United in our Differences: the production and consumption of pottery at EMIB Phaistos, Crete

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

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United in our differences: The production and consumption of pottery at EM IBPhaistos, Crete

R. Mentesana a,⁎, P.M. Day a, V. Kilikoglou b, S. Todaro c

a Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield, Northgate House, West Street, Sheffield S1 4ET, UKb Laboratory of Archaeological Materials, National Center for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, Athens 153 10, Greecec Dipartimento di Scienze Umanistiche, Università di Catania, Via Biblioteca 4, 95124 Catania, Italy

⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Mente

(P.M. Day), [email protected] (V. Kilikoglou), svt

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Article history:Received 15 November 2014Received in revised form 13 April 2015Accepted 13 August 2015Available online xxxx

Keywords:Ceramic technologyEM IBChaîne opératoireConsumptionMesara

Variability in ceramic classes and technological practice is discussed across the range of pottery produced at ornear Phaistos, Crete in EarlyMinoan IB. It is at this time that new shapes and surface decorationwere introduced,leading to the suggestion of abrupt discontinuity in ceramic manufacture, if not in society. Drawn from a broaderstudy of the Neolithic to Early Bronze Age transition, this paper uses an integrated approach exploiting macro-scopic, petrographic and microstructural analysis to reconstruct ceramic manufacture at this time. The chaîneopératoire of three different wares, dark-on-light (DOL), dark grey pattern burnished (DGPB) and cooking potware (CPW), are discussed. While raw material choice, manipulation and firing conditions are varied betweenthese classes of pottery, many of the techniques are seen to have existed in preceding phases at the site. Further-more, while the appearance and manufacture of different wares are quite distinct, they are joined together by arare and characteristicmethod of forming. The clear distinction, for the first time, of different ware groups acrossthe ceramic repertoire is investigated and suggestionsmade as to its implications for our understanding of trans-formations in production and especially in consumption.

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1. Pottery production and consumption at Phaistos at the dawn ofEarly Bronze Age

The initial phase of the Early Bronze Age in Crete (Early Minoan =EM) has been considered as a time of substantial change in potterystyle and technology (Betancourt, 2008). New pottery shapes, decorat-ed in an innovative fashion, such as dark on light painted jugs (known asDOL or Ayios Onouphrios style) were adopted alongside to pedestalledbowls and chalices with dark grey to black burnished surfaces,sometimes with pattern burnishing (DGPB or DGBW also known asPyrgos style; Todaro, 2005; Wilson, 2007). In addition, specific ceramicwares, such as cooking pots and large storage jars (pithoi), appear asspecific and distinctive parts of the pottery assemblage. This set of ves-sels including painted jugs, black burnished vessels, cooking pots andpithoiwas destined to become very familiar in the EarlyMinoan ceramicrepertoire. It was proposed recently that these new wares were linkedto innovation in potterymanufacture, such as the adoption of calcareousclays, the introduction of up-draught kiln and techniques of painting(Betancourt, 2008). The coincidence of these changes in the ceramicrepertoire with new funerary architecture, such as tholos tombs, andthe emergence of structured building in sites led some scholars to

sana), [email protected]@unict.it (S. Todaro).

, United in our differences: The), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j

suggest that immigration into the island from overseas caused a majorcultural change (Hood, 1990; Warren, 1974). While not neglecting thepossible presence of external stimuli, other scholars supported the ideathat the substantial change in material culture at the beginning of theEM was driven by the smooth integration of both local and externalforces, perhaps forming a middle ground (Branigan, 1970; Manteli,1993; Renfrew, 1972; Vagnetti and Belli, 1978). Whether or not thisnew range of ceramic wares reflects internally or externally drivenchange, there is an alternative to the production-centred perspectivein describing and accounting for such change in crafted products.Whilstit may be tempting to focus only on ‘specialization’ of products and ofpotters, these can be balanced by an appreciation of both productionand consumption practices. This has been suggested for EBA pottery inNorth-central Crete (Wilson and Day, 2000; Day and Wilson, 2004),where abrupt changes in pottery manufacture can be linked to theperformance of different acts of consumption of drink and food, whichrequired a specific set of vessels for pouring, cooking and serving. Thesouth of the island and especially theMesara Plainwas not an exceptionto this pattern. In fact it is clear that we have much to learn from thisimportant long-lived centre of ceramics (Todaro, 2013, 175–185; Dayet al., 2006; Wilson and Day, 1994).

