Timkehet Teffera (2003). Historical Sound Recordings from Axum-Ethiopia: Collection: Kaschke 1906....

Historical Sound

Recordings from

Axum-Ethiopia

Volume I

Berlin 2003

(revised in 2018)

Timkehet Teffera

Table of Content

Volume 1

Introduction: General Overview 1

The Wax Cylinder Collection with Recordings made in Aksum 2

General Overview: Transcriptions and Qəñətoc [ቅኝት traditional scales] 3

Transcription Methods and Song Texts 4

Detailed Analysis of Recordings 7

Music Example 1 10

Music Example 2 10

Music Example 3 20

Music Example 4 21

Music Example 5 22

Music Example 6 24

Music Example 7 29

Music Example 8 31

Music Example 9 and 10 33

Music Example 11 34

Music Example 12 35

Music Example 13 37

Music Example 14 38

Music Example 15 39

Music Example 16 44

Music Example 17 and 18 45

Music Example 19 48

Music Example 20 51

Music Example 21 55

Music Example 22 57

Music Example 23 58

Music Example 24 58

Music Example 25 59

Music Example 26 60

Music Example 27 61

Music Example 28 63

Music Example 29 64

Music Example 30 66

Music Example 31 67

Music Example 32 68

Music Example 33 69

Music Example 34 73

Music Example 35 und 36 76

Music Example 37 77

Conclusion 77

Tabular List of the Wax Collection 81

Cited Works 88

APPENDIX I: Selected photos depicting Aksumite history 92

Footnotes 98

Historical Sound Recordings from Aksum-Ethiopia

Introduction: General Overview

This research material gives special focus on historical sound recordings made in

Aksum, a town located in the north-central part of today’s administrative region of

Təgray, northern Ethiopia (see map below). However, prior to proceeding to the main

topic, I would like to give a brief outline to the Ethiopian history in relation with

Aksum, its ancient empire as well as to the development of Ethiopian music its role

in terms of fostering art.

Ethiopia or Ethiop refers to the land of the sun-burnt faces, a designation given by

ancient Greek philosophes. The former name of this country was Abyssinia, the land

of the ‘Habäsha’, a designation given by the Arabs. Abyssinia or today’s Ethiopia is

the oldest independent nation in Sub-Saharan Africa with an antique history dating

back to about 3.5 million years. A key evidence for the existence of early history in

Ethiopia was confirmed by the paleoanthropological and archaeological discovery of

the first human-like species in 1974 when the skeleton of a female hominoid, called

Lucy (Thou Work of Art _ locally Dənqənäš ድንቅነሽ), was excavated in area of Hadar,

in the lower Awash Valley of the Danakil region. Numerous archaeological

discoveries have since then been made in different regions of Ethiopia.

There is a great lack of historical including music historical souce materials alluding

to pre-historic times. Until the introduction of the old Gə’əz language and its alphabet

around the fourth century A.D.1, Ethiopian history was primarily based on oral

tradition. The earliest Ethiopian legends were for the first time recorded in the book

Kəbre Nägäst (ክብረ ነገሥት = ‘The Glory of Kings’) published in the fourteenth century

A.D in Gə’əz. This book among other things narrates about Ethiopian Jews (the Bete

Israel) and other migrant populations from North Africa as well as from South

Arabian countries (hamito-semitic and cushitic people) who migrated to Ethiopia

long before the Christian era2. But there are no written accounts at our disposal

regarding their true historical origin. The Kibre Negest furthermore describes the

town of Aksum as the capital of the Queen of Sheba during the 10th century B.C.

An investigation of the general history and the music history is only possible from

the 1st century A.D. onwards when Aksum was founded as the capital of the

Aksumite kingdom. This created an era of new ethnic and political unitiy between

the migrated peoples and the native inhabitants of the country. This situation paved

a way to economic and cultural developments and the expansion of territories. The

kingdom dominated the vital crossroads of Africa and Asia for almost a thousand

years from 1st to 10th century A.D.

Another historical impact of the Aksumite kingdom was the introduction of

Christianity as a state religion in the 4th century A.D. Ecclesiastical and legendary

2

churches and monasteries, which are today be admired throughout Təgray are the

outcomes of Christianity. The Debre Damo monastry in Təgray region; located in a

cliff and accessed only by rope, the Gishen Church in Wollo, St. Maria Zion Church

where the mysterious Arc of the Convenant is believed to be preserved until today3,

processional crosses symbolizing Christianity; church paintings and iconographies

are some of the interesting historical episodes of this time. So through the

introduction of the new religion artistic expressions and creativity were fostered.

Another product of this kingdom was that following the introduction of the

Christian faith, spiritual music was also invented around the 6th century by the great

ecclesiastic composer, poet and priest St. Yared, who is considered as the father of

the Ethiopian Christian church music. In so doing, St. Yared invented a notation

system based on 8-10 symbols that are placed above the lyrics/text. It is these musical

symbols that guide priests to follow certain rules of music and create the required

melodic course accordingly. The sacred music repertoire is based on three modes

(scales) known as gə’əz, əzəl and araray (ግዕዝ፣ ዕዝል፣ አራራይ) Hence, the entire liturgy

entailing religious songs (zema ዜማ) and sacred dances (šəbshäba ሽብሸባ) are St. Yared’s

merits. This musical notation system is still today used throughout Ethiopia in the

Orthodox Täwahədo churches (see selected photos of Aksum reflecting its history in

Appendix I).

The Wax Cylinder Collection with Recordings made in Aksum

The collection consists of 37 recorded songs and instrumental pieces on wax

cylinders. The recordings were made by the German physician Erich Kaschke during

the Aksum expedition4 in 1906. The major part of this historically valuable collection

covers traditional songs of the Təgray and the Amarəña whereas two further songs5

are performed in Arabic language.

The songs differ in their performance styles and therefore, comprise both antiphonal

(group singing) as well as solo songs, which may be classified in love, war, hunters,

wedding festival and entertainment songs. Some few songs are accompanied by

music instruments like the one-stringed spike fiddle masinqo. The solo songs of music

examples 5 and 6; IDs 2 and 34/35 are accompanied by the masinqo, traditional

musical instrument used among the Təgray and Amhara for song accompaniment. It is

the wandering musicians called azmari who are mainly observed playing this music

instrument for song accompaniment. The sound box of the instrument is made of

four rectangular wooden boards glued together to a diamond shape. The opening at

the top is covered with goat or sheep skin, whereas the bottom is covered with a

wooden board. The wooden neck of the instrument passes through the sound box

vertically. The string (mostly made of hoarse hair) is tied at the top with the wooden

3

tuning peg and runs parallel to the neck up to its end. In the middle of the sound box

a wooden bowed bridge is placed on the stretched membrane. It particularly serves

to lift up the string. The masinqo is played with a wooden bow which also has a string

made of hoarse hair and is tied at both ends (Teffera 2001: 177-178; Kimberlin 1976

and Nketia/Djedje 1984: 249-262).

Another well-known music instrument is the double-headed conical or cylindrical

drum käbäro that likewise the masinqo played to accompany songs in both music

cultures. This refers to music examples 8, 11 and 12; IDs 3, 4 and 5. The käbäro plays

even today a very prominent role in song accompaniment. Its use does not only serve

to maintain the rhythmic course within a given song, but to decorate the songs as

well. The Təgray käbäro has approcimately about 50-65 cm diameter and ca. 60-70 cm

height. While beating, the käbäro is carried on the drummer’s shoulders. Therefore, a

leather string is tied at both ends of the sound bod. The stretched membrane on both

ends could either have the same width or differ. In such cases the wider side of the

stretched skin is usually preferred (Teffera 2005). Other means of song

accompaniments are hand clapping and ululations6. On the other hand, there are also

songs performed in solo form and last but not least two instrumental pieces played

on the flute Wašint are part of this collection.

General Overview: Transcriptions and Qəñətoc [ቅኝት traditional scales7]

Except the songs in music examples 13 and 14, all other songs as well as the two

above mentioned instrumental pieces are based on the qəñət system, a sequence of

five pitches with fixed intervallic relationships, usually arranged in ascending orders.

The system of the qəñət does not belong to the oral tradition of the Ethiopian music,

but it was rather invented around 1966 by teachers of the Yared School of Music,

Addis Ababa, with the intention to simplify teaching and learning methods. Thus the

invention and the use of this method created the possibility of the transmission of

musical know-how relatively easy. For that matter, the term qəñət is not very well

known among practicing musicians outside the boarders of the capital city, Addis

Abeba. However, the principles and rules of the qəñətoc correspond to the existing

music repertoires of a number of ethnic communities residing in the central and

northern Ethiopia. Therefore, it is of great importance to mention this important

issue here.

The qəñət system entails four categories known as təzəta, bati, anʧi hoye läne and

ambassäl ትዝታ፣ ባቲ፣ አንቺ ሆዬ ለኔ አምባሰል and Ambassel.

4

Despite of frequent octave repetitions that usually occur while singing or during the

tuning of musical instruments, the repertoire of the greater part of the present

collection is based on the principles of these traditionally practised qəñətoc.

Accidentals shown at the beginning of any score just serve to simplify the

understanding of the respective musical notations. They should not be understood

from a euro centric musical point of view. For example a score written down with no

accidentals could automatically be recognized as a piece in C-Major, but this is not

the case in our present discussion. As a rule, only the corresponding pitches of the

given qəñət appear in the given song or instrumental piece. Therefore, central or final

pitches which often occur in a score have to be understood from the aspect of the

typical five pitch sequences of a qəñət.

The role of each qəñət pitch differs from one musical piece to another. Accordingly,

they fulfil various functions as central or final pitches etc. within a given melodic

arrangement. Thus the qəñət system neither determines these fixed functions in a

song nor has any influences.

A certain melodic frame may be shaped in different ways by different performers. In

most cases the octave range is exceeded. Therefore, even within a certain song or an

instrumental part the role of the qəñət pitches could differ or they may also be

arranged in various way8.

Transcription Methods and Song Texts

Despite the fact that this, more than 100 years old wax cylinder, collection has been

preserved in a relatively good condition. However, a number of recordings are

hardly audible at the beginnings, in their further courses, or at their ends either due

to eventual damages or recording qualities. This fact refers to both melody and text.

Also accompanying instruments are occasionally inaudible so that in such cases only

vocal parts are notated9.

For the transcription of the entire material the European notation system has been

used, because it is so far a dependable means to produce tonal imaginations of non-

written music cultures explicitly. A number of songs are written down in linear

forms along with their text and melodic arrangements. This type of notation was

specifically implemented in order to

- create a better overview of each melodic line or a group of lines and in this

relation

- distinguish melodic, metro rhythmic and text structures from each other

and/or

5

- make prolific analysis with reference to their interrelations10.

Regarding the scoring, the vertical arrangement of the staff lines in the group songs

refer from top to bottom to the song leader, the accompanying group, hand clapping,

occasionally appearing ululations and last but not least the drum beats.

As far as no analytical film recordings are at our disposal concerning the drumming

patterns (beats) the division of role of the left and right hands could not be

determined. Therefore, no specifications have been made in the scores.

Songs with clearly different and independent melodic and text parts are sub-divided

in song parts, each part being indicated with song part 1, song part 2 ...etc. (Figure 1):

Figure 1

Besides, some songs consist of refrain and stanza parts whereby this separation is

mostly based on the substance of the song text as well as its structure. In accordance

with the analysis, the refrain lines are predominantly indistinguishable in their

melodic and textual flows and they are arranged in a cyclic version as well, whereas

the stanzas are usually associated with new texts and their melodies are occasionally

varied.

A typical feature of the refrains lies in their relatively short phrases in melody and

text which usually consist of 3 consecutive lines like for example the first 6 song lines

in music example 19. Here the refrain is repeated twice in which each part contains 3

lines. The same is applied to the recordings 30, 31 and 34. The stanzas, on the other

hand, consist of more than 3 lines. In doing so, the melodic courses of both the

refrains and the stanzas are generally identical despite of slight melodic variations.

A number of group songs belong to linear11 antiphonal song styles, whereas another

group may be categorized to song styles with call-response12 patterns.

The song texts are written in the Original Scripts Amarəña or Təgəriña, which are

placed under the staff lines (Figure 2). Pitches belonging to one word are

interconnected, as long as they occur within a given metric unit.

6

Figure 2 Extract from music example No. 20

One part of the recording is notated without text, because the text could not be

understood linguistically13 and acoustically which might have been caused through

additional noises recorded parallel to the songs, overloading and interruptions as

well. Such spots are accordingly marked in the scores with three successive asterisks

* * * (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Extract of music example No. 26

Inaudible song texts in the scores are indicated with this sign ### (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Extract of music example 30

Besides the musical recordings, there is also an original text material for each song,

which most probably is noted parallel to the recording work during the expedition.

The way the texts are written lets one assume, that they might have been noted very

quickly while recording. It can hardly be accepted that the text could have been

written down by a native Ethiopian14, but rather a European. In this regard Enno

Littman who played a vital role in the Aksum expedition rather comes into question.

He must have accompanied Kaschke during his recording tour and in thus he was

possibly responsible for writing down the song texts15.

However, an intensive investigation of each recording in the process of analysis

resulted, that the majority of the song texts is rather based on a content wise

description. While comparing the original text material with the recorded songs, I

found out that they often show differences16. In doing so either a few or quite a

7

number of words, or phrases are missing in the written material, or additional verse

lines are inserted which are in fact not used in the songs.

The major part of the texts is written down continuously without interruptions,

although most of the songs are arranged in phrases with rhyming stanzas and thus

they had to been written in lines.

Nevertheless, the original text material has played a great role during the analysis of

the songs. Above all some acoustically inaudible spots in the recordings could easily

be identified and understood with the help of the text material.

From the so far described investigation of the collection17, a typical characteristic

could furthermore be discovered, namely that the songs predominantly have very

limited texts and melodies which means that either in the moments of recording, the

performers were unable to memorize further texts, or they generally had little

experience in singing.

Detailed Analysis of Recordings

In the following the melodic, rhythmic, metric and textual structures as well

historical and cultural aspects of each recorded musical piece will be presented.

The texts shown in tables refer to the actually performed songs. The columns from

left to right are usually arranged in song lines (abbreviated as sl), the song leader (L)

and the group accompanying him/her (G), melodic formulas18 (a, b, a1, b2... etc.),

original script (Amarəña or Təgrəña) followed by the Phonetic, the translation and the

respective bars19.

Text lines which cannot be translated are indicated in the column translation with

successive hyphens (?) -----20. In the column Phonetic all words are written in small

letters, since there are no rules for writing capital and small letters. Every letter of the

original scripts consists of a syllable and a consonant.

For a better contrast, the actually sung texts of each music example are followed by

the corresponding original texts of the research material.

After the description of the lyric the corresponding qəñət is presented as far as the

score belongs to one the above described qəñətoc. It is then followed by an analytical

explanation from the musical point of view.

8

Music example 1; ID 32/Collection: Kaschke-Abyssinia

Date/Place of Recording: 19.01.1906, Aksum / Antiphonal song (of a group of boys) /

Performed text – music example 1

sl L/G mf Original Script Phonetic Translation Bars

1st song part

1 L a oho ya wäday gumäye (---) 1 – 3

2 G b ahay gumäy (---) 3 – 4

3 L a1

hoya gumäy minti atu (---) 25 - 27

4 G b ahay gumäy (---) 27 - 28

5 L a2

adä gala šitol

yəmäsətu21

Sword of the

Galla22......

29 - 31

6 G b ahay gumäy (---) 31 - 32

2nd song part

7 L b1 hay gumäy (---) 50

8 G b ahay gumäy (---)... etc. 50 - 51

Figure 5: Original Lyric – music example 1

The text of the above given song is dominated by repititve words gumäye, hoya and

ahay, which have no particular meaning in relation to the main message of a song as

such. One of the characteristic features of Amhara traditional songs is the use of so-

called ‘nonsense’ words and/or syllable/s that play multiple roles in songs and their

melodic and rhythmic courses. Hence, even if such they might not possess any

particular connotation from semantic viewpoint; they are often communicative.

Meaningless syllables/words may sometimes even serve as a song title and also play

a significant role in the overall structure of the song. Lines consisting of nonsense

lyrics often appear between two stanzas and they may or may not serve as a steadily

recurring refrain23.

This antiphonal song is performed by a group of boys. One of them is the plays a

central role in leading the song, whereas the rest of the group accompanies him

9

according to the construction of the song. The linear structure as well as the melodic

and rhythmic patterns split the song into two independent parts that are also

indicated in the score with song part 1 and 2.

