Unit 6: Environment and Agriculture By Surendra bam, Amrit Campus

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1) Introduction to Agriculture

The word agriculture is derived from two latin word, ager, "field", and cultūra,

"cultivation" or "growing".

Agriculture, also called farming or husbandry, is the cultivation

of animals, plants, fungi, and other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel, drugs and other

products used to sustain and enhance human life.

Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization, whereby farming

of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development

of civilization.

The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. The history of agriculture dates

back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly

different climates, cultures, and technologies.

Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the human population labored in

agriculture. Pre-industrial agriculture was typically subsistence agriculture/ self-

sufficiency in which farmers raised most of their crops for their own consumption instead

of cash crops for trade.

A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has occurred over the past century in response

to new technologies, and the development of world markets.

This also has led to technological improvements in agricultural techniques, such as

the Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate which made the traditional

practice of recycling nutrients with crop rotation and animal manure less important.

In the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture has

become the dominant system of modern farming, although there is growing support for

sustainable agriculture, including organic agriculture.

Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and

technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation,

But......

At the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health

effects.

For e.g., Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly

increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and the

health effects of the antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemicals commonly used in

industrial meat production.

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Genetically Modified Organisms are an increasing component of agriculture today,

although they are banned in several countries.

Agricultural food production and water management are targeted as an increasingly

global issue that is fostering debate on a number of issues. *Significant degradation of

land and water resources, including the depletion of aquifers, has been observed in recent

decades, and the effects of global warming on agriculture and of agriculture on global

warming are still not fully understood.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE TYPES

Before the advent of agriculture, all human beings were hunters, gatherers or fishers. Even today

some communities are occupied in hunting and gathering, but they are isolated groups

comprising a very small number. Now agriculture is practiced practically all over the world. The

major agricultural types are discussed here.

1) SIMPLE SUBSISTENCE FARMING

Mainly practised by tribes of the tropics, especially in Africa, in tropical South Central

America, and in South-east Asia; better known as shifting cultivation.

Farmers grow food only for themselves and their families. The elders select sites, usually

in the virgin forest and preferably hill slopes as they have better drainage. The forests are

usually cleared by fire and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. Trees not burnt are cut

down or left to decay naturally.

Shifting cultivation is thus also called ‘slash-and burn’ agriculture.

The cultivated patches are usually very small, and primitive tools are used.

Starchy foods comprise the main crops-tapioca, yam, cassava, corn, millet, bananas. Crop

growing is for short periods, followed by long periods of fallowing (leaving land after

ploughing).

‘Field rotation’ rather than ‘crop rotation’ marks this type of agriculture.

Impacts: As the ideal requirement of fallow periods of 20 years is hardly practised, the practice

leads to soil erosion and even total destruction of forests.

For eg., It is noteworthy that continuous slash-and-burn farming in West Africa has

extended the southern limit of savanna well into the former forested zone.

Shifting cultivation is usually supplemented by hunting, fishing or gathering fruits.

Sedimentary subsistence agriculture in tropical lowlands, where the fallowed fields are

frequently re-used and the community stays permanently in one spot, is an advanced form of

subsistence farming.

Another example is the Slash and Burn Cultivation in North East India (Asam etc).

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2) INTENSIVE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE It is in the monsoon lands of Asia that this type of agriculture is to be found. Some

geographers term it ‘oriental agriculture’ because it depends in oriental rainfall.

Its striking features include an intensive use of land, much manual labour, low use of

farm machinery or modern tools and the use of a variety of manures and fertilisers.

Irrigation is often resorted to in order to compensate for lack of moisture.

3) PLANTATION AGRICULTURE

This type involves specialised commercial cultivation of cash crops on estates of

plantations.

It is a distinctive type of tropical agriculture, found in many parts of Asia, Africa and

tropical and subtropical America.

The main plantation crops are rubber, cotton, beverages like coffee, tea and cocoa, fruits

like pineapples and bananas, as well as sugarcane, hemp and jute.

It calls for heavy capital outlay and scientific management.

Also called as monoculture.

4) 3) Agricultural practices in Nepal*

The majority of land use in Nepal is for agrarian and pastoral purposes. The farming

systems in Nepal vary sharply from the higher altitude north to the lower south, and from the wet east to the arid west.

Compared to other ecological zones, Mountain regions:

- only a small area of the mountains is put under farming. The total cultivated area in the mountain districts is 275,945 hectares, only 5.3 % of its total area.

- In the mountains, potatoes, millets and maize constitute the staple food crops. A variety of vegetables, and fruits (apples and citrus fruits, for example) have been successfully introduced in many mountain communities that earlier did not eat many greens and fruits. However, in rain shadow trans-Himalayan areas and at altitudes above 3000 m, only

- monoculture farming is practiced (the fewer number of crops is due to low temperatures, and leached out, poor, soil quality). Wheat or barley is typically sown in November and harvested in June/ July the following year. This means that on a typical farm, one crop of the staple crop variety, such as wheat, oat, barley, buckwheat, is grown, and beans and vegetables are harvested as intercrops.

Hill regions: - The hill districts too are predominantly rural. The agrarian economy accounts for

more than 90% of the economic activity, with livestock.

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- the population density for each unit of cultivated area is the highest in the hills, and has reached a saturation point.

- The major cereal crops grown in the hills are rice, maize, and millet. The growing of paddy is practised up to an altitude of 2,000 meters.

- Pulses and potato are found everywhere in the hills. There are also some location-specific commercial crops such as tea and cardamom in the east, coffee in central hills, and ginger in the west, that produce important cash income.

Terai regions: - The population density is higher in eastern terai than in the western terai

accounting for 32% and horticulture 14%. - In the terai, agriculture and forests account for most of the land use. Most of the

terai was put under cultivation only in the past fifty years, and consequently, the land is relatively fertile.

- In the terai, paddy, wheat, and maize are the main cereal crops. The farmers in the eastern terai can grow two crops of paddy in a year. Typical intercropping patterns practised in eastern districts.

- The western terai allows fewer crops. The agricultural productivity in Nepal’s

terai remains lower than its understood potential.