Todaro's research on the Early Minoan assemblages from AyiaTriadha and Phaistos assemblage, the two most important sites inSouth-central Crete for this period (2010; 2011; 2013; Fig. 1), hasreassessed the stratigraphy of the Prepalatial phases at Phaistos,

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Fig. 1.Map of Greece and in detail of Crete: the site of Phaistos is located on South-central Crete.

Fig. 2. Schematic plan of the Phaistos Palace with the location of the EMIB deposits sam-pled. 1: Western Slope, CSR; 2: Piazzale LXX; 3: Northern Terrace, Corridoio III/7; 4–5:Northern Terrace, Capanna Neolitica and Corridoio 97.Modified after Vagnetti 1973: 11, Fig. 1 and Todaro, 2012: 209, Fig. 7.7.

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producing one of themost complete stratigraphic sequence for the FinalNeolithic (=FN)- Early Minoan (EM) phases in Crete. Furthermore, forthe first time there was detailed account of activities which took placeon these range of hills, from production events to the consumption offood and drink and the importance of ceremonial gatherings (Todaro,2012; Relaki, 2004). At Ayia Triadha, the Piazzale dei Sacelli depositsshow a clear context for the ritual consumption of food and drink(Todaro, 2011), whilst it was suggested that Phaistos formed a focusof communal ceremonies involving substantial consumption of foodand drink from the Neolithic occupation onwards (Todaro, 2012).Todaro's identification of later evidence for pottery production atPhaistos adds a fascinating dimension to this picture: ceramic wasters,pot separators and potter’s tools were found on the Western Slope ofthe hill from the EM II phases on, suggesting that the place was usedby artisans for craft productions (Todaro, 2009). There has been discus-sion how both activities, pottery production and food consumption,may have both comprised integrative mechanisms within Mesaracommunities, perhaps with a focus on the Phaistos hills (Day et al.,2010; Todaro, 2012).

In conclusion, Phaistos provides an important opportunity to inves-tigate the changes in ceramics during the EM I period. As a location ofprobable pottery production, but also of the particular consumptionactivities which may have emphasized the different roles of preparing,serving and consuming food and drink, the way in which vessels arecreated and the performances that they facilitated, Phaistos offersinsight into social and technological change at the beginning of theBronze Age.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. EM I pottery at Phaistos

As part of a wider project on technological reconstruction of ceramicmanufacture at Phaistos, 146 vessels were sampled from the two EM Iphases at the site, EM IA and EM IB. This paper focuses on the87 samplesbelonging to the EM IB phase, which follows a violent destruction and are-organization of the site: the western part of the hill, having beendestroyed by fire, was abandoned and the settlement moved to thetop, southern and northern parts of the hill (Todaro, 2012, 2013).Some of the EM IB structures found are characterized by red-plasteredfloors and walls decorated with red linear motifs on a white ground.These buildings surround two open areas which documented the pro-gressive accumulation of debris composed of drinking and pouring ves-sels and animal bones. The amount and morphology of discardedpottery, along with the presence of a lavish amount of animal bones,has been interpreted as the remains of large ceremonies involvingfood consumption (Todaro, 2013: 235–237). The ceramic sampleswere chosen from themain EM IB contexts in order to have as completea picture as possible of the ceramic assemblage at the site (Fig. 2 andTable 1): the Northern Terrace (Capanna Neolitica, South of Corridoio

Please cite this article as:Mentesana, R., et al., United in our differences: Thenal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j