Shortly after the song has begun the song leader changes his voice register in bar

number 18 and remains until the end of the song in this upper voice register24. The

pitches used in the song correspond to the təzəta qəñət as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 təzəta qəñət – music example 1

Despite the change of the voice register, the intervall relation of the qəñət tones

remains the same, because the entire melody is based on the pitches of the təzəta

qəñət. Nevertheless, through the change of register the vocal range extends from

pitch d’ to g’’, which is more than one octave. Even if the tone c’ which is set in

brackets does not occur in the entire song, it will be imagined as the keynote so that

from this pitch onwards all other tones belonging to the qəñət may be ascertained

with regard to their typical intervallic relationships. Instead of the tone c’ the octave

pitch c’’ always appears as a final pitch for all melodic phrases in particular after the

change of the tonal register and thus it plays an important role.

1st song part – This song part possesses a call-response pattern. The melodic lines

which are firstly performed by the song leader will be completed by the

accompanying group. In comparison to the phrases of the song leader who inserts

melodic variations in his song lines (see sl. 3 and 5) the group sings short and

analogous response lines until the end.

2nd song part – This song part shows a linear song pattern. Here the song leader sings

one song line at first that will be repeated by the group in almost the same way.

These lines can be repeated several times according to the mood the song leader.

They are for example repeated five times in bars 50 – 59 and 4 times in bars 68 – 75.

10

Music example 2; ID 1/Collection: Kaschke Abyssinia

Date/Place of Recording: 19.01.1906, Aksum / Antiphonal song performed by a

group of boys / Performed Text - music example 2


1 L a hohə ya ya (---) 1 – 2

2 G b hoya (---) 2

3 L a1 hohə ya ya (---) 3 – 4

4 G b hoya (---) 4

5 L a həye bälu Say „Hiye“ 5 – 6

6 G b hoya (---) 6

7 L a täqäbälu Accompany the song 7 – 8

8 G b hoya (---) 8

9 L a sa’əda da’əro The white tree- 17 – 18

10 G b hoya (---) 18

11 L a mänfägäro Who broke it? 19 – 20

12 G b hoya (---) 20

13 L a2 ab adi sadi In the area of Adi Sadi- 23 – 24

14 G b hoya (---) 24

15 L a mətra fadi Her vagina whistles. 25 – 26

16 G b hoya (---) 26

17 L a2

ab gundi agam The branch of the Agam

tree-

33 – 34

18 G b hoya (---) 34

19 L a mətra liguam Her vagina is hard. 35 – 36

20 G b hoya (---) 36

21 L a2

ab awdi šənfa’a On the šinfa’a corn- 41 – 42

22 G b hoya (---) 42

23 L a mətra fafa Her vagina has dried

out.

43 – 44

24 G b hoya (---) 44

25 L a ata selam The black lady- 59 – 60

26 G b hoya (---) 60

27 L a sihin bela Tell her to wait. 61 – 62

28 G b hoya (---) 62

29 L a əta qäyaha The light-coloured lady- 63 – 64

30 G b hoya (---) 64

31 L a nə’i bäla Tell her to come. 65 – 66

32 G b hoya (---) 66

L/G =song leader/group; sl. = song line; mf = melodic formulae

11

Figure 7 Original Lyric - music example 2

Although it is unfortunately unknown on which occasion and under which

circumstances the present song has been recorded, it is usually either performed by

young boys of approximately 14 to 17 years of age or adult men from 18 years

onwards in separated age groups. Furthermore, this traditionally well known song is

performed on the Christian Orthodox holiday called buhe that takes place in the

month of July, the 11th month according to the Ethiopian calendar. However, based

on the material information the song was recorded on the 19th of January which is a

very usual day. Therefore, it may be assumed that the recording task of this music

example might have taken place spontaneously.

Due to the partially profane content of the text it is presumed that the performance

might have been carried out by a group of shepherds (see e.g. song lines 15, 19 and

23). These particular textual phrases are unknown in the traditionally performed buhe

song.

Incidentally, buhe is not only celebrated in the cultures of the Təgray, but also in other

ethnic communities of Ethiopia who believe in Christianity. Apart from the profane

text, the song with all its melodic and metro-rhythmic arrangement belongs to the

traditional music repertoire of the Təgray even today.

The most part of the song text consists of meaningless syllables like ho, hə, ya and ye.

In certain gaps the leader sings rhyming stanzas. In doing so bars 17 and 18 rhyme

with bars 19 and 20, or bars 23 and 24 with bars 25 and 26…etc. The response lines of

the accompanying group on the other hand contain short and mostly unchanged

phrases with each phrase comprising two syllables like for example ho-ya in bars 2, 4

and 6. The melodic part includes pitches with typical intervals that correspond to the

təzəta qəñət.

Four of the five qəñət pitches, namely a’, h’, d’’ and e’’, are used in this song whereas

the third pitch f# does not emerge. This would, however, not change the intervallic

relationship of the təzəta qəñət, which plays a role in the present music example. The

12

pitches d’ and e’ set in brackets are sung one octave higher. They are given in figure

8, so as to demonstrate the intervallic relationships of the qəñət pitches very easily.

Figure 8 təzəta qəñət - music example 2

The 6th pitch of the given qəñət that usually appears an octave higher as a repetition of

the initial or basic tone (here the tone d’) is in actual fact not used in most songs, but

it plays a vital role especially while tuning music instruments like for instance the

six-stringed lyre krar and the one-stringed spike fiddle masinqo.

The melodic lines of the song leader are slightly varied, e.g. in bars 1 - 2, 3 - 4 as well

as 23 - 24. Generally this music example shows striking similarities with the buhe

song of the Amhara that is also performed in the same manner by a group of boys

and/or adult men on the same religious holiday. Therefore, the song in music

example 2 has a related content, social function and purpose with the buhe song of

the Amhara. The only difference lies in the languages, Təgrəna and Amarəña.

The song text, which is used in the traditional buhe song of the Təgray, is represented

in the following table. Its content is to be observed especially from song line 9

onwards in which the rhyming stanzas begin.

Text of Buhe song in Təgray

sl L/G mf Original Script Phonetic Translation

1 L a hoye hoye (---)

2 G b hoye (---)

3 L a hoye hoye (---)

4 G b hoye (---)

5 L a hoye bälu Say hoye

6 G b hoye (---)

7 L a täqäbälu Accompany the song.

8 G b Hoye (---)

9 L hoye zəbälna We, who shout hoye-

10 G b hoye (---)

11 L a amät yəqoyäna be protected by God until next year.

13

12 G b hoye (---)

13 L a hoye zəbälu Those who don’t shout hoye-

14 G b hoye (---)

15 L a amät yəmahəlälu must confess.

16 G b hoye (---) ... etc.

The metro rhythmic course of the song deviates from that presented in music

example 2. The transcription in figure 9 shows a representative buhe song25 that is still

being used today in Təgray, even though in the course of time the melodic and

rhythmic structures have gradually changed. Thereby the melody remains on a

single pitch that will be chosen by the respective performer according to his voice

range (here the pitch f’). This pitch will then be used throughout the song.

Figure 9 Buhe song of the Təgray (the present-day melodic version)

The so far examined song of the Təgray is also practised in the Amhara musical

culture on the same holiday and it is known as hoya hoye. Compared to the Təgrəña

version, however, it consists of various melodic, rhythmic structures and lyrical

contents. Additionally, is not sung in the təzəta qəñət, but in the qəñət26 bati, which is

presented as follows:

Figure 10 bati qəñət – Comparable Material

14

In the following each song part will be shown consecutively parallel to the analogous

musical notations:

1st song part27:

Original Script Phonetic Translation bars

asiyõ belema (---) 1 – 2 o ho ho (---) 2 – 3 ahay bäl Say ahay - (---), 3 – 4 yäbelema təʤa belema's calve, 4 – 6 o ho ho (---) 6 – 7 ahay bäl Say ahay - (---), 7 – 8 abrän ənənʧʼaʧʼa let’s enjoy it together! 8 – 10 o ho ho (---) 10 – 11 ahay bäl Say ahay - (---) 11 – 12

Figure 11- 1st part of the Buhe Song: “Hoya Hoye”

2nd song part

kəfät bäläwu bärunə

yägetayeni

Tell him to open the gate,

… that of my master.

13 – 17

kəfät bäläwu bärunə

yägetayeni

Tell him to open the gate,

… that of my master.

17 – 20

15

Figure 12- 2nd part of the buhe song hoya hoye”

3rd song part hoya hoye (---) 21 – 22 ho! (---) 22 Hoya hoye (---) 23 – 24 Ho! (---) 24 əzi’a mado Over there- 25 – 26 Ho! (---) 26 ʧʼəs yəʧʼäsal it smokes. 27 – 28 Ho! (---) 28 agafari A servant- 29 – 30 hõ! (---) 30 yədegəsal prepares a feast. 31 – 32 ho! (---) 32 yacən dəgəs On that feast- 33 – 34 ho! (---) 34 wuʧʼe wuʧʼe I ate and ate. 35 – 36 ho! (---) 36 bedənk alga On a small bed- 37 – 38 ho! (---) 38 tägälbəʧʼe I slept. 39 – 40 ho! (---) 40 dənk algawa That small bed- 41 – 42 ho! (---) 42 amäläña was uncomfortable. 43 – 44

16

ho! (---) 44 yala’nd säwu For more than one

person-

45 – 46

ho! (---) 47 atastäña there is no space. 48 – 49 ho! (---) 50

Figure 13- 3rd part of the buhe song hoya hoye

4th song part hoya hoye gude Hoya hoye; Oh ! My God, 49 – 50 bərwan bərwan yəlal hode Money, money,

…tells me my stomach.

50 – 52

hoya hoye gude Hoya hoye; Oh ! My God, 53 – 54 bərwan bərwan yəlal hode Money, money

….tells me my stomach28.

54 - 56

17

Figure 14- 4th part of the buhe song hoya hoye

The style of performance is the same, i.e. the song is performed by a group of boys or

adult men alternatively. As accompanying instruments thin sticks of about 1 m of

length are used. They will be stamped on the ground by every participant. The

stamping of the sticks plays a vital role in the song not only by maintaining the basic

rhythmic course, but also by decorating the song.

1st song part: which consists of a relatively regular melodic and rhythmic structure

(see bar 1 – 12) is dominated by syncopations. By singing this part, the group

traditionally announces its arrival from a certain distance. The song leader vitiates

the melodic flows of the stanzas by repeating them over and over until he and the

rest of the group arrive at the selected doorway of a house.

2nd song part: Straight away after the arrival, the song leader begins performing the

second part of the song that is connected to a specific action. In doing so the group

asks the respective family to open the main doorway (see e.g. bars 13 – 27) to be able

to enter the compound of the house or go inside the house and continue with the

performance in front of the master of the house as well as his family.

3rd song part: all song lines are homogeneously formed here starting with a strong

beat which may be observed in bars 28 - 55.

4th song part: is a refrain sung alternately between the song leader and the group. It

can be repeated twice or more times29. Complementary stanzas which also belong to

this part are given in the following figure:

18

Original Script Phonetic Translation

hoyəša lomita My lemon- ləmtʼa wäy wädämata may I visit you in the evening? hoya hoye näwu (---) yämənəläwu We say. hoya hoye zəna (---) täwu sətʼäñ dəgäməna Please give me again30 !

Based on the structures of the verse lines, melodic variations are made within the

given tonal frame. The fourth song part, i.e. bars 56 - 63, may generally be

understood as a finalis to the third song part.

5th and 6th song parts: After a while the audience (in this case the family) responds on

the performing group and starts distributing presents to each member of the group.

The presents can differ from place to place or from family to family. Some families

give money while others prepare special bread known as mulmul31. After receiving

the presents the singing immediately continues with the following two song parts in

which the family will be thanked for its generosity:

5th song part amät awəd amät32 Year, holiday, year 57 – 59 dəgäməna Come again- 59 – 60 amät Year! 60 – 61 dəgäməna Come again- 61 – 62 yägetaye betə In the house of my master. 62 – 64 dəgäməna Come again- 64 – 65 amät Year! 65 – 66 dəgäməna Come again- 66 – 67 werq yiznebibeti May gold rain! 67 – 69 dəgäməna Come again- 69 – 70 amät Year! 70 – 71 dəgäməna Come again- 71 - 72

6th song part

kəbär bäsənde

kəbär bäteffə

məqeñah yərgefə

Be rich with wheat!

Be rich with teff 33!

Down with your enemies!

73 - 78

kəbär bäsənde

kəbär bäteffə

məqeñah yərgefə

Be rich with wheat!

Be rich with teff!

Down with your enemies!

79 - 82

19



20


Date/Place of Recording: 19.01.1906 Aksum / Solo song and choir

Performed Text - music example3

sl L/G Original Script Phonetic Translation

1 L (4x) laläy (4x) (---)

2 (5x) laloye (5x) (---)

3 bätahitäy bäti

bätahəndäy

My lov.......

4 təwəsətəna bäti

bätahəndäy

..............

5 (5x) laloye (5x) (---)

6

bätahitäy bä’alti

Hawəlti

My beauty from Hawəlti

7

wäšän həsad

wäšän aṣbə’əti

The girl with the beautiful

neck and fingers.

8

məsah gada

dərar dägäzəmati

You are lunch of a

Chieftain and dinner of a

Däǧjazmac35

9

säbdo yäläy

näsähi läti moti

Isn’t there anyone else?

Why should you die?

10 (5x) laloye (5x) (---)

11 G (5x) laloye (5x) (---)... etc.

Figure 17 Original Lyric – music example 3

21

This free metric antiphonal song was probably performed by the same group of boys

described in the music examples 1 and 2. The pitches used in the present song belong

to the bati qəñət:

Figure 18 bati qəñət – music example 3

The tone d’, keynote of the qəñət as well as a frequently used finalis tone, plays a vital

role in the arrangement of the melodic structure.

A melodic course which is shaped in a cyclic form can be identified in the score. This

structure also depends on the textual configuration as well as that of the stanzas.

At first the leader sings a phrase that can for instance be watched in bars 1 – 3 or bar

4 - 7 …etc. In certain gaps the group repeats the melodic phrases of the song leader

like in the bars 14 and 15. The voice range leads to the assumption that the group has

a certain complications in the unison singing. However, the score was written down

according to an imaginable and sense making melodic movement, because in fact a

unison singing of the accompanying group is actually expected at this spot. All

phrases are exclusively associated with meaningless syllables like la-lä-ye.

Music example 4; ID 33/Collection: Kaschke/Abyssinia

Date/Place of Recording: 19.01.1906 Aksum / Antiphonal song of a group of boys

This song may be compared with music example 37. Most probably it refers to the

same group of boys so one may assume that it might be a copied song. For that

matter a musical transcription was not made here.

Figure 19 Original Lyric – music example 4; see also music example 37

22


Date/Place Recording: 19.01.1906 Aksum / Horn sound followed by a solo song

accompanied by the one-stringed fiddle, masinqo

According to the available data, this song was performed on the welcome party of

the German diplomat, Friedrich Rosen. The recording work took place on the 19th

January 1906 in Aksum.

Performed text – music example 5

sl mf Original Script Phonetic Translation

1 a

dägənät däg näw

mäʧem ayəwäräs

Kindness is fine-

it is inheritable.

2 a1

dägənät däg näw

mäʧem ayəwäräs

Kindness is fine-

it is inheritable.

3 b

kädawit jemiro

sälämon dəres

From the era of David-

up to Solomon36.

4 b1

kädawit ǧäməro

sälämon dəres

From the era David-

up to Solomon.

5 c gädamu gäday na na... (---)

6 d

qädmom silän näbär

fəkare yäsusə

Already in former times notifies-

the book Jesus

7 d

bäʦʼähay mäwuʧʼa

näw

nəgus yäminägsə

A King will be crowned-

in the direction where the sun

rises.

8 e

Gärmän däräsälən

əyadär adisə

The German man came to us on

time.

It is always new.

9 d1

Gärmän däräsälən

əyadär adisə

The German man came to us on

time.

It is always new.

10 f

käsu aydäläm wäy

yet’əntə qämisə

Isn’t it his idea-

to invent the dress of former

times.

11 c1 gädamu gäday na na... (---)... etc.

23


At the beginning of this recording the sound of blown horns that produce tones with

long duration can be heard. After a while an Azmari, the so-called moving musician37,

begins with his part of performance, a solo song accompanied by the masinqo that is

probably being played by him. Both vocal and instrumental sections are

unfortunately roughly inaudible due to the dominating horn sounds in the

background. Nevertheless, according to the translation of the song text, the azmari

sings about the ‘German’ (see e.g. song lines 8 - 1038) apparently a spontaneously

created text that matches to the event.

