The Value and Principles of Educational Storytelling

Educational Storytelling 1 •

Running Head: EDUCATIONAL STORYTELLING I'

The Value and Principles of Educational Storytelling

Michael Wilson

Drury University

In Partial Fulfillment of

The Requirements for the Course

EDUC 700 Capstone Seminar •

Summer2008

·' . --··

\ Educational StofYtelling 2 •

Abstract :~

Storytelling has existed since mankind first took to speech and has remained an imporfant " . '"' '" '"

' ~taple in passing along information, cultural values, and wisdom. The purpose oftpis

study is to examine the nature of using stories for an educational purpose and then build a

simple model to assist educators and parents in the creation of educational stories. Afto::r

> an introduction and review of pervious scholarly and popular work, a set of thirteen

interviews will be eJ<m:ni!led. Fro~p. the data, a model will be constructed involving a " "

" ~~

strUcture for stories that teach not only cultural values, but proce~s-orienteq lessons.

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Educational Storytelling 3

Table of Contents

Chapter One, Introduction ............................................................................................. 5

Purpose of Study ................................................................................................ 5

Statement of Problem ......................................................................................... 7

Limitations of Study .......................................................................................... 7

Definitions of Terms .......................................................................................... 8

Chapter Two, Review of the Literature ......................................................................... 10

The Value of Storytelling for Education ............................................................ 10

The Elements of Story ....................................................................................... 12

Character ................................................................................................ 13

Robert McKee ............................................................................ 13

Christopher Vogler ..................................................................... 16

Donna Cooper ............................................................................ 19

Setting .................................................................................................... 21

Robert McKee ............................................................................ 21

Christopher Vogler ..................................................................... 22

Plot ......................................................................................................... 22

Robert McKee ............................................................................ 22

Christopher Vogler. .................................................................... 24

Donna Cooper ............................................................................ 26

A Note on Learning Styles ................................................................................. 27

Chapter Three, Methodology ......................................................................................... 29

Research Interview ............................................................................................. 30


Cultural Influence .............................................................................................. 32

Chapter Four, Analysis .................................................................................................. 34

Question I .......................................................................................................... 34

Question 2 .......................................................................................................... 35

Question 3 .......................................................................................................... 36

Question 4 .......................................................................................................... 3 7

Question 5 .......................................................................................................... 38

Question 6 .......................................................................................................... 39

Question 7 ........................................................................................................... 39

Question 8 .......................................................................................................... 41

Chapter Five, Conclusions ............................................................................................. 42

Constructing Stories for Education .................................................................... 42

Hero-Audience Bonding ........................................................................ 42

The Hero and the Ordinary World, Broken ........................................... 45

The Hero and the Journey ...................................................................... 45

The Hero and the Moment ..................................................................... 46

The Hero and the Repercussions ............................................................ 47

Micro-principles ..................................................................................... 48

Presentation and Craft ........................................................................................ 49

Learning Profiles and Medium .............................................................. 49

Age Appropriateness .............................................................................. 50

Discussion and Implementation ............................................................. 51

Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 51

I


CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

She sits on his knee, eyes as wide as silver dollars, full of breath caged in her tiny

chest. The girl dares not move. She dares not breathe. The story isn't over. Her father's

voice is low and hushed as he continues the tale, an ancient epic passed down through the

centuries. He's heard it many times. She's experiencing it for the first time. Her hands

tremble and her heart beats fast. The chase is on - down the streets of the kingdom and

through the woods.

Then the story ends.

The glass slipper fits. The girl is saved.

The little girl's tense muscles loosen and her smile grows large than a banana. Her

. dad laughs when she starts asking question after question about Cinderella. She will

dream about being a fairy princess. And she will never forget the first time she heard.

Stories hold power. They captivate our imaginations, transport us to places

unseen, and let us explore parts of ourselves otherwise forever hidden. They are great

fun. But can story be more? Can stories teach?

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study can be broken into three general divisions. First, address

the value of using storytelling as a communicative tool in teaching both macro-principles

and micro-principles. Second, synthesize research regarding the principles of story to

create a guide for creating compelling characters, setting, and plot. Third, create a

working model of how to integrate educational principles into compelling stories to

teach.


Storytelling has great value to education as has been noted throughout the history

of the world. In the earliest days, before mankind even had written record, stories were

used to great affect as the primary means by which knowledge was passed. Throughout

the ages, cultures have developed myths, legends, and works of fiction specifically

designed to teach the following generation's core values and beliefs. Even today,

response to educational media and stories is overwhelming.

Once the value of educational storytelling has been firmly established, this paper

will begin to create a basic guide for creating compelling fiction. What good is a story

designed to teach if no one reads it? The elements of fiction must be executed masterfully

if enticing stories are to be created. Therefore, the author will synthesize research from

the greatest storytellers, story architects, and medium-specific craftsmen in an effort to

understand the basic components of an engaging story. Specific mediums will be

intentionally minimalised as a good story can be told through film, prose, graphic design,

or even sitting around the campfire.

A good story is not enough. If a tale is to be used for education, it must contain

very specific elements to pass knowledge to the audience. The last major aim of this

paper is to outline the process of using storytelling with the intent purpose of instruction.

The differences between teaching Macro-principles (values, mores, and traditions) and

Micro-principles (rote memory and processes) will be explored. Lastly, all the data will

be compiled in a simple to use guide for creating compelling stories with an educational

core.


Statement of Problem

What are the principles involved in creating compelling stories with an

educational purpose? How does one invent a compelling situation? A believable world?

An empathetic character? What is an author's voice and how is it developed? Basically?

How do you tell a good story? Can it be learned? Moreover, since educators wish to use

story to teach, what is the difference between a commercial story and an educational

story?

To a certain extent, many of these questions can never be answered. There are

many aspects of storytelling which can only be understood through the prism of natural

talent and hard practice. Writer's write. On the other hand, the principles of storytelling

can be quantified, and have been by many of the greatest minds history has to offer.

Limitations of Study

Art is largely subjective. What is "good" art to one person may very well be

considered rubbish by his/her neighbor. There are certain commonalities that can be

investigated, and craftsmanship has a very important role to play in the creation of art.

However, at the end of the day, beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

The audience's culture can also become a major}imitation to this study. In this

paper, the author will focus on hero driven stories. There are several hero-phobic cultures

in which this kind of story would not be well received. Furthermore, culture is the lens by

which art is interpreted. A difference in culture between the creator and the audience is

often futile. To complicate matters further, tiny nuances in the cultures between two

audience members can affect the reception of a story. Every measure will be taken to


create an effective model for storytelling in a multi-cultural society, but I 00% cultural

integration is impossible.