97, Corridoio III/7); Western Slope, Casa a Sud della Rampa (=CSR)(Room XC); Southern terrace, Piazzale LXX (strato superficiale) (forthese contexts cf. Todaro, 2013). The samples belong to the waresknown in the literature as dark-on-light (DOL), light-on-dark (LOD),wiped and washed (W&W), dark grey pattern burnished (DGPB), redburnished (RBW), cooking pot (CPW) and pithos (PW) wares (cf.Todaro, 2010; Wilson and Day, 2000; Wilson, 2007). In contrast to theNeolithic repertoire, these wares are linked to specific shapes: DOL asjugs, DGPB and RBW as pedestalled bowls and chalices and LOD aspyxides (Todaro, 2013: 175 et passim). Moreover, they seem to differfrom each other in terms of their fabric, the techniques of surfacetreatment, the motifs used in decorative elements and, ultimately, intheir use. For the purpose of this paper, the manufacturing sequenceof three of thesewares (DOL, CPW and DGPB)will be discussed in detail(Fig. 3).

2.2. Reconstructing technological operational sequence

In order to understand technological variation in the EM IB ceramicsat Phaistos, the vessels were studied using an integrated macroscopicand analytical investigation according to the chaîne opératoire approach(Cresswell, 1983; Leroi-Gourhan, 1943, 1945; Lemonnier, 1976; onceramics, cf. Roux, 2011). Reconstructing the chaîne opératoire ofpottery making involves on one hand detailing the sequence of stepsrequired to produce the artefact, from raw material choices to surfacetreatments. On the other hand, the chaîne opératoire approach providesto the technological reconstruction a research frame into which includethe investigation of past society as a whole (Dobres, 2009; Lemonnier,1993; Martinón-Torres, 2002; Pfaffenberger, 1992). A protocol of



Table 1Wares sampled from EM IB context at Phaistos.

Ceramic wares

DGPB 16DOL 36LOD 2RBW 3W&W 13Coarse 3CPW 11PW 3Total samples 87

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analytical techniques was chosen in order to identify the variablesinvolved in the manufacture of pottery at Phaistos. In particular, thinsection petrography (PE) allows to investigate raw material choiceand manipulation by observing petrological composition, clay matrixcharacteristics and size distribution of inclusions (cf. Whitbread,1995); these information were implemented by chemical analyses per-formed by Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy attached to a scanningelectronmicroscope (SEM–EDS; cf. Tite andManiatis, 1975). In order toreconstruct firing procedure, macroscopic estimation of colour changeon the ceramic section was used for the evaluation of firing atmosphere(cf. Rice, 1987); SEM was adopted to observe microstructural changeson the clay as a function of firing and estimate past firing temperaturerange (cf. Tite andManiatis, 1975); Fourier transform infrared spectros-copy (FTIR) was used to implement the information about firing tem-perature for those vessels which were low fired on the basis of thechange in chemical bonds during firing (Shoval and Beck, 2005). Inorder to reconstruct the raw materials and the techniques adopted forsurface treatment, the microstructure of the surface and its chemicalcomposition was observed by SEM-EDS (cf. Tite and Maniatis, 1975;Kilikoglou in Wilson and Day, 1994); the chemical characterizationwas implemented by a handheld portable X-rayfluorescence (HHpXRF)(cf. Shackley, 2011). This protocol is innovative in its full approach andis combined here with the study of forming techniques and othermacroscopic elements (Todaro, 2012, 2013) of this complex and variedassemblage at Phaistos. The chaîne opératoire framework allowsconnecting the analytical results in the narrative of the manufacturingchoice reconstruction and in the context in which this took place(Edmonds, 1990; Martinón-Torres, 2002). In a more recent applicationof the concept of chaîne opératoire, technological reconstruction isembedded within the context of manufacturing practice and the post-production life of the objects (cf. Dietler and Herbich, 1998). Phaistosrepresents an opportune case study in this sense, being a long-livedsettlement with documented communal activities performed at thesite. Technological reconstruction can therefore be inter-woven withinthe dynamics occurring at the site in terms of consumption practices.The investigation of technologies in the arena of consumption allows

Fig. 3. DOL jug (a), DGPB chalice (bCourtesy of the Italian Archaeologic


us to reconstruct manufacturing practices beyond the labels of laboursand product specialization. Analytical approaches have the potential inproviding fresh perspectives on the sphere of production and consump-tion of the objects.