4) Sustainable Agriculture

A sustainable farming system might be one; - that provides food, feed, fiber, biofuel, and other commodities for society, - allows for reasonable economic returns to producers and laborers, - cruelty-free practices for farm animals, - safe, healthy, and affordable food for consumers and - maintains or enhances the natural resource base upon which agriculture depends

(USDA-NAL, 2007). Sustainability in agriculture is a complex and dynamic concept that includes a wide range

of environmental, resource-based, economic, and social issues. Thus, legal, definition has five parts, emphasizing productivity, environmental quality,

efficient use of nonrenewable resources, economic viability, and quality of life. Under this definition, a farm that emphasizes short-run profit, but sacrifices

environmental quality, would not be sustainable in the long run. Pursuing environmental quality without ensuring viability of short-run returns also would

be unsustainable. A farm that is very productive but uses large quantities of a nonrenewable resource, such

as fossil fuel or a non-rechargeable aquifer, to achieve and maintain that productivity would not be considered sustainable in the long run.

Farm Bill - US Government, 1990: - Satisfy human food, feed, and fiber needs, and contribute to biofuel needs

- Enhance environmental quality and the resource base

- Sustain the economic viability of agriculture

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- Enhance the quality of life for farmers, farm workers, and society as a whole

FIGURE : The area where the four goals overlap represents the highest sustainability.

Principles of SA

Economic sustainability Through improving soil management and crop rotation which raise yields, reducing reliance on machinery, chemical fertilizer and pesticides

Environmental sustainability Through protecting, recycling, replacing and maintaining the natural resources base such as land (soil), water and wildlife Avoiding synthetic chemicals known to harm the environment, soil structure and biodiversity

Social sustainability Through more extensive use of available labor, at least for some techniques, thus contributing to social justice and cultural cohesion

Sustainable agriculture systems are: - based on relatively small, profitable farms - that use fewer off-farm inputs - integrate animal and plant production where appropriate - maintain a higher biotic diversity - emphasize technologies that are appropriate to the scale of production - make the transition to renewable forms of energy

Advantage of SA

- Achieves the integration of natural biological cycles

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- Protects and renews soil fertility and the natural resource base

- Optimizes the management and use of on-farm resources

- Reduces the use of non-renewable resources and purchased production inputs

- Provides an adequate and dependable form of income

- Promotes opportunity in family farming and farm communities

5) Traditional Farming

Traditional farming is done by using resources at hand effectively i.e. using the land, rainfall, seeds, and tillage methods to produce what nature offers.

Traditional processes are used to till the land, select and plant seeds, protect plants from competing plants and animals and gather the harvest.

The productivity of such systems depends primarily on the natural fertility of the soils, skillful care, and on the climate.

Initially the productivity is less, as producers are isolated from the access to market and outsider investor. But after access to market and outsider investor, their productivity tends to grow slowly.

Advantages:

Natural & healthy.

Many different types of crops can be grown per acre which replenishes the soil.

Prevents the reliance on one type of "staple" crop.

More hand works, so more employment.

It may yield less but there is sufficient quality attached to its yield.

Disadvantages:

As insecticides are not used, there is more risk of plants suffering from diseases.

It increases the cost of production as this method does not uses soil enrichment products and technology.

It's more reliant upon rainfall, so drought is very common.

Quantity of crop yield is less.

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In Nepal, majority of the farmers still practice traditional methods of farming like;

using livestock for ploughing land,

using livestock’s waste as manure,

employing old seeds and local labor.

About 25% of land remains uncultivated due to lack of modern farming techniques. Farming in Nepal is seasonal and weather dependent.

In Nepal, the basic farming is a cycle of paddy and wheat production which is always affected by various natural and manual causes like drought, excess rain, lack of seeds and labor. The scenario is even worse in the hills and the Himalayan region where bad terrain and steep land is a hindrance for better productivity.

Nepali traditional farming involves the use of local seeds and manure. But for the last few decades, the government has introduced hybrid seeds and fertilizers for better productivity.

Nonetheless, the fertilizers & pesticides in Nepal are highly hazardous which adversely degrade the fertility of soil. Agriculture was never taken as an entrepreneurship due to lack of modern way of farming.

6) Modern Agriculture

In modern agricultural systems farmers have much more central roles and are eager to apply technology and information to control most components of the system, a very different view from that of traditional farmers.

Its success dependent on linkages—access to resources, technology, management,

investment, markets and supportive government policies.

Development and maintenance of soil fertility through the specific provision of nutrients when they are depleted.

Use of machine power and technology to create soil conditions necessary to promote

plant growth.

Use of improved genetics for crops and livestock to enhance yields, quality and reliability.

Access to efficient, effective irrigation to supplement rainfall in many climates.

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Advanced harvesting, handling and storage equipment and techniques to prevent losses and to market commodities efficiently.

It depends on both public and private investment to provide access to technology,

equipment, information and physical facilities throughout the production-marketing system.

It depends on well supported commercial and financial systems and broad public policies

that support effective commercial markets at all levels that generate economic returns throughout the system.

It depends on enormous, highly sophisticated systems that move, store and processes

producers’ output that extends to food products and final consumers. Basic Practices

Modern agricultural systems - two related goals in mind to obtain the highest yields possible to get the highest economic profit possible

Six basic practices have come to form the backbone of production:

- intensive tillage, - monoculture, - application of inorganic fertilizer, - irrigation, - chemical pest control and - genetic manipulation of crop plants

Each practice is used for its individual contribution to productivity- Synergic effect when

combined. The work of agronomists has been key to the development of these practices.

a) Intensive Tillage The soil is cultivated deeply, completely, and regularly, and a vast array of tractors and

farm tools has been developed to facilitate this practice. The soil is loosened, water drains better, roots grow faster, and seeds can be planted more

easily; cultivation is also used to control weeds and work dead plant matter into the soil.

b) Monoculture Single crop is grown alone in a field- monoculture. Monoculture- easier to cultivate, sow seed, control weeds, and harvest. Expand the size of the farm operation and improve aspects of profitability and cost. Promote the use of the other five basic practices of modern agriculture.

c) Use of Synthetic Fertilizers

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Very dramatic yield increases occur with the application of synthetic chemical fertilizers Manufacture or mine, to transport, and to apply.

Fertilizer use has increased from five to ten times what it was at the end of World War II (1939-45).

Applied in either liquid or granular form, fertilizer can supply crops with readily available and uniform amounts of several essential plant nutrients.

d) Irrigation Technologies

Water supply to crops during dry weather, drought, insufficient rain falling places for growing most crops- irrigation.

Drawing water from underground wells, building reservoirs and distribution canals, and diverting rivers have improved yields and increased the area of available farm land.