The azmari inserts meaningless words or syllables between the stanzas either to get

enough time to remember the following text, or to ornament the whole song with

additional texts. Still today this singing style is very common in the traditional music

repertoire of the azmari. This free metric song is performed in Amarəña. The melody

uses the pitches of the təzəta qəñət:


The score in figure 22 shows the beginning of the musical piece in which the horns

are being blown and the first stanza of the solo song. This short notation serves as a

24

representative example for the general melodic and metro-rhythmic structure used in

the stanzas following.

Figure 22: music example 5; ID 35

Music example 6; ID 2/Collection: Kaschke/Abessinia

Date/Place Recording: 19.06.1906 Aksum / Solo song accompanied by the masinqo

Performed Text – music example 6

sl mf Original Script Phonetic Translation Bars

1 a šäbəlala daläʧə

yəq’ämät’əna

sitting on a grey horse 1

2 b təlf bälayu yədärəbəna wearing his attire 2

3 c

Yämiq’oməlät man

säw aläna

Who will can take care

of him?

3

4 d

man säw aläna

man säw aläna

Who is there?

Who is there?

4

5 I Masinqo interlude 5

25

6 e ə …………… 6

7 f

(ə) yämiq’oməlät

man säw aläna

Who will take care

of him?

7

8 g

šəgut’ bägəra

yətat’äq’əna gorade

bäqäñə

his pistol on his left;

his sword on his right

8

9 h yətat’äq’əna He gets ready 9

10 i

(ə) gofla bälayu

yədärəbəna

his garment….

he puts on top

10

11 c1

(ə) ) yämiq’oməlät man

säw aläna

Who will take care

of him?

11

12 j man säw aläna Who is there? 12

13 j1 mənäw getəye What’s wrong my

master?

13


15 k

mənäw getəye

kəfu nägärə

What’s wrong my

master?

Anything wrong…..?

15

16 l

ʧʼəwu sil märet

əngur sil abwarawu

siʧʼoh Harär

When things get out of

control, dust whirles and

the Haräre39 shouts

16

17 f1

ayəwagam wäy

yäbet aškärə

Why doesn’t a servant

defend/fight?

17

18 j2 a (n) əmamu ləʤe (---) 18

19 j3 zäwəzawa gude (---) 19

20 j 3 täw ʧaläwu hode Please be patient my

heart.

20

21 j 4 əngod əngodu (---) 21

22 j 5 aməst gamoʧə Five ... 22

23 j 6 täb jälämädu who always fight against

each other

23

24 j 7

əndet näh Gärmän

aränza hodu

How is the kind German 24

25

bänat babatu mäst’ät

ləmadu mäst’ät ləmadu

He inherited kindness

from his parents

25

26 j 4 zäwəzawa gude (---) 26

27 j 4 mənäw getəye

What’s wrong my

master?

27

28 k1

k2

angalo angalo

kä’əngəliz t‘aläñə

käwärat ənʤi

käsäwu t‘äb yäläñə

My destiny made me a

victim of the British.

My problems are the

months40 not the people

28

26

29 m

bejano megja dereten

beleñi

Beat my chest

....???

29

30 m1

basər bər

däräten bäläñə

Beat my chest with 10

Birr41

30

31 j 4 ə ʤägna na ləʤe My hero, come! 31

32 j 4 ə (n) əmamu ləʤe My hero, come! 32

33 n

bäbäqlo mägəʤa

däräten bäläñə

Beat my chest with a

horse whip

33

34 II Masinqo interlude

34

35 o

əmamunə bəzu gobäz

näw set yämətwäldäwu

(---) A woman gives birth

to heroes.

35

36 I

Masinqo interlude

36

37 p

bəzu gobäz näw set

yämətwäldäwu

A woman gives bears a

hero.

37

38 q

andu bet läbet

yemiawädäwədäwu

Whereas cowards stay at

home42.

38

39 q1 ካ

andu käzia layə kab’

yäminədäwu

.. the real hero fights his

enemies.

39

40 III

Masinqo interlude

40

41 q2

ə yaba bahər ləʤ täsäma

nadäwu

Abba Bahər’s son Täsäma

Nadäw43

41

42 q3 täsäma nadäwu Täsäma Nadäwu….. 42

43 q4

əsat əsatun

əsat wälädäwu

…who is born out of fire44 43

44 Isl Masinqo interlude 44

45 r

əyäbure ašəkär

Abba Gərañə

Bure’s servant

Abba Gərañə…

45

46 q4

əndä hamle wəha mät‘a

siwañə

… came swimming like

the water of Hamle45

46

47 s

***

yäbures ašəkär Tesfaye

Hintalo

*** ləbe əndaləläwu

Bure’s servant Täsfaye

Hənt’alo

.......

47

48 s1

fəq’ərun näwu ənʤi

t’äbun man ʧəlo

one should deserve his

love

….and not quarrel with

him

48


27


The song is performed in a free metre by the azmari in Amarəña. Likewise music

example 5 it is accompanied by the masinqo which is probably played by the singer46

himself. However, the masinqo part is hardly audible. Therefore, only the clearly

audible melodic parts of the masinqo are written down in musical notations47.

The style of the song belongs to the music repertoire of the azmari. The text deals

with incidents of war as well as heroes and their deeds. Additionally persons who

28

are present during the performance are praised48. The major part of the stanzas

rhymes49. The song is belongs to the təzəta qəñət:


The melodic lines show a certain recurring arrangement that is variously shaped

within the given tonal range. The typical characteristics are

- the ends of the song lines which consist of melismatic melodic movements, i.e.

several pitches fall on one syllable like in bars 1 and 15 and

- song lines where a single pitch serves as a dominant or central tone; e.g. in bars 7

and 8.

The song has a free metric course whereas the melodic phrases which are arranged

according to the stanza vary in their length.

Also the text comprises meaningless syllables which, however, are very important

for the melodic formation. This may be observed in the bars 6 as well as the

beginning of bars 7, 9, 13 and 18 (see the syllable ‚e‘).

These types of songs are performed by the azmari in the same way today. Of course,

song and performance styles are always changing in the course of time, but the basic

characteristics will be maintained.

The music tradition of the azmari is not only practised in the music cultures of the

Amhara or the Təgray, but also in many other ethnicities of Ethiopia. They also have

similar performance styles and functions.

In former times the azmari was mostly ordered to perform his songs on private events

in well-to-do families. Some courts even possessed their own azmariwoc at their

disposal.

Nowadays azmari performances are usually observed in traditional bars, the so-

called täʤ or azmari betoʧ, within the circle of a private audience and on wedding

feasts. Their payment differs from situation to situation and from place to place (e.g.

rural and urban centres).

The azmari is above all admired by his listeners for his various melodic versions.

However, the use of free melodic variations on already existing melodies should not

lead to the change of pitches of the respective qəñət.

29

The duration of a song is usually determined by the azmari himself who continues or

ends up that particular song according to the mood of his listeners.


Date/Place: 06.02.1906 Aksum /Antiphonal song

Performed Text - music example 7

sl L/G mf Original Script Phonetic Bars

1 L a mänawitəyä mənəhənando 1 – 3

2 G b säb mänawiye 3 – 5

3 L a1 (5x) laläy (5x) 5 – 7


5 L a1 (3x) laläy (3x) 9 – 11


7 L c fätawitäy bä’alti Mäq’älä 13 – 15


9 L c1 ayna furuy säna guramaylä 17 – 19


11 L a1 aynäbərən nə’ahi lämidä 21 – 23

12 G b säb mänawiye 23 - 25

13 L c2 fätawitäy bä’alti gäzana 25 – 27


15 L c1

ts’äeguri rə’əsa ləkə’ə

məs əzəna

29 – 31

16 G b säb mänawiye

17 L c3 (3x) laläye (3x) 31 – 33

18 G b säb mänawiye 33 - 35

30


Music example 7 is a wedding song in Təgrəña language which was probably

performed by a professional group. This group might have probably been ordered

for this special occasion. The pitches used here belong to the bati qəñət presented in

the following figure:

Figure 25 Bait qəñət – music example 7

In this song the pitch e’ serves as a keynote and therefore also plays a central role in

the melodic construction which may particularly be observed at the end of many

melodic phrases or lines.

31

The song which lasts for a very long time is performed by a group and accompanied

by a drum and hand clapping. The song leader inserts new stanzas in his parts

whereas the accompanying group sings short phrases with relatively identical

melodic and rhythmic structures until the end50. The originally notated text given in

figure 24 is almost similar with the performed text, but there are deviations in the

sequential orders. The original text comprises additional words and/or text lines

which do not occur in the performed text.

Both the hand clapping and the single drum beat fall on the stressed beat

simultaneously.

Music example 8; ID 3; Collection: Kaschke/Abyssinia

Date/Place: Aksum /Antiphonal Wedding song

Performed text - music example8


1 L a

mai do loye51?

mai do loye?

loye?

Do you have water?

Do you have water?

Do you?

1 –2

3 – 6

2 G a1

mai do loye?

mai do loye

loye?

Do you have water?

Do you have water?

Do you?

6 – 7

8 - 11

3 L a2

mai do loye?

aräq’i do loye

loye?

Do you have water?

Do you have spirits?

Do you?

81 – 82

83 – 86

4 G a3

mai do loye?

aräq’i do loye

loye?

Do you have water?

Do you have water?

Do you?

86 – 87

87 – 91

....etc.


The present song is also performed by a group in a linear song style. This song is

sung on traditional wedding feasts of the Təgray and it is still being practised in

almost the same way today. According to the pitches used here the təzəta qəñət has

been used using the pitch eb’ as a keynote:

32


In the score the first three tones of the qəñət, i.e. eb’, f’ and g’ are regularly used

whereas the fourth pitch, bb’, occurs relatively seldom. On the other hand the pitch

c’’, the fifth pitch, does not appear at all so that the tonal range is only extended from

eb’ - bb’.

The entire song is arranged in a strict cyclic course both melodically and textually.

The song leader shapes his melodic parts in various ways, whereas the group

accompanying him remains within a limited melodic version52 repeating similar

response lines up to the end of the song53.

Traditionally this performance takes place in the house of the bride’s parents and

therefore it is also connection to a definite act. The phrase „mai do loye or „alewoye“

that means „Do you have some water?“ or „Is there any water?” remains unchanged

except in the bars 81 - 85 in which the text „areqi do alewoye“ = „Do you have some

beverages? or “Are there any beverages?” is inserted.

Through to the content of the song in which something is being demanded, the

performing group expects to be fed by the hosts who on their turn also expect this

special moment to come. For that matter they prepare themselves in advance to

entertain their guests with great pleasure. After the performance food54 and

beverages55 will be served.

In spite of the frequently repeated and quite monotonous melodic sequences and the

relatively limited text, the song usually lasts very long. This phenomenon indicates

that both the performers and the passive listeners perceive the song with a great deal

of joy, because the whole act56 that is being accompanied by music becomes centre of

attention57.

The hand clapping and the drum beat start in the seventh bar. In contrast to the hand

clapping which is carried out without interruption up to end of the song, the drum

beat is interrupted in the bars 17 - 24 as well as 41 - 43. On the one hand it may be

assumed that the drum player is either unable to catch up the rhythmic flow of the

song, or he is unskilled in playing a drum. On the other, however, since the recorded

material is quite an old one, these interruptions may probably refer to the recording

quality as well, because the drum beats are in general hardly audible.

33

In this regard it should be mentioned that the short single drum beats shown in

figure 28 that always fall with the stressed beat do not represent the typical pattern

used in the traditional songs of the Təgray.

Figure 28 Extract from music example 8

The usually used beating pattern of the drum refers to an offbeat with a double58 and

sometimes also triple beats shown in figure 29:

Figure 29 Extract from music example12

Music examples 9 and 10/Collection: Kaschke/Abyssinia

In the entire collection there are no audio recordings known as number 9 and/or 10,

however, there are two short original texts written down in Təgrəña and indicated

with the numbers 9 and 10 (figures 30 and 31):

34

Figure 30 Original Lyric indicated No. 9

Figure 31 Original Lyric indicated No. 10


Date/Place: 06.02.1906 Aksum / Antiphonal song


sl L/G mf Phonetic Translation Bars

1 L a la loye laläy laloye (---) 1 – 4

2 b laloye laley laläy (---) 4 – 7

3 G a la loye laley laloye (---) 7 -10

4 b laloye laley laläy (---) 10 – 13

further stanza

5 L a1 kurənʧətäe weredete ???? 49 – 52

6 b kəjəte mädaloyte 52 - 55

7 G a la loye laläy laloye (---) 55 – 58

8 b laloye mädaloye (---) ....etc. 58 - 61


35

The song is performed in the təzəta qəñət using the following pitches:


It is a song in Təgrəña language performed in a linear antiphonal song style and

indicating a structural similarity with the music example 8. Almost the whole text

consists of meaningless syllables. At one spot the singer inserts stanzas59 whereas the

group responds the same phrase throughout song. Hand clapping, drum beating and

ululations are used as additional accompaniments. The rhythmic flow of the clapping

and the drum beat are also identical with the song in music example 8. Furthermore,

the song leader inserts slight variations in the melodic course60.





1 L a hadaräyä My marriage… 1 – 2

b bäli hadaräyä say my marriage… 3 – 4

c bäli hadaräyä “ 4 – 6

2 G a hadaräyä My marriage- 6 – 7

b bäli hadaräyä say my marriage- 8 – 9

c1 bäli hadaräyä “ 9 – 11

3 L a1 hadaräyä My marriage- 11 – 12


c1 bäli hadaräyä “ 14 – 16

4 G a Hadaräyä My marriage- 16 – 17


c bäli hadaräyä “ 19 - 21

stanza

5 L a1

əntä nay əwunät ???? 41 – 42

b1

aräq’e nay əmnet ???? 43 – 44

c hadaräyä bäläy ???? 44 – 46

6 a2 ata goyətay ???? 91 – 92

d bäliha goyətaye ???? 93 - 94

c bäli hadaräyä ...etc. 94 - 96

36


This song is performed in the bati qəñət, whereby here the lowest pitch G# and/or g#

(an octave higher) serve as the keynote.


In this song we have once more a linear antiphonal song style indicating similarities

in its whole setting as well as its metric course like music examples 8 and 11.

Regarding its overall arrangement, one may observe that the same melodic phrases

which are sometimes also varied are repeatedly sung. Compared to the songs in the

music examples 8 and 11, however, here we have a different pattern of drum beat.

Instead of the single beat that falls together with the stressed beat a double beat with

an offbeat character is used. In doing so, the first beat falls together with the stressed

beat, while the second corresponds with the third beat of the triple bar. The pattern

of the hand clapping though remains the same like in the above mentioned songs.

37


Date/Place: 06.02.1906 Aksum / Koran song/antiphonal

Due to strangeness of this song, only the originally notated text is shown as follows:

Figure 36 Original Lyric - music example13

The recording quality is very poor. This particularly refers to the response phrases of

the accompanying group. According to the original material the song is described as

„mohamedanische Schüler/Solosänger und Gruppe, sehr bekannte Koransure“

which means „Islamic students/song leader and group, a famous Koran Sure”.

In order to get some valuable information regarding this song, some knowledgeable

informants were asked to identify it. They explained that at the beginning of the song

as well as some verses are praising ‘Allah’ and the name of the Prophet Mohammed

is also being mentioned. Nevertheless, as stated by the informants the text does not

exactly derive from the Koran, but since it is performed by ‘Muslim students’ it may

be assumed that the recording might have taken place in a Koran school where

students61 have religious lessons and study the Koran as well. Thereby they do not

only read and study the religious text out of the Koran, but also learn writing. For

that matter in this regard special emphasis could be given to the pedagogic aspect.

According to the informants furthermore the constant repetition of melodic and

textual phrases as well as the multi-layered melodic and metro-rhythmic

constructions has less to do with a Koran prayer, because in the prayer such repeated

and monotonous phrases never occur.

In the musical notation it may also be observed that the different song parts are

arranged in various forms and thus each song section consists of its own

characteristic features.

38

The tonal range extends from e’ to bb’ even though the most frequently used pitches

are g’, a’, and bb’ and/or b’ which are arranged in different ways particularly from the

second song part onwards.

1st song part: is a linear antiphonal song consisting of in total eight melodic phrases.

Both the song leader and the accompanying group each sing four phrases alternately.

Each phrase is firstly performed by the song leader and subsequently repeated by the

group nearly the same way.

2nd song part: is a call-response song style in which melodic and textual phrases are

relatively short. The reciprocal completion of both groups (song leader/group) makes

a perfect whole. The song leader inserts new text lines to the constantly repeated

triple pitch sequence g-a-a whereas the group performs unchanged phrases

consisting of a double pitch group. Compared to the first song part, the second song

part lasts longer. Also the tempo deviates from that in the first song part.

