Pujari , Senior Academic Consultant, OSOU , Sambalpur

PROGRAMME COORDINATOR

Dr. Sareeta Pujari , Senior Academic Consultant, OSOU , Sambalpur

Mr. Pratap Kumar Meher , Academic Consultant , Sanskrit , OSOU, Sambalpur

MATERIAL PRODUCTION

Dr. Manas Ranjan Pujari

Registrar

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur

(CC) OSOU, 2020. Varna and Asrama System is made available

under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0

http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-sa/4.0

Printed by :

http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-sa/4.0

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 1

UNIT – I: VARNA SYSTEM: GENESIS AND GROWTH

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 A general Introduction on Varna System.

1.3 Background of the unit.

1.4 Varna system: Genesis and Growth

1.4.1. – Varnashrama Dharma

1.4.2. – Origin of Varna system

1.4.3. – Historial Development of Varna system

1.4.4. – Duties of Varnas

1.4.5. – Self-check questions

1.5 Abbreviations

1.6 Bibliography and materials recommended for further study.

1.7 Model questions

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES.

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After going through the unit, a student will be able to –

1. Define the structure of Varna in the ancient India.

2. Explain the relationship between Varna structure and

Ashrama structure.

3. know the position of different Varnas in the social order

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1.2 INTRODUCTION ON VARNA SYSTEM

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- In ancient Indian society the fair-skinned Aryan invaders were marked

out from their dark skinned rivals (termed as Dasa, Dasyu or Shudra).

In the Aryan society men of kingly family (Kshatriya) and the


descendants of priests (Brahmanas) were clearly distinguished from the

common free men, the Vaisya. The four divisions namely – the

Brahmana, the Kshatriya, the Vaisya and the Shudra are mentioned in

the Purusasukta later on. But in the Hymns of the Rigveda there is little

trace of the rigid restriction typical of Varnas. There was no taboo on

inter-marriage, change of occupation or communality. People could

change their occupation according to their needs or talents. The

heredity of profession was not yet a recognized principle. There was no

restriction on the taking of food cooked by the Shudras. People dined

freely with each other. There is no evidence of impurity communicated

by the touch or contact of inferior people, as seen today.

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1.3 BACKGROUND OF THE UNIT

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The Aryans who entered India are known as Indo-Aryans. In

contrast to the then inhabitants of India, the Aryans were fair-skinned

people with long heads, straight noses, well-developed foreheads and

high facial angle. Their migration into India was gradual. They

came to India as peaceful emigrants with their cattle, families,

household goods and gods. They had conflict with the people living

in fortified areas (puras and durgas) under their own kings. The pre-

Aryan inhabitants were completely conquered by the Aryans who

intermixed with the original people. The Brahmana rishis played an

important role in the expansion of Aryan culture. The Kshatriya

conquerors followed them. The Aryan rishis mixed with the

aboriginal and made them cultured and civilized. The social structure

of the Varna system was developed gradually.


1.4 VARNA SYSTEM

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1.4.1 – VARNASHRAMA DHARMA

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- In ancient India ‘The Dharma of class and stage of life’ (Varnashrama

dharma) was prevalent. It implies that Dharma is not the same for all.

There is a common Dharma, a general norm of conduct to be followed

by all equally. But there is also a Dharma assigned to each class and to

each stage in the life of an individual.

Professor A.L.Basham says – “Men are not the same, and that there is a

hierarchy of classes, each with its separate duties and distinctive way of

life, is one of the most striking features of ancient Indian sociology.”

Starting from the study of the Rigveda to the present literature the

application of the word Varna is different. It is derived from the root

(Oeeleg) Je= (JejCes) – to choose with the suffix (Òel³e³e) Ie_ed and the root (Oeeleg) JeCe&

(JeCe&ves) – to colour or to describe with the suffix (Òel³e³e) Ie_ed. Applied in

the form of noun it indicates colour (jbie), beauty (meewvo³e&), syllable (De#ej),

vowel (mJej), fame (³eMe) and praise (ÒeMebmee). In the form of verb it implies

to colour or to describe. The word Varna relates to the Aryan and Dasa

class or the four Varnas, in the society. Here the Varna system denotes

the Brahmana, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya and the Shudra. In ancient

India the Varna was based on attribute, personality, actions and family.

But in course of time, it became a designation (GHeeefOe) only.


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1.4.2 – ORIGIN OF VARNA SYSTEM

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- In India the proof regarding the origin of Varna system is not available.

The sociologists put some theories regarding its origin which are based

on Puranas, religion or history as mentioned below.

Purushasukta Theory: The mention of this theory is available in

the latter hymn known as ‘Purushasukta’ of the Rigveda. In a

healthy body all limbs are important. Yet some parts are more

essential. In the society also there are four orders. These are

called Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The society is

thought of as Virat Purusha by the Rigvedic sage. It is said that

they have emerged from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the

Purusha.

ye´eïeCeesçm³ecegKeceemeerod Jeent jepev³e: ke=Àle: ~

Gª leom³e ³eodJewM³e: HeodY³eeb Metêesçpee³ele ~~

(Rigveda X-90)

In the Rigveda, the word Varna is never applied to any of these

classes.

Literal translation of Vedas and particularly Purushasukta has

created a lot of myths, misgivings and misunderstandings. This

Sukta is entirely an imaginative piece of writing. It is not to

mean that the Brahmana originated from the mouth of the

Purusha, the Kshatriya from the arms, the Vaishya from the

thighs and Shudras from the feet. The unique characteristic of

Vedic language is highly metaphorical and symbolic and capable

of multiple interpretation. Purushasukta is an analogy between

four limbs of the body and the four Varnas i.e. Brahmana,

Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra – who as providers of knowledge,

protection, wealth and service respectively.


Through mutual co-operation and co-existence, the aim of Vedic

social stratifications is to make the entire society happy, complete

and perfect.

Guna & Karma Theory: This theory is mentioned in the sacred

book Srimad Bhagavad Gita (®eelegJe&C³eb ce³ee me=äb iegCekeÀce&efJeYeeieMe: -

4/13). According to this theory the feminine principle called

Prakriti joins with the male matter called Purusha. The union of

Prakriti and Purusha forms three basic materials called gunas.

These are sattvaguna, rajoguna and tamoguna. The sattvaguna

is a white substance, generates goodness and joy and inspires all

noble virtues and action. The rajoguna is red, produces egoism,

selfishness, violence, jealousy and ambition. The tamoguna is

black, engenders stupidity, laziness, fear and all sorts of base

behaviour. The sattvaguna may be treated as symbolic of purity

while, the tamoguna as symbolic of impurity. The proportion of

guna in each Varna is maintained through the life style, diet,

marriage pattern.

Colour Theory : In the Mahabharat, each Varna is associated

with a particular colour – Brahmana with white, Kshatriya with

red, Vaishya with yellow, and Shudra with black (

ye´eïeCeeveeb leg efmeleesJeCe&: #eef$e³eeCebe leg ueesefnle: ~

JewM³eeveeb HeerlekeÀes JeCe& MetêeCeeceefmelemleLee ~~-(12/188/5)

It was believed that each Varna could maintain its purity and its

colour by avoiding marriages between people belonging to

different Varnas.

The Varna, which was able to retain its purity and colour, gained

social prestige.


But Nilakanthi tika on the Mahabharat states clearly that these

different colours are inherited due to the three gunas:

veeruekeÀCþerìerkeÀe – efmele:mJe®í: meÊJeiegCe: ÒekeÀeMeelcee MeceoceeefomJeYeeJe: ~ ueesefnlees

jpeesiegCe: ÒeJe=l³eelcee Meew³e¥ lespeeefomJeYeeJe: ~ HeerlekeÀ: jpemleceesJ³eefceÞe

kegÀ<³eeoerefvenervekeÀce&ÒeJeÊe&keÀ: ~ Deefmele: ke=À<Ce: DeeJejCeelcee leceesiegCe: mJele:

ÒekeÀeMeÒeJe=eflenerve: MekeÀìJeled HejÒes³e&: ~

Division of Labour Theory : The men who depend on arms to

continue their trade became Kshatriyas. The men who were

attached to business became Vaishyas and Shudras served the

three categories of people.

Based on intelligence the Brahmanas quoted chapters and verses

from the scriptures and in doing so justified the Varna system

and consolidated their position in the society. As the Brahmanas

were fluent in Sanskrit (the language of the gods), they treated

themselves as superior to others.

For example Viswamitra, Nabhaga and king Saryati changed

their Varnas according to their actions. By birth Indra was

Brahmana (the son of Brahma), but by his action he became

Kshatriya ‘Fvêes Jew yeeïeCe: Heg$e: #eef$e³e: keÀce&CeeçYeJeled’ (ceneYeejle – 12-22-11)

Social Need Theory : This theory is explained in

Brihadarnyakopanishad. According to this theory Brahma was

alone in the beginning. He was Brahmana by form. Due to the

social need he created another form as Kshatriya in which the

deities Indra, Varuna, Soma, Rudra, Parjanya, Yama, Ishana were

included. Being dissatisfied he created the Vaishyas in which

Vasu, Rudra, Aditya, Visnudeva and Marut were included. At

last he created the deity Pusana in the Shudra form.


For the development of the society four Varnas were created.