3. Results: pots production and consumption at Phaistos

3.1. Reconstructing technological choices from analytical results

Selected results from the investigation of EM IB pottery found atPhaistos are presented here. While they do not include all variabilityencountered in the pottery of the same phase, which will be publishedelsewhere, they do represent the main patterns encountered.

In terms of rawmaterial choice andmanipulation, threemain fabricsare discussed labelled by colour. The Yellow fabric (Fig. 4a) is character-ized by very fine orange-firing clay matrix with rare quartz, whichcontains large, rounded, sand-sized inclusions of mixed mineralogy,mainly meta-quartzite, amphibolite and altered basic igneous rocks(c.f. Day et al., 2006, Figs. 8b, 9a, 10a). In some cases, there is evidenceof clay mixing with clay pellets and striations of different compositionand colour. SEM investigation shows this fabric to be more calcareouscompared to the other ware groups of this phase. In contrast, the Violetfabric (Fig. 4b) is characterized by a fine clay, homogeneous, unimodaland densely packed with small inclusions of quartz, mica andlow-grade metamorphic rocks. It is lower in calcium content, accordingto SEM results. Finally the coarseRed fabric (Fig. 4c) is characterized by acoarse clay matrix, densely packed with poorly sorted inclusions ofmixed mineralogy (mainly low-medium grade metamorphic rocks).This paste has been attested by SEM to be non-calcareous (c.f. Shawet al., 2001, 117, Group 6). The main raw material choices can becharacterized as follows: Violet: fine, non-calcareous; Yellow:calcareous, sand-tempered; and Red: coarse, non-calcareous. The min-eralogy of all three of the clay pastes is compatible with the geology ofthe Mesara Plain (Fig. 5; for the geological description cf. Bonneauet al., 1984; Wilson and Day, 1994, 54–56): elements of the coarsefraction of the Yellow and Red fabrics include amphibolite and alteredbasic igneous rocks which are typical of the ophiolite series occurringto both the North and South of the Plain. Themost novel of these fabricsis the one denoted the Red fabric, which is dedicated to cooking vessels,and does not have Neolithic predecessors (Mentesana, 2014). It is thistype of coarse, red fabric which is the common choice for these type ofcooking vessels throughout the Bronze Age in the Crete (e.g. Day,1995, 157; Wilson et al., 1999, 48–52; Poursat and Knappett, 2005,18–19, Fabric C2; Müller et al., 2013). The Violet fabric exists in one ofthe first examples of DGPB in EM IA and continues in the same wareinto EM IB (cf. Mentesana, 2014).The first appearance of the Yellowfabric is in the granulated and burnished wares of the Final NeolithicIV phase of the site (Day et al. 2006, 43, Fig. 8a, erroneously labelled asencrusted ware; Mentesana, 2014), in contrast to the assumptions

) and CPW bowl. Not in scale.al School of Athens.



Fig. 4.Microphotograph (XP) of the Yellow (a), the Violet (b) and the Red (c) fabric.


that this fabric is associated with the changes in EM I. The Yellow fabricwould subsequently dominate pottery production in the Mesarathroughout the rest of the Bronze Age (cf. Day et al., 2006, 41–49;Mentesana, 2014; Shaw et al., 2001, 111–133; Wilson and Day, 1994).

The next step in the production of the vessels in EM IB is that offorming, a stage oftenmissing frommore analytical approaches to tech-nology, but onewhose importancehas beendemonstrated frequently inrecent years (e.g. Knappett, 1999; Jeffra, 2013). Attention has beendrawn to a distinctive technique of layering used in the forming of pot-tery of the Bronze Age Mesara (Day et al., 2006, 46–49; Todaro, 2013,200 et passim). Specifically, vessels produced and used at Phaistosseem not to have been coil-built, as was previously believed, but werebuilt in layers. This involved the combination of several pre-formedlayers or slabs of clay (of a similar or different texture), which wereoverlapped vertically in a way that recalls very closely the sequentialslab construction known from several areas of the Near East (Vandiver,1987). This characteristic forming method was observed in all three ofthe pottery types presented here (Todaro, forthcoming). Multiplelayers/slabs of clay (usually two, in some parts of vases up to three)can be noticed in the join between bowls and pedestal or ring-foot,