3rd song part: likewise consists of a call-response pattern. Its melodic course indicates

a certain similarity with second part. However, there is a deviation in its metric

course and tempo which becomes faster here. Each melodic phrase of the song leader

is always connected with a new text. On the other hand, the group performs short

melodic phrases with a constantly repeated text. Therefore, only the pitches g’ and a’

are used with pitch a’ occurring more frequently.

4th song part: Likewise the second and third song parts the forth song part indicates

a call-response song pattern, but here we have a different metric movement, namely

6/8. The pitches used are g’, a’ and bb’.

5th and 6th song parts: are constructed in a linear antiphonal song style like the first

song part. The melodic phrases are relatively shorter and the most frequently used

pitches are g’, a’ and bb’.

7th song part: is arranged in a call-response pattern.


Date/Place: 06.02.1906 Aksum / Koran song/antiphonal (continuation of music

example 1362)

This song is according to the material information (at the beginning of the recording)

a continuation of the preceding music example 13. It shows similarities in the

melodic and partially in the rhythmic courses. Compared to music example 13 only

the linear type of antiphonal singing has been used here. The tempo is relatively slow

and the tonal range extends from f’ – a#.

39

This song could probably refer to a prayer of praise, a poem with a religious content

or a narration about the holy prophet Mohammed.

According to its melodic, rhythmic and textual constructions the song can be divided

into two parts. The first part comprises short melodic phrases which may be

observed e.g. in the bars 1 – 5, whereas the second part consist of relatively longer

phrases63.

The melodic movement tends to a speech song while the text is successively sung in

a quick tempo without interruption compared to first part. The melodic phrases are

predominantly dominated by the pitch g#’.

Likewise music example 13 the choir part is almost inaudible64. This particularly

refers to the phrases of the second song part in which the musical notation was

extremely difficult. It may be assumed that this song part is performed in “unison”;

however, the course of the song is irregular. Therefore, the pitches given here should

not be comprehended as fully accurate, because sometimes considerable fluctuations

occur. If it would technically have been possible to get a clearly and filtered song,

substantial deviations would have been discovered in the melodic, rhythmic and

textual courses.


Date/Place: 07.03.1906 Aksum /War song/solo

The present example deals with a war song65. Firstly, a general overview about the

traditional war songs should be discussed:

War songs are practised in diverse societies of Ethiopia. In the cultural music of the

Amhara and the Təgray war songs are - so far known – usually performed without

instrumental accompaniments. Furthermore war songs belong to the typical men

songs, although occasionally women participate as well. With regard to the

performance style and the musical arrangement, there are quite a number of changes

that occurred in the course of time which reflect typical local and regional

characteristics. Nevertheless, their fundamental features are still maintained.

War songs are performed both in solo form and in groups usually using call-

response patterns. They are mostly performed among others due to a forthcoming

war, in order to encourage and prepare soldiers and/or warriors physically and

psychologically for the war. They can also be performed after victory has been

gained to congratulate and/or memorize soldiers killed in action. Moreover war

songs are also performed on state celebrations and national holidays to

commemorate a valuable public figure or a historical date.

40

The repertoire of war songs comprises both fixed and free metric patterns with

peculiar melodic and metro rhythmic structures. Within the context of war songs

usually three song styles may be differentiated. These are called q’ärära, fukera and

fanno. Their difference can be observed in their performance styles, textual contents

and their entire functional connection. Kebede66 describes these parts as follows:

“q’ärära – which includes animated soldier songs aimed to inspire the singer or

the listening warrior into fearless action of bravery.

fukera – a kind of song which uses a comparative technique in order to magnify

the achievements of the patriot. The hero is heaped with exaggerated praises

while the enemies are downright ridiculed.

fanno – a sentimental kind of song which recounts the deeds of heroes who have

died on the field of combat. It is more or less a song in memorian”.

In contrast to the above mentioned three performance styles the Fukera is a merely

recited song that is performed either in certain intervals or at the end of the

respective song exclusively in solo form. Its melodic and rhythmic movements as

well as textual accentuation are strongly variated from one individual to the next.

But there are inevitable identifying characteristics that are performed by every singer

which can particularly be observed in the way of the recitation as well as the body

movement that is an important component in this song style. A characteristic

similarity of recited songs especially lies in the fact, that the texts are spoken in a

quick tempo successively with a great deal of emotion. While reciting the performer

symbolically moves with hectic steps back and forth representing the hero. In his

hand he carries a rifle, a sword and/or a spear, in order to express his readiness for

the “combat” more visibly. There are also motions which are presented either in

pairs or by several participants simultaneously. In addition certain gestures and

mimics, strong facial expressions belong to the body movement. These include

among others the making of a serious face or wild eyes. Thus the music and the body

movement are linked very closely with one another.

A certain fixed metric structure will thereby be maintained whereas their melodies

mostly operate with a maximum of three pitches.

Texts used in war songs usually consist of rhyming verses extending from 2 to 10

lines and their content plays a vital role. Among the traditionally performed war

songs of the Amhara the šəläla67 style is mostly used part.

As already mentioned, since war songs are mostly accompanied by typical body

movements, an analytical film recording would have been very importance in the

present case, in order to make a comprehensive analysis of the song style in

connection with its corresponding dance or body movement, because the

41

interruptions taking place within the course of the songs discussed here, could most

probably be connected with the dancing parts.

music example 15 – The song consists of several predominantly rhyming stanzas in

which the final syllables are in each case underlined and marked bold (see column

Phonetic). In the first column the verse lines which belong together are indicated.

They usually consist of four lines (see song lines 1, 2, 3 and 4). The verses given the

numbers 10 and 11 are on the other hand incomplete and thus the last two stanzas

leading the above verse line to its end are missing. Verse line 9 consists of only three

lines.

The song lines – the first column in the text - marked by three *** asterisks contain

additional meaningless syllables and words68.

Performed text - music example15

sl Original Script Phonetic Translation

1st stanza

1 ənant wändəmoʧe You, my brothers….

2 əndathonu mäna … please take care !

3

let yəmät’u

qän yəmät’u

Whether they69 come during the

day time or at night.

4 yämiyawəq yäläməna Nobody knows.

*** ənant wändəmoʧe You, my brothers…

2nd stanza

1 əndih bəlän bəlän If, after talking this much…

2 yäq’ärän əndähon …..we fail.

3 yägwaro baq’ela We will become garden beans…

4 ənkoläle mähon …. useless.

3rd stanza

1 ənant wändəmoʧe You, my brothers-

2 yänantän alawəqəm I don’t know more than you,

3 mənəm zənab bihon Even if it rains…

4 fiten zure alwädqəm ….I won’t fall on by back.

4th stanza

1 əndäwu tänkäbalo After all the efforts….

2 dələdəl yagäñal …he gets what he wants.

3 yäkäfawu wänd ləʤ Why would a desperate man

4 mənäwu mot yəmäñal wish his death?

5th stanza

1 əyädäfäräsä The water is becoming dirty

42

2 yätaʧəñawu wuha over there

3 mən mäkäsäʧa aläwu Where can a man go?

4 säwu yale bäräha Except to the desert?

*** x ʤalo mägän (---)

6th stanza

1 ənant wändəmoʧe You, my brothers-

2 bälu t’äna t’äna Be strong.

3

let yəmät’u

qän yəmät’u

Whether they come during the day

time or at night.

4 yämiyawəq yäläməna No one knows.

7th stanza

1 mən näkaw Täfäri What is wrong with Täfäri 70?

2 täq’orät’ä ləbu His heart is broken.

3 ənkwanəs läbado His bravery is enough

4 yəbäq’al läzät’äñə For nine people.

8th stanza

1 mən näkaw Täfäri What’s wrong with Täfäri ?

2 antäs yäläfahə You have tried a lot.

3 ašəkäroʧəh näbär Your servants are cowards...

4 antä anbässa nähə …but you are a lion (hero)

9th stanza

1 warkawu zämo zämo The olive tree bends….

2 ayəqärə wänd ləʤ A hero will not remain quite….

3 ləbun tamo tamo …with a brocken heart.

***

***

bäläwu zafun

bäläwu zafun

Kick the tree.

Kick the tree.

10th stanza

1 zafuma siq’orät’ If a tree is cut….

2 yərägəf yäläm wäy …it falls down, right?

*** ʤalo ʤalo (---)

10th stanza (repetition)

1 zafuma siq’orät’ If a tree is cut….

2 yərägəf yäläm wäy …it falls down, right?

*** ʤaloye mägän (---)

*** yərägəf yäläm wärdo The tree falls down, right?

*** ʤaloye mägän (---)

*** (4x) bälu (4x) Say something...

43

11th stanza

1 wänd ləʤ täwäldo If a boy….

2 kaltäbalä aʤəre ….cannot become a hero…

Figure 37 Original Lyric – music example 15 and/or 32

The recitation is performed in free metre. The singer builds melismatic melody that

contains a quasi cyclic arrangement. However, the pitches used here can not clearly

be identified so that no concrete qəñət can be determined.

It could rather be assumed that the singer has less experience in performing war

songs, but he also has a very unsuitable voice. Thus he frequently sings certain

pitches almost with a shout, because he is eventually unable to produce these pitches

without problems. This recording may hardly be accepted as a representable

example for a war song from the view point of an experienced listener.

In the musical notation the rhythmic course corresponding to the first two stanzas

(also represented in figure 37) is shown.

44


Date/Place: 07.03.1906 Aksum / War song/solo recitation

Music example 16 is also a recitation song in Amarəña language in which the text is

usually performed successively in a fast tempo71. The quality of the recording is

worst. Therefore, only some words or parts of verse line can be heard. Regarding the

textual content shown in figure 38 well-known war fronts like Mätäma, special war

events as well as heroes like Tsehay Yohannes and Alula72 and their deeds are being

mentioned. Due to the extremely bad recording quality and the frequent

interruptions connected to it, the present song could not be transcribed. However, its

tempo and rhythmic structures may be compared with music example 33, second

song part.


45

Music example 17; Ids 10 and 11/Collection: Kaschke Abyssinia

Date/Place: 11.02.1906 Aksum / Entertainment- and love song/solo

Both music examples 17 and 18 refer to the same song performed by the same singer

in Amarəña. Firstly the texts of both songs will be represented successively:


sl mf Original Script Phonetic Translation bars

1 a

wa ələšə yäläm wäyə?


Don’t I call you “wa“?

Don’t I call you „wa“?

1 – 5

2 b

godadaye, godadaye


My sweatheart!


5 – 11

3 a1

Wuʧʼhale lay hono

yətayal Mäqäle

From Wuchale hill

One can see Mäqäle73

11 – 15

4 a2 ??? ................. 16 - 20

5 b1

godadaye, godadaye

ələšə yäläm wäyə?

My sweatheart!


20 - 26

6 a1

wəʧʼale lay hono

yətayal gädägäd’

From Wuchale hill

One can see Gädägäd 74.

27 - 31

7 a2

šənt'wa zäwärwara ənde

gwaro mängäd

Her waist is….

…..like a side alley.

32 – 36

8 b1

godadaye, godadaye


My sweatheart!


36 - 42

9 a3





43 – 47

10 b1

godadaye, godadaye


My sweatheart!


47 – 53

11 a





54 - 58

12 b1

godadaye, godadaye


My sweatheart!


58 – 64

13 a4

afaf lafaf sihed

gädäl əfäralähu

When I am on the hillock..

…I fear the valley.

65 – 69

14 a5

Yät’älat ənat näñə

bədən əwädalehu

I am the mother of enemies

…I want to stay alive.

70 – 74

46

15 a6

yäzändəros leba bedən

adärägäñə

Thieves of todays…

….paralized me.

75 – 79

16 c

angätwan taq’əfe

murt’wa layi yarädäñi

I was embraching her

neck… when he stole me her vagina.

80 – 84

17 b1

godadaye, godadaye


My sweatheart!


84 – 90

18 a7

ašagəre əyayähu mado

madowənə

I look over there….

…on the other side.

91 – 95

19 a8

ayne dər awät’a

yalfätäläwənə

My eyes produce thread…

…. which I didn’t spin.

96 – 100

20 b1

godadaye, godadaye


My sweatheart!


100 -

106

Figure 39 Original Lyric – music examples 17 and 18

Even though both songs are very similar in their melodic and rhythmic arrangements

and textual contents, they are performed in different voice ranges, but in the bati

qəñət shown in figures 40 and 41. This shows that according to the material data the

recordings were made on the same day75, but at the different moments.

47

Figure 40 - bati qəñət – music example 17


With regard to the performance style demonstrated here, both songs should in fact

be performed antiphonally and not in solo form. Nevertheless, the score was notated

on two separate staffs to illustrate the symbolically different roles of the song leader

and the group accompanying him.

Though it is actually not impossible or even wrong to perform this song in solo form,

but technical problems will appear while singing that are connected with unexpected

gaps (see bars 5/6, 10/11, 37/38 and 49/50). The solo singer naturally needs breathing

moments which automatically cause these unexpected gaps. Had this song been

performed in a call-response pattern, no gaps and/or rests would have occurred,

because of the alternate singing.

The melodic lines are performed in a cyclic form showing similar melodic formulas.

Also the verse lines like „wa iliši yelem weyi?“ and „godadaye“76 are repeated very

frequently in certain gaps, especially at the end of a two-lined stanza or between the

respective two stanzas while the melodic structure and/or its frame remains the same

through the entire song.

In both songs all five qəñətoc pitches are used with exception of the octave repetitions

of the keynotes77. Contrary to the song lines notated on the second staff, the song

lines represented on the upper staff are variously arranged. This is one of the typical

characteristics of the traditional music repertoire of the Amhara. This fact indicates

that the song leader – compared to the accompanying group - usually arranges his

melodic phrases more freely.

The melodic formulas given in the second columns in the text representations

respectively designate on the one hand an opening character that are - apart from the

melodic variations - indicated as a. On the other hand they show cadencial idioms

tending to group b. A typical melodic phrase which indicates an opening character is

for example shown in figure 42, bars 1 - 5. The phrase thus ends on pitch f’, i.e. the

48

fourth pitch of the qəñət discussed here. At some few spots, e.g. bars 82, 114, 135 and

193 the melodic phrase ends on pitch eb’.

Figure 42 Extract from music example 17, bars 1 – 5

On the contrary the melodic phrase in figure 43 extending from fifth to the eleventh

bars (lower staff) moves towards a finalis and ends on pitch bb, the keynote of the

qəñət.

Figure 43 Extract from music example 17, Bars 5 – 11


Date/Place: 19.02.1906 Aksum / Hunting song/solo (see music example 30; ID 22)


sl Mf Original Script Phonetic Translation Bars

refrain

1 A ado wäšäbaye (---) 1 – 5

2 B ado wäšäbaye (---) 6 – 10

3 C

fənanawu siazor

gädaye

... the hunter 11 – 16

4 a1

ado wäšäbaye,

ado wäšäba

(---)

(---)

18 – 23

49

5 b1 ado wäšäbaye (---) 24 – 27

6 c1

q’orämtu si’azor

gädaye

... the hunter 28 – 32

stanza

7 a əsti ayəmsälaʧäwu Don’t let them assume- 33 – 37

8 b yätälba fətfətə it is a porridge made of

linseed.

38 – 41

9 c1 adañə wäšäba

guroye

The hunter, the killer 42 – 46

10 a2 əsti ayəmsälaʧäwu Don’t let them assume- 47 – 51

11 b2 yätälba fətfətə it is a porridge made of

linseed.

52 – 55

12 a2 ........... ........... ........... 56 – 60

13 b ........... ........... ........... 61 – 64


gädaye

The hunter, the killer 65 - 69

15 a2

yämändär tənb ansa The raven from the

neighbourhood

70 – 74

16 b2 yämändär t’äbdälə The fat from the

neighbourhood

75 – 78

17 a2


neighbourhood

79 – 83

18 b .....? yämändäru.......? The .....? from the

neighbourhood

84 – 87


guroye


20 a


neighbourhood

93 – 97

21 b ............ ............ ............ 98 – 102


gädaye

The hunter, the killer 103 –107

23 a gädayu simät’a When the killer comes- 108 –112

24 b käbäro mämtatu the drum will be

beaten.

