Journal of Environmental Accounting and Management 1(3) (2013) 48-57

ISSN 2325-6192, eISSN 2325-6206/$- see front materials © 2013 L&H Scientific Publishing, LLC. All rights reserved.

DOI:10.5890/JEAM.2013.03.004

Journal of Environmental Accounting and Management

https://lhscientificpublishing.com/Journals/JEAM-Default.aspx

Thirty-years assessment of size-fractionated particle mass concentrations in a pol-

luted urban area and its implications for the regulatory framework

Marco Casazza1†, Giorgio Gilli2, Angelo Piano1 and Silvia Alessio1

1 Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125, Torino, Italy

2 Dipartimento di Scienze della Sanità Pubblica e Pediatriche, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via Santena 5 BIS,

10126, Torino, Italy

Submission Info

Communicated by Sergio Ulgiati

Received 26 May 2013

Accepted 27 July 2013

Available online 15 August 2013

Abstract

Among the different atmospheric pollutants, since the late 70s,

great attention has been devoted to Particulate Matter (PM). Con-

sidering a 30-year database of size-fractionated PM measurements,

we have observed the positive impact of the gradual introduction

of improved air quality regulations. In fact, PM10, PM2.5 and PM1

absolute concentration levels have been reduced during this period.

In particular the mean recorded values are: 63 μg/m3 (PM10), 38

μg/m3 (PM2.5) and 22 μg/m3 (PM1) in year 1980. Recorded mean

values were 59 μg/m3 (PM10), 41 μg/m3 (PM2.5) and 32 μg/m3

(PM1) in year 2000, and finally 45 μg/m3 (PM10), 34 μg/m3 (PM2.5)

and 29 μg/m3 (PM1) in year 2011. Nevertheless, major adverse

health effects are still recorded. Even if a complete toxicological

description of PM impact is still in progress and several aspects

related to the chemical and mutagenic effects of PM should be

deeper investigated, we suggest that the relative size concentra-

tions are also of paramount importance. In fact, even if the abso-

lute concentrations of the three inhalable PM fractions decreased,

relative concentrations of finer fractions have increased in the pe-

riod 1980-2010. In particular, the relative values of PM2.5 and PM1

are: 61% (PM2.5) and 35% (PM1) in year 1980; 70% (PM2.5) and

54% (PM1) in year 2000; 75% (PM2.5) and 65% (PM1) in year

2011. Results suggest that the introduction of new limitations to

sub-micron particles (PM1) emissions is advisable. Furthermore,

possible improvement of air quality management might derive

from differentiated local/regional limitations, depending on the

characteristics of the exposed population and on the local meteoro-

logical and geographical characteristics of the sites showing higher

Keywords

PM10

PM2.5

PM1

Health effects

Urban atmosphere

Regulatory aspects

† Corresponding author.

Email address: casazza@to.infn.it

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49

aerosol pollution levels.

© 2013 L&H Scientific Publishing, LLC. All rights reserved.

1 Introduction

Atmospheric pollution is a global concern due to its influence on human health and quality of life [1].

Among the pollutants, a major subject of interest is the inhalable fraction of Particulate Matter (PM),

which is also known as PM10. Generally it is subdivided in two sub-fractions, considering the penetra-

tion into the respiratory apparatus. In particular, we have coarse particles, whose characteristic dimen-

sions range between 2.5 and 10 μm, that are mainly composed by soil and street dust, sea salts, pollen,

mold spores, debris of plants and insects, and fine particles, with dimensions lower than 2.5 μm, also

known as PM2.5, that contain mostly substances of anthropogenic origin, including sulphate, nitrate,

ammonium, metals and organic compounds. The latter can reach the deeper parts of the respiratory

apparatus.

The European Environmental Agency indicates that, with respect to the PM10 threshold daily limit

values, the Po Valley is one of the most critical areas in Europe. Anyway critical conditions are pre-

sent also in other areas, such as in China. In fact, due to its rapidly expanding economic and industrial

developments, China faced an expansion of the urban area population and the emergence of a number

of mega cities since the 1990. This expansion has resulted in tremendous increases in energy con-

sumption, emissions of air pollutants and the number of poor air quality days in mega cities and their

immediate vicinities [2].