Fig. 5. Geological map of South-Central CreModified after Wilson and Day, 1994, 56.


but also in the walls of the bowls themselves, which never exceed8 mm, and also in shapes with rounded bases typical of painted vessels.It should also be stressed that, aside from rare cases inwhich the secondlayer was added when the first had started to dry out, thus leading totheir splitting apart during firing, the two layers are generally only rare-ly detectable through the presence of air bubbles. Fig. 6 shows some ofthe clearer example from the EM IB deposit of Ayia Triadha, whichceramics is comparable to that of Phaistos (Todaro, 2013, 185–186). InEM IB potters also started to use different fabrics for the different bodyparts (Day et al., 2006, Fig. 10a) but limited this to the attachment ofhandles and or feet, which are often more heavily tempered than thebody to which they are attached.

In terms of firing procedures, vessels of the EM IB phase appear tohave been fired with a range of different procedures, which includevariations in firing temperature and oxidizing through reducingatmospheres (Table 2). SEM analysis shows, respectively, Vitrified (V,Fig. 7a), Initial Vitrification (IV, Fig. 7b), toNon-vitrified (NV, Fig. 7c)mi-crostructures (cf. Shaw et al., 2001, 120–124). Some of the vesselsshowing NV and IV microstructure have been also examined by FTIR.The two samples analysed from the Violet fabric show some differences

te with the main sites cited in the text.



Fig. 6. Some examples of the slab sequential building forming technique in EM I samples from the nearby site of Ayia Triadha.Modified after Todaro forthcoming, Fig. 7 B–D.


in the FTIR spectrum which allow us to better define the range offiring temperature they were exposed (Fig. 8). The spectrum of sample12/293 shows a shifts of the SiO stretching band around 1031 cm−1, theAlO, SiO deformation band around 475 cm−1 and the presence of anOH stretching band at 3620 cm−1. The last band is not present in sample12/295, which shows different band shifts also for the SiO stretching(1080–1020 cm−1) and the Al-SiO deformation (460 cm−1) band. Thecomparison of these characteristic band shifts with experimental workin the literature (Shoval and Beck, 2005) allows to estimate a firing tem-perature of maximum 600 °C for sample 12/293 and of maximum 800°C for sample 12/295.

Firing atmosphere was judged by observing colours on the pot sur-faces as well as across a sherd break, which varied from a bright orange(Fig. 9a), to dark grey (Fig. 9b), to brown (Fig. 9c) according to the claytype and firing atmosphere, oxidizing (O) or reducing (R). Compared toprevious phases, in each of the three fabric types, the firing seems tohave been performed under controlled conditions in terms of time (nocharacteristic signs of fast temperature gradients, such as micro-bloating in the vessel core), atmosphere and temperature. This pro-duced a homogeneously developed clay microstructure and colourthrough the section observable micro and macroscopically. The combi-nation of the SEM, FTIR and macro-observation allows estimating therange of firing temperature to which the vessels belonging to thethree wares have been exposed originally (Table 2; for the temperatureestimation of SEM cf. Kilikoglou in Wilson and Day, 1994; for the FTIRShoval and Beck, 2005). The clearest difference is that both theburnished pottery and the cooking vessels were not only non-calcareous, but also low-fired. Indeed, throughout Bronze Age Cretelow firing temperatures are more common in burnished vessels and es-pecially in cooking pots (Wilson et al., 1999;Müller et al., 2015). In con-trast, the highly calcareous fabric used for DOL jugs are fired to a highertemperature producing a well vitrified structure and a relatively lightcolour in an oxidizing atmosphere.