113 - 117


gädaye


refrain

26 a guroye guroye (---) 123 – 127

27 b guroye guroye (---) 128 – 132


gädaye


50

stanza

29 a käzia käbärähawu From the desert 138 – 142

30 b kešəmälu dədə under the sword- 143 – 147


guroye


32 a ant’əfiləñə yäläm there are neither beds- 153 – 157

33 b antärəšəñə yäläm nor pillows. 158 – 162


gädaye


refrain

35 A guroye guroye (---) 168 – 172

36 B guroye guroye (---) 173 – 177

37 c1 guro wäšäba gädaye .......... the killer. 178 – 182

stanza

38 a

gurowu

si’awədämädəm

When he rustles- 183 – 187

39 b fänanawu si’anäfa when his horn blows- 188 – 192

40 c1

adañə wäšäba guroye The hunter, the killer 193 – 197

41 a

gurowu

si’awədämädəm

When he rustles- 198 - 202

42 a fänanawu si’anäfa when his horn blows- 203 – 206

43 a3

gurowu

si’awədämädəm

When he rustles- 207 – 210

44 a3 däräskuləh yämil’ No one comes to help- 211 – 214

45 a3 bälat bälat yämil no one encourages the

combat.

215 – 218

46 b awäy tənəšə

wändəm

A pity that the younger

brother is not present79.

219 – 223


gedaye


refrain

48 a guroye guroye (---) 229 – 233

49 b guroye guroye (---) 234 – 238

50 g1 guro wäšäba gädaye .................. the killer 239 – 243

stanza

38 a əndih yalä nägär Such things- 244 – 248

52 b3 ayaswädədäñimə I dislike. 249 – 253

53 g1 adañə wäšäba

gädaye


51

54 ........... ........... ......................... 259 – 262

55 a yäminoräwu nuro His life- 263 – 267

56 a mätäma yəgelal In Metema80 he kills. 268 – 272

57 b bädäsəta layə nuro The happiness to live. 273 – 277


gädaye


refrain

59 a guroye guroye (---) 283 – 287

60 b guroye guroye (---) 288 – 292


gädaye

.................. the killer. 293 - 297


The song consists of the following pitches forming to the təzəta qəñət:


Here we have a hunting song performed in Amarəña. The text represents the hunter

as a hero and praises his courageous deeds. The textual translation was not done

word by word, but rather the general content has been described.

A part of the text consists of words like guroye, wäšäbaye, which cannot be translated

literary, but that are important for the rhythmic and melodic courses in the song.

52

These words frequently occur at certain spots and they are either integrated in the

refrain-, verse or stanza lines, depending on how the song is arranged. There are no

fixed rules for using such words as transitions to further new verse or text lines81.

The performed text and the Original Lyric show quite a lot of deviations, i.e. the

Original Lyric is notated in total disorder and several text lines are also missing.


Date/Place: 11.02.1906 Aksum /Religious praise song/solo

In this praise song the first melodic line is firstly spoken in a low voice range. This

might possibly be connected with the recording quality. Starting from the second

melodic line however, a higher voice range is to be noted which then remains up to

the end of the song. The pitches of the anʧi hoye läne qəñət are used taking the pitch b

as the keynote:

Figure 46Anci-Hoye-Lene qəñət – music example 20

The song text generally deals with the Genesis from the first day onwards, i.e.

Monday-Sunday. In several spots words and/or text lines are missing due to their

inaudibility. Therefore, particularly these incomplete lines are not translated, since

they would make no sense (see text represented down).

Religious praise songs are carried out by the Christian Orthodox Community of

Ethiopia also today. They are performed in solo form usually accompanied by the

box lyre bägäna82 that is mostly played by the respective singer. In former times the

bägäna was only used within the church, whereas nowadays it is also played outside

of the church, however, to accompany exclusively religious praise songs above all

during the long lasting fasting months before Easter.

In the present recording no instrumental accompaniment could be heard. Thus the

song is performed without the bägäna. The performed text is illustrated as follows:

53

Performed Text – music example20


1 a

bäsəmä ab wäld mänfäs q‘ədus

ahadu amlak

In the name of the father, the son and

the holy spirit

1

2 a1 mänora ʧ äw kätəntu yä’abləʤoc They lived ever since, children of God 2

3 b ..... mänfäs q‘ədus..... andə naʧ äw Holy spirit and ....... they are one 3

4 c ..... bä’akal .... bäsəm andə naʧ äw In flesh.... in their names they are one 4

5 b1 ..... bä’akal .... bäsəm andə naʧ äw In flesh.... in their names they are one 5

6 d əgziabəher … bazih muyawu God...through his creation 6

7 b q‘ədmä aläm sinoru aläm näbär’ They lived before the world was

created; it was a paradise

7

8 e əhudən mäft’är ʤämäru fəträt’ On Sunday, they created man… 8

9 b2 səlalfätä’äru fət’rät asq’ädəmäw’ …because they hadn’t yet created him. 9

10 c1 sämayəna mədrən särut säbatäña They created heaven and earth on day 7 10

11 b3 ……………… ………………… aratäña ….on day 483….. 11

12 d1 wəha əna näfas əsat bä’arməmo water, air and fire way created… 12

13 b4 yəhənən hulu fät’əräw tänagäru After creating these, they said: 13

14 d2 lälitun bərhan səlähonä säño əlät Monday night was enlightened 14

15 b5

wəhan käfälut käsosət andun tətäw they divided water in three parts 15

16 d3

andun q‘äbärut kämədrə andun

wäsdäwu

They hollowed out a pipe line into the

earth, they took one with them

16

17 b5 sämay arägut t’äfärənə maksäñonə They changed earth into heaven 17

18 d4 ……………… …………….. rob əlät … on Wednesday 18

19 b6 ……………… ……………. .................... 19

20 d5 əʤə səra sisäru kəwakəbt Stars made art 20

21 b5 ts’ähay ʧʼäräq’a fät’äru hamusunə They created sun and moon Thursday 21

54

22 d6 ……………… ……………. ……………. 22

23 b7 kənəf yalaʧäwu nägär yäma’ibäru animals with and without wings 23

24 d7 yämihedutʧm bä’əgər arbə əlätə They went on foot on Friday 24

25 b7 adam yañan abat likäləläwu God protected Adam… 25

26 d8 ........ bä’amsalaʧäw särutə …….. They created him like.......... 26

27 b8 yefət’rätaʧäw fəts’ame bäsäbat qän On day 7 creation ended 27

28 d9 darəʧa honä qədame bäsäbat qän Last day of the creation was Saturday 28

29 d9 darəʧa honä qədame …….Saturday 29 30 ? ……… …………….. ahadu amlak ................the only God 30

31 d8 ……… əgzi’ab’her ...... läkərəstos’ God ...............for Jesus Christ 31

32 b2 ……… läsämayawiwu nəgus ........ for God in heaven 32

33 d10 ……… .................. labataʧən’ ................for our father 33

34 b5 ........ läña mälära liyadən wärdwal ........ He came to save us from our sins 34

35 d10 ........ ................... ............... 35

36 b5 ........ ................... ............... 36

37 d11 ........ ................... ................ 37

38 b7 ........ .................. ................. 38

39 d12 ........ ........laməna ahəya ………….cow and donkey 39

40 b9 ........ bä’and näbäru hulätu ............ They wer together ......... 40

41 d13 mängädu säba sägädi ............... The street was......... 41

42 b2 ........ .................. .................. 42

43 d14 ........ ................. ................. 43

44 b10 q’ädmo näbiyat yalutu

mädhanitaʧən’

Our father, whom saints call prophet… 44

45 d15 ........ ................. .................... 45

55



Date/Place: 07.03.1906 Aksum / Solo song



1st song part

1 a ......................... ......................... (inaudible) 1 - 4

2 a ......................... ......................... (inaudible) 5 – 8

3 b (5x) mənäw (5x) Why? (5x) 9 – 12

4 b (5x) mənäw (5x) Why? (5x) 13 – 16

5 c

hawatäye muni

hənanən do

säb mänawiye

My sisters, don’t you

love me anymore?

People are like this.

17 – 20

2nd song part

6 d

bätahitäyi bä’alti

Mäqälä

My dear-

the one from Mäqälä

22 – 25

56

7 d

ana furuyə

səna guramayle

Her big eyes…

… her beautiful teeth

26 – 29

8 d

ayre’ehun kämahi

zəbälä

I have never seen a

person like you.

30 – 33

9 d mənäw (5x) Why? (5x) 34 – 37 10 c

hawatäye muni

hənanən do

säb mänawiye

My sister, don’t you

love me anymore?

People’s typical

behaviour.

38 – 42

1st song part

11 a1 (5x) mənäw (5x) Why? (5x) 43 - 46

12 a2 (5x)

mənäw, (5x)

säb mänawiye

Why? (5x) 47 – 52

13 c

hawatäye muni

hənanən do

säb mänawiye

My sisters, don’t you

love me anymore?

People’s typical

behaviour.

53 – 57

14 a

Aksum adähi

May Koho

You from Aksum

…and May Koho!

58 – 61

15 a3

därgəsəna zimäsəl

ʧʼəho

With the beautiful

teeth!

62 - 67


This solo song is performed in Təgrəña. The melodic cycles divided respectively in

song part 1 and 2 are repeated again and again until the end of the song. The pitches

used here belong to the bati qəñət:

57

Figure 49 bati qəñət - music example 21


Date/Place: 07.03.1906 Aksum /Antiphonal song

This Təgrəña song is dominated by meaningless words like laloye, gumaye and munaye.

In certain distances verse lines occur which are unfortunately inaudible. Therefore,

the performed text could not be represented here however; the original text is shown

as follows:


Here the pitches of the bati qəñət are used:



58

Music example 23, ID 15/Collection: Kaschke Abyssinia

Date/Place: 07.02.1906 Aksum / Recited war song

This recitation song84 is performed in both Təgrəña and Amarəña. In certain distances

the performer sings a pitch with a long duration that nearly sounds like a „shout“85.

After a while the melody moves in ascending order. Historical places like Mätäma are

being mentioned here as well. The continuing text refers on contents like hawi zäraf

‘my courageous brother’, ənwnätäña gidär wändu „the honest, courageous hero“etc.

In the background voices and emphatic shouts that are probably released by

participants of the song can be heard. The original text indicated with the numbers

23/24 shows substantial deviations with the performed text, apart from its completely

different order. It is rather identical with the song text of music example 24.

Music example 24, ID 16/Collection: Kaschke Abyssinia

Date/Place: 07.03.1906 Aksum / Recited war song

This recitation song is performed in free-metric in Amarəña. In order to mediate a

general overview about the content the performed text is shown in the following

table. In comparison to music example 15 the song in music example 16 does not

possess rhyming verse lines:

Performed Text – music example24

Original Script Phonetic Translation wäyfän gärafi bäre asarafi Calf defeater, ox slaughterer…. əwunätäña gäbäre A genuine farmer…. ləmadäñawu gäna

wät’atu

Experienced, young man…

bäsänga awədəma

yätäfät’äräw

Born during harvest season…

əwunätäña gäbäre A genuine farmer… ləmadäñawu gäna wät’at

ašəkär

Experienced, young man…

əwunätäña wändəm A true brother…

yä’ənäzia yämuwaʧoʧ

wändəm

Brother of the deceased…

əwunätäña yä Menelik

təwləd

Genuine servant of Menelik86-

yä Menelik ašəkär Menelik’s servant… yägult ašəkär Servant of the landlord.

59

Mätäma käʧʼənqu lay In Mätäma during the horror

əndä guš tälla

dämu yämifäla

He was furious like a fermenting

Tälla87

bäkurman ənjära

yämiyadəräw

He can survive with little ənjära88

ardo alabäq’am He hasn’t yet finished killing gälo altayäm He didn’t proof his killing skills89? Mätäma lay gäday Killer on combat field in Mätätma Adwa lay gäday Killer on the combat field in Adwa Aräb gäday Killer of the Arabs Gojjam lay gäday Killer on the combat field in Gojjam90 bägorade gäday Killer with sword ... etc.

Contrary to other songs in this collection, the original text shown in figure 53

corresponds for the most part with the performed text.



Date/Place: 07.03.1906 Aksum



1 a

abäraš nabäy alki

nabäy nabäy

Aberaši, where are you?

Where? Where?

1 - 8

2 b

abäraš nabey alki

nabäy alki nabäy

Aberaši, where are you?

Where? Where?

9 - 16

3 a1 laloye laloyə laloyə (---)…etc. 17 - 24

60


This Təgrəña song is performed in solo. Both the lyric and the melody are short

making the phrases monotonous throughout the song. The qəñət used here is təzəta:




This in Təgrəña performed solo song is a war song. The actually performed text is

hardly audible and therefore it is not presented here. The original text is also missing

in the material.

The whole song consists of phrases appearing in a cyclic form. The melody is

variously arranged by the singer within the frame of the typical structure. In doing so

each regularly arranged melodic line ends on the pitch d (Bass-key) and/or on the

pitch d’, the keynote of the təzəta qəñət discussed here:


A compelete stanza respectively consists of three successive phrases. This refers to

the measures 1 - 16 and 17 - 31 and/or the melodic phrases 1 - 3 and 4 - 6. The

beginning of a strophic line with a half-cadencial movement, is correspondingly

marked with the characteristic descending pitch sequence (d’)91-e’-f#’ and g’ (in bars 1

- 2) or f#’-a’ and b’ (in bars 17 - 18). On the other hand, those melodic phrases with

61

particularly consisting finalis characters are the ones which the singer performs an

octave lower like e.g. in bars 27 - 31, phrase 6.



Date/Place: 07.03.1906 Aksum /Hunting song/solo



1st stanza

1 a ärä aynamaw na na Come lovely one, come,

come

1 – 3

2 b ärä aynamaw na na Come lovely one, come,

come

4 – 6

3 c na täkwašu na na Come shooter, come, come 7 – 9

2nd stanza

4 a na märzäñaw na na Come poisonous, come,

come

10 – 12

5 b1 na bäreʒu na na Come „hero“ come, come 13 – 15

62

6 c tänäs täkwaš na na Stand up shooter, come,

come…. etc.

16 - 18


The song text is likewise several songs in this collection very limited. Unless some

few changes, the lines indicated in the represented text remain unchanged.

This solo song performed in Amarəña may be compared with music example 26

regarding its rough melodic arrangement. The song lines respectively divided into

three groups are related with one another and thus indicate similar melodic and

rhythmic arrangements which may be observed in figure 59.


The melodic phrases comprise an opening character which can be observed in the

first song lines in each case. The melody here always ends on the pitch a’, the fourth

pitch of the qəñət. Furthermore respectively the second song lines possess a half-

cadencial character and thus either end on pitch e’ or f#’, the second and third pitches

of the qəñət. The third song lines on the other hand contain a finalis and end in each

case on the pitch d’, the keynote of the qəñət.

63


Date/Place: 07.03.1906 Aksum /Hunting song/solo92

This solo song is also performed in Amarəña. Since the majority of the performed text

is hardly audible, this one could not be written down as well. Furthermore, no text

could be found in the original material that would have been useful for a better

understanding and comparison of the performed text. The melody is assigned to the

bati qəñət:

Figure 60 bati qəñət - music example 28

Except the usually used free melodic form which flows within a particular frame,

analogous melodic and metro-rhythmic song lines can be identified here as well. The

song comprises refrain and stanza parts that are rather based on the textual

subdivision, i.e. the melodic setting of the song lines of both parts illustrate just a few

differentiations. The triple lined refrain is followed by a six lined stanza. Both

refrains and stanzas possess various durations93 i.e. the singer may either sing both

parts repeatedly or shortens them. The major part of the song lines show a melodic

movement that tends towards a cadencial ending. A typical characteristic of the

melodies of these song lines lies in the fact that they move from pitch g’ to d’ in the

midpoint of a melodic line (see e.g. bars 23 and 30) and they end either on the pitches

a’ or g’ which are represented as follows:


Alternatively, those melodic lines which more or less consist of a finalis do not arise

repeatedly like those lines with an opening character. Additionally, they appear in

the refrain parts. This may be identified because of the characteristic pitch

relationship f’ and g’ (bar 70) that emerges for instance in the middle of the melodic

line.

64

Besides, pitch g’ plays in this connection a key role compared to the remaining

melodic lines. This finalis is illustrated as follows:


The so far described characteristics in the melodic formations should by no means be

realized as rules, i.e. the song could be arranged variously even by the same singer if

a repeated recording had taken place. Thus the pitches assigned to the qəñət may also

have dissimilar functions in the structural melodic arrangement.


Date/Place: 07.03.1906 Aksum /Hunting song/solo

Performed Lyrik – music example 29

sl mf Original Script Phonetic Translation measures

refrain

1 a (2x) aya mare gäla

(2x)

My honey- 1 – 7

2 b adañu gäday The killer- 8 – 10

3 c añu gäday The killer- 11 – 14

4 d aya mare gäla My honey. 15 - 18

5 a1 (2x) aya mare gäla

(2x)

My honey- 19 – 25

6 b adañu geday The killer- 26 – 28

7 c añu geday The killer- 29 – 32

8 d aya mare gäla My honey. 33 – 36

9 a2 (2x) aya mare gäla

(2x)

My honey- 37 – 43

10 b1 adañu gäday The killer. 44 – 46

11 c1 añu gäday The killer- 47 – 50

12 d aya mare gäla My honey… etc. 51 - 54

65


Due to the limited text the song here is dominated by monotonous phrases consisting

of the melodic formula a-b-c-d including the variations of this given formula. Some

additional verse lines which are inaudible are marked accordingly in the score by

this sign: ###.