Apart from the atmospheric particulate size, also the chemical nature and the local meteorological

conditions matter in making the necessary considerations about air quality and, consequently, on hu-

man health. A great attention to the latter subject is due to the correlation between PM high concentra-

tions and adverse health effects. World Health Organization (WHO hereafter) analyses estimate that

ambient air pollution, in terms of PM2.5, causes about 3% of mortality from cardiopulmonary disease,

about 5% of mortality from cancer of the trachea, bronchus, and lung, and about 1% of mortality from

acute respiratory infections in children under 5 yr, worldwide. This amounts to about 0.8 million

premature deaths (1.2% of children under 5 yr worldwide). This burden occurs predominantly in de-

veloping countries; 65% in Asia alone. These estimates consider only the impact of air pollution on

mortality (i.e., years of life lost) and not morbidity (i.e., years lived with disability), due to limitations

in the epidemiologic database [3]. Epidemiological studies have found this correlation for fine particle

metrics, such as PM2.5 [4]. Short term effects have also been found on daily mortality due to diseases

of the circulatory system due to the same aerosol fraction [5]. The cytotoxicity of fine and coarse frac-

tions has also been assessed [6].

Adverse effects of atmospheric particles are evident in relation not only to human health, but also

to the cultural heritage [7.8]. Atmospheric aerosols also affect climate. In particular, we must consider

radiative processes [9] and the hydrological cycle [10].

The chemical speciation of aerosol particles has been under study for many decades. Quite recently

the attention has been focused on to the presence of nitrates during high level of pollution events [11]

as well as of organics and sulphur, which usually dominate PM1 [12]. Nitro-PAHs and other nitro

compounds produced from gas-phase reactions are generally correlated to NOx pollution [13]. They

are known to play an important role in mutagenesis, and there is a strong necessity of primary preven-

tion improvements to reduce nitrated molecule air pollution [14]. The presence of heavy metals is also

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known from past and recent studies [15,16].

Local climate and topography are known factors influencing air pollution levels [17,18]. These can

be particularly troublesome if the affected city is located in a valley surrounded by mountains, either

as in the Meuse Valley in Belgium [19] and the Valley of Mexico [20] or in the Po Valley, where To-

rino is located [21]. The influence of local meteorological factors is related both to the aerosol genera-

tion processes and to transport and scavenging phenomena. In fact meteorology is important for un-

derstanding the degradation of SO2, NO2 and NH3, leading to secondary aerosol formation. Tempera-

ture and solar radiation enhance the formation of O3, H2SO4 and (NH4)2SO4, while relative humidity

enhances the transformation of NO2 to form HNO3 and NH4NO3 [22] The aerosol transport by wind

has been studied and described in different areas [23]. Aerosol in-cloud scavenging [24,25] and re-

moval processes by precipitations [26,27,28] and by fog [29,30] are also known.

Because of the given framework, it is clear that regulations are of paramount importance to protect

human life and health and, indirectly climate and also the cultural heritage. The private rights asser-

tion in the control of air pollution has already shown its inefficacy [31]. This fact induced internation-

al, national and local authorities to introduce several guidelines or regulatory indications. Generally

emission quantities control is more effective than marketable emission permits in reducing the dam-

ages related to pollutants exposure. Nevertheless, in the US, marketable permits, in the case of sulphur,

have been very successful [32]. If the economic damage is super-linear with respect to the emitted

pollutant quantities, it is also known that spatially uniform regulations can become more than twice as

costly as efficient controls [33].