Surface treatments observed are mainly burnishing, slipping and/orpainting, scoring and/orwiping and are again specific to differentwares.They are performed before firing and firing procedures adopted wereessential in order to achieve the desired final effect. Burnishing isadopted for the DGPB chalice and performed directly on the vessel

Table 2Summary of the results by SEM, FTIR andmacroscopic observation in order to reconstruct firingvitrified, IV = initially vitrified, V = vitrified, TV = total vitrified; O = oxidizing; EFT = equiv

Sample Fabric Ware Clay body type SEM microstruc

214 Red CPW Non-calc. NV241 Yellow DOL Calc. IV/V242 Yellow DOL Calc. IV/V258 Yellow DOL Calc. V/TV267 Red CPW Non-calc. NV282 Yellow DOL Calc. V293 Violet DGPB Non-calc. NV295 Violet DGPB Non-calc. IV


surface, without the application of a slip, as verified by the HHpXRFanalysis (Fig. 10b). According to SEM, these surfaces appear wellsmoothed and compacted (Fig. 10a). Theburnishing actionwasdirectedtoward forming a geometrical pattern producing shiny strips whichcontrasted with matt, reserved areas (Fig. 3b). Some of the vesselshave a dark grey to black surface, produced by the effect of the reducingatmosphere during the firing. In contrast, the DOL vessels show a sur-face painted in red/orange geometrical patterns (Fig. 3a). Those are gen-erally produced by applying an iron rich material on the surface, whichin oxidizing firing conditions turns red in colour (cf. Faber et al., 2002;Kilikoglou in Wilson and Day, 1994). Under SEM a superficial layerlow in Ca and high in Fe has often been encountered (Fig. 11a). HHpXRFinvestigation revealed that the red layer is indeed different from thebody composition mainly in terms of a lower Ca content (Fig. 10b).This layer seems to mainly have been applied directly on a smoothedor thinly washed surface; in a few cases a layer of highly calcareousslip, which is low in Fe content, was observed. Finally, the third classof vessel, CPW shows a surface which is simply scored or wiped withclear marks left by the tool used (Fig. 3c).

Inmanyways, the production of the three different classes of potterydiscussed here involved the use of differentmaterials, tools and skills bythe potter. These are remarkably linked to the choice of which class ofmaterial was produced. The DGPB chalices were produced exclusivelywith the non-calcareous Violet fabric, pattern burnished and fired in areducing atmosphere at low temperatures (Fig. 12). In contrast, theDOL jugs/jars were mainly manufactured in the calcareous, sand-tempered Yellow fabric, smoothed/washed/slipped and red patternpainted, then fired at a high temperature in an oxidizing atmosphere(Fig. 13). CPW were manufactured exclusively in the non-calcareousRed fabric, wiped/scored and fired in an oxidizing atmosphere at lowtemperature (Fig. 14). In terms of these elements of the chaînesopératoires, specific as they are to shapes and ware groups, there is animage of very different ‘ways of doing’. Notably the raw materialsused are different and the surface decorations are completely contrast-ing. They involve different sources of rawmaterial across the Plain, dif-ferent tools, procedures and skills, according to their ware. But they arealso joined by perhaps one of the most characteristic parts of thechaînes, the forming methods. Despite all their differences, the

procedures of thewares discussed. Non-calc. = CaO b ~4%; calc. = CaO N ~4%; NV=non-alent firing temperature.

ture FTIR temperature range (°C) Atmosphere EFT (°C)

O b800O 800–1050O 800–1050O 850–1150O b800O 800–1050

b600 R b600b800 R 750–800



Fig. 7. SEM microphotographs. a: Yellow fabric, showing a calcareous and V microstructure; b: Violet fabric, showing non-calcareous and IV microstructure; c: Red fabric, showing non-calcareous and NV microstructure.


production sequence of each ware involved the specific use of the se-quential slab construction forming technique. The importance of thesharing and transmission of these learned bodily gestures across whatseem otherwise disparate operational sequences is challenging toexplain. It implies that the potters were either the same individualsperforming otherwise different choices and operations according tothe ceramic class, or that different groups of potters shared this veryspecific method of forming. A synchronic observation of technologicalchoice as the one shown in this study is not able to determine whichone of the two scenarios is the most likely occurring at Phaistos. Theidentification of different group of potters behind the diverse