These Varnas were parallel to each other.

From these theories no definite decision is achieved. Only some

inferences are made. From the very beginning the human society

was meager. The need of the society also was meager. Due to

the increase in population the need for division of works began.

Then the idea of four Varnas was developed.

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1.4.3 – HISTORIAL DEVELOPMENT OF VARNA SYSTEM

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- In course of time the idea of Varna & Varna vyavastha has been

changing. A bird’s eye view is given below.

o Rigvedic Period: Rigveda is the source of all knowledge.

In this period there is no reference to Varna-vyavastha.

The words in the Mantras were difficult to understand.

However the Purushasukta in the 10th mandala of the

Rigveda indicates the Varna-vyavastha. But it is accepted

as a later development.

The term ‘Varna’ means colour. The concept of Varna is

used for grading people. Rigveda refers to the Arya Varna

comprising the Aryan people (who were of light

complexion). On the other hand Dasa Varna comprises

the non-Aryan people (who were of dark complexion).

Yet in the Rigveda ‘Varna’ is never applied to any of the

four classes. The word Brahmana used in the Rigveda

refers to the priest. The word Kshatriya in the Rigveda

refers to the designation of the deities. The word ‘Vis’ is

used for congregation.


o Post Rigvedic Period: The other three Vedas namely

Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda and their

Brahmana texts are included in this period. Shataptha

Brahmana describes the four classes as the four Varnas

instead of colour.

Varna vyavastha is so strongly accepted in the Brahmana

texts that even the deities are divided into different Varnas

i.e. Agni and Brihaspati as Brahmana; Indra, Varuna and

Yama as Kshatriya; Vasu, Rudra, Visvedeva & Marut as

Vaishya; Pusana as Shudra.

The Satapatha Brahmana proclaims that one should not

talk with Shudra. The Brahmana & Kshatriya Varnas are

more respected than the other two. Although there was

hierarchy of Varnas, till then untouchability was not

started. Purity in the family was praiseworthy. Even the

lower Varnas became Brahmana by attaining purity, such

as Kavasa, Vatsa and Satyakama Jabala. The concept of

Varna vyavastha was not complex.

o Upanishad and Sutra Period: The date of Upanishad,

Srautasutra, Grihyasutra & Dharmasutra is accepted

about 600B.C. to 400A.D.

The Upanishad reflects the philosophical thought of the

seers (Risis). Brihadaranyakopanishad (1.4.11.5)

describes the origin of four Varnas on the basis of

development. Chhandogyopanishad (5.10.7) explains the

origin of Varna of a person due to actions of previous

birth.


During this period Shudra was eligible to receive

Brahmajnana. The seer Raikva offered religious

knowledge to a Kshatriya king named Janasrut Pautrayana

(Ch.4-1). Like this a Kshatriya king named Asvapati

Kaikeya offered knowledge about Atma & Brahma to five

Brahmanas (Ch. 5-2).

During the Sutra period the concept of Varnavyavastha

was very critical and complex. In the society the position

of Vaishya and Shudra was degraded. The concept of

untouchability was started in this time. In the

Dharmasutras the punishment was different for different

Varnas for the same crime.

o Mahakavya & Smriti Period: Starting from 400 B.C. to

200 A.D. the Ramayana, the Mahabharat, the Arthashastra

of Kautilya and the Smruti shastras developed. During

600 years the concept of Varna system was fully

established (efvecev$e³emJe ye´eïeणाved #eeq$e³eeved, JewM³eeved MetoebM®ewJe menñeMe:-

Ramayana-1.13.20). Besides this the critical form of caste

system was recognized in the society. The Ramayana

describes the four Varnas and their difference to each

other.

In the society the position of Brahmana was at high level.

When Vashistha entered the palace, king Dasaratha and

other people stood up. The position of Kshatriya was

honourable, but his duty was very hard. The duty of

Vaishya was to earn wealth by business, agriculture and

cattle rearing. The position of Shudra was at the lowest

level.


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1.4.4 – DUTIES OF THE VARNAS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1) Brahmana – The Brahmanas were ordained to master the

sacred texts and find out the truth through sacred knowledge.

In the Purushasukta, Brahmana was said to be the mouth of

the Virat Purusha. Here the mouth does nOt indicate the

food taking organ. It symbolizes the head of the body, as all

the physical activities are performed from it. The Brahmana

shows the right way in the society by means of his

knowledge, thought & experiences. His foremost duty was

self-study (mJeeO³ee³e). Therefore Patanjali says in his

Mahabhasya - ye´eïeCesve efve<keÀejCees Oece&: <e[²es JesoesçO³es³ees %es³e Fefle. Manu

also says in his Manusmriti That a Brahmana masters the

Veda, teaches the Veda, makes sacrifice for himself and

others, receives alms and gives alms to others

DeO³eeHeveceO³e³eveb ³epeveb ³eepeveb leLee ~

oeveb ÒeefleûenM®ewJe ye´eïeCeeveecekeÀuHe³eled ~~ - 1/88)

2) Kshatriya – The position of Kshatriya comes next to

Brahmana in the Varna system. In the Purushasukta it

symbolizes the arms of the Virat Purusha. The arms protect

the body mostly. Like this Kshatriya was ordained to fight in

wars and battles and to protect the people of other Varnas

from enemies. He could also perform administrative and

military service. According to Manusmruti the duty of a

Kshatriya was to protect people to give alms, to make

sacrifice, to make study and not to be attached with worldly

affairs.


Òepeeveeb j#eCeb oeveefcep³eeO³e³evecesJe ®e ~

efJe<e³es<JeÒemeefkeÌleM®e #eeq$e³em³e meceemele: ~~ (1/89).

3) Vaishya – In the Purushasukta it symbolizes the thigh of the

Virat Purusha. The entire burden of the body is carried out by

the thighs. Like this Vaishya was ordained to make a living

by engaging in trade and merchandise, cultivation of land and

breeding of cattle. According to Manusmriti the duty of

Vaishya was rearing cattle, making gift, making sacrifice,

doing study, doing trade, receiving interest on loan and

agriculture

HeMetveeb j#eCeb oeveefcep³eeO³e³evecesJe®e ~

JeefCekedÀHeLeb kegÀmeerob ®e JewM³em³e ke=Àef<ecesJe ®e ~~) (1/90).

4) Shudra – Out of the four Varnas, Shudra was at the lowest

level. In the Purushasukta, it symbolizes the feet of the Virat

Purusha. The feet are used mostly to move the body as

required. But less attention is paid to the feet in comparison

to other organs. Like this the position of Shudra is wretched

in the societies. Shudra was ordained to serve the people of

other Varnas with modesty and humility. Manu says in the

Manusmriti –

SkeÀcesJe leg Metêm³e ÒeYeg: keÀce& meceeefoMeled ~

Sles<eecesJe JeCee&veeb MegÞet<eecevemet³e³ee ~~ (1/91).

Shudras were of two kinds, “pure” or “not excluded”

(DeefvejJeefmele) and excluded (efvejJeefmele). The latter were quite

outside the pale of Hindu society and later on known as

untouchables where as the lived inside the society.

Apart from these norms, Manu prescribed activities such as

wages, service, rearing cattle, seeking alms and receiving


interest on money etc. that could be undertaken by people of

all Varnas for subsistence in difficulties.

Lastly it is to be noted that Varna is different from caste (Jati). The

former is spiritual, based on worth of a person and the later is purely

social, a post-vedic concept based on birth.

Vedas proclaim that all human beings should move forward in unison

and there can’t be any distinction on the basis of birth. As per the true

Vedic concept, the duty of each Varna is to serve the society and every

individual irrespective of his Varna has to discover his soul (self-

realization). Society will not obstruct the growth and progress of

Shudra to awaken his soul. That is why Manusmriti says: -

Metêes ye´eïeCeleecesefle ye´eïeCeM®ewefle Metêleeced ~

#eeq$e³eeppeelecesJeb leg efJeÐeeodJewM³eeÊeLewJe ®e ~~ (10/65).

A Shudra can become a Brahmana by acquiring learning, merit,

virtuous life etc. and a Brahmana lacking in above traits becomes a

Shudra.

The above principle of merit, action and personality traits (Guna –

Karma – Swabhava) also holds good for Kshatriya and Vaishya for their

upward or downward mobility.


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1.4.5 – SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(keÀ) JeCee&ÞeceOece&: keÀ:?

(Ke) JeCe&Meyom³e J³eglHeefÊeb efueKele ~

(ie) Heg©<emetkeÌles JeCe&J³eJemLee³ee: mJeªHeb efueKele ~

(Ie) JeCe&Jeeo: Fl³em³e J³eeK³ee keÀe³ee& ~

(*) ye´eïeCeJeCe&m³e keÀÊe&J³eb efveªHe³ele ~

(®e) #eef$e³eJeCe&m³e keÀÊe&J³eb efveªHe³ele ~

(í) JewM³eJeCe&m³e Oece¥ efveªHe³ele ~

(pe) MetêJeCe&m³e keÀe mesJee Deemeerled ?


