Two Worlds: Literature Review on The Relationship between Social Work and Mass Media

Master of Arts in Social Work Studies

The School of Nursing, Midwifery, Social Work and Social Sciences

Module: Advanced Professional Practice – Dissertation

Two Worlds

Literature Review on

The Relationship between Social Work

and Mass Media

Adeline Cooke

@00346593

Two Worlds

Literature Review on The Relationship between Social

Work and Mass Media

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION

An Indonesian proverb said, "tak kenal maka tak sayang." The Dutch has the same

proverb, "onbekend maakt onbemind." The closest English translation would be, "A

stranger is a friend you haven't yet met." For readers in the English speaking world,

the Dutch and Indonesian proverb is almost incomprehensible. The closest

translation still cannot describe the true meaning in the same way. Lost in

translation. Translation difficulties are not just between languages, same difficulties

are bridging the two worlds of social work and mass media.

“Two Worlds” was a song from a Disney animation film “Tarzan”. It comically

describes two worlds that seemed too different. Still, at the end there was a way to

form a synergy in order to reach a common goal.

Using peer-reviewed journal articles as primary literature, this critical literature review

evaluates the relationship between the two worlds of social work and that of mass

media. In reviewing current available researches, I am trying to find answers or

recommendations of how to form the bridge. Whilst Tarzan’s common goal with the

gorillas was saving the forest from the greedy capitalists, here I postulate that the

common ground for social work and mass media is social justice (Stone et.al., 2008).

Problem

I start from the hypothesis that the relationship between social work and media,

especially in the UK, is problematic. Current news reports – such as the Rotherham

and Rochdale child sexual exploitation, child abuse and child deaths – show that

news headlines tend to point the finger at social workers. This hypothesis is

supported by the researches available (Aldridge, 1990; Ayre,

2001;Freeman&Valentine, 2004) also a recent newspaper article (Elvin, 2014).

These journal articles confirm my personal experience, listening to comments from

colleagues at the local authority’s Children Services, also comments from friends in

the mass media. Hence I start from the hypothesis that social workers and journalists

in the UK today – that is, 2014 – are like different ethnic groups in South Africa’s

apartheid era.

Context

During the writing of this literature review, the Rotherham child sexual exploitation

case hit the headlines (Williams, 2014). Compare to Ayre’s (2001) review on child

abuse high profile cases from 1970s to 1990s, mass media coverage today seems to

be no difference (see also Elvin, 2014). Both Aldridge (1990) and Ayre (2001) blame

negative media coverage for the culture of blame and back-covering habits within

social work practice – although we can argue which comes first the chicken or the

egg, as it has become a vicious cycle.

The climate of fear, mistrust and blame (Ayre, 2001, pp.889-891) has somehow

become a framework of thinking and taking action (Aldridge, 1990). Social workers in

the UK have a fear of speaking to the media (Elvin, 2014). In addition, they are being

gagged in the name of Data Protection by local authorities who are the majority

employers of social workers. Elvin continues that the two factors resulting in less

accurate information being passed to the media. As journalists receive less accurate

information, the published or broadcast news are also inaccurate. Adding this to the

alienation of social workers from the mass media, we have a vicious cycle of

separation and prejudice between the two worlds.

In a wider scope, politics in the UK is leaning towards neo-liberalism ideology

(Bailey, 2013; Hall, et.al, 2013), continuing the New Right attacks on welfare system

(Mendes, 2000 & 2008; Stevenson, 1999). Neo-liberalism is “the rule of the market,

the cut of public expenditure for social services, deregulation, privatisation, and the

elimination of the concept of 'public good' or 'community'” ((Martinez and

Garcia,1997). The UK's coalition government of 2014 – as the New Right in the

1980s and 1990s – attacks the very principle of the welfare system. Social work as

the flagship of welfare state becomes the target, the receiving end of the attack

(Mendes, 2000 & 2008). In this neo-liberal setting resources are being privatised and

big corporations took control of both economy and politics (Monbiot, 2000; Martinez

& Garcia, 1997).

As the fourth estate or the fourth pillar of democracy, the mass media is expected to

represent society as a forum for public discussion, watchdog, and guardian of the

public interest (Coronel, 2003; Stevenson, 1999). However “the news media are in

crisis” and budget cuts within the mass media are affecting the quality of the news

(Fenton, 2011). At the same time, big corporations own most newspapers, radio

stations, television and film production companies (Swisher, 2003; Dwyer, 2014).

The Media Reform Coalition (2014) found that, “In the UK, 70% of the national

market is controlled by only three companies – News UK, Daily Mail and General

Trust, and Trinity Mirror – with Rupert Murdoch’s News UK fully holding a third of the

entire market share”. The implication is that the plurality of media content is

questionable.

Most mass media are representing their business interest (Ayre, 2001; Aldridge,

1990). “By catching visual or aural attention, the media can gain audience revenue.

Attention means consumption, and audience attention means selling points to

advertisers,” explained McQuail (1994, pp.51-52). So if part of the environment we

live in contain the mass media that is not representing society, does social work

represent society?

The two worlds of social work and media can be described by the graphic below

where the circle of concern (Covey, 1999, pp.81-85) of the social workers is green

and the media’s circle of concern is pink.

Key research questions

Following are key research questions which frame the aims of this literature review:

1. Critical evaluation of the relationship between social work and the mass media.

1a. Critical evaluation of mass media portrayal of social work.

1b. Critical evaluation of social workers' perception of the portrayal of the social work

profession in the mass media.

2a. Critical analysis of the factors that have the potential to contribute to mutual

understanding of function, culture, and meaning within the fields of social work and

mass media.

2b. Critical inquiry into the extent to which the function and production of social work

and the mass media could work together for mutual benefits, enhancement of their

goals and the greater good.

Illustration 1: Circles of Concerns

Two Worlds


Work and Mass Media

CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER TWO – METHODOLOGY

This literature review is my effort to dig available researches in the UK and

internationally, on the relationship between social work and the mass media. The

idea came from a concern of the segregation of the two worlds and of what seemed

like a negative portrayal of social work in the mass media. During the writing of this

article, BBC Breakfast News on 27 August 2014 clearly blamed social workers

involved in child protection in Rotherham. There was also the criminalisation of Asha

King’s parents for taking him out of hospital to get a better treatment in another

country.

The choice of the subject was also driven by my past experience as a journalist.

Here I chose the term “mass media” to specify mediums of mass communication that

are channels which “include large-scale technologically based distribution devices

and systems” (McQuail & Windahl, 1993, p.6). In order not to confuse mass media

and other modern media such as social network media, blogs, photo and video

sharing in today’s information society (Castells, 2001a & 2001b; Stevenson, 1999), I

use McQuail and Windahl’s characteristics of mass communications as “public and

open, but with limited access to ‘sending’ facilities” (1993, p.6). When appropriate, I

would use the term news media as the mediums of mass communication with news

as the content, and journalist to refer to professionals from the news media (Rosen,

1999).

Using Aveyard’s definition, this literature review is a “comprehensive study and

interpretation of the literature that relates to” (2010, p.5) social work relationship with

mass media. I identified research questions as listed in the Introduction, and then

seek to answer these questions by searching for and analysing relevant literature

using a systematic approach in an effort to the development of new insights

(Aveyard, 2010, p.6).

I started with University of Salford’s SOLAR library search engine and chose the

databases search. On the subject, I chose “social sciences” instead of “health +

social care”. This is because of the interdisciplinary nature of this research –

combining social work, communication, and media studies. Among the 15

databases that came up, I used EBSCO and Applied Social Sciences Index &

Abstracts (ASSIA).