Definitions of Terms

I) Story- In its most basic sense, story is the description of a sequence of

events whether true or false.

2) Universal Story- A story, fiction or non-fiction, that transverses culture to

the psyche of all mankind. A story that any person in any culture can

identif'y with. A truly universal story is an impossibility.

3) Hero's Journey- A body of work created by Joseph Campbell in which

characters are divided in archetypes and the plot of a story is divided into

12 stages. Also called the Epic Structure of Story because it is the formula

for virtually all myths, epics, and stories.

4) Character- A person, animal, or inanimate object that plays a part in a

story by making decisions and responding to circumstances.

5) Plot- The sequence of events in a story that lead from the beginning to

the end.

6) World - The setting, both time and place, in which a story takes place . . 7) Voice- A storyteller's particular, recognizable, style of storytelling.

8) Point of View- The perspective of the narration. The character through

who's eyes the story is told.

9) Hero- A character who sets out from their ordinary world to enter an

unordinary world in hopes of restoring balance to a situation The hero


grows and changes (either internally or externally) during the course of the

quest.

I 0) Protagonist - The primary character of a story. The character the audience

is hoping to see succeed.

11) Antagonist - The primary villain of a story whose purpose is to thwart the

protagonist.

12) Microprinciples- Principles that are concerned with items that are learned

by repetition and rote practice. Examples include mathematical processes,

reading, writing, and the scientific method.

13) Macroprinciples- Principles that are concerned with values, morals, and

traditions.

14) Hero Audience Bonding- The process by which the audience identifies

with the hero and empathizes. Furthermore, the audience hopes for the

hero to be successful and goes as far as to travel through the story in a

vicarious manner.

15) Character Growth- The process by which a character (usually the

protagonist or hero) changes. These changes need not be physical but are

most often changes in personality, behaviors, and beliefs.

16) Medium - The way in which a story is presented. Some examples include

film, television, theatre, novel, and oral tradition.

Educational Storytelling I 0

CHAPTER TWO

In reviewing the literature on the value and principles of educational storytelling,

it should be noted that there are as many opinions as there are stars in the sky. This paper

could not hope to encompass all of them, so it will focus on several of the major voices in

storytelling and educational storytelling in order to provide a broad scope on the topic.

This chapter will be separated into three major divisions: the value of stories for

education, the elements of story, and the principles behind educational storytelling.

The Value of Storytelling for Education

Evidence of the value of using stories to teach can be found from countless

sources throughout history and in every possible culture. For thousands of years, oral

tradition was the primary tool to pass knowledge, traditions, and culture from one

generation to the next. In many parts of the world, that is still the case. Stories can be

used to teach in many ways.

One such use is the introduction of many cultures in a way that students can find

captivating. In the American classroom, many students find themselves from diverse

cultures and know little of their heritage. According to Campano (2007) "one of the most

powerful interventions that teachers can make for immigrant students is to celebrate the '

human and academic value of their stories" (p. 48). Stories can help students get in touch

with themselves.

"Stories have an obvious interpersonal value because they enable students to

weave their unique histories into the fabric of the classroom community. Nevertheless,

for the most part, teachers still think of stories as a lower-grade cognitive phenomenon

Educational Storytelling II

not necessarily conducive to higher-level thinking and, at best, as a starting place for

more serious academic work." (Campano, 2007 p. 50)

Fables are specifically useful in character education and the passing along of

traditions, mores, and cultural ethics. What is a fable, exactly? In the Development of the

COomprehension and Appreciation of Fables, Jose (2005) says "A fable ... relates

a fictitious event in the past for the obvious purpose of illustrating an ethical

truth." (p. 6) Fables are used to present a concept or truth. They are so effective because

the audience can relate to the situations.

The characteristics of a fable, then, are that it (a) is short in length, (b) features

talking animals as a metaphor for human actors, and (c) involves morally significant

actions and outcomes that are structured in a narrative to make a moral point. In the case

of "The Tortoise and the Hare," the hare is overconfident, falls asleep, and loses the race

to the steadily plodding tortoise. This narrative would seem to impart the moral

message that, in the domain of human actions, perseverance will be rewarded but

not sloth and overconfidence." (Jose, 2007 p. 6)

In the modern world, global unity and technology have brought storytelling new means of

growth. The internet allows many students (properly supervised) to share stories with cultures •

they would otherwise never have had a chance to encounter. Blogging has brought Crosby's

(2007) class "in touch with students in such wide-ranging locations as Thailand, Canada, and

Florida, and this year the technology was used for a collaborative storytelling project with a fifth-

grade class in Long Island, NY. Pairs of Crosby's students joined with pairs of kids in the Long

Island class to write a story based on one of the 14 drawings in the. picture book The Mysteries of

Harris Burdick." (p. 2)

(


"Digital storytelling is a modern take on an oral and written tradition that traces

back to early human history as a way of passing down institutional knowledge and beliefs

from generation to generation." (Crosby, 2007, p.2) There is no better gateway into a culture

than through its stories which relay the hopes, fears, dreams, and imagination of a society.

Gretchen Westman (2008) uses storytelling in a slightly different manner in her

classroom. She has students write stories of their own. She found that it helped to

encompass many different goals under one activity.

"In language arts, students are expected to: read aloud with fluency,

comprehension and expression to demonstrate awareness of volume and pace, share texts

from a variety of genres, focus on specific elements such as word choice and sequence

of events, and consider the ways language and visuals bring characters to life, enhance

plot development and produce a response In theatre arts, the connections are even closer:

using voice, gestures and movements to demonstrate ideas and emotions, participating in

dramatic activities that deal with conflict and emotions, defining the significance of the

beginning, middle and end of a story, and employing the concepts of time, space and

action in the dramatic process." (Westman, 2008 p. 61)

This is just a spattering of uses and sources that ~onfirm what general knowledge,

stories hold the power to teach. They can captivate imaginations and hold attention while

characters teach lessons about life, culture, processes, trials, and ethics. However, the

question must be asked, what composes a story?

The Elements of Story

Mankind has told stories since before he had language, and there have been those

studying stories for about as long. Therefore, a vast number of opinions exist as to the

I


elements of a story. What is it made of? How does it work? Why does mankind have such

a fascination with fantasy? What, exactly, makes a story good?

According to readwritethink.org (2008), the elements of fiction are setting,

characters, plot, point of view, and symbolism. Dr. Harvey Hecht (2008) from the

Department of English at Southeast Missouri State claims that the elements of fiction

include plot, character, setting, conflict, symbol, and point of view. "Fiction has three

main elements: plotting, character, and place or setting," says Jessica Morrell (Morrell

2006, p. 151). For the purposes of this paper, Morell's definition will be used.