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1.5 ABBREVIATIONS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A.G.S. – Asvalayana Grihyasutra

A.V. – Atharvaveda

B.V. – Brihadaranyaka Upanisad

B.D.S – Baudhayana Dharmasutra

G.G.S. – Gobhila Grihyasutra

M.S. – Manu Smriti

P.G.S. – Paraskara Grihyasutra

R.V. – Rigveda

V.M.S. – Viramitrodaya Samskara Prakasha

Y.V. – Yajurveda

Yaj. S. – Yajnavalkya – Smriti

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1.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND MATERIALS RECOMMENDED

FOR FURTHER STUDY.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1) Life and culture in Ancient India by B.N. Lunia,

Published by Lakshmi Narain Agrawal, Agra, Edition 2012-13

2) The Wonder That Was India by A.L.Basham,

Published by Picador, London, Edition – 1967

3) Hindu Samskaras by Rajbali Pandey,

Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, Edition – 1993

4) History of Dharmashastra by P.V.Kane,

Published by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona,1975

5) Manu Smriti,


6) Yajnavalkya Smtiri,

Published by Parimala Publication, Delhi, Edition – 2011


7) Ramayanam, Published by Chaukhamba Vidya Bhawan, Varanasi, Edition -1982

8) Mahabharata,

Published by Gita Press, Gorakhpur,

9) Bharatiya Sanskriti by Dr. Preeti Prabha Goyal,

Published by Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, Edition - 2016

10) A Sanskrit English Dictionary by sir M. Monier- Williams,

Published by Nataraj Books, 7073

Brook Field Plaza, Spring Field, VA 22150, Printed New Delhi

Edition – 2007

11) Sanskrita – Hindi Kosha by Vaman Sivaram Apte,

Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi Edition – 1977

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1.7 MODEL QUESTIONS

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(i) JeCe&J³eJemLee³ee: mJeªHeceeuees®e³ele ~

(ii) JeCe&J³eJemLee³ee GlHeefÊeb efJe®eej³ele ~

(iii) JeCe&J³eJemLee³eeb ®elegCee¥ JeCee&veeb keÀÊe&J³eb efveªHe³ele ~

(iv) Yeejleer³emebmke=Àleew ®elegCee¥ JeCee&veeb mLeeveceeuees®e³ele ~


UNIT – II: ASHRAMA SYSTEM


1.2 A general Introduction on Ashrama System.


1.4 ASHRAMA SYSTEM

1.4.1– Number of Ashramas

1.4.2 – Observance System of Ashrama

1.4.3 – History of Ashrama System

1.4.4 – Ashrama Dharma


1.6 Model questions.

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1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

After going through the Unit, a student will be able to

1. Define the structure of Ashrama in ancient India.

2. Explain the relationship between Varna structure and

Ashrama structure.

3. Know the ancient Indian social system and culture

completely.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.3 INTRODUCTION ON ASHRAMA SYSTEM

(THE FOUR STAGES OF LIFE)

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The Āryan Society was divided into four classes (Varnas) and the life of

the individual Āryan was divided into four stages.


The four ends of life of an individual in Hinduism are called Purusarthas

i.e. Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. By developing moral virtues and

their application in performing all duties in a proper way is called

Purusartha. It is not easy to fulfil all the ends of life. For this fulfilment

specific endeavour is necessary. Every individual should lead his life with

this endeavour in every stage. The following verse describes it in a

magnificent way.

DeeÐes Je³eefme veeOeerleb, efÜleer³es veeefpe&leb Oeveced ~

le=leer³es ve leHemleHleb, ®elegLex efkebÀ keÀefj<³eefle ~~

Through this Ashrama system, the life of an individual becomes complete

to achieve Moksha (salvation). Kalidas, the great poet makes the kings of

Raghuvamsa great in observing the four stages of life.

MewMeJesçY³emleefJeÐeeveeb ³eewJeves efJe<e³ewef<eCeeced ~

Jee×&kesÀ cegefveJe=Êeerveeb ³eesiesveevles levegl³epeeced ~~

(Raghuvamsa 1/8)

There are some thoughts regarding the name Ashrama.

1. The name Ashrama is derived from the root (Oeeleg) Þeced with ‘Dee’

prefix (GHemeie&) and Ie_ed suffix (Òel³e³e) “Dee Þeec³eefvle Deeqmceved Fefle

DeeÞece:’’ – meaning a stage of life in which an individual makes

hard labour. Some scholars define it in both ways i.e. DeeÞece

meaning (i) hard labour (ii) a stage where labour is necessary. It is

evident that labour is essential when the duties of the four stages are

considered. In Brahmacharyashrama educational achievement, in

Grihasthashrama rearing a family burden, in Vanaprashthashrama


devoting time to religious pursuits and in Sanyasashrama spending

time in pursuit of Moksha are all linked with hard labour.

2. In the Mahabharat the Ashrama system is described as a ladder

having four pillars by which an individual can reach the place of

Brahman (the eternal soul).

®eleg<Heoer efn efve:ÞesCeer yeïeC³es<ee Òeefleefÿlee ~

Sleecee©¿e efve:ÞesCeeR ye´ïeueeskesÀ cener³eles ~~ (12/242/15)

3. The four stages are considered as four rest places of human life.

Out of the four Purusharthas, Moksha is the final end. To reach the

final end an individual must struggle hard in his life. If the life span

is divided into small parts, the hard journey may be tolerable. For

this, four stages of life are considered as the rest places.

4. The ahsrama system shows the right direction to lead an ideal life

of an individual. The life of a person was expected about 100 years

(Melee³egJez Heg©<e, peerJesce Mejo: Meleced – Rigveda). This was divided into

four stages. The first was Brahmacharya Ashrama. During this

period a person after the Upanayana ceremony studied the Vedas

and other sacred books under the guidance of a teacher. It was the

period of acquiring knowledge. The second was Grihastha

Ashrama. After the completion of education, a person married and

entered this Ashrama. The duties of a householder were to maintain

progeny, offer charity, give alms and perform yajnas. The third

was Vanaprastha Ashrama. After renouncing the world a person

went to the hermitage in the forest for meditation. The fourth was

Sannyasa Ashrama. Here a person accepted asceticism, tried to


understand the Divine Reality and wandered from place to place to

explain the path of truth to the people.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------


-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The idea of Ashrama was more artificial than that of class. When

a child put on the sacred thread, he became a brahmacharin,

leading a celibate and austere life as a student. After studentship

he returned to his parental home and was married. He became a

householder (gihastha). In the middle age after seeing his

children’s children he went to the forest to become a hermit

(vanaprastha). By meditation and penance he freed his soul from

earthly ties and became a homeless wanderer (sannyasin). This

scheme represents the ideal than the real.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.5 ASHRAMA SYSTEM

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.4.1 ANTIQUITY OF THE ASHRAMA:

It is very much difficult to find out the origin of Ashrama system. In the

ancient Indian literature, Samhitas and Brahmana texts nothing is

mentioned regarding this matter. But the word Brahmachari, Grihapati,

Vaikhanasa etc. are available in the Samhitas and Brahmana texts. The

planning of sound Ashrama system till the Upanishadic period indicates its

origin in the age of Rigveda.

In the Aitareya Brahmana in one context a verse is available. That means

– “what is the benefit by mala (ceue), deer-skin (Deefpeve), beard (MceÞegefCe)


and penance (leHe). O Brahmana! desire for a son, he is the universe and

he is praise worthy.”

[ efkebÀ veg ceueb efkeÀceefpeveb efkeÀceg MceÞetefCe efkebÀ leHe: ~

Heg$eyeeïeCe F®íOJeb me Jew ueeskeÀes JeoeJeo: ~~ 33/11]

Here the words mala may be taken as grihastha, ajina as brahmacharya,

smasruni as vanaprastha and tapa as sannyasa.

In the Upanishads the Ashrama system is mentioned frequently as below

íevoesi³eesHeefve<eod (2/23/1) – $e³ees Oece&mkeÀvOee ³e%eesçO³e³eveb oeveefceefle .......

ye=noejC³ekeÀesHeefve<eod – (4/5/2)

cegC[keÀesHeefve<eod – (1/2/11)

peeyeeueesHeefve<eod – (4) – Je´ïe®e³e¥ HeefjmeceeH³e ie=nerYeJesod ie=ner YetlJee Jeveer YeJesod Jeveer

YetlJee ÒeJe´pesled

MJesleeMJelejesHeefve<eod – (6/21)

1.4.2 NUMBER OF ASHRAMAS:

There are different opinions among the modern scholars regarding the

number of Ashramas. The number as three is mentioned in

Chhandogyopanishad ($e³ees Oece&mkeÀvOee ³e%eesçO³e³eveb oeveefceefle – 2-23-1) and

Manusmriti (le SJe $e³e DeeÞecee: - 2-230).

Here Brahmacharya, Grihastha and Prabrajya – these three are called

Dharmaskandha. Vanaprastha and Sannyasa were not accepted different

from each other. So the number of Ashramas was three. But it is clearly

mentioned in Jabolopanishad – (4), that, the number was four. In the later

Sutra and Smriti texts, it was accepted as four. Due to the various

similarities in both the Ashramas it was counted as one.


1.4.3 OBSERVANCE SYSTEM OF ASHRAMAS:

Different views are there in the Sutra and Smriti texts regarding the

observance system of Ashramas.