The decision to choose the subject of social work and mass media was a result of

previous searches for “participatory video” and “social work” with zero result on both

ASSIA and EBSCO. Even after the search term was broadened to “participatory

video” only, too few results were found, and with less connection to social work. My

first intention was to do a literature review on participatory video documentary,

influenced by Mahama (2004).

Considering the relevance of this research to the practical context of statutory social

work in the UK’s local authority setting, I broadened the search to “social work” and

“mass media”. Here I will critically evaluate the relationship between social work and

the mass media (key question 1a and 1b) and then critically analyse factors that can

contribute to mutual understanding and synergy of the two fields (key question 2a

and 2b).

After deciding on the subject of the relationship between social work and mass

media, I conducted searches using EBSCO and ASSIA. The search terms, limiters,

and results were described in Appendix One.

From a total of 23 journal articles, I chose 16 most relevant articles. The next

process was deciding the logic and presentation of the literature review. After

reading and categorising the 16 articles, I decided to present them thematically

instead of chronologically. This means, I “grouped together all similar theme and saw

patterns developing” (Aveyard, 2010, p.130). I found three themes: first, how the

mass media portray social work (key question 1a); second, how social work

academics and professionals perceive the portrayal of their profession in the mass

media (key question 1b); third, how the two professions could form a synergy for the

greater good (key question 2a and 2b).

The themes form the logic of this review, although there are some articles that

discuss more than one key question. For example Aldridge (1990) blamed the “poor

news media treatment to the profession” for the “fear of media scandal that

influences practice and legislation”. This means that Aldridge’s article discussed both

key question 1a (media portrayal) and 1b (social workers’ perception of the media

portrayal). The same article (Aldridge, 1990) also discussed “taming the media:

advice from the social work press” which touches key question 2a.

I compared and summarised the 16 peer-reviewed journal articles thematically using

Aveyard’s table (2010, pp.129) in Appendix Three. To critically appraise the articles,

I mainly use Guba and Lincoln's (2005, pp.207-208) authenticity criteria. This is

because I agree with Guba and Lincoln in using criteria of balance and fairness,

educative or raising level of awareness, and encourage change and empowered

people to act. I also use Seale (1999, pp.189-192) criteria in evaluating qualitative

research.

Two Worlds


Work and Mass Media

CHAPTER TRHEE:

CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER THREE

CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter I will review the 16 articles thematically based on my key questions. I

will evaluate how they answer my key questions. I will also critically appraise them

using Guba and Lincoln's (2005) authenticity criteria and Seale's (1999) evaluation

criteria. The full summary of information (Aveyard, 2010, p0.128-129) and appraisal

can be found in Appendix Three.

Key Question 1a – Critical evaluation of the mass media portrayal social work

Freeman and Valentine (2004) investigate how Hollywood movies from 1938 to 1998

portrayed social work subject and profession. Using content analysis, they find that

social worker characters in films are mostly “women, white, middle-class,

heterosexual; work in child welfare, incompetent and have a tendency to engage in

sexual relationships with clients, mostly work with people living in poverty, and

maintain the societal status quo” (p.159). Using Hooks' (1994) study of the

representation of gender and race in popular culture, Freeman and Valentine argue

that images of social work in movies are motivated by efforts to maintain status quo

of the dominant society (p.160).

The use of content analysis and Hooks' representation in popular culture show that

this study is balanced, and the fairness criteria (Guba and Lincoln, 2005) are met. In

their way of raising level of awareness, this research fulfils the criteria of educative

authenticity. However as they do not include action and involvement of the

researchers in social action (Guba and Lincoln, 2005, p.207), the criteria of catalytic

and tactical authenticity are not met. This research uses appropriate methods –

content analysis – to the nature of the questions (Seale, 1999). There is clear

account of the criteria used for the selection of the movies, and clear account of the

data collection and analysis process (Seale, 1999).

In a similar theme, Valentine and Freeman (2002) explore images of children social

workers as portrayed in movies from 1938 to 1999. They find that “child welfare

workers are mostly women, white, performing clinical activities, work with people in

poverty, maintain status quo, make no effort to change oppressive systems, blame

the system, and have the attitude of 'my hands are tied' (p.467). Using Guba and

Lincoln's (2005) authenticity criteria, this research shows fairness, educative but not

ontological authenticity, and have no catalytic or tactical authenticity.

Reid and Misener (2001) investigate and compare images of social work in

newspapers in the USA and the UK. They found that “social work has a serious

image problem in the UK press” (p.198). UK media shows a more negative image of

social work than the USA. Reid and Misener hypothesise that the large size of the

USA means “the death of an abused child in Indianapolis is not likely to become

national news” (p.199). They also suggest that Americans are more aware about the

importance of public relation and public image (p.199). Their method is qualitative

content analysis by choosing random samples from 60 major newspapers from

January 1995 to June 1999. This met Seale’s criteria of using good methodology

(1999, pp.189-192). Their analysis is systematic, with adequate discussion, coherent

and plausible findings. The findings (p.196) show that in the USA, overall image of

social work was 58% positive and 13% negative while in the UK was only 13%

positive and 30% negative. Using authenticity criteria (Guba&Lincoln, 2005, p.207),

this research was fair, has ontological, educational, and catalytic authenticity, but not

tactical authenticity. This is because it could be categorised as encourage change in

their recommendation to improve social work image, but does not include prompt or

specific forms of action.

Exploring media coverage was also Ayre's (2001) theme. Although not as systematic

as Reid and Misener in the sample of mass media he analysed. Ayre specifically

looks into child protection issues in 1970s to 1990s and how media coverage

contribute to the climate of fear, blame and mistrust within the field of child

protection. Ayre discusses how, “A series of celebrated child abuse scandals in

England and Wales resulted in the repeated vilification in the mass media of those

child welfare agencies deemed culpable for the deaths of the children” (p.887). Ayre

evaluates the mass media portrayal of social work (key question 1a) from the

standpoint of a social work academic, and how this impacted on social work climate

and the development of services in England and Wales.

In authenticity criteria, Ayre's academic opinion (2001) does not represent a range of

different realities and lack of balance, for he does not include any reference from

media studies. It was clear that “the space and place that he inhabits produces him”

(Probyn, 2003). Ayre’s standpoint (Hill-Collins 1990; Harding, 1991; Haraway, 1988)

was on the ground of social work and social science. In ontological and educative

authenticity, Ayre raises the level of awareness within the social work field. As an

academic opinion, Ayre’s article has no catalytic or tactical authenticity.

Mendes (2000) explores the role of the mass media in influencing child protection

policies in Victoria, Australia. Using the case studies of two daily newspapers – The

Age and Herald Sun – Mendes shows the impact of newspapers ownership and

political allegiance to their coverage style, that have both positive and negative

consequences to child protection policies. In answering key question 1a of how the

mass media portray social work, Mendes discusses the different tones between The

Age that is owned by Fairfax Press, and Herald Sun that is owned by Rupert

Murdoch, sympathetic to conservative Liberal Party. Mendes shows how global

capitalism, represented by Rupert Murdoch’s media group, attacks the welfare

system. As a result, the flagship or symbol of the welfare state, which are social

workers, stand on the receiving end of their salvo.