Special sprinklers, pumps, and drip systems have greatly improved the efficiency of water application.

e) Chemical Pest Control

In the large monoculture fields of much of modern agriculture, pests- insects that eat plants, weeds that interfere with crop growth, and diseases that slow plant and animal development or even cause death.

When used properly, synthetic chemicals have provided an effective, relatively easy way to provide such control.

Chemical sprays can quickly respond to pest outbreaks.

f) Genetic Manipulation Farmers have been choosing among crop plants and animals for specific

characteristics for thousands of years. But modern agriculture has taken advantage of several more recent crop breeding

techniques. The development of hybrid seed, where two or more strains of a crop are combined

to produce a more productive offspring. Genetic engineering has begun to develop molecular techniques that selectively

introduce genetic information from one organism to another, often from very unrelated organisms, with a goal of capitalizing on specific useful traits.

1970s heralded recombinant DNA technology- ability to cut and recombine DNA fragments from different sources to express new traits Genes and traits previously unavailable through traditional breeding - DNA recombination.

Modern plant genetic engineering - transferring desired genes into the DNA of some plant cells and regenerating a whole plant from the transformed tissue .

New DNA introduced into the cell via biological or physical means. Widely used biological method for transferring genes into plants capitalizes on a trait

of a naturally occurring soil bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which causes crown gall disease.

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The bacterium, in the course of its natural interaction with plants, has the ability to infect a plant cell and transfer a portion of its DNA into a plant's genome . This leads to an abnormal growth on the plant called a gall.

Scientists take advantage of this natural transfer mechanism by first removing the disease-causing genes and then inserting a new beneficial gene into A. tumefaciens The bacteria then transfer the new gene into the plant.

Gene gun: to shoot DNA through plant cell walls and membranes to the cell nucleus, where the DNA can combine with the plant's own genome.

DNA is made to adhere to microscopic gold or tungsten particles and is then propelled by a blast of pressurized helium.

Depending on which genes are transferred, agricultural biotechnology can protect crops from disease, increase their yield, improve their nutritional content, or reduce pesticide use.

In 2000, more than half of American soybeans and cotton and one-fourth of American corn crops were genetically modified by modern biotechnology techniques.

Biotechnology can help improve the quality of basic diets. "Golden rice" is a form of rice engineered to contain increased amounts of vitamin A.

Corn varities with protein enrichment, soybean and canola oils with reduced saturated fat.

Crops that can withstand drought conditions or high salinity, allowing populations living in harsh regions to farm their land.

Manufacture of pharmaceutical products To produce large quantities of monoclonal antibodies for research on new therapeutic

drugs, several companies have genetically engineered cows and goats to secrete antibodies into their milk.

One company has inserted a spider gene into dairy goats. The spider silk extracted from the goat's milk is expected to produce fibers for bulletproof vests and medical supplies, such as stitch thread

7) Participatory approach of modern agriculture

Defining Participation Participation has become a central theme in development. It is new orthodoxy in the World Bank, where it is being mainstreamed. The United Nations, international and national NGOs as well as government agencies in the South are pushing for the widespread adoption and implementation of participatory programs and projects. But what does participation mean? Generally the term participation refers to the role that has to be played by the beneficiaries of development programs and projects. In conventional approaches, “outsiders” (i.e. researchers

and extension agents) study the context and overall environment of a selected community, identify the problems, prescribe the solutions/recommendations, plan the necessary interventions and monitor and evaluate the development process. In this case, the beneficiaries' role is restricted to implementation of the superior ideas of the “outsiders”. What is currently being

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demanded is the active involvement of beneficiaries in all the steps/phases of programs or projects that are intended to improve their livelihoods. Participation is therefore the process of getting the active involvement of the intended beneficiaries in analyzing their own situation, identifying problems/constraints, prioritizing these, searching for their own solutions using their situation-specific indigenous knowledge (which they can combine/blend with outsiders' knowledge) and capacities, implementing the solutions as well as monitoring and evaluating their own development. Defined this way, participation makes the beneficiaries the main actors who champion their destiny, while “outsiders” play a facilitative role and also learn from local people.

Participatory Approach (PA): The participatory approaches, in which the knowledge and opinions of farmers is considered to be just as important as that of researchers or extension agents. Participatory approaches involve information-sharing and joint decision-making. Other terms related to this include “interactive”

and “bottom-up”. Although there is no single description that can replace the “top-down”

transmission model, two ideas are becoming widely accepted in defining participatory approaches:

Communication in the context of participatory extension cannot usefully be described in a linear manner with distinct groups of “senders” and “receivers”. Instead, extension

activities take place within a knowledge system consisting of researchers, extension agents and farmers, all playing different roles at different times.

Although some actors in the knowledge system have more authority than others, communication usually involves a negotiation rather than a transmission. What takes place is a dialogue, with actors collaborating in the construction of shared meanings rather than simply exchanging information. Admittedly, the 90's have witnessed tremendous growth in the number and application of participatory methods and approaches: from Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), Participatory Technology Development (PTD), Farmer Field Schools, to Participatory Action and Learning (PAL) and many more others. A common feature of all these approaches and methods is the fact that the farmer is the main actor, with the ability to analyse, identify problems and try out different options for solving problems through experimentation. In all cases, the role of the extension agent changes to that of a facilitator in a process of joint learning. PA, then, emphasizes experiential learning and building the capacity of farmers to solve their own problems through experimenting and sharing of knowledge.

Principles and Values of Participatory Approaches (PA) PA operates on a number of principles and values. The major point to note however is that in the application of the approach, all stakeholders are viewed as equal partners who have different but important roles to play. The identified principles of PA are:

Integration of community mobilization for planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation with rural development, agricultural extension and research.

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PA is based on an equal partnership between farmers, researchers and extension agents who can all learn from each other and contribute their knowledge and skills.

PA aims to strengthen rural people's problem- solving, planning and management abilities.

It enhances and strengthens the capacity of farmers to adapt and develop new and appropriate technologies and innovations in all sectors of the rural economy.

PA encourages smallholder farmers to learn through experimentation, building on their own knowledge and practices, and blending them with new ideas. This takes place in a cycle of reflection and action which is referred to as “action learning.”

PA recognizes that communities are not homogenous, but consist of various social groups with conflicts and differences in interests, power and capabilities. The goal is to achieve equitable and sustainable development through the negotiation of interests among these groups and by providing space for the poor and marginalised in collective decision making.