1) ASHRAMA SAMUCHAYAVADA – According to this view an

individual should observe Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha

and Sannyasa. Manu was the staunch supporter of this opinion.

meJexçefHe Je´ÀceMemlJesles ³eLeeMeem$be efve<esefJelee: ~

³eLeeskeÌlekeÀeefjCeb efJeÒeb ve³eefvle Hejceeb ieefleced ~~ (M.S. 6/88)

One who doesn’t obey the seriality becomes deprived of all the

Ashramas.

³ees ie=neÞececeemLee³e ye´ïe®eejer YeJeslHegve: ~

ve ³eefleve& JevemLeM®e me meJee&ÞeceJeefpe&le: ~~ (o#emce=efle – 1/9/10)

2) ASHRAMA VIKALPAVADA – According to this view it is not

necessary for an individual to enter into grihasthasrama after

brahmacharya. At one’s will one can enter into any Ashrama. This

view is propounded in Jabalopanishad. Apastamba, Vashistha and

Yajnavalkya support this opinion.

3) ASHRAMA BANDHAVADA – Gautama and Budhyana, the

ancient authors of Dharmasutra texts propound a third alternative

named Bandha. According to them grihasthashrama is the best of

all. (Gautama Dharmasutra – 3/25 – SskeÀeÞec³eb lJee®ee³ee&:

Òel³e#eefJeOeeveeod ieen&mLem³e ieen&mLem³e). If one observes the

grihasthashrama properly, then one can reach the best place of

Prajapati, Brihaspati and Indra.


ÒepeeHeles: meueeskeÀleeb ye=nmHeles: MeleJe´Àlees: ~

Je´peefvle les Hejeb ieefleb ie=nmLeOece&meslegefYe : ~~ (Mahabharat 10/309/60)

The Mahabharat describes the importance of grihasthashrama by

saying that in this Ashrama all the forefathers, gods and guests are

propitiated and one can achieve success for three purusharthas –

Dharma, Artha and Kama.

efHele=osJeeefleefLeke=Àles meceejcYeesç$e Mem³eles ~

De$ewJe efn cenejepe ef$eJeie&: kesÀJeueb HeÀueced ~~ (Mahabharat 12/12/18)

1.4.4 HISTORY OF ASHRAMA SYSTEM:

1) RIGVEDIC PERIOD – The word Ashrama is not available in the

Rigveda. But the word brahmachari is mentioned in the Rigveda.

ye´ïe®eejer ®ejefle JesefJe<eod efJe<e: me osJeeveeb YeJel³eskeÀcebieced ~~ (Rigveda – 10/109/5)

The features of Upanayana Samskara described in the later

grihyasutras are available in the Rigveda (Rigveda 3/8/4).

Secondly the word grihasthashrama is not available in the Rigveda.

But Vivahasukta is mentioned in Rigveda – (10/85). The word

grihapati is used frequently. (Rigveda – 1/15/12, 4/43/2, 7/1/1,

10/118/6). It is evident that brahmacharya and grihastha, two

important parts of life indicate the situation in the Rigveda.

However regarding vanaprastha & sannyasa nothing is available.

POST – RIGVEDIC PERIOD: The word Ashrama or Ashrama

system is not available in the Samhita texts and Brahmana texts. In

the Taittiriya Samhita the words brahmacharya and brahmachari

are mentioned. Although the words grihastha and grihastha system

are not available, there are some hints regarding the birth of


children and three debts ($eÝCe). One might be free from rishirina

by observing brahmacharya, free from devarina by performing

sacrifice and free from pitririna by begetting children.

pee³eceeve n Jew ye´eïeCeefm$eefYe$eÝCeJeeB pee³eles ye´ïe®e³es&Ce $eÝef<eY³ees,

³e%esve osJesY³e: Òepe³ee efHele=Y³e S<e Jee Deve=Cees ³e: Heg$eer ³epJee ye´ïe®eeefjJeemeer ~

(Taittiriya Samhita – 6/3/10/5)

In Athavaveda also there is a Vivaha Sukta (14/1). In Satapatha

Brahmana, the detailed rules and regulations of a student are

mentioned. The main purpose of grihasthashrama is to have

progeny. This matter is described in this Brahmana text. As in the

Rigveda, nothing about vanaprasthashrama and sannyasashrama is

mentioned during this period.

UPANISHAD AND SUTRA PERIOD: During this time, Ashrama

system is completely established. In the Chhandogyopanishad

(2/23/1) the three skandhas of Dharma refer to the Grihastha,

Vanaprastha and Brahmacharya. In the Taittiriyopanishad (2/1)

the deep relation between teacher & student at the time of

brahmacharya is described. In the Kathopanishad (1/1/7, 8) it is

mentioned that, the duty of a householder is to pay hospitality to a

guest, otherwise his virtues and prosperity will be perished.

In the sutra literature Apastamba, Gautama, Vasistha &

Baudhayana have mentioned the four Ashramas and used the word

bhikshu or parivrajaka for Sannyasashrama.

MAHAKAVYA & SMRITI PERIOD: In the Ramayana, Ashrama

system was fully developed. Till Valmiki the number Ashramas


was counted four. Deviation of the system was condemned. In this

epic three types of snatakas are mentioned.

1) Vidya Snataka: The brahmachari who had completed the

study, except the vratas and niyamas, was called vidyasnataka.

2) Vrata Snataka: The brahmachari who had completed the

vratas & niyamas, except the study, was called vratasnataka.

3) Vidyabrata Snataka: The brahmachari who had completed

both the study as well as vratas and niyamas was called

vidyavrata snataka. Both Rama and Ravana were vidyavrata

snatakas.

The Ramayana describes the grihasthashrama as the best of all.

The Mahabharata describes the four Ashramas, their seriality,

Ashramadharma, the relation between Ashramas and the four

ends of life. In the Shantiparva to answer the question of

Bharadvaja Rishi, Bhrugu answered the creation of Ashramas

and different religious duties.

1.4.5 ASHRAMA DHARMA:

The prescribed duties and behaviour of four Ashramas described in the

Sutra text, Smriti text etc. are called Ashrama dharma. The Sruti and

Smriti are the base of all dharmas.

JesoesçefKeuees Oece&cetueb mce=efleMeerues ®eleefÜoeced ~

Dee®eejM®ewJe meeOetveeceelcevemlegefäjsæJe ®e ~~ (M.S. - 2/6)

BRAHMACHARYA ASHRAMA: The worldly and spiritual

development of an individual begins from brahmacharyashrama.

The three main samskaras – Upanayana, Vedarambha and Samavaratana

are linked with the Ashrama. After Upanayana Samskara this Ashrama


begins. The word brahmacharya is derived from brahma (ye´ïe) as

upapada and the root (Oeeleg) - ®ejd with Ie_ed suffix meaning the best action

of an individual. Its importance is a vow to control the sense organs and

study the Veda. In this Ashrama the main purpose of a brahmachari was

to acquire knowledge by studying the Vedas and other sacred works. The

brahmachari acquires two types of knowledge i.e. knowledge from books

and knowledge about applications which are needed for the next

Ashramas. The meaning of Upanayana is to bring the child near the

teacher. The child was taught Vedas with good behavior at the teacher’s

residence. Due to the oral study the position of the teacher was at high

level. The student learnt his duty from the teacher and obeyed the order.

The brahmachari should think well for the teacher in his mind, body &

action. He should take bath every day for the purity of the body. He must

give-up desire, anger, attachment, song, dance, dice-play, telling lie, drink

& attachment towards women.

Jepe&³esled ceOeg ceebmeb ®e ievOeb ceeu³eb jmeevedefñe³e: ~

keÀeceb Je´ÀesOeb ®e ueesYeb ®e vele&veb ieerleJeeoveced ~~

Ðetleb ®e peveJeeob ®e HeefjJeeob leLeeçve=leced ~

m$eerCebe ®e Òes#eCeeuecYecegHeIeeleb Hejm³e ®e~~ (M.S. 2/177-179)

After complete study the brahmacharyasrama ends with Samavartana

Samskara.

GRIHASTHASHRAMA – After brahmacharyashrama, the brahmachari

entered grihasthashrama. Here he got married with a suitable bride and

became a householder. An educated person might lead personal, family

and social life of the grihasthashrama completely. In this stage a person


could achieve success to get Dharma, Artha and Kama. Here a person

could be free from the three debts.

Debarina (osJe$eÝCe) : By the grace of divine power a person takes birth in

this world and gets pure light, air & water. This debt of the god could be

free by performing sacrifices.

Pitririna (efHele=$eÝCe) : A child after taking birth from parents becomes a

respected citizen of the society with the utmost care and good samskaras

from them. The child is indebted to the parents. To be free from this

pitririna a person performs sraddha of the parents after death. Further by

serving the parents and begetting children he becomes free from pitririna.

Risirina ($eÝef<e$eÝCe) : By the grace of Risis a person becomes educated and

lighted in his life. By performing svadhyaya he becomes free from the

$eÝef<e$eÝCe.

FIVE GREAT SACRIFICES: Sacrifice (yajna) had got very much

importance in the Indian life.

The ancient Indian culture was full of sacrifices. The word Yajna was the

symbol of worshipping the eternal soul and the dedication of human

beings. Everyday a householder should perform the five great sacrifices.