Regulations are giving a positive impulse to societal awareness about this problem, with conse-

quent behavioural changes [34]. Furthermore, international and national laws enhance the develop-

ment of cleaner technologies [35]. The assessed impact of regulations introduction on PM10 levels has

been recorded through regular measurements of particle pollution by the different national bodies in

charge of environmental protection. Nevertheless critical situations are still recorded in different areas

of the world. The research group, GEOFIT, created inside the Physics Department of Torino University (three of

the authors of this paper are members of this group), started to study the atmospheric particulate char-

acteristics in the Po Valley in the early 70s, with the purpose of characterizing the deposition process-

es from relevant industrial sources (in particular, power plant emissions). Later on, the attention was

moved to urban pollution. In particular, in year 1980 a systematic operation of combined sampling of

meteorological data and aerosol measurements started, fixing a measuring site in the garden outside of

the Physics Department, which is located in the central part of the city of Torino. Since then the aero-

sol sampling instrument has never been changed. Along the years the attention has been focused on

different factors: the relation of aerosol concentrations with the atmospheric variables; the size-

fractioned heavy metal content; the aerosol below-cloud wet scavenging; the study of PM1 variability

in relation to gaseous pollutants concentrations and the meteorological variability, thanks to the access

to data of the Regione Piemonte environmental measuring network managed by the Regional Envi-

ronmental Protection Agency of Piemonte (ARPA Piemonte). Some of the obtained results have been

published throughout the years [36,37,38]. Other results were presented either in national conferences

or in some project reports.

In spite of the huge database, covering different fields of interest, the database has never been used

in its totality before. While some general results on the yearly trends of atmospheric particle concen-

trations – in particular, for PM10 – have been determined and published in the yearly ARPA Piemonte

public reports, the influence of the air quality regulations on PM concentration levels has never been

assessed before. We want, then, to reconsider, based on the selection of the worse available data (the

days of highest emissions and lowest aerosol removal, i.e. winter days with stable good weather con-

ditions), some important questions. In particular: are the introduced rules effective in reducing the

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impact of particulate matter pollution in the metropolitan area of Torino, which is still considered as

one of the most polluted over Europe? Are there specific factors that the present regulation is still ne-

glecting? How critical are the difficulties of the local administrations in imposing effective restrictions

to the citizens?

2 Materials and methods

There are different possible approaches for answering the given questions. While there are some

common background considerations, on which it is possible to reach a general agreement, there are

different specific issues on regulation applications, which can be faced up in different ways, due to

their possible social and economical impacts. As written before, in 1972 our group focused a part of

its interest on the study of size-segregated PM10 mass concentration in the Po Valley. In 1979 we have

also started a Long Observation Period (LOP) of size-fractioned PM10 mass concentration in the city

of Torino (NW Italy), that is still continuing at present, in the same place and using the same instru-

mental and analytical technique.

In particular we performed our measurements using an Andersen 2000 Inc. 'Mark II' model 8-

stages cascade impactor, which allows aerosol particles subdivision with respect to different cut-off

diameters: 0.54, 0.88, 1.60, 2.70, 5.85, 9.00 and 11 μm. The cascade impactor was connected to an

Andersen 2000 Inc. model 22-000 pump, with a selected air flux of 28.3 l/min, checked through a

volumetric measurer. For collecting the particle fractions, we used quartz fiber filters, that were

weighted, before and after the field measures, using an analytical scale having a resolution of 0.001

mg.

The measurements have always been taken in the front garden of the Physics Department of Tori-

no University, which is located in the central part of the city. This guarantees the fact that, having a

fixed site aeronomy, the measures can be related only to source characteristics variations and to the

local weather variability. To have the local meteorological conditions under control, we can rely on

the existence of our Department meteorological station, that collects regularly all the necessary data.

The discussion of the correlation between different meteorological factors and aerosol concentrations,

anyway, has been already shown in a previous paper [38], as well as the correlation of aerosol concen-

trations and speciations [36,37,38]. As a consequence, these aspects are not dealt with within this pa-

per. Considering the observations database, related to the LOP, we have selected three Short Observa-

tion Periods (SOP), during the winters of years 1980, 2000 and 2011. This choice is due to different

factors. From one side, during winter the emission sources of atmospheric pollutants are more numer-

ous and intense. In the same period some atmospheric phenomena occur, such as thermal inversions,

that can lead to a greater exposure levels for the population. On the other side we have chosen these

three years because of the known variation of sources characteristics, due to the introduction of new

regulations and interventions aimed at air pollution mitigation. In particular the fuel desulphurization

and the use of unleaded petrol were introduced just before year 2000. Since year 2011 it is possible to

record the effects of the introduction of regional regulations on domestic heating emission control,

that came into force a couple of years before. A sub-dataset was finally selected for comparison, in-

cluding only the days with stable good weather conditions, in order to exclude any macroscopic effect

due to transport and scavenging phenomena.