The Participatory Approach also shows some positive outcomes in trying to improve the livelihood system of the rural communities in an integrated approach, and this proves that this method of training and facilitation (Participatory Development Approach) is not only relevant for dealing with agriculture development, but also efficient and effective in facilitating development in other livelihood sectors of rural communities. PEA applies a variety of methods and tools at the levels of farmers as well as in the learnerships for extension agents. A few of the most effective are described below: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a methodology that is also used in PA. It can be defined as “a family of participatory approaches, methods and tools which emphasize local knowledge and enable local people to do their own appraisal, analysis and planning. PRA uses group animation and exercises to facilitate information sharing, analysis and action among stakeholders”. It is important to note that from this definition, PRA is action oriented and enhances learning among all actors. It also allows the actors to monitor and evaluate the results of interventions. There are various PRA methods and tools which are used in the application of PEA, depending on the issue to be analyzed; they can be either space- or time-related. Such tools include:

Participatory mapping and modeling: this allows stakeholders, in particular farmers/communities, to analyze their physical environment; resource and social maps are essential in land-use planning and management. Maps or map-models are to be viewed as “snapshots” of the present, and can be compared with past maps, thus allowing

stakeholders to identify and discuss changes that may have taken place over time, including the reasons and causes. Such maps can be drawn and visualised by farmers to indicate a future desirable situation. Changes occurring through agreed interventions can be monitored by comparing past, present and future maps.

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Aerial photography analysis: while a significant number of professionals/technocrats do not believe in the ability of local communities to interpret and use aerial photographs, experience in the field found otherwise, and this depends on the quality of facilitation. Jointly interpreting aerial photographs is a helpful means of communication to make the history of the local landscape more accessible to the farmers/community. Older members of the community can describe what the landscape used to be like(past) while the whole community can discuss the changes that they see today(present), and develop a common vision for the future.

Transect walks: this is conducted by a team comprising locals as well as outsiders to

observe and talk about issues of local importance. Transects can provide a baseline, and can also be used to generate new actions that may be necessary in the community; they closely consider the local knowledge base, and can be used for monitoring purposes.

Seasonal calendars: seasonal analysis is a representation of recurring patterns in village

life which contrast the differences in seasonal patterns of women and men's lives. The calendar (to be elaborated by the community itself) can depict the distribution of labor demand for various activities ( e.g land preparation, planting, weeding, harvesting etc) as well as the involvement of men and women. Facilitated well, this tool can help identify problems, constraints and opportunities.

Matrix scoring and preference ranking: both follow a similar process whereby

interview/discussions with farmers are held to identify people's options and the respective criteria, which may differ depending on gender, age, resource endowment etc, thus allowing inclusivity in the development of options for livelihood improvements.

Venn and network diagramming: a venn diagram (drawn by the community) shows the

key institutions and individuals in a community, including their relationships and importance for decision-making, provision of services. The tool can also help identify strengths and weaknesses/limitations of specific institutions/individuals in relation to the community's need to improve their livelihoods.

Pie diagrams: proportional pie diagrams are useful to quantify proportions of a whole, particularly where absolute values of the whole may be difficult to calculate (e.g. household expenditure, amount of remittances).

Semi-structured interviews (SSI): a semi-structured interview is a dialogue where

important information develops out of casual conversation; it is guided interviewing, where only some of the questions are predetermined and new questions emerge as the dialogue progresses. SSI is considered the core of PRA; it is a tool that uses the so-called “six helpers”: what, who, when, how, where and why? A good facilitator can generate

useful information through the use of such questioning, while at the same time “forcing”

the interviewee/s to reflect on the issue under discussion.

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Well-being and wealth ranking: there are inequalities and differences in wealth in every community. These differences influence or determine people's behaviors, coping strategies, and views. Wealth ranking is a tool that allows stakeholders to investigate perceptions of wealth differences and inequalities; it helps to discover local indicators and criteria of wealth and well-being, as well as establish the relative position of households in a community (who is poor, who is rich?).

8) Agroecological Practices:

Agroecology is the sustainable management of agricultural systems through the application of ecological principles.

An agroecological approach attempts to replicate the structure and function of natural ecosystems so that plants and animals may coexist in harmony with local ecosystems and thrive accordingly.

Agroecology employs sustainable practices that can significantly improve yields with relatively few external inputs. As an example, a survey of over 1800 neighboring agroecological and conventional farms in Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala found that sustainable plots had 20‐40 percent more topsoil, greater soil moisture, less erosion and also lower economic losses than conventional neighbors.

One of the primary principles behind agroecology is nutrient cycling. Nutrient cycling refers to the various processes through which nutrients are transferred from one organism to another.

Farms that incorporate both livestock and crops into the same system can recycle a great proportion of nutrients. Vegetative biomass (i.e. trees, crops, grasses) can be converted into plant‐derived products such as building materials, paper, fuels, animal fodder, or firewood.

If animals are included in the farming system, biomass is cycled back into the system when they excrete the phosphorous, potassium, and nitrogen contained in their feed. Animal excrement not only refertilizes the soil, it can serve energy purposes as well.

Eg of nutrient cycling are compost manure and natural fertilizers from Methane digesters that convert animal dung into biogas, offer a more sustainable substitute. Biogas can serve the cooking and lighting purposes of rural families. Once the gas is consumed, the slurry used to fuel the digesters can be re‐used as a natural fertilizer and be cycled back into the farming system.

Efficient recycling depends upon minimal losses of nutrients. Farming practices that support the development of healthy, vigorous root systems result in more efficient uptake and use of available nutrients. Farming practices that help minimize nutrient losses while building up root systems include:

1. Crop rotations: These include rotating crops from one season to the next, incorporating multiple complementary crop, species within spatial proximity (companion planting).

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2. Conservation tillage: Conservation tillage includes zero tillage, strip or zonal tillage, and ridge tillage.

- With zero tillage, seeds are sown in unplowed fields. This conserves soil fertility, requires less water, and lowers production costs.

- Zero‐tillage rice and wheat cultivation has had tremendous success in South Asia where over half a million farmers in India, Pakistan and other countries have benefitted from this technology.

- Strip or zonal tillage systems, in which the seeding zonesare prepared only where seeds will be planted and left unplowed in other sections, have similar benefits.