JewJeeefnkesÀçiveew kegÀJeeale ie=nd³eb keÀce& ³eLeeefJeefOe ~

Heb®e³e%eefJeOeeveb ®e HebefÊeÀ ®eevJeeefnkeÀeR ie=ner ~~ (M.S. 3/67)

1) BRAHMYAJNA (ye´ïe³e%e) – The earliest mention of brahmayajna

is available in the Satapatha Brahmana (11/5/6/3-8). Everyday

study of Veda was called brahmayajna as found in Manusmriti

(3/70)


DeO³eeHeveb ye´ïe³e%e: efHele=³e%emleg leHe&Ceced ~

nesceesowJees yeefueYeezlees ve=³e%eesçefleefLeHetpeveced ~~

In course of time in addition to the study of Vedas, praise of god,

murmuring of gayatrimantra and worship of god in three times

were included. According to Swami Dayananda Saraswati

meditation of god is called brahmayajna.

2) DEVAYAJNA (osJe³e%e) – It means to put oblation in the fire with

svaha utterance in favour of the gods such as Sun, Fire, Prajapati,

Vayu etc. The man gets divine power through this sacrifice every

day. The oblation put in the fire reaches the solar region and due to

the sun’s influence it makes rainfall. From the rain the earth

produces food grain and the whole world gets life on this. In this

way the devayajna performed daily by a householder leads towards

social welfare.

3) PITRIYAJNA (efHele=³e%e) – In this sacrifice not only the forefathers

are propitiated but also the living parents are satisfied with the

balanced diet offered to them with Sraddha (Þe×e). The

householder is blessed with long life by both sides. The real

meaning of this sacrifice is to serve the parents and the superiors

with Sraddha (Þe×e). Therefore the word Sraddha (Þee×) is

derived.

4) BHUTAYAJNA (Yetle³e%e) – This sacrifice is also called

balivaisvadevayajna (yeefueJewMJeosJe³e%e). At home every day some

food is cooked. Out of this a small portion is offered to the cooking

fire and a portion is offered to the animals. By this sacrifice a man

learns to enjoy with offerings. This sacrifice teaches the human

beings to be kind and tolerant towards other beings instead of

becoming self centered and selfish.


5) NRIYAJNA / MANUSYAYAJNA – This sacrifice is best of all

the great sacrifices. Propitiating the guest is called nriyajna (ve=³e%e).

A householder should serve the incoming guest to his home with

seat, water, food etc. One shouldn’t take food without feeding the

guest. From Vedic period a guest was accepted as the form of god -

``DeefleefLeosJees YeJe''. A great importance is given to serve a guest in

Indian culture. The main philosophy behind the nriyajna is to show

kindness & sympathy towards human beings.

VANAPRASTHASHRAMA – An individual entered the forest in the

third part of his life. So it is called Vanaprasthashrama. According to

Manu, when the body shrinks, the hairs become white, the son begets a

child, then the householder should leave the home for forest with his wife

or put his wife with son. There he meditates with the rules and regulations

of the Ashrama (M.S. – 6/1-4)

ie=nmLemleg ³eoe HeM³esod JeueerHeefueleceelceve: ~

DeHel³em³ewJe ®eeHel³eb leoejC³eb meceeÞe³esled ~~

Deeqivenes$eb meceeoe³e ie=nd³eb ®eeeqiveHeefjíoced ~

ûeeceeojC³eb efve:me=l³e efveJemesefvve³elesefê³e: ~~

Vanaprasthashrama is the way leading towards the union of eternal soul.

A vanaprasthi should make sacrifices every day. His hairs, beards and

nails should grow and he should put on the bark of the tree or deer-skin.

Although in the Valmiki Ramayana a great deal of importance is given to

grihasthashrama still then, in the Aranyakanda there is description of

vanaprasthashrama. A vanaprasthi should sleep on the ground and live

under a tree. Every day he should take bath thrice, maintain purity, control

sense organs, think welfare of the societies etc. The basic philosophy of

this Ashrama is to detach himself from the wordly affairs. He should quest

for the salvation (Moksha).


SANNYASASHRAMA – This Ashrama is the last part of the life.

Vanaprasthashrama leads towards Sannyashrama. The meaning of

sannyasa is to leave completely all works except study of Veda. A

vanaprasthi performs sacrifices in the fire, but a sannyasi gives up that fire

also. A sannyasi wanders from door to door to preach knowledge. After

sunset he takes shelter under a tree or a deserted house. Only during rainy

season he may take shelter in one place for two to four months. He should

live alone being away from happiness and sorrows. A sannyasi has got

four duties i.e. meditation, sanctity, alms and living alone.

According to Kautilya, a sannyasi should control sense organs, give up

any action, maintain detachment, alms, live in forests, maintain purity in

mind & body. He should never be afraid of others and also become the

cause of fear for others. The main virtue of a sannyasi is to maintain

equilibrium.In the Indian religious texts four types of sannyasis are

mentioned such as Kutichaka (kegÀìer®ekeÀ), Bahudaka (yentokeÀ), Hansa (nbme)

and Paramahansa (Hejcenbme).

1) Kutichaka sannyasi lives in a cottage near the son’s home.

2) Bahudaka sannyasi having orange-colored cloth, three staves tied

together (ef$eoC[) and a water jar (keÀceC[ueg) in hand beg alms from

seven learned Brahmanas.

3) Hansa sannyasi lives in the forest and moves to the village or city to

beg alms.

4) Paramahansa sannyasi remains naked or only put on a small piece

of cloth (keÀewHeerve) and maintains equilibrium in all situations.

From this Ashrama system it is clear that the system is developed on a

scientific basis. By this system an individual grows physically,

philosophically, intellectually and mentally. By this system the society

becomes enriched.


-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------


FOR FURTHER STUDY.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1) Raghuvamsam–Edited by M.R.Kale, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi

2) Life and culture in Ancient India by B.N. Lunia,


3) The Wonder That Was India by A.L.Basham,





Published by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1975

6) Manu Smriti,




8) Ramayanam,

Published by Chaukhamba Vidya Bhawan, Varanasi, Edition -1982

9) Mahabharatam,

Published by Gita Press, Gorakhpur



11) A Sanskrit English Dictionary by SIR M. MONIER-WILLIAMS,


Brook Field Plaza, Spring Field, VA 22150, Printed New Delhi,

Edition – 2007




-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.6 MODEL QUESTIONS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(i) DeeÞeceJ³eJemLee³ee: mJeªHeb efueKele ~

(ii) DeeÞece: keÀefleefJeOe:?

(iii) DeeÞeceMeyom³e J³eglHeefÊeb ÒeoMe&³ele ~

(iv) DeeÞeceJ³eJemLee³ee: HeeueveÒeef¬eÀ³eeb efueKele ~

(v) DeeÞeceJ³eJemLee³ee: HegjeleÊJeb efueKele ~

(vi) DeeÞeceOecee&ved efveªHe³ele ~


UNIT – III & IV: SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS


1.2 A general Introduction on Sixteen Samskaras.


1.4 SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS

1.4.1 – The meaning of Samskara

1.4.2 – The number of Samskaras

1.4.3– The purpose of Samskaras

1.4.4 – The constituents of the Samskaras

1.4.5 – Sixteen Samskaras


1.6 Model questions. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

After going through the Units, a student will be able to

1. Know the importance of Hindu Samskaras in the ancient

Indian life.

2. Know the cultural and religious aspects in the ancient

Indian society.

3. Know the rites connected with the Samskaras

4. Know the life style of the ancient Indian people.


---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.2 A GENERAL INTRODUCTION ON SIXTEEN

SAMSKARAS. (SODASHA SAMSKARAS) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Vedas are universally recognized as the primary source of the

Hindu Dharma. JesoesçefKeuees Oece&cetueced (M.S.-II.6). The oldest document

of the religious literature of the Indo-Aryans is the Rigveda. There

are some hymns, in which the rites and ceremonies like the wedding,

the funeral and conception are described. The later-day Samskaras

such as the Vivaha, the Antyesti and the Garbhadhana were direct

result of these hymns. Some hymns are generally linked with the

sacramental rituals.

The Yajurveda represents an advanced stage in the progress of rituals.

The Atharvavdea is rich in popular religion, rites and ceremonies.

The Brahmanas are thorough treatioes on the Vedic rituals. In the

Upanishads many references are made regarding the Upanayana –

Samskara.

The Samskaras are described with rules and regulations in the

Grihyasutras, the Dharmasutras, the Smritis, the epics and the

Puranas.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Hinduism has marked the course of life of its members with many

rites and ceremonies. According to the texts on the subject there

were forty ceremonies (Samskaras), which covered the whole life of

a man from his conception to death. Some of these were of great


importance and were performed by all the respectable members of

the Aryan community. Out of these Samskaras only sixteen were of

great importance. So in these units these are described in a nutshell.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.4 SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS (SODASHA SAMSKARAS)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.4.1 THE MEANING OF SAMSKARA:

The word Samskara is derived from the Sanskrit root (Oeeleg) ke=À with

prefix (GHemeie&) meced and suffix (Òel³e³e) Ie_ed. It is used in a variety of

ways. As pointed out by Prof. Rajbali Pandey, in his work, Hindu

Samskaras, the word Samskrita is used frequently in the Vedic literature

instead of Samskara. The Rigveda (V.76.2) uses the word Samskrita in

the sense of purified. In the classical Sanskrit literature, the word

Samskara is used in a very wide sense: - in the sense of education,

cultivation, training, refinement, perfection, purificatory rite, a sacred

rite or ceremony etc.

keÀe³e&: MejerjmebmkeÀej: HeeJeve: Òesl³e ®esn ®e ~ M.S.-II.26)

So the Samskara means religious purificatory rites and ceremonies for

sanctifying the body, mind and intellect of an individual.