The song is a solo performance in Amarəña whereas the used pitches indicate the

qəñət təzəta. All five pitches including the octave pitch, the repetition of the keynote

a’, are used in the melody. Thus the voice range expands up to an octave.


Based on the melodic movement the song is divided into refrain and verse parts each

containing its own characteristics. The number of lines signifying a cycle may vary,

but they are clearly expressed through their melodic features like half-cadence and

finalis.

On the basis of the melodic structures it is ascertainable that a cycle usually begins

with a song line consisting of seven measures followed by relatively short lines

mostly consisting of three to four measures. So a whole melodic cycle may comprise

three to six song lines94. In the following a four-lined cyclic arrangement is

represented:

66

Figure 64 Extract from music example 29 – refrain part

A clear final function of a cyclic movement is predominantly obtained in the last

song line with the use of the keynote of the present qəñət təzəta, namely pitch a. Also

the melodic course is dominated by this pitch. Melody lines consisting of half

cadences are indicated by pitch e’, the fourth pitch of the qəñət.

Regarding the free melodic variation it may be assumed that the song is strongly

ornamented. For example the refrains in bars 1 - 18 and 55 - 74 (figure 64) were

compared with each another in which the usual melodic and metro-rhythmic

framework remains intact or unchanged however, the melodic arrangements of both

parts show characteristic differences. Likewise further cyclic parts may also be

compared.


Date/Place: 19.02.1906 Aksum / Hunting song/solo (see also music example 19/ID 12)



refrain

1 b95 ado wäšäbaye (---) 1 – 5

2 c adañə wäšäba guroye The hunter, the killer 6 – 10

3 a ärä wäšäbaye (---) 11 – 15

4 b1 ado wäšäbaye (---) 16 – 20

5 c ado wäšäba gädaye The hunter, the killer 21 – 25

6 a1 adañə wäšäbaye The hunter 26 – 30

7 b2 adañə wäšäbaye The hunter 31 – 35


67

stanza

9 d yäbäräha awəraris The stag of the desert 41 – 44

10 e moñə näw tälala Is naive and kind 45 – 48


12 d ??? ??? 54 – 57

13 e ??? ??? 58 – 61


stanza

15 a2 gwaro wäšäbaye The hunter 67 – 71

16 a3 gwaro wäšäbaye The hunter 72 – 76

17 c gwaro wäšäba gedaye The hunter, the

killer…etc.

77 - 81


This song can be compared with music example 19, because it actually refers to the

same song performed in two different qəñətoc. Music example 19 is sung in the təzəta

qəñət96, while music example 30 is performed in the anʧi hoye läne qəñət97.


Date/Place: 15.03.1906 Aksum / Hunting song/solo98

This Amarəña song may be compared with music example 28. To a certain extent it

deals with the same song telling about the ‘courageous hunter’.

However, only the refrain can be understood acoustically. In the bars 255 - 260 the

singer unexpectedly uses pitches that do not belong to the təzəta qəñət and

correspond to the so far used pitches as well. Starting from bar 261 he continues

using the original qəñət until the end of the song. It may be assumed that an

alteration of the qəñət must have taken place by mistake, since such a phenomenon is

unknown in the music repertoire of the Amhara.

68

The same pitch sequences of the təzəta qəñət are applied to both songs which are

presented in the description of the music example 28. Therefore, the qəñət is not

represented here.

The refrain and verse lines demonstrated in linear form are almost identical in their

melodic movements. The separation in refrain and verse parts is only based on the

text.



Solo song

This is a solo song performed in Amarəña. The song style used here resembles that of

the šəläla with an often cyclic melodic arrangement. In the text the singer tells about

at the period of suppression including him as one of the victims of a particular

system. Some verses rhyme even though they have neither a concrete meaning nor a

contextual relationship with one another. This phenomenon is very usual in the

traditional songs of the Amhara.



mägänu (2x) (---)

täwäñə turinafa (2x) Leave me alone, you blabber.

käwəlum atəgäñə

kämäblum atət’äfa

On decisive moments you are absent,

but you are present at the meals. ʤalo (5x) (---)

ahun (2x) yät alä

lolewən wädaʤ (5x)

Is there anyone-

who likes his servant?

əndäw bätälämdo

mäkätäl näwu ənji

As usual-

he will be accompanied99. ʤalo mägän (5x) (---)

täwäñə getoce

gəfu bäza (3x)

Oh, my masters-

the oppression is getting worst.

band bərr

q’oq əyätägäza

With one Birr100

poultry can be bought.

märäräñə (2x) əndäret

bälañə əndä samma

It is becoming bitter like ret101.

It burns me like nettle102.

yalräbaba nägär

joroye əyäsämma

To much nonsense-

hears my ear. ʤalo (5x) (---)

69

ənant wändəmoʧe

yänantän alawuq’əm

You, my brothers-

I have no idea about you.

hode gäna bəhon

fiten zore alwädq‘əm

Even if I am not yet ready-

I would not fall down on my back.

wändəm malät

Təgre malät

A brother is someone-

a Təgray is someone-

balənʤäraw wädqo

yanən yanässa əlät

who helps

his friend. mägän (---)

sänga tänkäballo

dələdəl yagäñal

When an ox relaxes

it is good.

yäkäfawu wend ləʤ

mənäwu mot yəmäñal

Why does a sad man-

wish his death? ʤalo mägän (---)

In the score of this recording, only the first cycle is written down line by line. Here it

is can clearly be recognized that the predominant part of the melismatically arranged

song lines are equipped with very limited text. The song lines are differently long,

whereby their length is obviously determined by the singer.

The used pitches should not be realized as absolute ones, because tonal fluctuations

which do not permit to determine the qəñət of this song occur in several spots. At

some positions the performer sings very loud, i.e. with full emotion and

simultaneously moves out of the given qəñət frame. Nevertheless, the qəñət təzəta fits

to this song.

Music example 33, ID 25/Collection: Kaschke/Abyssinia

Date/Place: 25.03.1906 Aksum /War song/solo

This song is performed in Amarəña. Compared to the so far represented recitation

songs, the present song consists of two independent song parts both melodically and

rhythmically.

Particularly the text in the second song part is hardly audible so that only one part of

the somewhat audible text has been presented here, but the sequence corresponds

just partially to the performed text103.

70



1st song part

warkawu zämo zämo The tree bends more and more

ayəqärəm wänd ləj ləbun

tamo tamo

A hero would not stay calm-

with heart ache, heart ache ʤalo ʤalo ʤalo (---)

2nd song part

zäraf zäraf (---) akaki zäraf (---) ərə yəbälu (---) ərəf yətäka (---) ardo yadaräsä The killer färto yaltämäläsä The hero yäkora yätänt’ärara The one with pride…etc.


The qəñət used in this song is təzəta with the departure pitch f’.

71


The most frequently used pitch a’ serves as a central pitch and appears towards the

end each melodic line as a final pitch. In contrast to second song part that consists of

a narrow tonal range, the tonal range of the first song part extends from g to a’.

It should be noted here that the singer actually does not possess a good voice that is

suitable for such a melismatic song. At several spots micro-tonal deviations are to be

heard. Therefore, the pitches occurring here should not be understood as absolute

ones like it is the case of many music examples in this collection.

Song part 1: The first song part shown in figure 68 consists of a melismatic melody

performed in free metre. Its tempo is much slower whereas the verse lines are

relatively longer than in the second song part.

Figure 68 music example 33, war song/solo, and melodic course of the song part 1

Song part 2: The second song part presented in figure 69 is exclusively a recitation.

Compared to the first song part, the second is arranged in a relatively faster tempo.

The singer arranges his melodic lines with full strength and emotion. Both short and

long text- and melodic lines occur here. The short lines indicated in the illustration

consist only of meaningless words. The last syllable of each line is stressed. This -

72

usually three to five-lined text - appears within the second song part again and again,

in each case at the end of the long text lines.

Due to its recitative character of this song, the transcription is only based on the

rhythmic part.

Figure 69 music example 33, war song/solo, rhythmic course of the second song part

73


Date/Place: 27.03.1906 Aksum /Love and entertainment song/solo

In the present recording an entertainment song is performed in solo form. The lyric is shown below

Performed Text - music example34


refrain

1 a 2x əte mənäw 2x What’s wrong? 2x 1 – 7

2 b 2x əte mənäw 2x What’s wrong? 2x 8 – 13

3 c əte mənäw wädaʤ əndih näw? What’s wrong? You treat a friend like this? 14 – 19

stanza

4 a əte mənäw 2x What’s wrong? 2x 20 – 26

5 b1 mənäw mənäw? əndä goru meda What’s wrong? 2x Like the meadow of

Goru…

27 – 32

6 d əte mənäw? əndewädiañaw What’s wrong? Over there… 33 – 39

7 b2

əte mənäw? kamät and q’än näw What’s wrong? Once in a year… 40 – 45

8 d1 əte mənäw? yämətəgeñiwu What’s wrong? You’re available…. 46 – 52

9 b3 əte mənäw mənäw mənäw? What’s wrong? (4x) 53 – 59


refrain

11 a1 əte mənäw mənäw mənäw? What’s wrong? 2x 66 – 72

12 b4 əte mənäw mənäw mənäw? What’s wrong? 2x 73 – 79

13 c əte mənäw wedaʤ əndih näw? What’s wrong? You treat a friend like this? 80 – 85

stanza

14 a1 əte mənäw? 2x What’s wrong? 2x 86 – 92

74

15 b5 mənäw mənäw aydälähu

gumare

What’s wrong? 2x I am not a

hippopotamus-

93 – 98

16 a2 əte mənäw moferun alt’əsäw What’s wrong? I can’t break the plough - 99 – 105

17 b5 mənäw mənäw le’amoraw

lakilñə

What’s wrong? 2x Send me through the

seagull-

106 – 111

18 a3 əte mənäw lemimälaläsäwu What’s wrong? The one flying here and

there.

112 – 118

19 b gäday gäday gäday gäday (---) 119 – 125

20 c əte mənäw wedaʤ əndih näw? What’s wrong? You treat a friend like this? 126 – 131

21 a4 mənäw mənäw əndä goru meda What’s wrong? Like the meadow of Goru… 132 – 138

22 b6 əte mənäw əndewädiañaw What’s wrong? Over there- 139 – 145

23 a5

əte mənäw kamät and q’än näw What’s wrong? Once in a year- 146 – 152

24 b6 əte mənäw yämətəgeñiwu What’s wrong? You are available. 153 – 158


26 a7 əte mənäw mənäw mənäw What’s wrong? 2x 165 – 171

27 b6 əte mənäw Ambassäl lay huno What’s wrong? From Ambassäl104- 172 – 177

28 a8 əte mənäw yətayal wuʧʼale What’s wrong? On can see Wuchale hill 178 – 184

29 b əte mənäw 2x What’s wrong? 2x 185 – 190

30 a2 əte mənäw yəmäslal känfärwa What’s wrong? One can see her lips…. 191 – 197


32 a9 əte mənäw lam yalayäl wuʧʼäle What’s wrong? A fresh grass which is not

discovered by cows

204 – 210

33 b əte mənäw 2x What’s wrong? 2x 211 – 217 34 c əte mənäw wädaʤ əndih näw What’s wrong? You treat a friend like

this?

218 – 223

75

refrain

35 a10 əte mənäw 2x What’s wrong? 2x 224 – 230


37 c əte mənäw wädaʤ əndih näw What’s wrong? You treat a friend like

this?

238 – 243

stanza


39 b7 əte mənäw wuʧʼäle lay huno What’s wrong? On can see Wuchale hill 251 – 256

40 a12 əte mənäw yətayal Gädägäd What’s wrong? Once can see Gädägäd105 257 – 263

41 b6 əte mənäw šənt’wa zäwärwara What’s wrong? Her waist looks- 264 – 269

42 a13 əte mənäw ənde gwaro mängäd What’s wrong? Like an alley…. 270 – 276

43 b4 əte mənäw mənäw mənäw What’s wrong? 2x 277 – 283

44 c əte mənäw wädaʤ əndih näw What’s wrong? You treat a friend like

this?

284 – 289

45 a14 əte mənäw 2x What’s wrong? You, what is wrong? 290 – 296

46 b8 əte mənäw Däbrä Tabor gäbäya What’s wrong? On Däbrä Tabor’s market… 297 – 302

47 a13 əte mənäw Däbrä Tabor gäbäya What’s wrong? On Däbrä Tabor’s market… 303 – 309

48 b8 əte mənäw yəwulal ənq’ulal What’s wrong? There are eggs. 310 – 315


50 b əte mənäw mənäw mənäw...usw. What’s wrong? 2x 323 – 329

76

Figure 70 Original Lyric – music example 15 and/or 34

The song is divided into refrain and verse parts taking its textual setting into

consideration. The rough melodic structure remains within its overall frame as it is to

be recognized from the melodic formulas.

In the text the song lines to 1 - 3 occur quite frequently. Particularly noticeable is the

word ‘ite106’ referring to different female persons like e.g. an acquaintance, a friend or

a relative. In other words its use usually indicates on a close friendship or

relationship. In the translation it is given as ‘you’ since the performed text does not

clearly indicate what kind of person is exactly meant, the sister? The beloved person?

etc.. The pitches used in this song are illustrated as follows:


Music example 35; ID 27 and 36; ID 28; Collection: Kaschke/Abyssinia

Date/Place: 1.04.1906 Aksum / Instrumental pieces/Wašint/solo

Here two instrument pieces are presented played on the flute wašənt and probably

performed by the same player. Both pieces are assigned to the qəñət təzəta with the

pitches e’-f’# -g’# and b’ (the pieces are played one octave higher than notated in the

score):

Figure 72 təzəta qəñət – music examples 35 and 36

77

Music example 35

This instrumental piece has a free-metric structure and a performed in solo form. The

recording is a very bad and due to the inaudibility no musical transcription could be

made.

music example 36

This piece is also arranged in free-metre with a relatively faster tempo than the first

one. It consists of two independent melodic parts. The phrases of the first song part

are relatively longer than those of the second.

In the score the first two melodic parts with their cyclic character may be observed.

They serve as a representative example of the entire piece.




sl L/G mf Original Script Phonetic Translation bars

1st song part

1 L a (3x) ʤaloye (3x) (---) 1 – 5

2 G b oho ho ho (---) 6 - 7

3 L c täwu ʤalo mägän (---) 7 - 8

4 G d

antä wändəme

täšäläm game

My brother!

get a game108

9 – 11

2nd song part

5 L

d

antä wändəme

täšäläm game

My brother!

get a game

21 – 24

6 G

d

antä wändəme

täšäläm game

My brother!

get a game

24 - 27

Figure 73 Original Lyric – music example 4; identical with music example 37

78

Despite a quite limited text a frequent cyclic repetition takes place in the sequence

indicated here. The content of the text refers to a war song. The word ‘ʤalo’, which is

mostly used in war songs, is also included.

The song possesses two melodically differently developed parts which are

accordingly indicated in the score as well.

1st song part: In first song part a call-response song pattern is used. Here the song

leader and the group mutually complement each other by singing their assigned

parts. Call-response song styles consist of different structures in the song repertoire

of the Amhara and so they can either occur as refrains or stanzas. In this case the first

song part may be understood as a refrain that is arranged in typical form of a refrain

song by both groups.

2nd song part: The second song part on the other hand belongs to the so-called linear

antiphonal song style. The leader sings first a melodic phrase that should be repeated

by the accompanying group nearly in the same way rhythmically, melodically and

textually. This phrase can be repeated arbitrarily often.

Despite the fact that the leader sometimes begins his song parts109 a little bit late such

spots were still notated as if these rests did not occur, because otherwise the

presentation of the score won’t make any sense at all and it would not correspond to

the actual song arrangement. The appropriate pitches to this song derive from the

bati qəñət:

Figure 74 Bait qəñət – music example 37

79

Conclusion

In the following table the so far described recordings are listed successively

according to their titles, the respective qəñət, their functional connection and

meaning, their setting and last but not least the languages in which they are

performed.

From the entire collection 14 songs are performed in the təzəta, 10 in bati and in anʧi

hoye läne qəñətoc. Six songs could not be classified to any of the four qəñətoc. These are

among others music examples 13 and 14 in which according to the description

„Islamic pupils” are performing a group song in Arabic language.