3. Results and discussion

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3.1 PM measurements assessment

First we need to make a preliminary consideration. Yearly mean data of PM10 mass concentrations,

collected and stored between years 2000 and 2009, show a positive effect, related to the application of

the local and international directives on air quality. This fact is visible in Fig. 1. The sub-dataset was

selected considering that, in the period 1980-1999, no significative trend was detected within the data,

so that the benefit of air quality policies introduced after year 2000 is clearly visible. Nevertheless, the

impact of atmospheric pollution on human health is still present in our area, as also demonstrated by a

recent deep epidemiological study [39].

Fig. 1 Historical trend of yearly mean PM10 concentrations (ordinate - expressed in μg/m3) in the last decade (abscissa) for Turin

(Piemonte, NW Italy). The data have been selected to show the effect of air quality regulations introduced after year 2000. The

values of mean PM10 concentrations were oscillating, in the years 1980-2000, at levels similar to year 2000, showing no significa-

tive trends.

The exposition to atmospheric particulate matter through the analysis of size-fractionated PM10

measurements should be better identified. For this purpose, knowing the trend of absolute PM10 values,

we have selected three representative years, considering also the uniform sampling technique and the

homogeneous weather conditions of the samplings. One, which is representative of the period 1980-

1999, for which the data didn't show significative trends; one, relative to year 2000, just after the de-

sulphurization of fuels; one, of year 2011, after the introduction of the regional regulations and con-

trols on domestic emissions, that came after the general regulation of regional air quality objectives.

We underline here the fact that we have chosen only winter data to consider the only the maximum

availability of emission levels, which have potential adverse effects both for the human health and for

the environment.

Comparing these data, we can observe a reduction of the absolute concentrations of PM. We start

from a mean value of 63 μg/m3 (PM10), 38 μg/m3 (PM2.5) and 22 μg/m3 (PM1) in year 1980. We rec-

orded a mean value of 59 μg/m3 (PM10), 41 μg/m3 (PM2.5) and 32 μg/m3 (PM1) in year 2000. Finally

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we measured a mean value of 45 μg/m3 (PM10), 34 μg/m3 (PM2.5) and 29 μg/m3 (PM1) in year 2011.

On the other side, the relative repartition of PM10 changed. In particular, the relative values of PM2.5

and PM1 are: 61% (PM2.5) and 35% (PM1) in year 1980; 70% (PM2.5) and 54% (PM1) in year 2000;

75% (PM2.5) and 65% (PM1) in year 2011. This means that, while the aerosol emissions have changed

as absolute amount, the relative emission of smaller size aerosol particles has increased over the years.

It should not be disregarded that these data are referred to stable good weather conditions, when the

effects of scavenging are minimal and the emissions are not removed either by transport (wind) or by

wet scavenging (precipitations). Thus, the aerosol deposition is limited to gravity effect in proportion

to each single particle mass. While we can observe a general relative reduction of the coarse fraction,

the sub-micrometer particles (also known as PM1) have increased from 35% to 65% of the total PM10

mass concentrations over the 30-years period considered. This fact is visible in Fig. 2, which repre-

sents a comparison of selected data concerning mean segregated PM10 concentration values for the

different years considered, expressed as percentage of total PM10 mass values [40].

We know that PM1 data provide very good information about contributions from combustion pro-

cesses [41]. In fact, the PM1 absolute mass concentrations reduction are surely due to the improve-

ments of combustion efficiency and the desulphurization of fuels, that greatly abated the SO2 concen-

trations in Torino urban area. The control of atmospheric emissions affected also the coarse fraction

impact on total PM10 values. This is in fact confirmed by the reduction of this fraction from 39% of

PM10 (year 1980) to 30% (year 2000) and 25% (year 2011) (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 PM10 stable fine-weather winter measures percentage mean mass concentration (ordinate) with respect to Andersen Mark II

8-stage cascade impactor cut-off diameters (abscissa - μm). The size repartitions are referred to years 1980, 2000 and 2011. Meas-

urements performed in Turin (Piemonte, NW Italy). This graphic reflects the degree of penetration of the different collected aerosol

fractions inside the respiratory apparatus.