Mendes (2000) shows more balance than Ayre (2001) as Mendes compares two

opposing political views and newspapers ownerships (fairness, Guba & Lincold,

2005). In the methods Mendes’ research met criteria for the selection of the two

samples (Seale, 1999); however the process of data collection and analysis was not

as clear as Reid & Misener (2001) or Freeman & Valentine (2004).

In his latter article, Mendes (2008, p.31) theorises that negative labels of social

workers by the mass media reflect the position of the New Right. He explores the

agenda-setting role of the media, and f finds that the mass media has the power to

shape short-term public opinion (p.27). The positive impact is that “media campaigns

helped produce more equitable and effective child protection policies and practices”

(p,28). On the other hand, it can be sensationalist, simplistic, gender blind, and

searching for scapegoats. Mendes has similar opinion with Jones (2002, p.48), in

that the New Right’s hostility to the modern welfare state and the professionals

delivering its services reflects the neo-liberalism re-engineering of welfare system.

Unlike Mendes' earlier article (2000), his latter research (2008) does not represent a

balanced of different viewpoints. As Mendes' academic opinion shows only mass

media group that represent the New Right, Guba and Lincoln's (2005) criteria of

fairness cannot be met. However there is an element of catalytic authenticity in his

way of recommending more voice for social workers to explain their position

(Mendes, 2000, p.32).

Aldridge (1990) laments that social workers in the UK have negative images in the

news media and that the “fear of media scandal is widely believed to influence daily

practice and the framing of legislative” (p.162). Aldridge blames the negative media

coverage for social work’s culture of ‘back-covering’. In the form of academic

opinion, Aldridge theorises about the news media and explores the determining

factors of poor media coverage in an attempt to understand how the mass media

work and think. Aldridge states that the mass media are driven by costs and profits;

that the neo-liberal model means media messages are a reflection of audience

demands; and that their messages are outcomes of the wider social and economic

forces (p.615).

Similar to Ayre (2001), in balance and fairness criteria, Aldridge (1990) expresses

her opinion one-sidedly. From the standpoint (Hill-Collins 1990; Harding, 1991;

Haraway, 1988) of a social work academic, Aldridge does not represent a range of

different realities or allow people to see other viewpoints. Aldridge does not

encourage change and nor does she empower readers to act (Guba & Lincoln,

2005).

Gibelman (2004) reviews a number of television series that featured social workers,

and discusses whether they reflect the public awareness of social worker roles or

provide more accurate portrayals of social workers. Her findings are no different than

that of Freeman and Valentine (2004) in ways that “social workers continue to be

portrayed as uneducated, bumbling, laughable” (p.332). Her critical evaluation of the

mass media portrayal social work (key question 1a) is again, from the standpoint of a

social work academic. Yet, she uses references from different backgrounds such as

public relations and media studies. This makes her research fair and balance (Guba

& Lincoln, 2005). Her article raises level of awareness, which makes it ontologically

and educationally authentic. Gibelman's recommendations are both catalytic and

tactical authenticity.

Key Question 1b – Critical evaluation of social workers perception of the mass

media portrayal of social work profession.

As mentioned in Methodology, among the 16 peer-reviewed articles, there are those

who cover both key questions 1a and 1b. Gibelman (2004) is among this category.

Being an academic in Social Welfare, she expresses social worker’s opinion and

perception of mass media portrayal of the profession. Gibelman (p.332) states,

“Television conveys an anti-professional, disrespectful image of social workers. In

reality, the characters represent less than one percent of those classified by the US

Department of Labor as social workers.”

Zugazaga, et.al (2006) describe social workers' perception of the mass media

portrayal of their profession. They use quantitative survey, sending questionnaire to

655 random members of the National Association of Social Workers in Florida

branch, asking participants to rate portrayal of social workers as “caring versus

uncaring, trained and untrained, and generally positive and negative” (p.629). The

result shows that most participants perceived the profession is being depicted

negatively in both news and entertainment media.

In ways similar to Gibelman (2004), Zugazaga, et.al (2006) show balance and

fairness, ontological and educative authenticity. Their recommendations are

encouraging change and empowering readers to act.

Aldridge's effort to “theorise the media” (1990, p.611) came from the standpoint of an

academic in social work faculty. Hence her article can also be seen to be discussing

key question 1b, which is social workers perception of the mass media portrayal of

social work profession.

Key Question 2a – Critical analysis of the factors that have the potential to

contribute to mutual understanding of function, culture, and meaning within

the two fields

In answer to key question 2a, Zugaga et.al (2006, p.634) recommend social workers

to “understand the profession of journalism and to develop appreciation for deadline

pressures and other news media constraints” (p.634).

As if following up their recommendation, Weiss-Gal and Peled’s (2009) participatory

action research uses a programme of media education for social workers to evaluate

ways to improve of social workers’ ability in using the mass media as a method of

policy practice. Within five months, 26 participants learned to identify social problems

or issues, and to express their opinions in the form of opinion-editorial articles in

daily newspapers and broadcast talk shows. The result was 37 published pieces in

daily newspapers, online news sites, social work periodicals, radio and TV

programmes. The feedback shows that the participants feel that they have enhanced

ability to publish, increased desire and ability to use the media in professional work,

increased sense of expertise as social workers, and feel that the training was useful

to promote social issues (pp.375-378).

This participatory action research shows all criteria of authenticity from fairness,

ontological and educative authenticity, as well as catalytic and tactical. Their action

research is feasible for duplication in the future. In Seale's (1999) criteria: their

methods are appropriate to the nature of the key questions, with clear criteria for

participants selection. Their findings address the research questions and are

important for future application.

Boehm’s (2004) participatory action research includes third year social work students

to learn “community practice through production of television reports”. Boehm shows

that “the distance between media and social work can be bridged through production

of TV reports” (p.432). Boehm identifies challenges to be considered when planning

and operating such courses which are mobilising resources, developing teams with

social orientation, technological training, integrating community practice and coping

with ethical issues. Boehm’s challenge could be a start of collaborations between

social work and mass media practitioners. This fulfils all authenticity criteria of Guba

and Lincoln (2005). Boehm's methods are appropriate to key questions, with clear

criteria for the selection of participants (Seale, 1999 p.189-192).

With less ‘hands-on’ approach, Brawley (1997) explores incorporating media

advocacy and research skills into social work curricula. Brawley theorises that

teaching social work students and practitioners about communication research can

provide skills to influence the development of social policies and services (p.445).

Brawley recommends (p.455): “Social work faculties need to incorporate basic

content on the use of the media into the curriculum. Students should learn that they

can play important role in educating the public, and should be introduced to

possibilities to mass media practice.” Brawley's academic opinion shows all

authenticity criteria except tactical authenticity because it has no practical

recommendation for action.

Freeman and Valentine (2004) also address key question 2a by highlighting the

need to “enhance our public image by presenting ourselves in ways that accurately

reflect the wide variety of roles that all social workers perform and the diversity of the

social workers” (p.161). They also suggest that “social workers need greater clarity

among themselves about exactly who we are, what we do, and why and how we do

it” (p.161).

As factors that have the potential to contribute to mutual understanding between the

two fields, Reid and Misener (2001, p.200) theorise that “criticism might be deserved,

but an understanding by journalists of the complexities and uncertainties might result

in better balanced reporting”. They further recommend, “Improving social work image

to maximise the profession’s effectiveness.”