The sources for this segment will revolve around three highly respected educators,

researchers, and practitioners. Robert McKee is respected story teacher who, in his book

Story, has developed firm principles that can be used for any kind of storytelling.

Christopher Vogler has built upon the life work of Joseph Campbell, exploring the

powers of myth and legend in the human psyche. Donna Cooper is an instructor at the

American Film Institute, which is a national institute providing leadership in screen

education (AFI). She teaches some very practical principles that can be used in any

medium to enhance storytelling.

Character

Robert McKee (1997)

Character and characterization is not the same thing. "Characterization is the sum

of all observable qualities of a human being" (p. I 00). True character "is revealed in the

choices a human being makes under pressure- the greater the pressure, the deeper the

revelation, the truer the choice to the character's essential nature" (p. 10 I). "True


character can only be expressed through choice in dilemma. How the person chooses to

act under pressure is who he is" (p. 375).

In essence, characteristics are what can be learned from the scientific method

through the five senses. A person can be rich, poor, black, white, tall, short, grumpy,

passive, wiry, or mellow- all characteristics. Character is who they really are, how they

respond to situations, and how they behave when the pressure is turned up. Consider the

following as an example into true character:

"Two cars motor down the highway. One is a rusted-out station wagon with

buckets, mops and brooms in the back. Driving it is an illegal alien, a quiet, shy

woman working as a domestic for under the table cash. Along side her is a

glistening new Porsche driven by a brilliant and wealthy neurosurgeon. Two

people who have utterly different backgrounds, beliefs, personalities, and

languages- in every way their characterizations are the opposite of each other.

Suddenly, in front of them, a school bus full of children flips out of

control ... bursting into flames, trapping the children inside. Now, under this

terrible pressure, we'll find out who these two p~ople really are .

... The domestic worries that if she gets caught, she'll be [deported]. The surgeon

fears that if he's injured and his hands burned ... the lives of thousands of future

patients will be lost. Let's say they both hit the brakes and stop. In the midst of

the horror each realizes there's only a second left to rescue one of the many

children still inside. How does the doctor react? In a sudden reflex does he reach

Educational Storytelli!lg 15

for the white child or the black child closer to him. Which way do the

housekeeper's instincts take her? Does she save the little boy? Or the little girl

cowering at her feet?" (p. 10!-102).

However, great storytelling does not end with well-developed, true character.

"The finest writing reveals arcs or changes in that inner nature, for better or worse, over

the course of the telling." During the course of the telling, the character is put under

greater and greater pressure to make more and more risky choices, revealing deeper and

deeper character. Eventually, by the climax of the story, the journey has created a change

in the true character of a person {p. I 04).

What carries the audience through this journey by the protagonist is its bond with

the hero. "If the writer fails to fuse a bond between the film goer and the protagonist, we

sit outside feeling nothing" p. 141 ). "Through empathy, the vicarious linking of ourselves

to a fictional human ·being, we test and stretch our humanity" (p. 142). This bond is

absolutely essential and it is created by empathy, not necessarily sympathy. Sympathy

means to like someone, but empathy means that deep within the character the audience

recognizes a shared humanity" (p. 141 ).

"Decorating a protagonist with quirks does not open his character and draw

empathy. Rather, eccentricities may close him off and keep the audience at a distance" (p.

378). Instead, it is dimensions in the character that will create the empathy needed to

keep the audience engaged. What is dimension? "Dimension means contradiction, either

within the deep character (guilt-ridden ambition) or between characterization and deep

character (a charming thief)" (p. 378).


"Dimensions fascinate; contradictions in nature or behavior rivet the audience's

concentration. Therefore, the protagonist must be the most dimensional character in the

cast to focus empathy on the star role" (p. 379). A multi-dimensional character is in need

of a cast ofless complex supporting characters. These characters are designed to "bring

out" one or more of the contradiction dimensions. When the protagonist is with Sally, he

is charming, but when he is around Bob, he becomes the thief.

Robert McKee lists eight truths about a protagonist.

1.) A protagonist is a willful character

2.) A protagonist has a conscious desire.

3.) The protagonist may also have a self-contradictory unconscious desire.

4.) The protagonist has the capacities to pursue the Object of Desire

convincingly.

5.) The protagonist must have at least a chance to attain his desire.

6.) The protagonist has the will and capacity to pursue the object of his conscious

and/or unconscious desire to the end of the line.

7.) A story must build to a final action beyond which the audience cannot

imagine another.

8.) The protagonist must be empathetic; he may or may not be sympathetic.

(p. 137-141)

Christopher Vogler (2007)

Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell discovered a fascinating trend in fairy tales and

myths. They noticed reoccurring figures in literature that transcended culture and society.

These archetypes may have many different characteristics, but they all share certain

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I


trademarks. However, it was Christopher Vogler (2007) who synthesized these giants

into a modem, practical book called, The Writer's Journey. It is Vogler's book that will

be discussed when speaking of Mythic Storytelling.

For the purposes of this paper, these archetypes can be divided into two general

categories: primary and secondary. Primary archetypes are essential to the hero's journey.

Stories following the stages of the Hero's Journey carmot exist without these central

characters. Secondary archetypes can be found in literature from all cultures, but are not

essential to the construction of a story.

It should be noted that these archetypes are not necessarily characters, but can

exist as forces or circumstances.

The Primary archetypes are:

1.) Hero- The Hero is the willful character whose world is upset by some event

and sets out into the special world to bring everything into balance again. It is

this character's choices that make the most dramatic changes to the plot,

grows because of the journey, and ultimately faces the Shadow (p. 29-38).

2.) Shadow - The Shadow can be either a character or a force of antagonism, but

whatever its form, the Shadow is what stands between the Hero and his Object

of Desire (p. 65-70).

3.) Mentor- Joseph Campbell called the Mentor the Wise Old Man or Woman.

This is the figure that guides the Hero through the unknown because they have

traveled that way before. The Mentor is a source of answered questions,

important gifts, and a prodding along that the Hero occasionally needs to keep

going (p. 39-48).


4.) Herald- The Herald is the force or character who delivers the call to

adventure to the hero. This may be done by bringing news, initiating a

challenge, or the force behind a meeting (p. 55-58).

5.) Threshold Guardians- Once the Hero accepts the Call to Adventure and steps

into the special world, the unknown arena, he meets with the Threshold

Guardians. These may or may not be characters, may or may not be agents of

the shadow, and may or may not be intentionally trying to thwart the Hero.