1.4.2 THE NUMBER OF THE SAMSKARAS:

Regarding the number of the Samskaras the Grihyasutras differ as

mentioned below.

Asvalayana Grihyasutra–11, Paraskara Grihyasutra–13, Baudhayana

Grihyasutra–13, Varaha Grihyasutra –13, Vaikhanasa Grihyasutra 18.


The Gautama Dharmasutra gives a list of forty Samskaras.

During the period of the Smritis, Manu describes the smarta samskaras

as thirteen from conception to death. The Yajnavalkya Smriti describes

the same Samskaras except the Keshanta. The list of Angira mentions

twenty five Samskaras. The later Smritis enumerates the list of sixteen

Samskaras. According to Vyasa–Smriti, the number of Samskaras was

thirteen. Jatukarnya gives a list of sixteen Samskaras.

THE SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS:

At present there are sixteen popular Samskaras. The Samskaravidhi

(mebmkeÀejefJeefOe) of Swami Dayananda Sarasvati and

sodasasamskaravidhi (<eesæ[MemebmkeÀejefJeefOe)of Pandit Bhimasena Sarma

contain only the sixteen samsakaras.

1.4.3 THE PURPOSE OF THE SAMSAKARAS:

It is broadly divided into two classes i.e. (1) popular and

superstitious, (2) priestly and cultural.

THE POPULAR PURPOSE: The ancient Hindus had strong beliefs

that superhuman influences are responsible for their good or evil

consequences in life. So many items of the Samskaras developed out

of these beliefs.

(i) The Removal of Hostile influences :

To remove the hostile influences, the Hindus applied some means in

their Samskaras. During the pregnancy of a woman, at the birth of a

child, during childhood etc. a householder had to offer payer,

oblations and food to the demons and evil spirits, so that they might

return without causing injury to the family.


Sometimes deception method is used instead of propitiation. At the

time of tonsure, the severed hair was mixed with cow-dung and thrown

into a river, so that none could play magic upon it. If the evil spirits

don’t return, then they were threatened and directly attacked.

(ii) Attraction of Favourable Influences :

It was believed that man’s life was presided over by a deity. So to get

boons and blessings that deity was invoked. At the time of the

Garbhadhana (conception) Visnu was worshipped, at Vivaha Prajapati

and at Upanayana Brihaspati and Soon.

Sometimes touch was accepted to bring fertility. At the time of the

Simantonnayana ceremony a branch of the fig tree was tied to the neck

of the wife. (DeewogcyejsCeef$eJe=leceeJeOveeefle– Gobhila Grihyasutra – II – 7.1)

In the Upanayana and Vivaha ceremony mounting a stone brought

about firmness.

(iii) The Material Aim of the Samskaras :

The material aims of the Samskaras were the gain of cattle, progeny,

long life, wealth, prosperity, strength and intellect. The people had to

pray and appeal the deities to have the material possession. Even

today the priests bless the common people for their prosperity in

their lives.

(iv) Samskaras as self expression :

The householder manifested his gladness in the shape of decoration,

music, feast and presents, during marriage ceremony. At the time of

sorrows the funeral ceremonies were observed.


The Cultural Purpose : According to Manu the seminal and uterine

impurities are washed away by the performance of the Samskaras

conception, birth rites, tonsure and Upanayana.

ieeYeZ ne&scewpee&lekeÀce& ®eew[ceew¡eerefveyevOevew: ~

yewefpekebÀieeefYe&kebÀ ®ewveesefÂpeeveeceHece=p³eles ~~ (M.S. – II.27)

The bodily Samskaras of the twice-born sanctify this life as well as

the other. Yajnavalkya supports the same view.

Manu says that the body is made Brahmi by studies, observing vows,

offering oblations, performing sacrifices, procreating children and

undergoing the Panca-Mahayajnas.

JewefokewÀ: keÀce&efYe: HegC³ewefve&<eskeÀeefoefÜpevceveeced ~

keÀe³e&: MejerjmebmkeÀej: HeeJeve: Òesl³e ®esn ®e ~~ (M.S.-II.26)

The moral purpose : Besides the forty Samskaras enumerated by

Gautama, there are eight good qualities of the soul such as mercy,

forbearance, freedom from envy, purity, calmness, right behaviour

and freedom from greed and covetousness. In the Samskaras the

moral uplift of an individual is seen.

The formation & development of personality: The Samskaras

cover the full span of life. The Samskaras were a guide to direct the

life of an individual according to his growth. Through Samskaras the

Hindu sages tried to mould the character of individuals. The

development of personality was the main focus in individual life.

Spiritual Significance: Spiritualism is an important factor in

Hinduisms. The Samskaras are transformed into spiritual sadhana.

The Samskaras were a living religious experience. These were a


gradual training in spiritualism. Through the rites and ceremonies

the Hindus became free from physical bondage and crossed the ocean

of death.

efJeÐeeáeeefJeÐeeáe ³emleÜsoesYe³eb men ~

DeefJeÐe³ee ce=l³egb leerlJee& efJeÐe³eeçce=leceMvegles ~~ (Isopanishad – II)

1.4.4 THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE SAMSKARAS:

According to the Hindus, man requires protection, consecration and

refinement. There is a mixture of religious and secular factors in the

Samskaras.

(i) Fire :

The most important constituent of the Samskaras was Agni (fire)

which was lighted in the beginning of every Samskara. It is called

the ‘houselord’ in the Rigveda. It became the chief domestic deity

and was a source of help in secular and sacred life of the

householder. Agni was believed to be a renowned protector against

illness, demons and other hostile spirits. It was also the high priest

and mediator and messenger between gods and men.

DeeqiveceeruesHegjesefnleb ³e%em³e osJece=eqlJepeced ~ nesleejb jlveOeelececed (RV. 1.1.1)

The Hindus regard Agni as the director of rites and guardian of

morality.

(ii) Prayers, Appeals and Blessings :

Prayer was applied to domestic ceremonies in the early stage of culture.

Prayers were made for the protection and prosperity of family members.

At the time of marriage ceremony the husband while taking with his


wife the great “seven steps” (saptapadi) prayed to Lord Visnu. In the

Upanayana ceremony prayers were made for intellectual stimulation,

purity, Brahmacharya etc.

During the performance of the Samskaras blessings were also desired.

The father at the time of birth rite of the child blessed, “Be a stone, be

an axe, be imperishable gold.”

DeMceeYeJe HejMegYe&Je efnjC³ecem$egleb YeJe (Paraskara Grihyasutra – I.16.14)

(iii) Sacrifice :

Men believed that like men, god also liked and accepted presents and

gifts. The sacrifices were offered through the course of a Samskara.

They were invited and feasted.

(iv) Lustration :

It consisted of bath, sipping water and sprinkling water over person and

things. The ancient people thought the water as living being because of

its motion, sound and power. The purifying effects of water were

known to men. Many springs, lakes, wells and rivers had miraculous

healing property. Ceremonial purification was a universal feature in all

the Samskaras. An individual was purified by water from his

conception up to death.

(v) Orientation :

It was another element of Samskaras. It was believed that the eastern

direction was concerned with light and warmth, life and happiness, the

west with darkness and chill. South the direction of Yama, the god of

death, regarded as inauspicious. In all the auspicious Samskaras the

individual faced the east to get life and light.


(vi) Symbolism :

It was a material object to convey mental and spiritual significance.

Stone was a symbol of firmness. Sesamum and rice were symbols of

fertility. Anointment was symbolic of love and affection etc.

(vii) Taboos :

Taboo is a Polynesian word meaning “what is prohibited”. There were

many taboos linked with the conception of life. There were taboos

linked with lucky and unlucky days, months and years. Such beliefs

had the origin in remote past. But some prohibitions were based on

rational facts. During natural calamity, death of a person, monthly

course of a woman etc. the Samskaras were postponed.

(viii) Magic :

Magical elements are also seen in the Samskaras. The early men

recognized the supernatural forces. Sometimes they wanted to control

these forces. As a result magic originated from this. It is a directive

and coercive procedure different from religion. In the Hindu Samskaras

religion was more important than magic.

(ix) Divination :

Divination is the science that seeks to discover the will of supernatural

powers. Every care was taken that a Samskara should be performed

under an auspicious planet.

1.4.5 THE SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS:

1- GARBHADHANA (CONCEPTION) : The rite through which

a man put his seed in a woman was called Garbhadhana. This


Samskara presupposed a well established home, a regular

marriage and a desire for begetting children. Different periods

are considered for its performance.

(i) Vedic Period: The theory of Three Debts was in the

process of evaluation in the Vedic Period. A son was

called Rinachyuta (one who removes debts). There are

many similes and references in the Vedic hymns

regarding the procedure to approach a woman for

conception.