To increase understanding of the function, culture and meaning within the mass

media world, Gibelman (2004, p.333) recommends the inclusion of media skills in

social work schools; or learning modules and courses on public and media relations

for social workers (see also Weiss-Gal & Peled, 2009); or for “infusing modules

about popular media and means to access it” (see also Boehm, 2004; Brawley,

1997; Zugaga et.al, 2006). In order to make themselves understood, Gibelman

recommend for social workers to develop networking skills to influence mass media

professional such as script writers and television producers.

Zugaga et.al.(2006, pp.633-634) recommend social workers to have a more

proactive media strategy to ensure profession-enhancing content, and to be client

and media aware. Similar to Gibelman (2004), Boehm (2004), Brawley (1997), they

also suggest to either developing a social work and media course, or infusing social

work curricula with media studies. Zugaga et.al. state, “social work educators need

to facilitate the development of skills such as clear communication in interviews with

journalists, drafting press release, and press conference without jargon” (p.634).

Key Question 2b – Critical inquiry into the extent to which the function and

production of social work and the mass media could work together for mutual

benefits, enhancement of their goals and the greater goods

Gibelman (2004, p.333) recommends social workers to work together with the mass

media, for example as an expert consultants for television series. Gibelman also

recommends collaborative continuing education programmes between schools of

social work, journalism and public relation.

The latter is similar to Stone et.al. (2008) who propose join education of social work

and journalism students, resulting in a single issue magazine in social justice. They

aim to provide “an instructional model promoting interdisciplinary collaboration for

postgraduate students in social work and journalism” (p.163). Their action research

resulting in an active collaboration in the creation of a single issue magazine focused

on social welfare issues. They argue that, “both professions are bound by

professional ethics that ultimately strive for greater social justice” (p.164), which is

one answer to key question 2b. Their

action research has all authenticity criteria (Guba & Lincoln, 2005). However, the

limitation was in their data collection, record keeping and in the discussion of themes

(Seale, 1999).

In the theme of synergy between social work and mass media professional, Reid and

Misener (2001, p.200) give examples such as “by writing stories or columns for local

newspapers, appearing as experts in the press and on talk shows, preparing and

distributing news releases and publicising advocacy efforts.” This recommendation

would work well if social workers learned the skills (see Weiss-Gal and Peled, 2009).

While not explicitly suggesting collaboration between social work and mass media

professionals, Garrett (2001) recommends the use of mass media product such as

popular movies to be used in social work education as a tool to raise social work

issues. In his research, Garrett explores the use of 1990s popular movie Home

Alone as “a lens to view key themes in children and families social work such as

criminalisation of harm to children, instability of 'good enough parenting' construct,

dominant conceptualisation of motherhood, disappearance of fathers, possibilities

and tensions in multi-disciplinary work, refocussing of services, ideological

categories centred on service users who are in poverty, centrality of networks and

ecological approach, and opportunities to create 'issues' our of 'cases'” (p.644).

Garrett’s research can be a starting point for a synergy of the two fields. In a more

general subject of social justice, films such as The Burning Season: the Chico

Mendes Story (1994) has been used in developing countries for raising awareness

among poor and marginalised communities (I was involved in projects with the urban

poor with Jakarta Social Institutes, 2001-2004). Garrett's article meets most Guba

and Lincoln's (2005) authenticity criteria except for its ontological and tactical

authenticity.

Holder and Treno (1997) try the strategic use of news media to advance social and

public policy initiative. Their “Community Trials Project” includes training media

advocacy to local communities. This approach is not a novelty in international social

justice field (Jansen et.al., 2013; Mahama, 2004; Lunch&Lunch, 2006; Lunch, 2013)

– whether or not the professionals are qualified social worker. Holder and Treno find

that, “training in media advocacy can increase coverage of news generated by local

communities, and this can focus public attention and affect audience” (p.189). This

action research meets most of Guba and Lincoln's (2005) authenticity criteria except

ontological and tactical. Their methods are appropriate to the nature of the key

question, and the findings are important both theoretically and practically (Seale,

1999). Holder and Treno’s idea can be adapted for communities around the world.

The main requirement is that the social workers who are going to implement the idea

should have media skills. This takes us back to previous recommendations (Brawley,

1997; Stone et.al., 2008; Weiss-Gal & Peled, 2009; Boehm, 2004) and potential

collaboration between the two professions.

Nolan-Abrahamian (2009) explores the use of photography in empowering youth and

affecting public policy. Her case studies show how participants who were college

students learned to use their photography to raise public awareness and lobbying

the authorities of local issues. Participants, “learned that even the smallest camera

can give you power to benefits society” (p.7). This has similarity to Mahama (2004)

where participatory documentary production was used by a marginalised community

to voice their narratives using the mass communication medium of film. In answer to

key question 2b, Nolan-Abrahamian’s research provides an opportunity for

collaboration between social workers and photographers to work with youth in the

local communities. Their case studies are fair, educative, and catalytic (Guba &

Lincoln, 2005), although lack of ontological and tactical authenticity.

Two Worlds


Work and Mass Media

CHAPTER FOUR:

IMPLICATION FOR SOCIAL WORK

&

RECOMMENDATION

CHAPTER FOUR

IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK AND RECOMMENDATION

Implications for social work

Based on the 16 articles reviewed in Chapter Three, social work professionals and

academics seem to have the opinion that mass media portrayals of their profession

do not do justice to the complexities and tensions of the profession (Freeman and

Valentine, 2004; Valentine and Freeman, 2002; Gibelman, 2004; Ayre, 2001; Aldrige,

1990). There are also indications that media portrayals of social work are influenced

by ownership and political allegiance (Mendes, 2000 & 2008).

We need to ask further questions. Does the mass media represent opinions and

feelings of the society in general? Is the content of the mass media today a mirror

and representation of today's society? If it is, then social work has a serious image

problem. However, could what Ayre (2001) and Aldridge (1990) perceive as negative

portrayals of social work in the mass media be a projective identification (Steiner,

1993) by “emotionally injured practitioners” (Aldridge, 1990, p.623)? Could this be a

defence mechanism (Gleitman, 1991, p.434) from social work's crisis of identity and

lack of confidence?

Maybe first of all social workers need to “work toward greater clarity among

ourselves about who we are, what we do, why and how we do it” (Freeman and

Valentine, 2004, p.161). As self-image becomes clearer and confidence gained,

social workers then can develop strategies to improve their image in the press to

maximise the profession's effectiveness (Reid and Misener, 2001, p.200). However

before launching public relation campaign and strategies, social work academic and

professionals need to understand the culture, meanings and functions of the mass

media (key question 2a). Social workers need to “understand how discourses are

created and what makes one discourse more influential than another” (Ayre, 2001,

p.899).

While social workers are trying to understand the mass media, many media scholars

(Stevenson, 1999; McQuail, 1994; Rosen, 1999; Tumenggung, 2005) are also asking

questions about their profession: what is the relationship between the mass media

and the public? Rosen (1999) questions in particular the function and ethics of

journalists. In my dissertation for a Bachelor Degree in philosophy (Tumenggung,

2005) I questioned the relationship between the mass media and the public sphere

in nation-states that are gradually being taken over by global capitalists, in search for

a hope that the mass media can still function as a pillar of democracy.

Another viewpoint shows that the mass media represent certain political views, and

are influenced by ownership (Mendes, 2000 & 2008; Rosen, 1999; Swisher, 2003).