They do, however, test the Hero's will and serves as the gateway to the special

world (p. 49-54).

6.) Ally- No hero can navigate the special world and defeat the Shadow alone.

Allies can take many forms, and may switch sides randomly. However, there

comes a point when every hero must face the dark moment alone (p 71-76).

The secondary archetypes include such figures as the Eternal Boy, Wicked Step

Mother, Trickster, Shape shifter, Charming Thief, Wise Old Man, Shaman, and

Ambitious General. These figures can be found in every culture, and have deep roots in

the human psyche. By using archetypes, the storyteller can connect with aspects of

humanity that go beyond cultural barriers.

It should also be noted that characters can serve many archetypal functions. The

secondary archetype, The Eternal Boy, may also be a Hero or Shadow or Herald. The

Mentor is almost always an Ally. The characters may also change roles during the

storytelling. Mentor becomes enemy, Herald becomes Threshold Guardian, and Hero

becomes Mentor.


Donna Cooper (1997)

Donna Cooper offers some very practical advice on how do develop strong

characters. She breaks all heroes down into four basic types: the Idol Hero, The

Everyman Hero, The Underdog Hero, and the Lost Soul Hero. These heroes are "defined

by their level of ability of skill and capacity to deal with change" (p. 94).

The Idol Hero "is someone whose abilities are usually such higher than the

average person's, but the defining quality of the Idol heroes is their lack of self doubt or

inner confusion" (p. 95). These heroes not only make great choices, but choices that are

often inspired. Choices that no one but them could ever have made. Despite their amazing

confidence, these heroes are not perfect. They have flaws.

The Underdog Heroes have very real disadvantages when compared to the Idol

Hero or even the common man. "Their handicaps can be physical, emotional, social or

mental. They also must be legitimate in the character's estimation as well as the

audience's, so that viewers will accept that this type of hero is working from a genuine

disadvantage that must be overcome" (p. 98).

"Viewers don't bond with [Lost Soul Heroes] through their highest hopes and

dreams, but rather by recognizing some of their own darkest, most secret fears" (p. 100).

They connect with the dark side of humanity. "This ultimately forces viewers to abandon

their emotional identification with Lost Soul Heroes when they go too far into the dark

comers oflife" (p. 101).

Cooper details eight techniques for making a hero more effective.

1.) Separate the Hero from the World. The hero should always be presented in

contrast to, if not in conflict with the world of the story (p. 103).


2.) Establish a personalized link between Hero and Audience (p. 104).

3.) Establish the Hero's strengths (p. 104).

4.) Establish the Hero's vulnerabilities (p. 105).

5.) Define the Hero's values. What does the hero hold dear? (p. 105)

6.) Establish the Hero's Motives (p. 105).

7.) Establish the Hero's Goal (p. 105).

8.) Establish the Hero's Plan (p. I 06).

She also enlists seven keys to creating well defined characters.

1.) ClarifY the character Arc- every hero must grow and change be it physical,

emotional, spiritual, or otherwise.

2.) Focus on the Present Tense- who is the character now? While it may be

useful to know who the character was ten years ago, the story is being

experienced now.

3.) Use back-story only if it's revelation- Back-story is only valuable if it

surprises the audience or explains the character's behavior.

4.) Avoid decorative tags- don't waste time coming up with imaginative

eccentricities.

5.) What is the character's self-assessment? What is the world's? Is there a gap?

6.) Show, don't tell- Don't tell the audience that a character is a traveler. Show

the audience by the array of suitcases and travel brochures lying about.

7 .) Don't underestimate the power of small moments- When information is

revealed to the audience when the character believes they are alone.

(p. 116-119)


Setting

Robert McKee (1997)

McKee defines setting as the period, duration, location and level of conflict.

"These four dimensions frame the story's world; but to inspire the multitude of creative

choices you need to tell an original, cliche-free story, and you must fill-that frame with a

depth and breadth of detail" (p. 181 ). In other words, the author of a story must create a

world that is as believable and real as the world we all exist in. The fictitious world, may

not follow the same laws of nature, but must work according to a sense of internal logic

(p. 186).

"A story must obey its own internal laws of probability. The event choices of the

writer, therefore, are limited to the possibilities and probabilities within the world he

creates" (p. 70). "The world of a story must be small enough that the mind of a single

artist can surround the fictional universe it creates and come to know it in the same depth

and detail that God knows the one He created ... by the time you finish your last draft, you

must possess a commanding knowledge of your setting in such depth and detail that no

one could raise a question about your world ... that you couldn't answer instantly" (p. 71).

There are eight general questions that McKee suggests one asks while developing

a world.

1.) tJ:ow do my characters make a living?

2.) What are the politics of my world?

3.) What are the rituals of my world?

4.) What are the values in my world?

5.) What is the genre or combination of genres?

6.) What are the biographies of my characters?

7.) What is the Back-story?

8.) What is my cast design?

(p. 181-183).



In the Mythic Structure there are two worlds: the ordinary world and the special

world. Both of these worlds may be physical lands or worlds; or sets of circumstances

and lifestyles. The ordinary world is the Hero's life in balance. He understands the rules

of survival, knows what he needs to know to be successful, and considers everything in

balance. It may not be a perfect world, but it is his world. This world may or may not be

the same as the audience, and the further from the audiences world it seems, the more

time must be spent defining the rules of the ordinary world.

The special world is where the Hero ventures after the ordinary world is thrown

out of balance. The Herald gives the call to adventure, and the Hero accepts traversing

the unknown. This special world has a new set of rules, new allies and enemies, and

seems strange to the Hero (if not to the Audience). The Mentor typically serves as guide

throughout at least some of this journey.

Plot

Robert McKee (1997)

"In truth, there's only one story. In essence we have told one another, one way or

another, since the dawn of humanity, and that story could be usefully called the Quest.

All stories take the form of a quest. For better or worse, an event throws a character's life

out of balance, arousing in him the conscious and/or unconscious desire for that which he


feels will restore balance, launching him on a quest for his Object of Desire against forces

of antagonism (inner, personal, extra-personal). He may or may not achieve it. This is

story in a nutshell" (p. 196-197).

In order to understand a bit more about stories, McKee has broken the form of a

story into five basic parts: the Inciting Incident, Progressive Complications, Crisis,

Climax and Resolution (p. 181 ).

"The inciting incident first throws the protagonist's life out of balance, then

arouses in him the desire to restore that balance .. .lastly, the inciting incident propels the

protagonist into an active pursuit of this object or goal. .. but for the protagonists we tend

to admire the most, the inciting incident arouses an unconscious one as well" (p. 192).