Fig. 8. FTIR spectra. The spectrum of sample 12/295 shows a shift of the main AlO, SiO de-formation band and of the SiO band, plus the absence of the OH stretching band comparedto the spectrum of sample 12/293.


technological choices can be performed only observing the pattern oftransmission of some technological traits over time, that is, in adiachronic study of ceramic manufacturing. The study of the EM IBceramics at Phaistos is part of such diachronic research, which allowsus to assess that some of the alternative technological choices in termsof raw materials, firing procedures and surface treatment as describedabove have their origin prior to EM IB (Mentesana, 2014). However,the significance of continuity and change in pottery manufacturing isnot the main aim of this paper. What we can observe is that rather inthe EM IB phase at the site, the emergence of these very different classesof pottery can be rather observed. These classes have as different exteri-or appearance as being made following different technological choicesand probably serving different functions. The meaning of what can beconsidered a compartmentalisation of the production in the light ofthe change in the context of consumption in the same phase at Phaistosis explored in this paper. It is beneficial therefore to characterize thesesequences in diagrammatic form before moving to a consideration ofthe vessels' lives after production.

3.2. Changes in pottery production and consumption at EM IB Phaistos

The investigation of technological choices in the manufacture of EMIB ceramics at Phaistos has led to the identification of specific chaînesopératoires according to the pottery ware produced. Cross-cuttingthese different choices, however, are specific methods of forming,which imply shared, learned bodily gestures in the construction of thevessels. While some of the individual components of these operationalsequences had their origin earlier in the site's deep history (as theYellow fabric, the firing procedures of the DGPB, the painted technique;cf. Mentesana, 2014), many have a new emphasis or indeed arecompletely novel in EM IB pottery production. Itmight thus be temptingto look to ideas of specialization to account for what might be perceivedas a ‘suitable’ choice of rawmaterials and firing conditions for function-ally specific vessels, such as the cooking pot. Yet we would do well tolook beyond the production sequence. The ceramics analysed havebeen found to be produced in the nearby or at the site of Phaistos. Thesite was for sure the location of major consumption events which in-volved the use of such different vessels (Todaro, 2012, 2013). Lookingat activities on the hill site, it is clear that in EM IB there was a substan-tial re-organization of the use of space, which involved the constructionof new buildings and the occupation of new areas. In the same phase,the nearby site of Ayia Triadha started to be frequented, as did manyothers in the Mesara (Todaro, 2003; Watrous et al., 2004). Episodes ofcollective consumption seem to have been performed at both sitesand it might be suggested that, after the destruction of the previousphase, some groups or communities returned to the hill periodically toperform ceremonies. It has been proposed that Phaistos acted as a hubfor neighbouring communities since the first occupation of the hill(Todaro, 2012). Furthermore, Relaki (2004) has suggested that in theEM I Phaistos the local community reinforced their sense of belonging



Fig. 9.Macro-photographs of the vessel cut sections showing the different colour shades produced by the kind of atmosphere during firing and the raw material adopted. (For interpre-tation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the online version of this chapter.)


to the territory by these acts of consumption. In these post-Neolithictimes, it has been suggested that Phaistos's primacy as a gatheringplace started to be challenged by other sites, such as Ayia Triadha andthose on the southern edge of the Mesara Plain, and even perhapsthose in the Asterousia Mountains. The importance of these more fre-quent consumption practicesmight have laid in social and territorial re-negotiation amongst neighbouring communities.