Aldridge (1990, p.623) refers to tabloids such as The Sun and The Daily Mail instead

of newspapers in general. Further research might show a pattern of newspapers

ownership and its influence in the editorial content. I started this discourse in my

article about the the News Corporation and its hacking scandal (Tumenggung-

Cooke, 2011). Media academics (Rosen, 1999; Stevenson 1999 & 2002) have

similar concerns about shareholders' involvement in editorials as this might

compromise journalism ethics such as “principles of media freedom” (British NUJ)

and “act independently” (American Society of Professional Journalists).

Reading literatures in both social work and media studies, we could see that both

worlds share similar concerns on the problems of ethics (Rosen, 1999; Tumenggung,

2005; Tumenggung-Cooke, 2011) social justice (Jansen et.al., 2013; Stone et.al.,

2008), and global capitalism take-over of the nation-states (Monbiot, 2000). The list

of shared concerns for both worlds could grow longer. The ideology of neo-liberalism

is affecting both worlds in the form of budget cuts and 'austerity', resulting in under-

staffed and over-worked institutions (Fenton, 2011; Jones, 2002; Bailey, 2013; Hall

et.al., 2013). If both social workers and mass media professionals expand their circle

of concerns (Covey, 1999, pp.81-85) we might find that both fields have same

concerns and goals for greater goods (Jansen et al., 2013; Stone et.al, 2008). The

collaboration that I recommend next will become a synergy that expand the circle of

influence (Covey, 1999, pp.81-85) for both social work and mass media

professionals. The graphic below shows how expanded circle of concern from the

two worlds have a big chunk of common ground. The original circles of concerns as

shown in graphic one in Introduction are now expanded with the pink and green dots.

Recommendation

Within the 16 journals reviewed here, there is no shortage of recommendations.

There are recommendations on media courses or modules for social work students

such as media advocacy (Brawley, 1997), television report production (Boehm,

2004), publishing opinion-editorial (Weiss-Gal & Peled, 2009), and even using

movies to address social work issues (Garrett, 2001). In the form of collaboration,

social work and mass media professionals could work together in the form of joint

conducting projects such as youth photography project (Nolan-Abrahamian, 2009),

and media advocacy training for local community (Holder & Treno, 1997).

Before going into collaboration between social workers and mass media

professionals, I agree with Brawley (1997), Boehm (2004), Weiss-Gal&Peled (2009)

and Gibelman (2004) that it is important for social work curricula to have at least one

module of communication and mass media. Obholzer (1995) gives one of the many

reasons why social work students need to learn the media awareness and mass

communication skills, which is “the capacity to be detached and to ‘see’ things from

Illustration 2: Expanded Circles of Concerns

an outside perspective” (p.178). In Appendix Four, I draft a “Communication and

Mass Media” module for social work.

As I described in Methodology, there are not many researches on the relationship

between social work and the mass media. Even less could be found, peer-reviewed

journal articles on collaborations between social work and the mass media.

Therefore, there is the need for further research and more importantly, practical

collaborations that benefit service users, for the greater good of social justice (Stone

et.al., 2008; Holder and Treno, 1997; Nolan-Abrahamian, 2009), and for

conscietization (Freire, 1993). We need to “develop the tools for using human

difference as a springboard for creative change” (Lorde, 1980, p.115).

I also recommend a participatory video documentary project with groups of

marginalised service users – for examples refugees and asylum seekers – and then

collect data and feedback towards the development and duplication of similar

projects. This type of participatory video documentary will involve mass media

practitioners as trainers and social work professionals as facilitators, with the end

product being broadcast on television or shown in cinemas and international human

rights film festivals. Similar projects – although not developed into a peer-reviewed

research journals – have been done by Lunch and Lunch (2006; also Lunch, 2013)

and Mahama (2004). Using a different form of mass media, Guhathakurta, M. (2013)

did a theatre production and participatory action research with communities in

Bangladesh. Chowns (2013) used video with children who were facing life-

threatening Illness of their parents. However the difference with Chowns' research is

that the end product was not distributed to the public – hence it was not using the

mass media.

What we need to bear in mind is the common ground of human rights (Healy, 2008)

and empowerment, as the American Society of Professional Journalists' code of

ethics: “give voice to the voiceless”. Amid the neo-liberalism atmosphere, public

journalism is a calling for media professionals who are concerned about “freedom of

information, open flow of ideas, honesty and candor in public business, and people's

right to know” (Rosen, 1999, p.299). Not so much different than social workers, mass

media professionals are also doing a public service in being the fourth estate, the

fourth pillar of democracy. Just like the NHS and the statutory social work institution

should never be privaised (Monbiot, 2000), the BBC as a public service broadcasting

needs “to maintain notions of a national public against more commercial definition”

(Stevenson, 1999, p.78).

Collaboration and synergy of the worlds do not only belong to a Disney cartoon. If we

both:

Put your faith in what you most believe in

Two worlds, one family….

Raise your head up, lift high the load

Take strength from those that need you…

Somewhere, something is calling for you

Two worlds, one family

Trust your heart, let fate decide

To guide these lives we see

(Phil Collins)

Two Worlds


Work and Mass Media

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION

CHAPTER FIVE – CONCLUSION

Portrayals of social work in the mass media seem to be rather problematic. In the

entertainment media (Freeman&Valentine, 2004; Valentine&Freeman, 2002;

Gibelman, 2004) social worker characters are portrayed as incompetent and make

no effort to change social injustice. Newspapers in the UK tend to portray social work

as more negative than newspapers in the USA (Reid and Misener, 2001). The way

the news media portrays social work and welfare system in general, are influenced

by their ownerships and political allegiances (Mendes, 2000 & 2008). News

coverage of social work in 1970s to 1990s tends to focus on the failure in child

protection (Ayre, 2001), and the fear of media scandal became the drive behind

regulations and practices (Ayre, 2001; Aldrige, 1990). However, discussions about

portrayals of social work in the mass media are mainly by academics in social work,

social sciences or sociology. There was no peer-reviewed article coming from media

scholars or academics in media studies. Not surprisingly, social workers perceive

their profession to be portrayed negatively and feel that the mass media does not do

justice to the complexity of the job (Gibelman, 2004; Zugazaga et.al., 2006; also

Aldridge, 1990; Ayre, 2001; Freeman&Valentine, 2004; Valentine&Freeman, 2002;

Reid&Misener, 2001).

In search for factors that have the potentials for mutual understanding within the two

fields, Gibelman (2004) and Zugaga et.al.(2006) suggest incorporating media

awareness and skills in social work curricula. The format could be media course or a

module for social work students such as media advocacy (Brawley, 1997), television

report production (Boehm, 2004), publishing opinion (Weiss-Gal& Peled, 2009), and

even using movies to discuss social work issues (Garrett, 2001).

Taking the understanding to the next level, social work and mass media

professionals could (and should) work together for mutual benefits and for the

greater good. One recommended form of collaboration is a joint course for social

work and journalism (Stone et.al., 2008). Other opportunities are collaborations in

working with service users, such as photography projects (Nolan-Abrahamian,

2009), and trainings in media advocacy (Holder&Treno, 1997).

Following the literature review, I see the need for future interdisciplinary research in

social work and media studies. As for media awareness for social workers, I draft a

module “Communication and Mass Media” for social work students in Appendix

Four.

Two Worlds


Work and Mass Media

REFERENCE

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ountid=8058

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&db=aph&AN=9708252512&custid=s2888710

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Valentine, D.P & Freeman, M. (2002). Film Portrayals of Social Workers Doing Child

Welfare Work. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 19.6, Dec, pp. 455-471.



countid=8058

Weiss-Gal,I. & Peled,E. (2009). Publishing Voice: Training Social Workers in Policy

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August 2014.