The progressive complications are roadblocks to the protagonists Object of

Desire. He/she meets each one and makes a willing decision that he expects to overcome

this obstacle with the least amount of resource expended. Invariably, the world does not

react the way they expected and a larger roadblock is set in his place. "A story must not

retreat to actions of lesser quality or magnitude, but move progressively forward to a final

action beyond which the audience cannot imagine another" (p. 209).

Crisis, at its heart, is the protagonist's decision. There are many decisions that '

make up the progressive complications, but Crisis with a capital C speaks to the final set

of decisions made by the protagonist. "The protagonist's quest has carried him through

the Progressive Complications until he~s exhausted all actions to achieve his desire, save

one. He now finds himself at the end of the line" (p. 303).

The action the protagonist chooses to take becomes the last big event of the story.

The reaction of all the forces: world, antagonism, personal", etc make up the climax. He


has decided to jump off the bridge into the river of fire and demons. Now, all he has to do

!SWill.

The resolution of a story has three possible uses. First, "the logic of the telling

may not provide a climax for a subplot before or during the Climax of the Central Plot, so

it'll need a scene of its own at the very end." Second, it shows "the spread of climactic

effects." Lastly, the resolution must exist to signal to the audience that the story is over

and order has been restored (p. 312-314).


Joseph Campbell was one of the most influential scholars of the twentieth

century. His collection of work was derived from a lifetime of study involving myths and

legends. He discovered that every culture has a certain set of protocols for developing

,stories and myths. These principles seemed to transcend culture. Furthering his work,

Christopher Vogler (a Hollywood story consultant) has simplified the stages of the

Hero's Journey into a twelve step form. He postures that virtually all stories break down

into the following stages.

1.) Ordinary World- The Hero's world is in balance and he/she understands the

rules ofliving here. It may not be perfect, but the Hero has no genuine desire

to upset the status quo (p. 83-98).

2.) Call to Adventure- The Herald delivers some news, makes some

introduction, or some force upsets the balance in the Hero's ordinary world.

Now, the only way to make things right is to step out on an adventure (p. 99-

106).


3.) Refusal of the Call The Hero typically refuses the call at first, but is given

some incentive to continue. This can come from the Mentor or Shadow (p.

107-116).

4.) Meeting the Mentor- The Hero is ready to step into the special world, but

does not know the way or the rules of this unknown set of circumstances. The

Mentor has been there before and is willing (sometimes reluctantly) to guide

the Hero at least part of the way (p. 117-126).

5.) Crossing the First Threshold- As the Hero stands on the edge, he must cross

the threshold to be completely immersed by the special world. Threshold

Guardians serve to test the Hero's resolve and give him a taste of what lies

ahead (p. 127-134).

6.) Tests, Allies, Enemies- On his way to the Object of Desire he believes will

set his world right again, the Hero meets with many tests, trials, allies and

enemies. This is the bulk of the story (p. 135-142).

7.) Approach to the Inmost Cave - The Hero has proven himself in the special

world and now stands at the brink of what he knows will be the greatest

challenge. His Object of Desire is close at hand (p. 143-154).

8.) The Ordeal- This is where the Hero meets his Crisis and the worst

confrontation yet. This is not necessarily the climax, but where the Hero faces

death (and in some cases does die) and appears to be reborn (p. 154-174).

9.) Reward- Once the Hero has made his way past the Ordeal, he has a moment

to savor his reward (p. 175-186).


I 0.) The Road Back- With the Object of Desire in hand, he returns to set his

life back into balance (p. 187-196).

II.) The Resurrection - This involves Character Growth. The journeys have

made the Hero change and grow. Sometimes he literally dies and is raised

again, and sometimes he is just reborn into a new type of person: stronger,

more confident, and able to overcome (p. 197-214).

12.) Return with the Elixir- The Hero returns to the ordinary world and sees

that he doesn't exactly fit anymore. It is here that he creates a new ordinary

world melding the best from his experience and the world that surrounds him.

The world is in balance again (p. 215-230).

It should be noted that the last five steps of the Hero's Journey can happen in very

quick succession and in slightly different orders.

Donna Cooper (1997)

Donna Cooper considers plot a roller coaster with key moments of change turning

the audience's emotions, protagonist's journey, and consequences from positive to

negative in an escalating ride to the final climax. It is this pacing and creatip.g of tension

and release of tension that makes a story so engaging. The audience sits up and waits to

see what will happen next (p. 68-72).

She also states that the audience has four primary needs that a plot must fulfill in

order to be effective. The first, and most important, is conflict resolution which is the

process of "confronting the many challenges and problems created by change." Another

core emotional need of the audience is "new information" that allows the audience to

experience circumstances they have never or will never live through. The third emotional


need is to help the audience bond to the story that allows them to "feel a personal

connection to the story." The last need is completion that''[ allows] the audience to

experience the satisfaction of building to a climax then resolution" (p. 76).

Lastly, Cooper (1997) gives some very concrete advice to increasing the "pillars"

ofthe story. That is, the points that elevate the plot. They are as follows:

1.) Increase Dramatic Stakes

2.) Increase Jeopardy

3.) Increase Obstacles

4,) Increase Desperation

5.) Increase U npredi ctabili ty

6.) Increase Likelihood of Change

7.) Increase Revelations

A Note on Learning Styles

All people do not learn in the same fashion. This is something that has been

known to mankind since the beginning of time. However, in recent years, some more

scientific study has been completed that has helped educators understand how different

students process information. Theories of multiple intelligences abound. Robert

Sternberg broke intelligence into three separate categories: academic, creative, and

practical (Berger, 2006).

Howard Garndner, on the other hand, took the research even further, breaking

intelligence into eight forms:

1.) Linguistic- Sensitivity to words, sounds and rhythms in language.

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2.) Logical-Mathematical- ability to understand patterns and long segments of

reasomng

3.) Musical- Intelligence concerning, pitch and rhythm.

4.) Spatial- Able to perceive visual mediums accurately and "perform

transformations on one's initial perceptions.

5.) Body-Kinesthetic- Learning through the movement of the body.

6.) Intemersonal- Social understanding of others moods and emotions.

7.) Intrapersonal - Self-understanding

8.) Naturalistic- Capacity for natural objects, plants and animals. "Fine sensory

discrimination."

(Slavin, 2006 p. 122-123)

Closely connected to multiple intelligences is the study of learning styles or

learning profiles. Where multiple intelligences focus on how a student processes

information, learning profiles are a bit more practical. They focus on how a student learns

best based on the intelligence they are strongest in, personality, interest, and experience.

While all people can learn in any manner, some learn best through reading, movement,

music, or repetitive motion (writing).