3. Growing cover crops: Cover crops are a particularly important strategy for

maintaining agricultural diversity. - A cover crop is any plant that is used to improve soil fertility and

moisture, prevent erosion, or control weeds and pests. - It has been estimated that cover crops can decrease water runoff losses by

2‐ 6 fold. - Nitrogen‐fixing legumes such as soybean, cowpea, azola, and mung beans

are ideal cover crops that help increase the percentage of biomass in the soil as well as improve soil nutrients.

4. Composting: applying compost, green manures, or animal manures. Compost and animal manure also contribute to levels of soil organic matter.

Miguel Altieri’s Principles of Agroecology:

Enhance the recycling of biomass, with a view to optimizing nutrient availability and balancing nutrient flows over time.

Provide the most favorable soil conditions for plant growth, particularly by managing organic matter and by enhancing soil biotic activity.

Minimize losses of energy and other growth factors within plants' microenvironments above and below ground. These losses result from unfavorable flows of solar radiation, air and water. Reduction is accomplished through microclimate management, water harvesting, and better soil management and protection through increased soil cover.

Diversify species and genetic resources in the agroecosystem over time and space.

Enhance beneficial biological interactions and synergies among the components of agrobiodiversity, thereby promoting key ecological processes and services. Source: Miguel A. Altieri, “Agroecological Principles and Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture,” Chapter 3 of forthcoming publication edited by Norm Uphoff : 2‐3.

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9) Pesticides: First and Second Generation

First-Generation Pesticides-

First-generation pesticides were primarily used prior to 1940 and consisted of inorganic and organic compounds.

Minerals such as arsenic, mercury, and lead are inorganic compounds and were used as early pesticides. These minerals, when used as pesticides, posed a problem, because they did not degrade in the environment. The minerals persist and accumulate in the soil until the levels become so high, that the land is unfertile.

Organic compounds were created from plants, and pesticides used the plants developed resistance to insects. These organic compounds are known as botanicals. Pesticides such as pyrethrin come from chrysanthemum flowers. Rotenone is isolated from jewel vine and nicotine is found in tobacco. Unlike Inorganic compounds, botanicals do degrade in the environment and do not persist. However, these pesticides are highly toxic to other organisms such as fish and bees.

Synthetic botanicals were also produced as first-generation pesticides. They are created chemically to mimic the structure of plant produced botanicals. Pyrethoid, similar to the botanical version of pyrethrin, was an important synthetic botanical because it did not persist in the environment.

Second-Generation Pesticides-

Second-generation pesticides differ from earlier pesticides, in which they are created synthetically. They began to be used in the 1940s after Paul Müller discovered DDT in 1939.

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The three most common groups of second-generation pesticides are Chlorinated hydrocarbons, Organophosphates, and Carbamates. These groups are known as insecticides. Each group displays different properties. Some insecticides are persistent while others break down and do not bioacummulate. Their toxicity to mammals also fluctuates between insecticides.

Examples of Second Generation Pesticides-

Chlorinated hydrocarbons

-DDT

-Methoxychlor

-Lindane

-Endosulfan

Organophosphates

-Methamidophos

-Dimethoate

-Malothion

Carbamates

-Aldicarb

-Carbaryl

10) Agrochemical Pollution:

Agrochemical (or agrichemical), a contraction of agricultural chemical, is a generic term for the various chemical products used in agriculture.

In most cases, agrichemical refers to the broad range of pesticides, including insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides. It may also include synthetic fertilizers, hormones and other chemical growth agents, and concentrated stores of raw animal manure.

Agrochemical pollution refers to biotic and abiotic byproducts of farming practices

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that result in contamination or degradation of the environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their economic interests.

The pollution may come from a variety of sources, ranging from point source pollution (from a single discharge point) to more diffuse, landscape-level causes, also known as non-point source pollution.

1. Abiotic Sources:

a) Pesticides;

Pesticides and herbicides are applied to agricultural land to control pests

that disrupt crop production.

Soil contamination can occur when pesticides persist and accumulate

in soils, which can alter microbial processes, increase plant uptake of

the chemical, and also cause toxicity to soil organisms.

Pesticides can also accumulate in animals that eat contaminated pests

and soil organisms (Bioaccumulation and Biomagnifications).

In addition, pesticides can be more harmful to beneficial insects, such as

pollinators, and to natural enemies of pests.

Pesticide leaching occurs when pesticides mix with water and move

through the soil, ultimately contaminating groundwater.

- Leaching is most likely to happen if using a water-soluble

pesticide, when the soil tends to be sandy in texture, if excessive

watering occurs just after pesticide application, or if the

adsorption ability of the pesticide to the soil is low.

- Leaching may not only originate from treated fields, but also

from pesticide mixing areas, pesticide application machinery

washing sites, or disposal areas.

b) Fertilizers:

The nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) applied to agricultural land (via

synthetic fertilizers, composts, manures, biosolids, etc.) can provide

valuable plant nutrients.

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However, if not managed correctly, excess N and P can have negative

environmental consequences. Excess N supplied by both synthetic

fertilizers (as highly soluble nitrate) and organic sources such as manures

can lead to groundwater contamination of nitrate. Nitrate-contaminated

drinking water can cause blue baby syndrome.

Together with excess P from these same fertilizer

sources, eutrophication can occur downstream due to excess nutrient

supply, leading to anoxic areas called dead zones.

C) Heavy Metals:

The major inputs of heavy metals (e.g. lead, cadmium, arsenic,

mercury) into agricultural systems are fertilizers, organic wastes such as

manures, and industrial byproduct wastes.

Some farming techniques, such as irrigation, can lead to accumulation

of selenium (Se) that occurs naturally in the soil.[5] This can result in

downstream water reservoirs containing concentrations of selenium that

are toxic to wildlife, livestock, and humans.

D) Land management:

Soil erosion and sedimentation

- Agriculture contributes greatly to soil erosion

and sediment deposition through intensive management or

inefficient land cover.

- It is estimated that agricultural land degradation is leading to an

irreversible decline in fertility on about 6 million ha of fertile

land each year.

- The accumulation of sediments (i.e. sedimentation) in runoff

water affects water quality in various ways. Sedimentation can

decrease the transport capacity of ditches, streams, rivers, and

navigation channels. It can also limit the amount of light

penetrating the water, which affects aquatic biota.

- The resulting turbidity from sedimentation can interfere with

feeding habits of fishes, affecting population dynamics.