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accountid=8058

Zugazaga, C.B., Surette, R.B., Mendez, M., Otto, C.W. (2006) Social Worker

Perceptions of the Portrayal of the Profession in the News and Entertainment Media:

An Exploratory Study. Journal of Social Work Education, 42.3, Oct, pp.621-536.



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Two Worlds


Work and Mass Media

APPENDICES

APPENDIX ONE: Search Log

Date Database/site search term Limiting result by Result

21/08/14 Applied Social

Sciences Index and

Abstracts (ASSIA)

by ProQuest

“mass media”

AND “social

work”

- peer reviewed

- Source type:

Scholarly

Journals

-Language:

English

Found 29

results. Among

the 29, I chose

11 below only

9 are relevant,

two are not

very relevant

due to the

sociological

context

From the nine from ASSIA, eight are relevant to my subject.

1. Valentine & Freeman (2002).





ountid=8058

2. Weiss-Gal & Peled (2009).



August 2014.

http://search.proquest.com/assia/docview/1520311232/1A88EC074E754799PQ/13?a

ccountid=8058

3. Brawley (1997)


the mass media. Journal of Social Work Education , 33.3, Oct, pp. 445-460. Retrieved

22 August 2014.

http://search.proquest.com/assia/docview/57380098/1A88EC074E754799PQ/1?acco

untid=8058

4. Garrett (2001)





untid=8058

5. Zugazaga, et.al (2006)






untid=8058

6. Aldridge (1990)




untid=8058

7. Mendes (2008)




untid=8058

8. Ayre (2001)




ountid=8058

21/08/14 EBSCO “mass media”

AND “social

work”

Limiters:

-Full Text

-Scholarly (Peer

Reviewed)

Journals

-Published Date:

1990/01/01-

2014/12/31

-Publication Type:

Periodical,

AND Primary

Source Document

-Document Type:

Article

-Language:

English

67 results. Among the

67, I choose 20 that

are more relevant.

From the 20, two are

already chosen from

other database

(ASSIA), and four are

not very relevant

although personally

interested. Therefore

I chose 14 from

EBSCO

From the 14 articles from EBSCO, eight are relevant for my research:

1. Stone, et.al. (2008)




http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=shib,cookie,ip,url,uid&

db=aph&AN=33871777&custid=s2888710

2. Gibelman (2004)

Gibelman, M. (2004). Television and the Public Image of Social Workers: Portrayal or

Betrayal?. Social Work, Apr, Vol. 49 Issue 2, p331-334. Washington DC: NASW




3. Boehm (2004)






4. Freeman & Valentine (2004)






5. Nolan-Abrahamian (2009)



August 2014.



6. Mendes (2000)




7. Holder & Treno (1997)

Holder, H.D. & Treno, A.J. (1997). Media advocacy in community prevention: news as

a means to advance policy change. Addiction, June Supplement, Vol. 92, pp.189-199.

Retrieved 22 August 2014


db=aph&AN=9708252512&custid=s2888710

8. Reid & Misener (2001)



22 August 2014.



APPENDIX TWO: List of peer-reviewed journal articles arranged thematically 1A. How the mass media portray social work.

1. Valentine & Freeman (2002).





countid=8058

2. Freeman & Valentine (2004)






3. Reid & Misener (2001)



22 August 2014.



4. Ayre (2001)




countid=8058

5. Mendes (2000)




6. Mendes (2008)




ountid=8058

1B. How social workers perceive the mass media portrayal of the profession.

7. Aldridge (1990)




ountid=8058

8. Gibelman (2004)

Gibelman, M. (2004). Television and the Public Image of Social Workers: Portrayal

or Betrayal?. Social Work, Apr, Vol. 49 Issue 2, p331-334. Washington DC: NASW




9. Zugazaga, et.al (2006)






ountid=8058

2. Recommendations: 2a.Potential factors to mutual understanding of social

work and the mass media; 2b.Collaboration between the two fields

10. Weiss-Gal & Peled (2009).



August 2014.

http://search.proquest.com/assia/docview/1520311232/1A88EC074E754799PQ/13?

accountid=8058

11.Boehm (2004)






12. Brawley (1997)


the mass media. Journal of Social Work Education , 33.3, Oct, pp. 445-460.



ountid=8058

13. Stone, et.al. (2008)






14. Garrett (2001)





ountid=8058

15. Holder & Treno (1997)

Holder, H.D. & Treno, A.J. (1997). Media advocacy in community prevention: news

as a means to advance policy change. Addiction, June Supplement, Vol. 92, pp.189-

199. Retrieved 22 August 2014


&db=aph&AN=9708252512&custid=s2888710

16. Nolan-Abrahamian (2009)



August 2014.



Appendix Three – summary of information based on Aveyard’s summary table (2010, pp.128-129)

No

Author / date

Aim of study / paper

Type of study / information

Main findings / conclusion Strength, limitation, recommendation

Measurement Using Guba&Lincoln’s (2005) authenticity

1 Valentine & Freeman (2002).

To explore (reports) images of children social workers as portrayed in movies from 1938 to 1999

Content analysis

Child welfare workers are mostly (p.467): Women, white, performing clinical activities, work with people in poverty, maintain status quo, make no effort to change oppressive system, blame the system, have “my hands are tied” attitude

Strength in their recommendation: -Developing consultative relationships with professionals in film industries (p.468) -Be proud as social workers (p.469) -Reflection and “see ourselves as others see us” (p.470)

Authenticity (Guba and Lincoln, 2005): -fairness’? Yes -ontological authenticity’? No -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? No -tactical authenticity’? No

2 Freeman & Valentine (2004)

To explore (Investigate) images of social workers as portrayed in moves from 1938-1998. Based on Bell Hooks (1994) study of the representation of gender and race in pop culture

Content analysis, qualitative data analysis (systematic film review?)

Social work based on 44 movies are mostly (p.154): -gender: female & heterosexual -race: white -socioeconomic status of sw: middle class; &of service users: in poverty -intervention at the micro level, no attention to social action/change -practice setting: child welfare -incompetent

-using Bell Hooks’ theory of motivated representation: images of sw in movies motivated by efforts to maintain status quo of the dominant society (p160). -Or is it a mirror of historical and current tensions in the profession (p.160) Recommendation: need to “enhance our public image by presenting ourselves in ways that accurately reflect the wide variety of roles that all social workers perform and the diversity of the social workers” (p.161) by good relationship with mass media (eg. being consultants to TV and movie industries) -greater clarity about exactly who we are, what we do, and why and how we do it.

Authenticity (Guba and Lincoln, 2005): -fairness’? Yes -ontological authenticity’? No -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? No -tactical authenticity’? No

3 Reid & Misener (2001)

To investigate (&compare) the image of social work in newspapers in

Sample of 20 constructed weeks randomly

“Social work appears to have a serious image problem in the UK press; US press treats sw much more kindly” (p.198). This

“Criticism might be deserved, but an understanding by journalist of the complexities and

Authenticity (Guba and Lincoln, 2005): -fairness’? Yes -ontological

No

Author / date





USA and UK drawn from 60 major daily newspapers from Jan 1995 to June 1999, yielding 399 articles (p.194) (Quantitative,Content analysis?)

could be because the USA is geographically much larger so that local news tend to be kept local; but also the USA has stronger professional organisations (p.199) [and maybe better PR-conscious) Rating of overall image of social work: In the USA, 58% positive &13% negative; In the UK, 30% negative and 13% positive. Headlines mentioned social work: In the USA 47% positive image of social work, 26% negative; In the UK 20% positive, 80% negative (p.196)

uncertainties [in sw] might result in better balanced reporting with less finger-pointing at social workers” (p.200). “Improving sw image as maximising the profession’s effectiveness. Recommendation (see also Brawley, 1997): social workers working with media personnel, writing stories/column, appear as experts in talk shows, prepare and distribute news releases, publish advocacy.

authenticity’? Yes -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? Yes -tactical authenticity’? No

4 Ayre (2001)

To explore media coverage of child protection in 1970s-1990s and its contribution to the climate of fear, blame and mistrust within the field of child protection.