Also involved in a learning profile are the interests of the students. Some enjoy

sports and some enjoy fantasy and some prefer social networking. While many of these

interests are closely related to intelligence, they are also influenced by personality and

experience (Slavin, 2006 p. 125-126).

CHAPTER THREE

Methodology


It is the intent of this paper to conduct first hand research based on the following

objectives:

1.) Are stories of any value when teaching?

2.) What elements of story are vital?

3.) What are the principles involved in educational storytelling?

4.) What problems exist in using stories to teach?

5.) What are the credentials of the interviewee?

To that end, I have created an eight question interview to be completed by

storytellers, teachers, critics, and laymen. Storytellers, for this purpose, are those who

have an accomplished sense of the primary elements of fiction (character, plot, setting)

and have experience communicating those elements in engaging stories. The medium

makes no difference. In fact, I have worked to include storytellers who focus on novels,

television, film, and oral tradition.

Teachers are considered those who have professionally (or nonprofessionally) had

the experience of instructing students in a formalized setting. This may include classroom

teachers, mentors, pastors, tutors, or others. They have adequate knowledge of the

practical side of teaching and understand the need for diverse approaches. They may or

may not have used storytelling as a tool for teaching in the past.

Critics will be considered those who have analyzed a large number of stories.

They are able to separate the parts of fiction, discuss style and theme, and have

experienced many different types of stories through a number of mediums.


Lastly, laymen are those who have never engaged in storytelling, teaching, or

critical analysis in a formal setting. However, it should be noted that in the current story-

saturated world, most laymen have experienced a number of stories. It is the intend of the

author to use the interviews given by laymen to establish a broad stroke or a glimpse into

what modem society views as a "good story."

The interview to be used and the methodology for analyzing it are attached.

Please note that interview questions are underlined, while explanations of analysis are in

italics.

Research Interview

A little about yourself:

--What is your occupation?

Establishes credentials. Objective 5.

-- What is your favorite kind of story?

Subjective question to break the ice in the interview and establish some background

on the interview. Also serves to discover what attributes of the favorite kinds of

stories are most popular. Objectives 2 and 5.

--Please mark all that apply:

--You would be considered a: Teacher Storyteller Critic Layman

Establishes credentials. Objective 5.

Interview Questions:

I.) What is the most important element in a story?


By collecting and tallying answers, the researcher will begin to build a reference to

which of the three elements (character, plot, setting) are the most vital to engaging

storytelling, Objective 2.

2.) What is important to building a connection between the main character of a story

and the audience?

By collecting and tallying answers, the researcher will create a list of techniques that

can be used to create a bond between audience and hero. This is vital to one of the

primary conclusions of this research: Audiences will learn (to some extent) the same

lessons the hero learns if they are drawn into the hero's quest. Objective 3.

Also serves to discover what elements of story are vital. Objective 2.

3.) Are fables and stories that are designed to pass along moral precepts still

effective?

This will serve to build a collection of quotes about the value of storytelling to teach.

Objective I.

4.) How can a story be used to teach process-oriented lessons? (Math, science,

reading, etc.)

Directly related to Objective 3.

5.) How can a story be used to teach cultural and ethical values? (Lying, cheating,

stealing, hard-work, etc.)


6.) Why do people enjoy stories?

By discovering what people most enjoy from stories, the researcher can draw

conclusions about the most important elements. Objective 2.


7.) Are there any hindrances, roadblocks, or things to beware in using stories to

teach?


8.) Please pick one of the prompts from below. How would you finish the story? (A

paragraph description will be adequate.)

a. A man sees his brother, a recovering alcoholic, buying beer at a local store

b. After falling asleep, a prison guard awakens to find all the cells are empty.

c. A twelve year old boy decides to become a superhero

d. Two children get lost on a zoo field trip and find themselves trapped in an

animal habitat.

By analyzing the common denominators of the stories told by this wide variety of

interviewees, the researcher hopes to discover universal elements that are vital to

story construction. Objective 2.

Once all the interviews are collected, a master collection of information and

quotes will be assembled. The answers will be synthesized to discover reoccurring

themes in the answers of storytellers, teachers, critics, and laymen. It is the intent of the

researcher to draw conclusions from the interviews to c~eate a practical starting point to

creating stories that can be used to pass along both macro-principles (ethics, hard-work,

etc) and micro-principles (process oriented workflow, math, science).

Cultural Influence

A note on cultural influence is due here. While many of the storytellers will be

from settings including Europe, South America, Australia, Africa, Asia, and the United

States; all will be from a primarily western background. English will be their prime

I


language. It is the intent of the researcher to coritinue past the scope of this project to

continue and gather information. However, for the purposes of this thesis; it must be

noted,tl:mt the primary cultural influence willbe that of the Western World and the United

States of America.

,,

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CHAPTER FOUR

Analysis

Thirteen interviews were collected from storytellers, teachers, critics, and laymen.

The names of the interviewees have been redacted and all quotations will be referred to

as an interview number (e.g. Interviewee 13, Interviewee 7). Since the questions were

intentionally subjective, there was a great diversity in the content of the answers. Even

so, most interviewees agreed or at least had several common denominators in their

answers. What follows is a collection of quotes and analysis from those interviews. The

completed interviews are attached in the Appendix

Question 1: What is the most important element of a story?

Seven interviewees stated that character or character development were the most

important aspects of story. Four of these seven believe that plot mixed with good

characterization was essential, but ultimately, the characters are what make a story

engaging, believable, and enticing. Three of the interviewees credited the most important

element of a story as plot, journey, or the pacing of the sequence of events from

beginning to end. Two of those interviewed responded that escapism or the ability to take

one's imagination on a journey was the key. One source said that "credibility of the -characters, setting, emotions, and plot within the overall story" is the most important

element.

Specific Quotes

• Some other comments included that a story must be engaging, captivating,

and accessible to the audience.


• "Books that are hard for me to put down are the ones that have great

characters that I want to find out more about- see what's going to happen

next to them, not necessarily what happens next." (Interviewee I 0)

• "Character driven plots, together with plot driven characters."

(Interviewee II)

• Interviewee 9 may have said in most concisely when she stated, "A story

needs to e successful at so many things in order to work overall."

Question 2: What is important to building a connection between the main character of a

story and the audience?