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2. Biotic Sources:

A) Greenhouse gases from fecal waste

The United Nations, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)

predicted that 18% of anthropogenic greenhouse gases come directly or

indirectly from the world’s livestock.

B) Introduced species

The increasing globalization of agriculture has resulted in the accidental

transport of pests, weeds, and diseases to novel ranges. If they establish,

they become an invasive species that can impact populations of native

species and threaten agricultural production.

For example, the transport of bumble bees reared in Europe and

shipped to the United States and/or Canada for use as

commercial pollinators has led to the introduction of an Old World

parasite to the New World. This introduction may play a role in recent

native bumble bee declines in North America.

Agriculturally introduced species can also hybridize with native species

resulting in a decline in genetic biodiversity and threaten agricultural

production.

11) Alternative Methods of Pesticides Uses (Sub topic under Integrated Pest Management)

I. Biological controls:

a. Use of larger natural predators includes the use of birds and other insects but there is an approximate 40% success rate only. Why?

Need to set up an appropriate home for the predator - nesting habitat etc. not to common in corn fields.

If the the predator is too good, it consumes up all the pest and then migrates out- must be alternate prey.

Need to have handy a good taxonomist who knows how to id the pest and appropriate

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predator.

Introduction of foreign predators has lead to problems as they move out into natural systems and outcompete similar native species. They themselves have been known to become pests eventually.

b. Bacterial predators; one of the most commonly used bacterial species is Bt or Bacillus thurigensis.

At sporulation, the bacterium produces a spore and a protein crystal which releases powerful toxins when degraded by the gut fluids in larvae consuming it; death can occur in 30 minutes- to 3 days.

Timing has to be right - larvae must be feeding on leaves treated with spores. Doesn't work with adults not feeding on leaves.

c. Viruses; 1600 virus isolates which can cause disease in 1100 species of insects. So far not a commercial success since virus is specific to insect so limited sales. However some real advances are emerging:

i.e. A peptide hormone was isolated and incorporated into a baculovirus. The peptide was active in preventing larval feeding and causing mortality among corn earworm larvae.

d. Nematodes can work on soil pests.

Nematodes are simple worms consisting of an elongate stomach and reproduction system inside a resistant outer cuticle. Most nematodes are so small, between 400 micrometers to 5 mm long. Their small size, resistant cuticle, and ability to adapt to severe and changing environments have made nematodes one of the most abundant types of animals on earth;

Most nematodes feed on bacteria, fungi, and other soil organisms. Others are parasitic, obtaining their food from animals (such as the dog heartworm), humans (such as the pinworm), and plants. Agricultural cultivation encourages an increase in parasitic nematodes that feed on the crops being grown.

e. Pheromones: 436 available on the market. These synthesized chemicals act to attract the opposite sex into bags or traps.

Insects of the same species can communicate with one another by releasing small quantities of chemical substances from their bodies into the air. These distinct 'scents', which are called

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pheromones, will attract others to the source of that attraction.

Since the chemical composition of the pheromones differs from species to species, the attraction of an insect's pheromone is specific to that species alone.

Over the years, researchers have been able to chemically identify many of these individual pheromones and in a number of cases have also been able to synthesize them. As a result, it is now possible to communicate with certain insects by using these synthesized pheromones, enabling us to attract them, or disrupt them from their normal behaviour.

f. Juvenile hormones anti-juvenile and juvenile hormones mess up the molting cycles of insects. Very species specific and timing is critical.

II. Genetic controls

a. Introduction of naturally resistant host strains; wild species are naturally resistant to insects via alkaloids and other chemical defense systems. These have been bred out over time due to taste or unintentionally. Aggies go back to find wild types and breed in naturally by crossing or insert gene directly to get plant to produce its own defenses.

b. Bioengineered resistance: the alpha-endotoxin gene of Bt has been inserted into tobacco and other species so no longer need the bacterium itself. Problem if bug becomes resistant to

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this product. In plants they naturally evolve different forms of their chemicals via selection.

12) Sustainable Soil Management (SSM)

Soil formation is an extremely slow process, soils should be viewed as a largely non-renewable and non-multipliable resource.

They are coming under ever-increasing pressure from global population growth and the need for additional food and resources.

Overuse (soil mining) and misuse lead to nutrient depletion, erosion and other forms of degradation, which can trigger desertification in dryland areas. Worldwide, a land area equivalent to twice the size of Belgium (6 million ha) be-comes degraded each year.

This results in the partially irreversible destruction of ecosystems and a decline in yields, with significant consequences for food security and economic development.

The human race is thus faced with the challenge of increasing soil productivity despite the deteriorating climatic conditions. If the world is to have enough food to eat, yields will need to rise by 40 per cent by 2025.

There is international consensus that we must react to the anticipated changes by intensifying agriculture and land use in a sustainable manner.

Some of the approaches of sustainable soil management are:

a) Soil mining and desertification must be minimised or stopped, partly through the use of financial incentives. An integrated nutrient management system maintaining as closed a nutrient cycle as possible (nutrient recycling) and a post-harvest residue management strategy are called for. State incentives have been shown to promote sustainable land use in cases where it is otherwise uneconomic for individual farms.

b) Tillage must be reduced and climate-damaging land-use changes minimised. The type and frequency of tillage influence the release of greenhouse gases from soil. Tillage should be minimised to increase its humus– and thus carbon – content and prevent erosion. The ‘direct seeding’ system developed in Brazil by GIZ in the

1980s works well here.

c) Fertilizers must be used correctly. As a basic principle nutrient recycling and organic fertilizers should be favored over mineral fertilizers; however, nutrient-poor soils require additional input of nutrients. Africa in particular, with its very low rates of mineral fertiliser use, has some catching up to do. So-called ‘smart subsidies’ for fertilisers can contrib-ute

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to higher yields and poverty reduction.

d) The use of adapted agricultural technology must be intensified, irrigation technology optimized. Mechanization should not lead to soil compaction and should be adapted to the economic conditions in developing countries. Light-weight machines and equipment are therefore to be preferred. Where there are erosion and salination problems in particular, but also to increase water-use efficiency in general, soil and water re-sources need to be considered together. Irrigation measures should not increase the risk of salination.

e) Land governance must be improved and land consumption reduced. Sustainable land use and investment in soil fertility require planning certainty, which in turn requires land rights. At national level measures must be taken to control land con-sumption and improve land-use planning. Action required are:

- To effectively counteract soil erosion and increase soil fertility on a sustainable basis, internationally binding rules should be pursued, e.g. in the form of an international soil convention.