Academic opinion

“The impact of child welfare in England&Wales was greatly amplified by the large number of cases brought to public attention and the intensity of the response in the print and broadcast media. Each scandal was followed by an unholy trinity of: aggressive public pillorying in the mass media of agencies deemed responsible; publication of more recommendations to welfare agencies after public enquiries; central gov. issue more intricately wrought practice guidance to prevent recurrence” (p.888) “developments in child protection in England and Wales over the period suggest that the allocation of resources has been driven primarily by the desire of politicians and senior managers to avoid

Limitation: -one sided opinion from a social worker/social academic point of view -the author started with an assumption (“sensationalist coverage of a series of celebrated child abuse scandals in England in Wales”) without any quantitative or qualitative research of the actual mass media content; and then jumped into conclusion that these “sensationalist coverage” directly impacted the practice and regulating of social work Strength: the use of system approach to analyse. (p.894-896) “feedforward control system vs. feedback system”; “social work as professionals not

Authenticity (Guba and Lincoln, 2005): -fairness’? No -ontological authenticity’? Yes -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? No -tactical authenticity’? No

No

Author / date





featuring on the front page of the tabloid press” (p.889) Sacrifice prevention for the elimination of danger (p.897)

technicians”

5 Mendes (2000)

To explore the role of the media in influencing child protection policies in Victoria, Australia.

Academic opinion & (qualitative) case studies of two daily newspapers in Melbourne.

-The Age (owned by Fairfax Press, one of four quality Australian newspapers): generally eschewed simplistic coverage of individual cases in favour of broader structural reform agendas. -Herald Sun (owned by Rupert Murdoch, sympathetic to conservative Liberal Party): consistently pursued a broader social conservative agenda – defending traditional nuclear families from subversive/deviant groups of incompetent authoritarian state social workers, or from deviant abusive parents.

Strength: shows the impact of ownership and political allegiance of newspapers to their coverage style; hence not simplistic in generalising the mass media like Aldridge (1990) and Ayre (2001) did. Limitation: methodology in summarising the content and style of reporting social work issues of the two papers.

Authenticity (Guba and Lincoln, 2005): -fairness’? Yes -ontological authenticity’? Yes -educative authenticity’? No -catalytic authenticity’? No -tactical authenticity’? No

6 Mendes (2008)

To explore the agenda-setting role of the media, and to find a more effective and pro-active social work. Scope of research: mainly Australia with some examples from the UK

Academic opinion

-“The media often has the power to shape short-term public opinion and guide proposals for policy reform in a particular political or ideological direction” (p.27) +“media campaigns helped produce more equitable and effective child protection policies and practices -sensationalist, simplistic, characterised by gender blindness and a search for scapegoats” (p.28) -social workers are labelled as either “incompetent wimps or

Strength: -allowed people to see other viewpoints (‘educative authenticity’) -encouraged change (‘catalytic authenticity’) in recommending voice for social workers either by letting social workers explain their position (see also Elvin, 2014, regarding the gag) and active involvement of professional associations.

-fairness’? No -ontological authenticity’? No -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? No -tactical authenticity’? Yes

No

Author / date





child-stealing authoritarian bullies” (p.30). -Media attack on social work is a mirror of “New Right’s hostility to the modern welfare state and the professionals who deliver its services” (p.31) as “social workers have become a flagship/symbol for the entire public sector”

7 Aldridge (1990)

To theorise about the news media, to explore the determining factors of poor media coverage (of social work), to understand how the mass media work and think

Academic opinion

Assumptions: -media are driven by costs and profits -neo-liberal model means media messages are a reflection of audience demands - messages are outcome of wider social&economic forces (p.612) -good news=no news (p.615) � good practice=no news? (p.617) -plurality and tensions in social work (“goals of social works are diverse, contradictory and contested even within the profession” p.615) -sw stories that made news fall to “human interest” category, but “most consumer have no contact with state sw”, sw are misunderstood (in Daily Mail “as do-ogooders & communist, p.616).‘human interest’ = stories of victims

Strength: helped people develop increased understanding (‘ontological authenticity’) Limitation: one sided (similar to Ayre, 2001), negative not constructive. Recommendation: -understand mass media’s logic -ignore the tabloid-style coverage as “they don’t understand us anyway”

Guba and Lincoln (2005) -fairness’? No -ontological authenticity’? Yes -educative authenticity’? No -catalytic authenticity’? No -tactical authenticity’? No

8 Gibelman (2004)

To analyse television series portrayal of social work.

Opinion, critical observation

-Social work image in (fictional) TV series are mainly negative. “social worker continues to be portrayed as uneducated, bumbling, laughable” (p.332) -social workers need to influence the media

Recommendations (p.333): -develop networking skills (to influence script writers, producers) -work together with the (mass) media -teach the media skills at social work schools -learning modules or courses on public and media relation (see

Guba and Lincoln (2005) -fairness’? Yes -ontological authenticity’? Yes -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? Yes -tactical

No

Author / date





also Weiss-Gal &Peled, 2009). -infusing modules about popular media and means to access it (see also Boehm, 2004) -collaborative continuing education programmes between schools of social work, journalism and public relation (see also Stone et.al, 2008;

authenticity’? Yes

9 Zugazaga, et.al (2006)

To explore and describe social workers’ perception of the depiction of the social work profession in the news and entertainment media.

Quantitative survey with questionnaire sent to random sample of social workers in Florida (members of National Association of Social Workers)

Most social workers in the study perceived that the profession is being depicted negatively in both news and entertainment media.

Recommendation (pp.633-634): more proactive media strategy, ensure profession-enhancing content; be client and media aware; develop a “social work and media” course; infuse social work curricula with media use; social workers need to first understand the profession of journalism; develop appreciation for deadline pressures & other news media constraints; develop ability to draft press release, identify the need for press conference without using jargons. Strength in methodology (Seale, 1999): there is a clear account of the criteria used for the selection of participants; there is a clear account of the process of data collection and analysis.

Guba and Lincoln (2005) -fairness’? Yes -ontological authenticity’? Yes -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? Yes -tactical authenticity’? Yes

1 Weiss- course/module Participat Outcome: 37 pieces were Strength (Seale,1999): Guba and

No

Author / date





0 Gal & Peled (2009).

for sw to produce opinion column & talk shows To use the “Media Project” (a programme of media education/ training for social workers) to evaluate ways to improve the ability of social workers in using the mass media as an accessible method of policy practice.

ory action research. Time: five months. Participants: 26 social workers and postgrad social work students. The final assignment for the module is either a published op-ed article or broadcast appearance, discussing social work topics.

published in daily newspapers, online news sites, social work periodicals, radio and TV programmes. The content: identify social problems; identify deficiencies in existing social policy; publicise successful welfare initiative; alert the public to consumer manipulations. The feedback includes: enhanced ability to publish, increased desire and ability to use the media in professional work; increased sense of expertise as social workers; useful to promote social issues (pp.375-378).

action research that is feasible for duplication -the methods used in the research appropriate to the nature of the question being asked - there is a clear account of the criteria used for the selection of people included in the study - there is consideration of the relationships between researchers&participants -the findings address the research questions - the findings are plausible and coherent -the findings are important practically for future application Limitation: the project did not include empowering service users to write and publish in the mass media.