Once again, seven of the thirteen interviewees gave very similar answers

(although not the same seven). The dominant aspect used to build a connectiqn between

the main character and the audience was empathy or sympathy. The audience must be

able feel or at least understand the character's situation. One interviewee believed that

"two kinds of growth that are spliced together throughout the story: character's growth

and the audience's growing understanding of the character." (Interviewee II)

Three others answered credibility was the most important aspect. This could also

be labeled internationality or believability. The audienc~ must believe the character is

acting as a real person would in the same circumstance. One interviewee stated that,

second to empathy, the character must evoke an emotional response in the reader

(Interviewee 2). One other interviewee believed that the reader must think about the

character long after the story is finished. (Interviewee 1 ).

Selected Quotes


• "Depth. As a reader I must believe that a character exists and that it is only

possible if he/she is 3-dimensional." (Interviewee 3)

• "Children enjoy seeing characters do things they can't do or are not

allowed to do." (Interviewee 13)

• "Credibility - does the character think, feel, act, and say what the

character should ... " (Interviewee 5)

• "Characters need to be likable or wronged." (Interviewee 6)

Question 3: Are fables and stories that are designed to pass along moral precepts still

effective?

All but one interviewee answered yes to this question. Interviewee Number 3

answered no, stating, "we are far more worldly-wise these days, even if we make the

same old mistakes." Most of the interviewees who answered yes formed some conditions

about fables. Four believed them to be far more effective, or exclusively effective, for

younger children. Six of the interviews included a warning to be wary of being too

"preachy" or "on the nose."

Selected Quotes

• "Yes, but sometimes I wonder if other mediums have replaced written

word in this function, namely television, movies, and video games."

(Interviewee 12)

• "For older children and adults I don't think that stories can pass on

completely new moral precepts- they can only help people to extend their

already existing moral precepts to new situations, or show them

inconsistencies in their moral opinions." (Interviewee 9)


• "Of course." (Interviewee 6)

• "They certainly can be, but probably have to be more disguised and less

'on the nose' now a days." (Interviewee 7)

Question 4: How can a story be used to teach process-oriented lessons?

Selected Quotes

• "A pupil finds it easier to remember a lesson if it's been told through a

story." (Interviewee I)

• "I had a basic understanding of dimension and wormholes at seven years

old thanks to A Wrinkle in Time." (Interviewee 12)

• "Characters in stories can encounter the phenomena studied by

subjects ... and can use the techniques of such subjects to analyze and

overcome their problems." (Interviewee 9)

• "A story that has multiplication or division as a main part of the story."

(Interviewee 13)

• "What may be useful is to tell the historical stories behind the discovery of

the concepts in the lesson. Talking about displacement of water and

buoyancy is much more engaging when we remember to talk about

Archimedes in the bathtub." (Interviewee 5)

• Can be used to "expose [children]" to new concepts" (Interviewee 1 0)

• "The elements of the process are worked in the story" (Inter\riewee 4)

• "By making the lessons relevant to every-day life." (Interviewee 7)


Question 5: How can a story be used to teach cultural and ethical values?

Six of the interviewees said something to the effect of rewards and consequences.

Show the bully getting hurt in the end and the rewards for following the golden rule.

Selected Quotes

• Teaching using story must go "beyond simply telling the story and move

into a RogofNygotskian model where the novice is asked to reflect upon

the meaning" (Interviewee 5)

• "Consider a story with a character representing the different viewpoints

for each value: Sally thinks cheating is wrong and doesn't do it. Chu

thinks it is wrong and cheats anyway, but is caught. Jamal thinks it is

wrong, cheats, and isn't caught." (Interviewee 4).

• "By showing the rewards earned by those that obey and the punishments

bestowed on those who transgress." (Interviewee 12)

• "I think that a particularly powerful way to teach children not to do

something is to make the MC in a story the victim of such an act."

(Interviewee 9)

• Interviewee 10 believes that it is important for the teacher or parent to be

involved in more ways than just telling the story. "Reading and

storytelling take effort, time, interest on the part of the teacher or parent,

and kids are very intuitive, they know then attention is being paid to them

or if they're just being pawned off."


Question 6: Why do people enjoy stories?

Nine of the thirteen interviewed believed that people enjoy stories because it

allows them to escape their traditional lives. It is a vehicle to experience what they

themselves could never hope to experience, see places too far away or unreal, and meet

figures that are long since dead or simp! y never existed. One of the nine and the

remaining four (five interviewees total) each had different ideas about why people enjoy

stories. Some include: a package for a message, guiding imagination, comradey,

understand the world and ourselves.

Selected Quotes

• "They enable us to see things from many other points of view ... [and] say

'what would I have done in this situation?"' (Interviewee 13)

• "We enjoy knowing that we are not alone." (Interviewee 9)

• "They are the closest thing we have to our dreams and aspirations."

(Interviewee 3)

• "They are so intrinsically part of being human that is impossible to

imagine life without them." (Interview 8)

• "Connection with community." (Interviewee II)

• "At a primitive level, humans are nomadic and stories allow humans to

wander in mind, if not in body." (Interviewee 4)

Question 7: Are there any hindrances, roadblocks, or things to beware in using stories to

teach?

In all thirteen interviews, there were thirteen different opinions. At least four

interviewees mentioned the importance of not letting the message overshadow the story.


The second most prevalent thought, with three interviewees commenting, was the exact

opposite. Don't let the story overshadow the message. Three of the interviewees stated to

be beware of cultural or religious differences in the audience.

Selected Quotes

• "You can never guarantee that the person hearing the story will come

away with the message you intended." (Interviewee 6)

• "Subtle meanings can be missed, obvious meanings can become parody."

(Interviewee 8)

• "Over-egging the point, trying to ram the 'right thing' down the

audience's throat." (Interviewee 2)

• "I hark on the parents, if they take the time to review some books, review

stories, before they tell it or read it to the child, there's no problem."

(Interviewee I 0)

• "Make sure they're inclusive rather than exclusive of varying characters."

(Interviewee 7)

• "Religion, cultural, and political views must be considered ... however

there are inappropriate subjects for certain ages I don' think kids should be

exposed to ... adult material until they are mature enough to understand it."

(Interviewee 4)

• "Ensure the overreaching themes logically present the concepts for

teaching in a way the novice can find without too much prompting."

(Interviewee 5)

• "Start from somewhere the reader can identify with." (Interviewee 9)


• "The story must be good enough to stand alone." (Interviewee 13)

Question 8: Complete the story

The interviewees were asked to complete a story from one of four prompts. The

prompts were designed to be inclusive of all genres and age groups. The purpose of this

question was to seek out common denominators in the stories in hopes of understanding

which elements are most important to storytellers. Aside from the basic structural

elements necessary for any story to function (character, plot, setting), there were some

common elements.

By far, the most prevalent was the use of a plot twist, typically at the end of the

story. Nearly every interviewee included an unexpected tum in plot or character.