- Legal and economic conditions also need improvement at national level. Country should introduce and implement soil protection legislation and financial incentive systems should be considered in the form of payment for environmental services (PES).

- Sustainability standards which are oriented towards the particular location and are based on simple types of economic analysis, such as soil sample test should be introduced.

- Land take (e.g. for housing, roads) should be reduced, as it takes a very long time to regenerate lost land. At the same time degraded soils should be rehabilitated and put to use.

- Soil plays an important role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change. Practices which increase the amount of carbon in the soil should be promoted. These include conservation agriculture and organic farming.

- National and international research into soil pro-tection, fertility and the relationship between soil and climate change should be stepped up.

- Digital soil maps, which are becoming ever more precise through the use of remote sensing, should be developed and utilised to identify at-risk regions and regularly monitor regions which are already degraded.

- Documenting successful practices and setting up regional and international information and communication platforms such as the World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) and Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA) can be very helpful in this respect. Such efforts need greater sup-port in order to become more effective.

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13) Land Reform:

Agriculture in Nepal has long been based on subsistence farming. Majority of the peasants derive their living from fragmented plots of land.

Government programs to introduce irrigation facilities and fertilizers have proved inadequate, their delivery hampered by the mountainous terrain.

Population increases and environmental degradation have caused that the minimal gains in agricultural production, owing more to the extension of arable land than to improvements in farming practices.

Production of crops has been consistently decreased particularly rice production has been decreased by 11 percent in 2009/10. Once an exporter country of rice, Nepal now has a food deficit.

It has been discussed below in following points;

i) The ownership of land and the agenda of land reform have been the major issues in relation to agrarian reform in Nepal. According to agriculture census 2001, there are a total of 42,53,222 households in Nepal and out of this 33,64, 100 are farming households.

Table 1: Land ownership and distribution in Nepal as of 2001

Size of holding

Households Area

No % Area (ha) %

Landless households

26700 0.79 - -

Land holding households

3337400 99.21 2653919 100

Total 3364100 100 2653919 100

Source: Adapted from the report of High Level Commission on Scientific Land Reform 2010

The average availability of agriculture land is 0.789 ha. The highest availability is in Teari-

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0.944 ha followed by high hills- 0.655 ha and mid hills- 0.633 ha.

The table 1 shows that most rural families do not have enough land to even subsist on. A starling proportion of rural households still do not have enough land to live on (Wily et al 2008).

47.31% holdings are marginal, too small to meet even subsistence. Marginal farmers in fact averaged only 0.24 ha or 7 kattha in 2001, certainly not enough to live from.

An extraordinary 58.9% of the total population according to NPC are functionally landless in terms of agriculture (less than a 0.4 ha). About 2.3 million people or 481938 households are landless (Wily et al 2008).

Various evidences show that Dalit and minority groups falls under the landless and marginal farmers’ categories. In average, marginal farmers families have food availability only for 6

months. The landless families are deprived from social and political rights just because of not having land ownership. The landlessness also exacerbates the exploitative labor relationship as the landless families are compelled to work on low wages, and receive loan in high interest that put them into indebtedness (Wiley et al 2008).

ii) Land holding size and agriculture production; Arable land in Nepal is only 21% of the land area in Nepal, concentrated in the southern terai (plain) region. The land distribution is uneven: In 2001/02, 0.76% households had more than 5 ha land, and occupied 7.31% of the land area; top 5% of land-owning households owned more than 37% of land, while 47% of land-owning households owned only 15% of land.

It must also be noted that despite the shortage of arable land, the amount of land lying fallow (especially land owned by absentee landowners) was quite substantial. It was reported that about 25% of arable land was lying fallow.

iii) Political economy of land reform in Nepal; the history of Nepal’s agriculture began

with the land owned by one class and cultivated another class. This feudal system deliberately precluded ordinary people from owning land. Non-farmer elites began to accumulate considerable land holdings as a form of security and status which precipitated the well-established class structure of landlordism today; a dismal system whereby those who work the land have little ownership over it.

A number of efforts in terms of land reforms have been made as the political regimes keep changing; they have not been put into practice and become only as rituals and political slogans.

The 1964 Land Act remains at the centre of Nepal’s land reform legislation even

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today. In fact, land reform policies in Nepal have failed to significantly redistribute land, improve agricultural productivity or realign socio-economic power imbalances.

Even for Nepal’s peace accord, the power sharing negotiation between Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) and other parties, the land issues have been the major issues to be settled as a part of the peace process. The Comprehensive Peace Accord (November 2006), clauses include about the returning seized land and properties to leaders of political parties, activists and civilians and about the policy to implement scientific land reform programme to be adopted. Nevertheless, the progress towards the land issues have not been positively move forward, as it remains to be one of the most contested issue in Nepal’s peace process and constitution building process.

iv) It is abundantly clear that the best approaches to land reform are those that integrate security of ownership, livelihood, resource management, agriculture input and community empowerment and mobilisation.

Land reform must include the restructure in land distribution accompanied by a support structure to sustain productivity.

14) Agricultural Policy in Nepal:

There are possibilities of achieving a sustainable economic growth and ensuring food security through the proper utilization of the opportunities provided by the country's geography, farmers' experience, and modern farming technologies. The decline being suffered by fertile agricultural land as a result of its inappropriate use and calamities of various kinds, the lack of access of people equipped with labour and skills connected with commercial basis with the help of modem technologies and failure to attract adequate investments in the infrastructures of agricultural development (irrigation, roads, electricity, communication, industry, marketing business and improved technologies), which form the basis of the development of the non-agricultural sector, are the main problems being faced in the process of developing agricultural sector. The 1991 Policy Outlines of Agricultural Development and the Agricultural Perspective Plan (APP), which have been brought into force with the objective of ensuring an overall development of the agriculture sector; have provided, to some extent a sense of direction to the process of development of this sector. The 20 year Agriculture Perspective Plan 1995—2015 (APP), outlines the broad policy context for agriculture development in Nepal and has five interrelated objectives:

To increase factor productivity for an accelerated agricultural growth rate;

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To alleviate poverty and significantly improve living standards through accelerated growth and expanded employment opportunities;

To transform subsistence agriculture into commercial agriculture through diversification and exploiting comparative advantage;

To expand opportunities for overall economic transformation by fulfilling the precondition of agricultural development; and

To identify immediate, short-term, and long-term strategies for implementation and to provide clear guidelines for preparing periodic plans and programs in future.