Lincoln (2005) -fairness’? Yes -ontological authenticity’? Yes -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? Yes -tactical authenticity’? Yes

11

Boehm (2004)

course/module for sw to produce TV news reports -To explore the potential for active participation of social work students in the producing TV report through a course in Israel. The students took active part in investigating idea&development; scriptwriting; filming;editing; broadcast &

Participatory action research; the participants then filled open-ended questionnaire -course title: “Community Practice Through Production of TV Reports” -in one semester

Findings: the distance between media and social work can be bridged through production of TV reports.This is encouraging because TV influences society more than any other media” (p.432) -The students, who had no previous experience, succeeded in producing valuable reports and were involved in several aspects of community practice. -there are challenges to be considered when planning and operating such courses: mobilising resources; developing teams with social

Seale (1999 p.189-192): the methods used in the research appropriate to the nature of the question being asked; there is a clear account of the criteria used for the selection of participants (3

rd year

sw students at two universities in Israel); clear account of the process of data collection and analysis; the research been clearly contextualised; the findings address the research questions; the findings are plausible and coherent; the findings

Guba and Lincoln (2005) -fairness’? Yes -ontological authenticity’? Yes -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? Yes -tactical authenticity’? Yes

No

Author / date





dialogue -To discuss the course's characteristic, stages of production & involvement of the students

(15 sessions, each 2 hours) -participants are 3

rd

year sw students

orientation, technological training, integrating community practice and coping with ethical issues. Feedback from participants: -teamwork intensity, difficulties such as with deadline, unclear roles -challenges in learning new technologicy (media technology), but also cross the language barriers -questioning control and interests, representation and loyalty. -other issues: reality &illusion; accuracy &credibility; balance; privacy rights; structuring reality;media influence; promoting social ideas; building network; lobbying; fundraising

are important both theoretically and practically.

12

Brawley (1997)

To facilitate and explore how teaching sw students & practitioners about mass media communica-tion research can provide skills to influence (advocacy role) the development of social policies and services for vulnerable populations. To explore instructional activities in sw education

Academic opinion / theoretical exploration

Participation in mass communication network can further the social policy goals of sw profession.

Recommendation: to incorporate media advocacy skills and media research skills into sw curricula. “Faculty in social work education programmes need to incorporate basic content on the use of the media into the curriculum. Students should be alerted to the fact that they can (and should) play important role in educating the public; sw students should be introduced to possibilities through local mass media; and opportunities to practice” (p.455)

Guba and Lincoln (2005) -fairness’? Yes -ontological authenticity’? No -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? Yes -tactical authenticity’? No

No

Author / date





13

Stone, et.al. (2008)

To provide instructional model promoting interdisciplinary collaboration for Master's degree students in sw and journalism. Active collaboration to create a single issue magazine focused on social welfare issues.

Action research

-Learning opportunities for sw and journalism students -Identified role tensions between the two professions -Deepened understanding -Methods for collaboration to advance social justice “Key learning opportunities for both professions: develop skills in written expression; explore social welfare problems and issues; learn interdisciplinary collaboration; reflect professional roles and values; provide concrete strategies for collaboration” (p.169)

Limitations: transportability (not all colleges and universities offer both sw and journalism); and funding for the magazine & editorial role of the journalism faculty member; The interdisciplinary collaboration based on theoretical framework & needs further evaluation on process and outcomes (p.170). Recommendation: in the absence of journalism faculty member/lecturer, voluntary professional journalists can provide editorial assistance and feedback.

Guba and Lincoln (2005) -fairness’? Yes -ontological authenticity’? Yes -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? Yes -tactical authenticity’? Yes Seale (1999) limitation in data collection and record keeping (methods); limitation in discussion of themes from the data (evaluation on process and outcomes needs further work, Stone et.al., 2008, p.170).

14

Garrett (2001)

To explore using popular media (movies) in sw education to address a range of issues that are central to sw theoretical concerns and practice

Theoretical exploration / opinion

Popular mass media product (fiction films) can be used as a tool to raise issues for sw education / pedagogy. For example the movie Home Alone (1990) “provides a lens to view key themes in children and families sw such as: criminalisation of harm to children; instability of 'good enough parenting' construct; dominant conceptualisation of motherhood; disappearance of fathers; possibilities& tensions in

Strength: creative approach in sw education Limitation: Recommendation: “media representation of key sw concerns can be used as a springboard to explore the impact of such representations on public perceptions of sw and social workers. Deconstruction of media constructs provides opportunities


No

Author / date





multi-disciplinary work; refocussing of services; ideological categories centred on poor service users; centrality of networks and ecological approach; opportunities to create 'issues' our of 'cases'” (p.644)

to interrogate major themes and sub-texts in sw pedagogy/education” (p.655)

15

Holder & Treno (1997)

To try the strategic use of news media to advance a social or public policy initiative.

Action research (“Community Trials Project”) Local community (not social workers) are trained/taught in media advocacy

-Presents a conceptual model of media advocacy -documents certain topic (alcohol-related) in news coverage -compares changes (impact of news coverage) -examines community awareness of media advocacy and traditional public information campaigns. Findings (p.189): -training in media advocacy can increase coverage of news events generated by local community members -increased news coverage can be generated for both broadcast and print -increased news coverage can focus public attention -audience are affected -media advocacy can be more effective than paid public information campaigns.

Limitation: for sw professionals to train local community in media advocacy, first of all the trainers need to be experts/ experienced in media advocacy (resources, like the limitation encountered by Stone, et.al., 2008. Hence recommendation can also be applied what Stone et.al suggested).


16

Nolan-Abrahamian (2009)

To explore and discuss photography as a tool to empower youth and affect public policy

Case studies (action research) at “Critical Exposure” ngo in Washington D.C.

As described by a participant (10

th grade

student), “I learned that even the smallest camera can give you power to benefits society” (p.7) Photography offers certain advantages such as accessibilities, versatility, portability, cost and time.

Recommendation: “Youth media practitioners should consider including photography as a component of their media projects.” Limitiation: for sw practitioner, first of all need skills in photography and in

Guba and Lincoln (2005) -fairness’? Yes -ontological authenticity’? No -educative authenticity’? Yes -catalytic authenticity’? Yes -tactical

No

Author / date





teaching (see also Stone, et.al., 2008, for limitation and recommendation – i.e. possible collaboration with professional media/photography and youth workers).

authenticity’? No

Appendix Four - “Communication and Mass Media” module for social work

Sample of Mass Communication and Critical Media Course:

1. Theories and models of mass communication

2. Mass communication in practice: breaking news & news headlines, 5W1H

3. Features, soft news, human interest; Columns, Opinion-Editorials

4. Broadcast media 1: radio

5. Broadcast media 2: television

6. Documentary & independent films

7. Using internet to upload articles, video, campaign, poll/survey

Two Worlds: Literature Review on The Relationship between Social Work and Mass Media

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Transcript of Two Worlds: Literature Review on The Relationship between Social Work and Mass Media