The remaining songs, i.e. music examples 15, 16, 23, 24 and 32 refer to the repertoire

of war and hunting songs and these are predominantly recited. Also their melodic

structures do not clearly designate a specific qəñət. This is mostly connected with the

fact that all songs are performed by inexperienced singers who are unable to

represent their voices in a satisfactory manner. This phenomenon however, is

applied to the major part of the collection; excluding some few exceptional songs

performed by relatively good and eventually experienced singers. Such songs signify

the music examples 5 and 6 in which the solo azmari songs are presented and in

music example 7 with the antiphonal song performed by a seemingly “professional

group”.

Besides, 21 songs are performed in Amarəña, 14 in Təgrəña and 2 in Arabic languages.

It is amazing to find out that the number of songs which are performed in Amarəña

dominates, although predominantly Təgrəña songs are to be expected in the region of

Aksum, but this is also a reason for planning future investigations in order to research

to what extent song in Amarəña were performed both at that time as well as

nowadays in this region. Is it possible that the participants who performed the songs

in Amarəña even may originate from the region Təgray, or they may really be Amhara

who might have migrated from their home areas and settled in Aksum?

From the entire collection, 10 songs are performed alternately (song

leader/accompanying group), whereas 25 songs are performed in solo form.

Regarding the accompaniments of the songs used here, it was stated that they are

less represented. Thus only 5 songs are accompanied both with music instruments

masinqo, drum, horns as well as hand clapping and ululations.

As pure instrumental pieces only 2 recordings are included in the collected, a

phenomenon referring to the fact that the little use of instrumental music has

generally remained the same not only in the music cultures of the Central Highland,

but also in many other cultures of Ethiopia. There are still instrumental pieces

performed on the flute wašənt and almost exclusively used by shepherds who play

the flute during the supervision of their herd mostly in order to avoid boredom.

81

Tabular List of the Collection

recordingno/

date of recording

title qiñit sung in performed by accompaniments

used

functional relation and

performers

Amarə

ña

Tigriña others solo group110

1 *** Ahay Guma təzəta x x none war song performed by a group of

young boys

2 19.01.1906 Hohəya təzəta x x x none song sung on the occasion of the

religious Buhe-celebration either

by a group of boys or adult men

antiphonally; in this case the song

is performed by a group of young

boys (ca. 10 –14 years of age)

3 19.01.1906 bati x x none solo song; in-between group song;

both the song leader and the

accompanying group are most

probably young boys

4 1.04.1906 Daloye bati x x none War song performed by a group of

young boys

5 19.01.1906 təzəta

x x Animal horns,

masinqo

according to the announcement

this song was performed on the

welcome party of the German

diplomat Friedrich Rosen; besides

the horns being blown at the

beginning of the song, a solo song

(entertainment) accompanied by a

Masinqo is being performed by an

Azmari. The spontaneous song text

deal with the actual situation

82

6 19.01.1906 təzəta x x masinqo An Azmari sings an entertainment

song accompanying himself on the

Masinqo. The song can be

performed on every occasion.

7 06.02.1906 Mänawitä bati x x drum, hand

clapping

Song performed on a wedding

celebration. It is an antiphonal

song sung by a „professional“

traditional group

8 .... 1906 Mai Do aläwoye təzəta x x Drum, hand

clapping and

ullulation

Ceremonial song performed on a

wedding feast. The song leader is

accompanied by a group.

9 x none In the collection there is no.

Recording given the No. 9, but

only a short text taken from the

original material which is

indicated with the No. 9

10 x none In the collection there is no.

Recording given the No. 10, but

only a short text taken from the

original material which is

indicated with the No. 10

11 06.02.1906 Laloye təzəta x x Drum, hand

clapping and

ullulation

Entertainment song sung on every

occasion.

12 06.02.1906 Hadäräye x x Drum, hand

clapping and

ullulation

Entertainment song sung on every

occasion.

83

13 06.02.1906 none111 x x none according to the announcement of

the original material “Islamic

pupils; very famous Koran School

The participants are children

performing the song antiphonally.

14 06.02.1906 s. No. 13 x x none see description of the music

example 13

15 07.02.1906 none x x none solo recitation; typical war song;

the singer is usually accompanied

and animated by further

participants who present different

acts like gestures, miming and

emphatical shouts.

16 07.03.1906 none x x none see description of the music

example 15

17 11.02.1906 Iləši yäläm wäy? bati x x none Love song in solo form which –

from its melodic structure - should

actually be performed

antiphonally between a song

leader and a group.

18 11.02.1906 Iləši yäläm wäy? bati x x none see description of the music

example 17

19 19.02.1906 Ado Wäšäbaye təzəta x x none hunting song performed in solo

(see also music example 30)

84

20 11.02.1906 Besəme Ab anʧi hoye

läne

x x none Religious praise song particularly

sung during the long lasting

fasting time before Easter. It is

exclusively performed in solo.

Usually such songs are

accompanied by the box-lyre

Bägäna which is mostly played by

the singer at the same time. In this

recording not instrumental

accompaniment is to be heard.

21 07.03.1906 Mänawite bati x x none love song sung by young boys

22 07.03.1906 bati x x none solo entertainment song which can

be sung arbitrarily

23 07.03.1906 Zäraf keine x x x none a free-metrical war song

24 07.03.1906 keine x x none a free-metrical recitation song

belonging to the repertoire of the

war songs

25 07.03.1906 Abäraš’ Nabäy

alqi

təzəta x x none entertainment and love song

26 07.03.1906 təzəta x x none hunting or soldiers song

27 07.03.1906 x x none according to the note found in the

original protocol this song is a

hunting song sung at the time

when a man returns from a battle

field successfully

28 07.03.1906 Gäday Mänəno bati x x none hunting song (see also music

example 31)

85

29 15.03.1906 Aya Mare Gäla təzəta x x none according to the note found in the

original protocol a very well-

known hunting song performed to

welcome a man who is returning

back home after killing an

elephant

30 15.03.1906 Ado Wäšäbaye Anci-

Hoye-Lene

x x none solo hunting song (see also music

example 19)

31 15.03.1906 Gäday Menino bati x x none solo hunting song (see also music

example 28)

32 25.03.1906 none x x none entertainment song partially

recited and partially sung

33 25.03.1906 təzəta x x none war song partially recited and

partially sung

34 27.03.1906 əte Mənäw təzəta x x none love and entertainment song

35 01.04.1906 təzəta x solo instrumental piece played on

the flute Wašint

36 01.04.1906 təzəta x solo instrumental piece played on

the flute Wašint

37 19.01.1906 Daloye bati x x none antiphonal song which belongs to

the repertoire of war songs; sung

by a group of young boys

86

Historical sound collections are highly valuable to gain insight to the aural past and

simultaneously open possibilities for scholarly works in order to make comparisons

with the present, i.e. to discover and justify changes that took in the process of time.

The collection on wax cylinders discussed here should be examined in exactly the

same way. Since we have no written source materials for this collection at our

disposal, which might give us a detailed insight of the collection and its emergence,

many questions will remain open like for instance which motivation Kaschke (the

person who recorded the materials) had to collect these songs and which prior know-

how he had with regard to the field work in connection with music materials,

because a field research at that time must have obviously demanded a great deal

effort. Also the attendant circumstances which emerged in the process of the

practical field work should be taken into consideration as well. Furthermore, it is

important to know whether Kaschke - apart from Enno Littmann – also took the

assistance and/or support of other people with a better experience.

- Did he make pressure to record these materials, or were the participants co-

operative?

- Did they show their readiness to present their music out of respect and

hospitality for their guest (Kaschke) corresponding his wish?

- Were they simply proud of the fact that their voice, their song and their music

was recorded with technical equipments that are so far strange to them?

- Could it also be that all participants showed their co-operation due to instructions

of the ruler at that time?

So many interesting questions will remain open.

There are very limited possibilities to get exact pictures only with the help of

provided sound materials and be able to make realizations.

Due to repeated listening of each recording which was came into being through the

transcription task, it may be assumed, that Kaschke not only had a limited possibility

for recording the songs, but also a limited research area which on the other hand

means that the number of participants who made their contributions to this

collection, i.e. singers, groups who accompanied the songs and instrument players,

were limited as well. This phenomenon obviously contributes to the fact that the

collected repertoire is not varied enough. This may among others be recognized by

listening the recordings. Thus in most cases one and the same singer performs

different types of songs like e.g. an entertainment song as well as a war song and/or

he performs the same song either on the same day successively (e.g. music examples

17 and 18 recorded on the same day/11.02.1906), or he performs one and the same

song at different times, e.g. music examples 19 recorded on the 19th February, 1906

and music example 30 recorded on the 15th of March, 1906112.

- Why are the texts limited?

87

- Were the songs at that time only equipped with these texts, or does this depend

on the know-how of the respective singer who probably?

Despite the fact that on already existing traditional melodies new texts are added in

the course of time (e.g. in the music repertoire of the Azmari), I have the opinion that

simultaneously the songs were performed in exactly the same way as today.

Therefore, it may be assumed that the performers did not necessarily know all texts

in a number of songs, because knowing the songs won’t automatically mean to be

able to perform them.

- Are the candidates who performed the songs amateur or professional musicians?

- It is possible that a singer may be quite good in performing e.g. few entertainment

songs, while he is not good enough in performing war songs, because of luck of

experience and/or know-how113?.

During the analytical work of this collection it was discovered that a number of

songs like e.g. music examples 2, 6 and 8 are still being performed today in almost

the same way, despite few slight changes in melody, rhythm and text.

In this regard a renewed and properly planned study on the respective area, a so-

called re-study, would be very important. This study should give us a detailed

information about musical forms, melodic, metric, rhythmic and textual structures,

as well as instrumental practices of each recording both at the time of its emergence

as well as today. A further analysis should focus on the following questions:

- To what extent are these songs used in the everyday life of today?

- What is their role in connection with social, political and historical aspects?

- Are there any fundamental changes which occurred in the course of time? and if

so

- how is this phenomena to be justified and last but not least

- Which value do these songs possess in the music traditions of the ethnic

communities represented here, i.e. the Amhara and the Təgray.

88

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Beckwith, Carol / Fischer, Angela

2000 Unbekanntes Afrika: Völker und Kulturen zwischen Hochland, Wüste und

Ozean; Du Mont Publishers, Köln.

Budge, E.A.W

1928 A History of Ethiopia. - London

Martin-Brown, Joan

2001 Historic Sites and Sacred Sites: Cultural Routes for Urban Futures. The

World Bank.

Buxton, David R.

1970 The Abyssinians. - London.

Connah, Graham

2016 African Civilization: An Archeological Perspective. Cambridge University

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Fisseha, Girma

1997 Bergland Äthiopien: Kunst und Kultur aus dem Hochland. Staatliches

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Gonti-Rossini, Garlo

1928 Storia d'Etiopia. – Milan

Gourlander, Harold

1944 Notes from an Abyssinian Diary. - In: Musical Quarterly 30. – pp.345-355

Kharissov, Ildar

1998 Die Islamischen Gesänge der Tataren im Wolga-Ural-Gebiet. In: Berichte

über die Tagungen des Nationalkomittees der Bundesrepublik Deutschland

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Marianne Bröcker, Bamberg, pp. 197 – 222

89

Kimberlin, Cynthia Tse

1968 The Bägäna of Ethiopia. In: Ethniopianist Notes. Vol. 2 - No. 2. Michigan.

1978: 13-29

Kimberlin, Cynthia Mei-Ling

1976 Masinqo and the Nature of Qenet. - Dissertation. - Los Angeles

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1984 The Morphology of the masinqo: Ethiopia's Bowed Spike Fiddle, selected

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Ethnomusicology. - vol. 5. – Kwabena, Nketia / Jacqueline Cogdell Djedje

(Hrsg.). - California University. - Los Angeles - pp. 249-262

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altabessinische Inschriften. Generalverwaltung der Königlichen

Museen zu Berlin. Vol. 1 Reisebericht der Expedition, Topographie

und Geschichte Ms von Enno Littmann. Berlin. Printing Press Georg

Reimer.

1910-1915 Publications of the Princeton Expedition to Abyssinia. Vol. 1-4b.

Littmann, Enno – Krencker, Daniel

1910-1915 Vorbericht der deutschen Aksum Expedition. Berlin 1906.

Luschan, Felix von

1904 Anleitung für ethnographische Beobachtungen und Sammlungen in Afrika

und Ozeanien. Königlisches Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin. 2nd Edition

l. Musik.

Michael Powne

1968 Ethiopian Music. London.

Rosen, Felix

1907 Eine Deutsche Gesandtschaft in Abessinien. Leipzig.

90

Schmidt, Wolbert

2015 Photos as historical witness: The first Ethiopians in Germany and the first

Germany in Ethiopia, the history of a complex relationship. Lit Publisher,

Berlin.

Selamta Magazine

2000 Quarterly Magazine, Vol. 17, No. 3, July – September

Teffera, Timkehet

2001 Musik zu Hochzeiten bei den Amhara im Zentralen Hochland Äthiopiens

[Wedding Music of the Amhara in Central Highland Ethiopia] Europäische

Hochschulschriften, Reihe XXXVI Musikwissenschaft, Vol. 2009, Peter Lang

Verlag, Frankfurt am Main

2005 Music, Making Music and Dancing: Ethno-Musicological Observations in

Meqelle/Tigray. Guandu Music Journal No. 03, Taipei National University of

the Arts, School of Music, 2005: 125 – 148

2006 A Comprehensive Analysis of Sound Recordings from Axum/Ethiopia.

Proceedings of the 15th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies. Siegbert

Uhlig (editor), Harrasowith Printing House, Wiesbaden 2006: 485 – 495.

2009 The One-Stringed Fiddle Masinqo: Its Function and Role in Contemporary

Ethiopia and its Future

2015 The Masinqo: Its Meaning, Role and its Multi-Functionality in Song and

Dance. STUDIA INSTRUMENTORUM MUSICAE IV (New Series). 2015:

295-316

2018 Comprehensive Analysis Of Sound Recordings From Axum (translated

from English into Chinese)

Ullendorf, Edward

1960 The Ethiopians - An Introduction to Gountry and People. - New York ·

Toronto

Wenig, Steffen (editor)

2018 In kaiserlichem Auftrag – Die Deutsche Aksum-Expedition 1906 unter Enno

Littmann: Band 3: Ethnographische, kirchenhistorische und

Außereuropäischer Kulturen. Vol. 3 , Reichert Publisher.

https://www.academia.edu/7370063/Timkehet_Teffera_2001_._Musik_zu_Hochzeiten_bei_den_Amara_im_Zentralen_Hochland_%C3%84thiopiens._Dissertation_Europ%C3%A4ische_Hochschulschriften_Reihe_XXXVI_Musikwissenschaft_Peter_Lang_Verlag_Frankfurt_am_Main




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https://www.academia.edu/7250631/Timkehet_Teffera_2006_._A_Comprehensive_Analysis_of_Sound_Recordings_from_Axum_Ethiopia._Proceedings_of_the_15th_International_Conference_of_Ethiopian_Studies_Siegbert_Uhlig_editor_Harrassowitz_Publisher_Wiesbaden



https://www.academia.edu/6679686/Timkehet_Teffera_2009_._The_One-Stringed_Fiddle_Masinqo_Its_Function_and_Role_in_Contemporary_Ethiopia_and_its_Future_unpublished

https://www.academia.edu/6679686/Timkehet_Teffera_2009_._The_One-Stringed_Fiddle_Masinqo_Its_Function_and_Role_in_Contemporary_Ethiopia_and_its_Future_unpublished

https://www.academia.edu/19744348/Timkehet_Teffera_2015_._The_Masinqo_Its_Meaning_Role_and_its_Multi-Functionality_in_Song_and_Dance._STUDIA_INSTRUMENTORUM_MUSICAE_IV_New_Series_._2015_295-316



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91

Ziegler, Susanne

2002 Historical sound Recordings from Ethiopia on Wax Cylinders. Paper

presented at the 1st International Littmann conference “Archeology and

History of the Horn of Africa”, Munic 2002, unpublished

In kaiserlichem Auftrag – Die Deutsche Aksum-Expedition 1906 unter Enno

Littmann. Ethnographische, kirchenhistorische und Außereuropäischer Kulturen.

Vol. 3.