Further investigations on differentiated-size impact are needed. Adverse effects are also related to

the coarse particle fraction of natural origin [42]. Furthermore, the chemical nature of PM should be

also considered for assessing the toxicological impact of atmospheric aerosols. We recall, anyway, the

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fact that nitro-compounds and metals are generally present in polluted areas, as reported in the first

section of this paper.

3.2 Consequences for effective regulations improvement

The research on this subject should continue, since there are no clear and complete answers about PM

toxicity (mainly, it is known that they are toxic above a certain level). The importance of size-

segregated PM10 measurements as a basis for atmospheric particles pollution assessment is clear. In

the meanwhile, air quality regulations should continue to evolve. Actually the WHO guideline publi-

cation [1] indicates a set of reference indicators: the inhalable fraction (PM10) and the respirable frac-

tion (PM2.5) mass concentrations, which have different degrees of penetration into the respiratory ap-

paratus. Since our measurements show that PM1 represents 65% of PM10, this would be a better indi-

cator than PM2.5, also in relation to anthropogenic emissions. This fact is also confirmed by another

study, that also considered a survey of 600 previous publications on this subject [41]. Furthermore

PM1 has a higher inhalability (percentage of environmentally-available aerosol, that penetrates into

the respiratory apparatus). In fact it is possible to calculate its value [43], which shows that this factor

increases with the reduction of the particle characteristic dimensions (77% for particles with aerody-

namic diameter of 10 μm; 93% for particles with aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 μm; 97% for particles

with aerodynamic diameter of 1 μm). Since PM1 is originated by gas-to-particle conversion processes

and considering that a great part of PM available in polluted areas are derived from nitro-compounds

and exhibit a clear adverse health effect [14], a further strengthening of emission control directives

should be desirable. The same consideration is applicable to the use of metallic materials potentially

dispersible in the atmosphere. Regulations generally do not take into account that the population characteristics are differentiated

for risk factors (such as age, lifestyle and so on). This should be kept in mind when imposing specific

restrictions. Second, it is well known from the scientific literature that local factors (such as micro-

meteorological conditions and topography) have a great influence on PM data. Nevertheless, both in-

ternational and national regulatory aspects do not consider this fact. Neither weaker limitations nor

tolerance levels of variability to PM concentration levels, depending on the meteorological and geo-

graphical condition of the specific site have been considered before. Instead, the introduction of dif-

ferentiated indicators and threshold limits (for risks and regional conditions) could be useful, consid-

ering also efficacy vs. cost considerations, as already observed in the literature [33].

4. Conclusions

The introduction of the different international and national regulations about emissions and air quality

preservation has already shown its benefits. A reduction of the inhalable PM fraction has been record-

ed over three decades. Nevertheless health adverse effects are still present. A deeper analysis of our

data shows that, while the relative coarse fraction concentrations have been reduced, the sub-micron

fraction, originated by anthropogenic activities, has increased along the years. This fact is not due to

local effects. Instead, it is common all over industrialized areas of the world, as confirmed by other

studies.

Consequently we must underline two aspects. In particular, some effort should be made to intro-

duce new rules about PM1, that now represents the major fraction of PM10 (65%) and deeply penetrate

trough the respiratory apparatus. These exposure indicators could be further improved considering

both the results of future epidemiological studies (to define some related risk weighting factors) and

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the definition of new regional threshold limit values. This should be done to weigh the existing influ-

ence of regional and local factors not depending on emissions.

Developing new and more definite rules on PM emissions might also implicate some co-benefits

for climate-change policy making [44]. This has still not been fully valued, since policy debates are

mainly framed in terms of cost minimization. Thus a better estimation of the possible consequences of

such a choice should have beneficial effects.

A final consideration comes about the importance of the existing databases, both of measures and

scientific works, which can give a strong support in developing any future environmental regulation.

Thus governments and scientific bodies should care about the preservation of the historical archives,

which can give, as in this case, also delayed positive effects in the field of policymaking.

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