It may be envisaged that these new acts of consumption deeplyinfluenced themanufacture of these specific sets of vessels. The compo-nents of the pottery assemblage that we have described above carriedout different roles in these activities: cooking, serving and drinking. Aswith many early ceramic vessels it is also the other materials that thepottery references, which might give us guidance as to the materialworlds in which these pots were entangled, whether contemporary orin communal memory. It has been suggested that the patterns paintedon DOL remind perhaps of gourds (Betancourt, 2008, 43–72; Wilson

Fig. 10. (Left) Surface analyses of theDGPB chalice. a: SEMmicrophotograph of the surfaceshowing a flat surface; b: HHpXRF spectra comparing the body (green line) and the sur-face (red line) chemical composition. (For interpretation of the references to colour inthis figure legend, the reader is referred to the online version of this chapter.)


and Day 2000, 57–58), perhaps also to nets, woven reeds or basketry.Dark burnished patterns of this period have been argued to referencewood texture and the chalice shape metal prototypes (cf. Wilson andDay, 2000, 57 and footnotes). It has been suggested previously thatthese vessels may have stood as metaphors for other materials, otherobjects and thus their distinctiveness of finish may have merged inthe production of very different objects.

If, as both Relaki and Todaro have suggested, new consumptionpractices were introduced in the EM I period to reinforce the communi-ty belongingness, they may have demanded a specific set of objects,including vessels, recognizable by every member of the communityand probably triggering the memory of other sets of materials. Acombination of both new practices and skills, along with an arrayof those perhaps with a deeper history, might have been channelledin different fashions according to different ceramic categories. Thisindeed reminds us of the historical contingency of these long-livedpractices.

Fig. 11. (Right) Surface analyses of the DOL jug. a: SEM microphotograph of the surfaceshowing a vitrified layer on top of the body; b: HHpXRF spectra comparing the body(green line) and the surface (red line) chemical composition which differ mainly in theamount of Ca and K. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend,the reader is referred to the online version of this chapter.)



Fig. 12. Chaîne opératoire of DGPB ware.


4. Conclusion

The approach adopted here, combining as it does primary study ofthe deposits, the construction of chronology, the categorisation of theceramic assemblage and its analysis by macroscopic, microscopic andchemical means has provided a great variety of insights. Key to thisnew perspective has been the consideration not only of the productionsequence of the vessels, but also their use in the everyday life and cere-monies on the hills of Phaistos. While the observer sees very differentware groups in EM IB and our analytical work shows just how differentare the materials and much of their manipulation, their characteristicforming and even the sharing of some aspects of the syntax of decora-tion (seen in Knossos in EM IB, Wilson and Day, 2000, 57), suggestthat in other ways they are joined closely together. Of course weknow this because they were used as sets in consumption events(Todaro, 2011); they weremismatched sets compared to later develop-ments (Day andWilson, 2004), but still theywere sets of objects used inthe same ceremonies and activities.

While undoubtedly our reconstruction of operational sequencesshows the degree to which the organization of pottery productionmust have changed in EM IB, it can be seen as a set of transformations,rather than a complete discontinuity. When something as specific asthe layered slab building is shared, togetherness and conformity isbeing emphasized on at least one level. Overall, it is the simultaneousseparation and unity of these material categories, and those materialcategories that they reference, that provide us with real possibilities ofseeing their production and their consumption as social action.

Fig. 13. Chaîne opérato


Acknowledgements

The researchwas conducted as part of the project entitled “The FinalNeolithic–Early Minoan transition in Phaistos, Crete: the contextualsignificance of continuity and change in pottery manufacture.”undertaken by Roberta Mentesana under the supervision of Peter M.Day, Roger Doonan, Vassilis Kilikoglou and Simona Todaro within theframework of the NARNIA (New Archaeological Research Network forIntegrating Approaches to ancient material studies) Project. NARNIA isa Marie Curie Initial Training Network which is funded by the FP7 andthe European Union (Grant agreement no.: 265010). For access tostudy and sample the material discussed here we are grateful to thelate Prof. Vincenzo La Rosa and to Dr. Serena Di Tonto of the ItalianMission. The 23rd Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquitieskindly made arrangements for sampling and we are grateful to theConservation Directorate of the Ministry of Culture for permissionto sample and conduct analyses. The authors would like to acknowl-edge NoémiMüller, Maria Amenta, Anno Hein and Ioannis Karatasiosof the Laboratory of Archaeological Materials at N.C.S.R. Demokritos(Athens) for their support in completing the analytical work of thisresearch.

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United in our Differences: the production and consumption of pottery at EMIB Phaistos, Crete

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