MeceerceMJelLeceeªæ{mle$e HegbmeJeveb ke=Àleced ~

leÜw Heg$em³e Jesoveb leled ðeer<JeeYejeceefme ~~ (AV-vi.9)

(ii) Sutra Period :

The Garbhadhana ceremonies are systematically dealt with in the

Grihyasutras. After marriage the husband approached the wife in every

month after her monthly course. Before the conception, the wife had to

observe various vows to have different types of sons.

(iii) Dharmasutras, the Smriti and subsequent periods :

The Dharmasutras and the Smritis lay down rules regarding the

performance, e.g. when the conception should take place; recommended

& prohibited rights; astrological consideration etc.

The Prayogas and the Paddhatis introduce the worship of puranic gods

and prescribe Sankalpa, Matripuja and Nandishraddha etc. in the

beginning of it.

(iv) Time of Performance :

According to the Dhramsutras, the proper time for conception was from

the fourth to the sixteenth night after monthly course of the wife. Only

nights were prescribed for conception and day time was prohibited.


According to Baudhayana one should approach his wife from the fourth

to the sixteenth night, specially the later ones. Apastamba and others

accepted the view of Baudhayana. Children conceived on later nights

were regarded more lucky and meritorious.

The study of Garbhadhana Samskara is very interesting from the

cultural point of view.

2- PUMSAVANA (QUICKENING A MALE CHILD):

Pumsavana is that rite through which a male child was produced.

Hegceeved Òemet³eles ³esve keÀce&Cee lelHegbmeJeveceerefjleced (Saunaka quoted in V.M.S. Vol-I)

Different periods are mentioned for this also.

(i) Vedic Period :

In the Atharvaveda and the Samaveda – Mantra – Brahmana prayers

for male children are mentioned. Some medicinal herb was also

given to the pregnant woman with the verse, ‘The plants of which

heaven has been the father, earth the mother, ocean the root, let those

herbs of the gods favour thee, in order to acquire a son’

(AV.111.23.6). The rules regarding the Samskaras are not found in

the Vedas.

(ii) Sutra Period:

During this period the Pumsavana Samskara was performed in the third

or the fourth month of pregnancy or even later.

(iii) The Proper Time:

According to Manu and Yajnavalkya Pumsavana Samskara should be

performed before the foetus begins to move in the womb. According to


Jatukarnya and Saunaka it should be performed in the third month of

pregnancy.

According to Saunaka this rite should be repeated in every

conception. The significance of the Samskara consisted in its main

features. Inserting the juice of the banyan tree was a device for

preventing abortion and ensuring the birth of a male child.

3- SIMANTONNAYANA (HAIR – PARTING) :

In the Simantonnayana ceremony the hairs of a pregnant woman

were parted meercevle: Gvveer³eles ³eeqmcevkeÀce&efCe lelmeercevleesvve³eveefceefle keÀce&veeceOes³eced

(V.M.S. – Vol-I).

(i) Purpose :

People believed that a woman in her pregnancy was attacked by evil

spirits. So some rites should be performed to make them away. The

Asvalayana-Smriti supported this belief. The religious purpose of the

Samskaras was to bring prosperity to the mother and long life to the

would-be child. Another purpose was to keep the pregnant woman

in good cheer.

(ii) Early History:

There is some reference to this ceremony in the Mantra-Brahmana. In

the Grihyasutras a detailed description is given.

(iii) Time of Performance :

According to the Grihyasutras the proper time for this is the fourth or

fifth month of pregnancy. The Smritis and the astrological books

prescribe the time upto eighth month or till the birth of the child.


According to Sushruta a pregnant woman should avoid coition, over-

exertion, sleeping in the day, keeping awake in the night, mounting a

carriage, fear, sitting like a cock etc.

4- JATAKARMA (BIRTH CEREMONIES) :

The birth ceremonies had a natural basis in the physical conditions of

child birth. The word ‘Janman’ or ‘birth’ occurs thrice in the

Rigveda in the sense of relations.

In the Atharvaveda there is a hymn having prayers and spells for easy

and safe delivery.

(i) Time of Performance :

The Jatakarma ceremony was performed before the severing of the

naval lord.

Òee*dveeefYeJeOe&veelHegbmeespeelekeÀce& efJeOeer³eles ~

ceb$ele: ÒeeMeveb ®eem³e efnjC³eceOegmeefHe&<eeced (M.S. – II-29)

According to the later writers, it was performed at the end of the

ceremonial impurity of ten days. In case of death in the family the

ceremony was postponed until its expiry.

(ii) The Ceremonies :

In the Jatakarma ceremonies, the first was the Medhajanana or

production of intelligence. The father with his fourth finger and an

instrument of gold gave to the child honey and ghee with the

utterance of the Vyahritis and the great Gayatrimantra.


The next item of the Jatakarma Ceremonies was the Ayusya or the

rite for ensuring a long life for the child. The earth, where the child

was born, was instrumental in the safe delivery of the child. So it

was reverenced.

When the ceremonies were over, presents were offered to the

Brahmanas and gifts and alms were distributed.

5- NAMAKARANA (NAME GIVING) :

The Hindus very early realized the importance of naming persons and

it became a religious ceremony. The child is named after a god who

seems to be its protector or it is named after a saint whose blessings

are sought. Different periods are mentioned for it.

(i) Vedic Period :

The word ‘Naman’ or name is found in the Rigveda. Names of

objects and persons are found in the Vedic literature. The secret

name given in the Sutras is not mentioned in the Vedic literature. An

individual could be named after a remote ancestor.

(ii) Sutra & Later Periods :

The Namakarana was more a custom than a ceremony in the beginning.

But due to its social importance it was included in the Samskaras later

on.

(iii) Composition of the Name :

According to the Paraskara Grihyasutra, the name should be of two

syllables or of four syllables, beginning with a sonant. There should be


a semivowel in it with the visarga at its end, with a krit suffix, not with

a taddhita.

The naming of a girl should contain an uneven number of syllables,

ending in aa (Dee) and should have a taddhita.

The composition of the name might be after status of the person,

Nakshatra, Month-deity, family-deity, popular & repulsive.

(iv) Ceremonies :

According to the general rule of the Grihyasutras Namakarana

ceremony was performed on the tenth or the twelfth day after the birth

of the child. According to one authority, the naming ceremony should

be performed on the tenth, twelfth, hundredth or at the expiry of the first

year. This wide option was due to the convenience of the family and

health of the mother and the child.

6- NISHKRAMANA (FIRST OUTING) :

In course of time the movements of the child’s limbs required wider

scope to satisfy themselves. So it was thought proper to introduce the

child to the outer world. But life outside house was not free from

natural and supernatural dangers. Therefore, for the protection of the

child gods were worshipped.

Time of Performance: The time for performing the Nishkramana

Samskara varied from the twelfth day after the birth to the fourth month

(M.S. – II-134). According to the Grihyasutras and the Smritis, this

Samskara should be either in the third or in the fourth month after the

birth.


As per the Grihyasutras, the father and the mother performed the

ceremony. But the Puranas and the astrological works extend this

privilege to others also.

The significance of the ceremony is in the physical necessity of the

child. The Samskara implied that after a certain period, the child must

be taken out in the fresh air.

7- ANNAPRASHANA (FIRST FEEDING) :

After six or seven months the child’s body developed and required

greater amount of food for the physical need of the child. This system

of feeding the child for the first time assumed a religious form.

Food was life giving substance. Praises of food are found in the Vedas

and the Upanishads. The Sutra texts prescribe the time of performance,

the types of food and the verses to be recited.

(i) Time of Performance: According to the Grihyasutras the

ceremony was performed in the sixth month after the birth of the

child. The Smritis of Manu and Yajnavalkya support this view

(M.S.–II.34). But Laugakshi gives the option that it should be

performed after the teeth come out.

(ii) Types of Food: Food of all kinds should be mixed together and

given to the child to eat. Some prescribe a mixture of curd,

honey and ghee. The Grihyasutras also recommend meat and

flesh. According to Sushruta, one should feed the child in the

sixth month with light and suitable food.


The significance of the Annaprashana Samskara was to wean away the

child from their mothers at proper time. It was for the benefit of both

the child and the mother.

8- CHUDAKARANA (TONSURE) :

The primitive people realized the necessity of keeping short hair for

health and beauty. But they were afraid of cutting the hair with an iron

instrument due to injury by it. So it gave rise to the Chudakarana

ceremony.

The purpose of the Samskara: Regarding the purpose of the

Samskara, the scripture prescribed long life by tonsure ceremony.

According to Charaka, cutting and dressing of hair, beard & nails give

strength, vigour, life, purity & beauty.

The Chudakarana was a religious ceremony in the Vedic Period. This

ceremony got a systematic form in the Sutra Period.

Age: According to the Grihyasutras the Chudakarana ceremony took

place at the end of the first year or before the expiry of the third year.

Manusmriti prescribes the same. The later scriptures extend the age up

to the fifth and the seventh year.

9- KARNAVEDHA (BORING THE EARS) :

According to Sushruta, ears of a child should be bored for protection

(from disease) and decoration. It is meant for preventing hydrocele and

hernia. All the Grihyasutras do not mention about Karnavedha

Samskara. So it is of a late origin.