The APP emphasizes a few priority inputs, outputs, and outcomes. The 'green revolution' package for the terai and high value commodities for the hills and mountains are strategies to achieve “catch-up” growth, reach markets, reduce poverty, and safeguard the environment.

Regional interaction among the mountain, hills and the terai based on their specific comparative advantages are central to APP priorities and are premised on the concept of rural growth linkages. Subsequent periodic plans—the Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007), Three-Year Interim Plan (TYIP 2007-2010), and the National Agriculture Policy (2004)—draw on the fundamentals set by the APP and share the common thread of agricultural commercialization and diversification for broad-based, inclusive growth and poverty reduction. The policies envision agriculture growth creating opportunities for farms and other enterprises while safeguarding the environment and achieving food security. They also recognize that the public sector alone cannot achieve this vision. The private sector and NGOs will be active participants with the state increasingly adopting the role of facilitator rather than implementer, unlike in the past. As stipulated in the TYIP, all sector development interventions are geared toward contributing to the overriding national objective of poverty reduction. This objective is to be achieved by ensuring food security, enhancing economic growth, effective and efficient utilization of scientific information, and sustainable exploitation of agriculture and related natural resources. Agriculture and livestock development are to be treated as the lead sector in this respect. The Vision and the objectives of the National Agriculture Policy (2004) are; The long-term vision of the agricultural sector shall be to bring about an improvement in the standard of living through a sustainable agricultural development to be achieved by transforming the current subsistence oriented farming system into a commercial and competitive farming system. For the purpose of contributing to the task of ensuring food security and poverty alleviation by achieving a high and sustainable economic growth a commercial and competitive farming system National Agriculture Policy (2004) has following objectives -

Agricultural production and productivity shall be increased.

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The bases of a commercial and competitive farming system shall be developed and made competitive in the regional and world markets.

Natural resources, as well as the environment and bio-diversity, shall be conserved, promoted and properly utilized.

*References: 1. NARC’s Strategic Vision for Agricultural Research (2011-2030) www.doanepal.gov.np/uploads/21Shiddi%20G.pdf 2. National Agricultural Policy, 2004 www.lawcommission.gov.np

15) Impact of Globalization in Agriculture

Globalisation is the new concept that has come to dominate the world since the nineties of the last century with the end of the cold war and the break-up of the former Soviet Union. The frontiers of the state with increased reliance on the market economy and renewed faith in the private capital and resources, a process of structural adjustment spurred by the studies and influences of the World Bank and other International organisations have started in many of the developing countries. Also Globalisation has brought in new opportunities to developing countries. Greater access to developed country markets and technology transfer hold out promise improved productivity and higher living standard. But globalisation has also thrown up new challenges like growing inequality across and within nations, volatility in financial market and environmental deteriorations. Another negative aspect of globalisation is that a great majority of developing countries remain removed from the process.

What is Globalization? According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word "globalization" was first employed in a publication entitled Towards New Education in 1930, to denote a holistic view of human experience in education. An early description of globalization was penned by the founder of the Bible Student movement Charles Taze Russell who coined the term 'corporate giants' in 1897, although it was not until the 1960s that the term began to be widely used by economists and other social scientists. The term has since then achieved widespread use in the mainstream press by the later half of the 1980s. Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired numerous competing definitions and interpretations, with antecedents dating back to the great movements of trade and empire across Asia and the Indian Ocean from the 15th century onwards. Broadly speaking, the term ‘globalization’ means integration of economies and societies

through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital,

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finance and people. Cross border integration can have several dimensions – cultural, social, political and economic. But the term is most closely associated with the term economic globalization. Limiting ourselves to economic integration, one can see this happen through the three channels of (a) trade in goods and services, (b) movement of capital and (c) flow of finance. Besides, there is also the channel through movement of people.

The favorable impacts of globalization on agriculture are as under- 1) Use of new technologies:

Increased use of various technologies such as pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers as well as new breeds of high yield crops were employed to increase food production. These technologies included modern implementations in irrigation projects, pesticides, synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and improved crop varieties developed through the conventional, science-based methods available at the time. Use of High Yielding Varities (HYVs). HYVs significantly outperformed traditional varieties in the presence of adequate irrigation, pesticides, and fertilizers.

2) Increase in agricultural production and productivity:

The green revolution had many effects on world economy. Due to adoption of HYV technology the production of food grains increased considerably in the many parts of the world. The production of wheat has increased from 8.8 million tones in 1965-66 to 184 million tones in 1991-92 in India. The productivity of other food grains has increased considerably. Though the food grain production has increased considerably but the green revolution has no impact on coarse cereals, pulses and few cash corps. In short the gains of green revolution have not been shared equally by all the crops. 3) Increase in employments – While exporting agricultural products it is necessary to classify the products, its standardization and processing, packing etc. The industries depending on agriculture are stored and it made an increase in employments. Agriculture is the biggest unorganized sector of the developing countries economy accounting for more than 90% share in the total unorganized labour force. 4) Agriculture as a prime moving force- agriculture is deeply related to industrial growth and national income in developing countries of the world. 1% increase in the agricultural growth leads to 0.5% increase in the industrial output and 0.7% increase in the national income in India. As a result, the government of several countries in world has announced agriculture as the prime moving force of their economy. 5) Increase in the share in trade – Because of the conditions of WTO all of the countries get the same opportunities so there is an increase in the export of agricultural products. According

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to data provided by WB, India’s share in exports (goods and services) rose from 0.54%in 1990 to 0.67% in 1999. Indian exports rose by 103% during the same period. 6) Reduction in poverty- It is also true that globalization is commonly characterized as increasing the gap between the rich and the poor, but it is a matter of looking at poverty in relative terms. India’s prior concern is of absolute poverty, which is worse than death, and if

India makes efforts, globalization can be a key to get rid of it. Moreover, the percentage of people below the poverty line has been decreasing progressively, from 36 percent in 1993-94 to 26 percent in 1999-2000.

Note: For Environmental Consequences of Traditional and Modern Agricultural, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Some Portion of Pesticides: First and Second Generation topics Get photocopies from My Computer Shop.

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