92

APPENDIX I: Selected photos depicting Aksumite history

Pic. 1: Map of Təgray Regional State

(Source: http://www.tigraionline.com/tigraistate.html)

Pic. 2a: Aksuite Staelas, Photo: T. Teffera, Aksum-Ethiopia 2006

93

Pic. 2b: Ruins of a castle near Aksum114 , Photo: T. Teffera, Aksum-Ethiopia 2006

Pic. 2c: Tomb of King Bazen115; Photo: T. Teffera, Aksum-Ethiopia 2006

94

Pics 3a-b: left: Mariam Zion Church116; right: part of Mariam Zion Church where the Ark

of the Covenant is believed to be preserved; Photos: T. Teffera 2006, Aksum Təgray

Pics 4a-b: Church paintings at Mariam Zion

Church and St. Mary Monastery (17th/18th

century); Photos: T. Teffera and A. Bayru 2006,

Aksum, Təgray

95

Pic. 5a:

St. Yared’s invented

notation system

based on symbols

Pic. 5b: Music-related symbols created by St. Yared inserted above the liturgical texts

helping to embellish the given melody accordingly

96

Pic. 6a-b: Processional Crosses, symbol of Christianity: Photos.

Selamta Vol. 17, No. 3 2000: pp. 38 und C. Beckwith & A. Fischer 2000: 35

Pic. 7a

97

Pic 7a-b: Iconography depicting various religious features

Photos: Fisseha: Bergland Äthiopien: pp. 3

98

F O O T N O T E S 1 The semitic Gə’əz language originating from so-called Sabean language begun to be used as a written

language around the 5th century BC in Ethiopia, but the literature was properly developed after the

4th century AD with the introduction of Christianity and the civilization of the north Ethiopian town

of Aksum (during the reign of the Aksumite king Izana).

2 Early contacts of Ethiopia to the outside world was mainly based on trade with neighbouring

countries, the Middle East, Europe (e.g. Greece and Roman world) extending as far as Asia (e.g.

India and China) have played a paramount role in the process of civilization.

3 Menelik I was the first emperor of Ethiopia. According to the Ethiopian legend it is believed that he

is the son of king Solomon of Israel and the Queen of Sheba of Ethiopia. Tradition credits him with

bringing the Ark of the Convenant to Ethiopia following a visit to Jerusalem to meet his father upon

reaching adulthood (see also Martin-Brown 2001: 359-360). Referring to this Ark of the Covenant the

holy bible narrates the following under Zephaniah 3:10-12: “From beyond the rivers of Cush my

worshipers, my scattered people, will bring me offerings. On that day you, Jerusalem, will not be put to shame

for all the wrongs you have done to me, because I will remove from you your arrogant boasters. Never again

will you be haughty on my holy hill. But I will leave within you the meek and humble. The remnant of Israel

will trust in the name of the LORD”.

4 At the beginning of the Ethiopian history, this country was called Abyssinia. For further detailed

information see: Andrzej Bartnicki and Mantel Niecko: Geschichte Äthiopiens -Von den Anfängen bis

zur Gegenwart, 1978 Berlin, Vol. 1 and 2, E.A.W. Budge: A History of Ethiopia”, 1928 London, David R.

Buxton: The Abyssinians, 1970 London; Carlo Conti-Rossini: “Storia d'Etiopia, 1928 Milan; Harold

Courlander: Notes from an Abyssinian Diary, in: Musical Quarterly 30.: 345-355. – 1944 and Edward

Ullendorf: The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People, 1960 New York, Toronto.

5 Refers to music examples 13 and 14; IDs. 6 and 7 performed by Islamic students in a Koran school

according to the description in the original material.

6 Music examples 8 and 11/IDs 3 and 4

7 Qəñətoc = pl. of qəñət.

8 See detailled discription about the qəñətoc and their system in Teffera 2001: 19-24.

9 In music example 6 for example only audible parts of the instrumental accompaniment have been

notated (see lines indicated with Masinqo interlude).

10 Music examples 6, 12 and 13, 19, 29, 30, 31, 34, 37 and 34 are meant.

11 This may be observed in recordings no. 8, 11, and 12 and in the 1st song part of music example 13.

12 Example: recording no. 13 from song part 2 onwards.

13 See recordings no. 13 and 14

14 Despite the fact that at the time when the recordings were made, the old Ethiopian script Gə’əz was

predominantly used by priests, who were trained in religious schools, it is not imaginable that a

priest may have written down the song texts while Kaschke made the recordings.

15 I had the opportunity to discuss this matter with Dr. Susanne Ziegler, back then staff of the

Voelkerkunde Museum, Berlin. Dr. Ziegler was responsible for the historical wax cylinder

collections of the Phonogram Archive. She provided me with relevant information with regard to

the Aksum expedition and in particular Kaschke’s role. Hence, my thank goes to Dr. Ziegler for her

kind cooperation and feedback during my research undertaking in the archives.

16 See also music examples 6, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 30 and 33 and their lyrics respectively.

17 It also alludes to other old songs observed in the music traditions of central Ethiopia.

99

18 Value is given to the neutral term „melodic formula“, because it mainly focuses on sense making

musical units that are traditionally passed over from generation to generation and are also subjected

to specific principles of exchange and linkage (Teffera 2001: 138).

19 In this study, bars need to be regarded as metrical units that specify the beat. The internal structure

of the ‘bars’ however, does not always correspond to the dynamic attributes in the European

notation system (see also Teffera 2001: 17-18).

20 All meaningless words or syllables are indicated in italic with the aim at differentiating them from

the translatable texts. Even though song lines which predominantly consist of senseless and/or

meaningless words and/or combination of words are literary not translatable, but they possess an

important musical and linguistic function (ibid 161-162).

21 The words minti atu und yimesitu are impossible to translate. On the other hand, they are clearly

audible. Also in the original text they are written in the same way.

22 One of the ethnic societies in Ethiopia is known as Oromo.

23 Furthermore, such lines may be used as a means to be able to think of the following text. Apart from

‘nonsense’ syllables/words, Amharic songs also apply rather incoherent word/s and sometimes even

full verse lines that have no or very little relationship with the core message of a respected song. This

is one of the characteristic features observed in Amhara songs. Such lyrics may, among others, be

applied to create rhyming lines, to embellish a melodic course, to achieve the required number of

syllables per verse line hence, to avoid possible gaps or (as already stated) to get time to remember

the following stanza. In the present collection these spots are highlighted in bold. Nonsense words

and/or syllables often occur in the songs between stanzas.

Such text parts are mostly hard to translate, e.g. into English. During my examination and

translation work of a rare audio collection consisting of Amharic and Təgrəña which were recorded

during the 1940s primarily in Ethiopia, I was also able to encounter ‘nonsense’ syllables/words occur

quite often in a number of tracks. These are, for instance, ገዳሙ / ገዳማ / ገዳማይ [gädamu / gädama /

gädamay] and ምነው? [mənäw?]. With the words gädamu / gädama / gädamay the singer affectionately

addresses a loved one/s; in short the translations ‘my charming, darling, my love, my sweetheart’

would fit it one way or another. There are similar words that are literally impossible to translate, but,

at least, for these words I applied the translation = “my charming or my sweet heart” have uniformly

been applied in all songs.

24 Probably the tonal scope used by him at the beginning of the song was too low.

25 I would like to thank my husband, Abebe Bayru from Təgray, for his information regarding the

melodic, rhythmic structures as well as the text of this song taking music example 2 as a comparison

and about the music culture of the Təgray as a whole.

26 Usually all the Qəñətoc are imagined in ascending order and the intervallic relationships are thus

connected with this order.

27 See also: Timkehet Teffera: „Musik zu Hochzeiten bei den Amhara im Zentralen Hochland

Äthiopiens“, Peter Lang, Frankfurt a.M. ... etc. 2001: 33-36

28 In other words this song line means „I am looking for money“.

29 It will be settled by the song leader

30 The master; e.g. the father, of the house is meant.

31 The category of the presents depends on the social status of a family. No family would be obliged to

arrange presents for the singing group/groups. It may also often happen that more than a group

may visit the same family within a day. In this case the family can and should inform the group that

it has already been visited by another group previously and therefore it has no more presents to be

handed over.

32 Awd amet = holiday.

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33 The content refers to a male person. Teff is a type of corn, which most probably only grows in

Ethiopia. It is one of the basic foodstuffs for those inhabitants particularly residing in the Central

Highland of Ethiopia.

34 According to the material information provided the song is indicated by the music example 20, but -

based on the original song text that is as well given as music example 3 - a similarity could be

discovered in the text. Therefore, this recording, indicated as music example 3 is rather correct. The

same recording was copied again and given in the ID 31.

35 High military rank during the reign of Emperor Haile Silassie I. as well several former Ethiopian

leaders like e.g. His Emperor Menelik II..

36 It may be assumed that in this connection King Solomon of Jerusalem might be meant.

37 Besides his melodically varied style of singing, the azmari is also known for his spontaneously

improvised texts, which are very entertaining. Usually the texts reflect the everyday live as well as

social, political and cultural issues. Therefore, the azmari is admired and animated by his audience

during his performances.

38 Some of his texts are completely incoherent in their contents. This phenomenon is frequently

observed in numerous entertainment and love songs especially in the music culture of the Amhara.

Nevertheless, the audience with great enthusiasm consumes them. The stanzas consisting of either

two, four or more lines usually rhyme.

39 Harär is located in Southeast Ethiopia. The text means that the people of this region are shouting for

help.

40 i.e. the bad time I am facing nowadays.

41 Birr is the Ethiopian currency. In other words, the singer asks for some tip.

42 The one who fears stays at home.

43 Tesema Nadew is praised as a hero.

44 The son of Abba Bahir is meant.

45 The month of July is the 11th month according to the Ethiopian calendar.

46 Most of the azmariwoc (plural of azmari) are usually Masinqo players simultaneously and therefore

they mostly accompany themselves while singing; see also Timkehet Teffera: Musik zu Hochzeiten

bei den Amhara im Zentralen Hochland Äthiopiens. Peter Lang, Frankfurt a.M. etc. 2001: 163–167

and 177-178.

47 See e.g. bars 5 and 14.

48 The person, probably Kaschke, is mentioned in bar 24 with the term “the German“.

49 See for example song lines 1, 2 and 3.

50 See e.g. bars 3 – 5 and 7 – 9.

51 The word loye is a melodically determined abbreviation of the word alewoye.

52 Compare for example the bars 1 - 6 as well as 11 - 16 of the song leader with the bars 6 - 11 and 16 -

21 of the accompanying group.

53 Compare bars 1 - 5 with bars 11-16 as well as 51-56.

54 For this occasion, a special food will be prepared

55 Locally brewed beer or wine

56 Among others, it refers to the dance, the hand clapping, gestures and mimic

57 Such happenings are also observed in the musical practises of the Amhara like for example in the

functional and non-functional wedding songs and many other musical occations where usually

quite a great number of people are gathered without restriction of their age or sex. Thus, likewise

there are also songs consisting of very limited or fixed melodies and texts, which above all sound

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very monotonous for an unexperienced listener. On the other hand, however, experienced listeners

or those who are aquainted to the tradition admire the song as well as the whole act accompanying

it without getting boared. On the contrary, in the course of any group song, a gradually increasing

number of people participate actively who at first are just passive listeners and observers enjoing the

song from a certain distance.

58 Example: cylinder 12 from bar 20 onwards.

59 See bars 49 - 52/part of the song leader.

60 Compare bars 1-7 with 13-19 and 49-55.

61 The children participating in the song are most probably between 6 and 14 years of age.

62 Contrary to the remaining songs of this collection, cylinders 13 and 14 cannot be assigned to any of

the four previously mentioned qəñətoc. The text from the original material given the cylinder 14 does

not correspond to the available cylinder 14.

63 See amont other things bars 14 and 16.

64 This spots were marked with the sign 1*.

65 In the entire collection, altogether five war and hunting songs in Amarəña and Təgrəña are contained,

which consist of both melodically shaped and recited structures. The further four recordings which

are described in their order, are 16, 23, 24 and 33.

66 Ashenafi Kebede: The Music of Ethiopia, Its Development and Gultural Setting, Ph.D. Dissertation. -

Wesleyan University - Ann Arbor 1971: pp. 66 – 69.

67 The term Šilela derives from the verb mäšäläl and means „to boast or to tell the deeds of heroes”. It

refers to a far history. Since the emergence of the Ethiopian state in the 1st Century, several wars

have taken place (outside invasions, e.g. by Italy 1936 and internal conflicts, e.g. the religious was

between Muslims and Christians in the seventh Century). This phenomenon has simultaneously

contributed to the development and spread of this song style; see also Timkehet Teffera: Musik zu

Hochzeiten bei den Amhara im Zentralen Hochland Äthiopiens. Peter Lang, Frankfurt a.M. etc. 2001:

36-37.

68 These are predominantly entertainment and love songs performed in solo form.

69 The enemies.

70 Name.

71 Nur notwendige Atempausen sind zu hören.

72 Bekannte Helden aus der äthiopischen Kriegsgeschichte.

73 Capital of the region Təgray.

74 Name of a place

75 The date of recording is 11.02.1906.

76 see song lines 1, 2, 5, 8 and 9 in the text representation of cylinder 18

77 see the pitches in brackets

78 The predominant part of this song could not be translated word by word

79 Most probably the brother of the hero is meant here

80 Name of a place

81 See also descriptions and analysis in cylinder 15.

82 See among others, Cynthia Tse Kmberlin: The Bägäna of Ethiopia. In: Ethniopianist Notes. Vol. 2,

No. 2. Michigan - 1978: 13-29 and Michael Powne Ethiopian Music. London 1968

83 a „contextual“ correction

84 The text of this song could not be represented, because of its mostly inaudible part.

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85 This term shout should not be understood in a negative way, because such sounds are usually used

in the traditional repertoire of war songs of the Amhara and the Təgray.

86 Ethiopian Leader (1889 – 1913).

87 Local bear

88 Traditional bread backed from sour dough of a specific kind of grain known as Teff

89 while killing his enemies

90 Metema and Adwa are historical fields of combats, which are located in the region of Təgray whereas

Gojjam is one of the Ethiopian regions within the Central Highland.

91 The pitch d’ is only used at this spot, namely at the beginning of the song.

92 The song is similar to the song in music example 31.

93 There are 2 - 8-lined refrain- and 3 - 6-lined verse parts.

94 In the score in the cyclic movements of both in the refrain and in the verse parts are optically

differentiated

95 The beginning of the song is missing.

96 The pitch sequence d’-e’-f#’-a’ und b’ are used with the intervallic relationships M2-M2-m3 and M2.

97 Here the pitch sequence g’- ab’-c’-d’ and e’ in connection with the intervallic relationships m2-M3-

m2 and Aug2 are used.

98 In Kaschke’s list, this song is indicated as cylinder no. 30. Of course it is most probably the same

singer who performes both songs however, they are two different pieces.

99 The master

100 Ethiopian currency

101 A plant

102 meaning ‘I am tired or fed up of life’.

103 The text lines in the second song part do not fully correspond to the succession of the performed

text, because some are inaudible and therefore not given in the text representation.

104 Area name in Wello/Central Highland of Ethiopia

105 Name of a place

106 It is an abbreviation of the word „ihite“ which means „my sister“

107According to the original material, this song is indicated as cylinder 1 even though in the previous

announcement of the museum staff “cylinder 37” is mentioned. A comparison of the original text

with the performed one brought to the result that it is also designated as cylinder no. 1 as well.

108 The meaning is unclear (a certain type of hairstyle?).

109 See measures 17 and 39 indicated with the No. 1*.

110 The term ‘group’ refers to an antiphonal song form.

111 Recordings 13 and 14 are not classified under the qəñətoc

112 The same singer performs songs no. 32 and 33; this can be recognized through the timbre

113 A very bad type of recitation e.g. in the cylinder 24; performed with a limited text and emotion.

114 This historical area is a legacy of the Aksumite Empire, which is locally believed to be the old palace

of the Queen of Sheba according to the guide who took me to this and several other places.

115 also spelled as Zäbe’esi Bazén, ZäBazén Balthazar or Tazén), was the 17th or 21st ruler of the

Solomonic (Israelite) line according to the shorter King lists; according to Connah (2016: 124 ), King

Bazen is believed to have been 8 years old when the Lord, Jesus Christ was born.

116 St. Maria of Zion (also called Re-ese Adbarat Kidiste Kidusan Dingel Maryam Ts’iyon = ርዕሰ አድባራት ቅድስተ

ቅዱሳን ድንግል ማሪያም ፅዮን). This church was perhaps originally built sometime between 4th and 6th

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centuries after Ethiopia (during the reign of King Ezana) and it still serves as the main center of

worship of the Christian Orthodox religion. The original church was ruined by Yodit Gudit during

the 9th century. It has been rebuilt a couple of times, but its contemporary look was accomplished

arount the mid 1950 by during the reign of Emperor Haile Silassie I (Martin-Brown 2001: 360).

Timkehet Teffera (2003). Historical Sound Recordings from Axum-Ethiopia: Collection: Kaschke 1906....

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