Age and Time of Performance: According to Brihaspati this ceremony

was performed on the tenth, the twelfth or the sixteenth day after the


birth of the child. Garga prescribes the sixth, the seventh, the eighth or

the twelfth month as suitable periods. According to Sushruta, the sixth

or the seventh month is preferable due to physical facility.

When the Karnavedha ceremony got a religious importance, its

performance became compulsory. The later writers on the Samskara

introduced more religious elements.

10- VIDYARAMBHA (LEARNING OF ALPHABETS) :

When the mind of the child was ready to receive education, the

Vidyarambha Samskara was performed and alphabets were taught.

Different writers named it variously, such as Vidyarambha,

Akshrarambha, Aksharasvikarana and Aksharalekhana.

According to Visvamitra, the Vidyarambha Samskara was performed in

the fifth year of the child. The proper time of performance was from

the month of Margashira to Jyestha. The months from Ashadha to

Kartika were prohibited for this Samskara. During the Sutra and Pre-

Sutra periods, the educational session began during the rainy season.

But according to the above authority this very season was avoided.

11- UPANAYANA (INITIATION) :

The object of the Upanayana ceremonies is to prepare the young men

for entering into the active duties of citizenship. The ceremony arose

out of the civil needs of the community. But in course of time it

received a religious colouring.

The word Brahmacharya is mentioned in the Rigveda in the sense of the

life of a religious student. Some reference is made about Upanayana

Samskara. The initiation was regarded as the second birth of the


student. During the Brahmana period, the Upanayana assumed a

ceremonial form.

In the Upanishadic period the four Ashramas have been established.

The Upanayana Samskara became fully established in the time of

Grihyasutras.

Meaning of Upanayana: In the Atharvaveda the word ‘Upanayana’ is

used in the sense of ‘taking charge of a student’. It meant the initiation

of the child by a teacher into sacred love. By many writers the

Samskara itself is called ‘The Teaching of Savitri’ (Savitripradanam).

Through the Upanayana Samskara rite, the child was taken to the

teacher.

Purpose of the Samskaras: Originally education was the main purpose

and ritual was the secondary item. According to Apastamba and

Bharadvaja, the Upanayana was meant for learning. But in course of

time the performance of the ritual and the Vratadesha became the chief

object; the education a secondary one. According to Manu the ritual

purifies this life as well as other (M.S.-II.26).

Age: According to the Grihyasutras and later authorities, the

Upanayana ceremony of a Brahmana boy should be performed in the

eighth year, that of a Kshatriya in the eleventh and of a Vaisya in the

twelfth.

12- VEDARAMBHA (THE BEGINNING OF THE VEDIC

STUDY) :

In the beginning the Upanayana and the study of the Vedas began

together. The former was a real going of the child to the house of the


teacher and was immediately followed by studentship. The Vedic study

began with the sacred Gayatrimantra.

The Samskara is first mentioned in Vyasa Smriti. It makes difference

between the Upanayana and the Vedarambha Samskara. The real study

began in the later one. After the Upanayana, an auspicious day was

fixed for Vedarambha Samskara. In the beginning, the Matripuja, the

Abhyudayika Sraddha and other preliminary ceremonies were

performed. With proper sacrifice the study of Vedas began by the

teacher.

13- KESHANTA OR GODANA (THE SHAVING OF BEARD) :

The Keshanta or the first shaving of beard was one of the four Vedic

Vratas. It was called Godana also, because a cow was gifted to the

teacher. This Samskara was performed at the age of sixteen and

marked the arrival of youth of the student. He required a greater

watchfulness over his youthful impulses. After shaving the beard and

moustaches he was required to take the vow of Brahmacharya and to

live the life of austere discipline.

14- SAMAVARTANA OR SNANA (END OF STUDENTSHIP) :

The Samskara was performed at the close of the Brahmacharya period.

It indicates the termination of the student life. Samavartana means,

“Returning home from the house of the Guru”. It was called Snana also

because bathing formed the most important item of the Samskara.

The close of one’s student career was a very momentous period in one’s

life. One had to choose the two paths of life. One of them was to get

oneself married and another was to lead a life of detachment. The

student choosing the first path was called Upakurvana and the other one

was called Naisthika. The first category became householder. The

second category lived with the teacher in quest of Supreme knowledge.


The Samavartana was a ceremony corresponding to modern

convocation function. According to the Grihyasutras there were three

types of Snatakas. The first type was called Vidyasnatakas who had

completed their entire course of studies, but not the full term of

Brahmacharya. The second type consisted of Vratasnatakas, who had

observed all the vows and spent the full period of Brahmacharya at the

teacher’s house but had not completed the full course of studies. The

third type was called Ubhaya-Snatakas, who had completed their full

course of studies and observed all the vows.

15- VIVAHA (MARRIAGE CEREMONIES): The Vivaha is the

most important of all the Hindu Samskaras. The Grihyasutras

generally begin with this Samskara. Marriage received great

importance in early times. Marriage was not only a social

necessity but became a religious duty for every individual.

Marriage was considered as a sacrifice. Marriage had got greater

importance and sanctity to pay off one’s ancestral debt by

producing children.

Forms of Marriage: The Smritis have recognized eight methods

through which marriage was done. These are Brahma, Daiva, Arsa,

Prajapatya, Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa and Paishacha.

ye´eïeesowJemleLee Dee<e&: ÒeepeeHel³emleLeemegj: ~

ieevOeJeexje#emeM®ewJeHewMee®emlJeäceesçOece: ~~ (M.S.-III.21)

(i) Brahma :In it the girl was given by the father, with such

ornaments as he could afford, to a man of character and

learning, whom he invited voluntarily (M.S. III.27). It is

the most honourable type of marriage.


(ii) Daiva: In this form the decorated girl was given away by

the father to a priest, who officiated at a sacrifice

commenced by him. It was called Daiva, because in it the

gift was made on the occasion of a Daiva sacrifice (M.S.

III.28).

(iii) Arsa: According to this method, the father of the bride

received the price of the bride from the bridegroom in the

form of a pair of kine or two for the uses prescribed by

law, e.g. the performance of some sacrifice (M.S. III.29).

(iv) Prajapatya: According to it the father gave away his

daughter to a suitor on the distinct understanding that they

should both perform their civic and religious duties

together. (M.S. III.30).

(v) Asura: Where the husband, after having paid money to the

relations of the bride and the bride herself, accepts her out

of free will, it is called the Asura type of marriage (M.S.

III.31).

(vi) Gandharva: “Where the bride and the bridegroom meet

each other of their own accord and the meeting is

consummated in copulation born of passion, that form is

called Gandharva (M.S. III.32).

(vii) Rakshasa: According to Manu “Capture of a girl by force

while she is crying and weeping, having killed, scattered

and injured her relatives is called Rakshasa Vivaha” (M.S.

III.33).


(viii) Paishacha: Manu defines: “When a man cohabits with a

girl in loneliness when she is sleepy, mad or intoxicated, it

is called the Paishacha method” (M.S. III.34). It was

condemned by all.

The first four methods were regarded praiseworthy and approved

(Prasasta). But the last four were disapproved (Aprasasta). At present

the only two forms, Brahma and Asura are recognized.

16- ANTYESTI SAMSKARA (THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES) :

The last sacrament in the life of a Hindu is the Antyesti or the funeral.

While living, a Hindu consecrates his worldly life by performing

various rites and ceremonies. But, after death, his survivors consecrate

the funeral.

According to Baudhayana, through the Samskaras after the birth, one

conquers, this earth; through the Samskaras after the death the heaven.

“peelemebmkeÀejsCesceb ueeskeÀceefYepe³eefle ce=lemebmkeÀejsCeecegb ueeskeÀced” (Baudhayana

Pitrimedha Sutra III.I.4).

Here the sixteen Samskaras are described in a nutshell.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------


FOR FURTHER STUDY.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1) Raghuvamsam – Edited by M.R.Kale, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi

2) Life and culture in Ancient India by B.N. Lunia


3) The Wonder That Was India by A.L.Basham






Published by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1975

6) Manu Smriti,




8) Ramayanam,

Published by Chaukhamba Vidya Bhawan, Varanasi, Edition -1982

9) Mahabharatam,

Published by Gita Press, Gorakhpur



11) A Sanskrit English Dictionary by SIR M. MONIER-WILLIAMS


Brook Field Plaza, Spring Field, VA 22150, Printed New Delhi

Edition – 2007




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1.6 MODEL QUESTIONS.

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(i) mebmkeÀejm³e DeLe¥ ÒeefleHeeo³ele ~

(ii) mebmkeÀejeCeeb mebK³eeefJe<e³eb efveªHe³ele ~

(iii) mebmkeÀejm³e Òe³eespeveb efueKele ~

(iv) mebmkeÀejm³e meeOeveeefve keÀeefve ?

(v) <eesæ[MemebmkeÀejeCeeb JeCe&veb meb#esHele: kegÀ©le ~

(vi) <eesæ[MemebmkeÀejeCeeb veeceeefve mHeäerkegÀ©le ~

(vii) DeäefJeJeenceefOeke=Àl³e efveyevOeb j®e³ele ~

(viii) GHeve³evemebmkeÀejefJe<e³eb JeCe&³ele ~

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