Virtually all interviewees also utilized some form of panic in the main character. The

children were terrified of being alone in the zoo, the prison guard was white faced at the

sight of the empty cells, etc.

I


CHAPTER FIVE

Constructing Stories for Education

The most important principle in educational storytelling is character growth. The

audience identifies with the hero (or main character).

Hero-Audience Bonding

In order to use a hero to teach the lesson, the hero and audiepce must bond. As

discussed in chapter two, in the section on characters, there are some very basic

techniques that can be used to create a vicarious link between the hero and audience. The

first of these techniques is the process of identification. As a general rule, audiences like

stories where the main character is similar to them. Children prefer stories where the

protagonist is in the next stage oflife. Fifth grade boys like stories about middle-school

boys. Women read romances involving protagonists with comparable characteristics.

Audiences do this because they like to relate to the hero. They like to feel like it could

just as easily be them going on this journey.

By creating these identifiable trademarks, the storyteller allows the audience to

understand the hero and sympathize. Create connections in age, gender, social status,

economic status, interests, and belief systems. This is nC?t to say the story cannot be

culturally diverse. The other characters, the world, the situations can be totally foreign.

However, the hero must be identifiable. Audiences like to see themselves in the story.

Another important technique is empathy. This is not the same as sympathy.

Empathy occurs when the audience comes to the realization that, given similar

circumstances, they would make similar choices. It moves beyond, "I understand" to "I

feel what the character feels." Empathy is created when a character is identifiable,


believable, and thrown into a believable situation. The audience cares what happens to

them.

In order for identification and empathy to take place, the character must feel real.

This is having multiple dimensions, react to circumstances as a real person would, and be

complex enough to be understood. It has been said that great characters have three

dimensions. That is untrue. Great characters have as many dimensions as years of life. A

dimension is a contradiction. A good person who steals to feed his family creates a

dimension. The dimensions can be subtle (character acts differently in different

surroundii:tgs) or blatant (character who stresses truth is part of a cover up).

The character must react to circumstances believably. It is a law of nature that all

things take the path ofleast resistance. Characters are no exception. When life is thrown

out of balance they will do the least possible to achieve the results they want: balance.

When the forces of antagonism thwart that first step, a gap is created and the hero must

react by forming a new plan. This too will follow the course ofleast resistance and this

too will fail. So on and so on until climax.

Lastly, in order for empathy and identification to occur, the character must be

complex enough to be understood. A story is nothing more than a series of snapshots, or

short film, in the life ofthe hero. Storytellers must realize that the character existed

before the story began and (likely) will continue afterwards. If the character does not

continue the world will continue in some form or other. It is the combination of

circumstances and experiences that have come before that creates depth in a character.

Just as a storyteller must understand every minute detail of the setting (even if not


revealed) the storyteller must be able to answer questions about the hero, even if those

questions are never raised.

Now that a believable, identifiable, and empathetic character has been created, it

is time to introduce whichever major flaw he/she needs to grow through. This is not to

say the one flaw. On the contrary, real people have many flaws. The major flaw is the one

central to the lesson. If the lesson is "hard-work pays off," then the hero is lazy (at least

to an extent). If the lesson is, "courage through strife," then the hero is scared of

something. Even if the primary goal of a story is to teach a micro-principle, the story will

be memorable if character growth occurs.

One last note on the hero: it can be said that the great characters in history have

all had a want, wound and need. The want is the obvious desire they are striving for: th.e

relationship; the elixir oflife; acceptance into the secret club; etc. The need is the

subconscious desire that drives the want. It is not the specific relationship that is the key;

it is the need to be validated. The elixir of life isn't really what drives; it's a fear of death.

The secret club isn't the end all; instead the hero searches for acceptance. The wound is

one of the primary things holding the hero back. This may be inflicted by the villain or

may be part of the circumstances. The relationship can't. work because the hero comes

from a lower class. The elixir oflife is out of reach because the hero is too old and feels

useless. The secret club is out of bounds to someone who cannot read. These wounds

may be real or imagined, but they always bear great weight in the eyes of the hero.

With a flawed, empathetic, identifiable, and driven hero; it is time to begin the

journey of the story. It is across the journey that the hero's major flaw will be addressed.

Other minor flaws may be worked out as well. What follows is an abbreviated form of


the Hero's Journey work of Joseph Campbell and Christopher Vogler molded to

specifically fit the principles of educational storytelling.

The Hero and the Ordinary World, Broken

It is in the first section of a story, that the hero and his/her world is introduced.

The audience must connect with the hero at this point. They must understand that the

hero is more-less comfortable with the routine and position in the "ordinary world."

While this world may be strange to audience, the hero knows how to function inside it.

His/her life is in balance. It is also in this stage that the major flaw is introduced.

Then it happens. Something causes the world to be thrown into chaos. This may

be literal (plague, war, the ring of power is found) as in many epics. Or, it may be much

more personal (the hero meets the girl of his dreams, a parent falls ill or dies, or the next

door neighbors begin the secret club). Whatever the event, intentional or not, the hero

now has the conscious want and subconscious need. They are left with the decision to

leave the ordinary world and travel an uncomfortable journey toward the want/need.

Many times they refuse at first, but ultimately accept.

The Hero and the Journey

Once the hero steps into the special world, the trials begin. This may be a literal

special world like a new city or fantasy world. It may also be a new venue or set of

circumstances with different rules than the hero understands. For example, in chasing

Misses Right, the hero finds himself in the well-to-do society that has shunned him. It is

during this journey through the special world that the hero meets mentors, allies and

enemies that guide and hinder the path.


If the major flaw is cowardice then the hero is made to face his fears. I flying is

the major flaw, then he/she encounters situations where lies abound. They test the waters,

so to speak, of moving past the major flaws. Sometimes it ends in success and sometimes

failure. The hero may meet others who are the "poster children" of the flaw. What the

hero could become someday. Or, the hero may encounter those who have been hurt by

others with similar flaws. The hero may meet allies with similar flaws who are content

with staying just the way they are. During the journey the hero will take steps forward

and steps back. They will tell the truth and lie, be brave and cowardly, testing the resolve

of their upcoming growth.

It is very important, and should go without saying, to keep the plot engaging

during this part of the journey. The hero must be met with challenging obstacles,

interesting situations, and have to fight for every inch of ground covered.

The Hero and the Moment

Heroes must make a multitude of decisions along the journey in order to be a

willful character. He/she does not necessarily have to make these decisions alone. In fact

allies are some of the most important aspects of a compelling story. These allies function

as mentors, moral compasses, and even shape shifting e?emies at time. However, there

comes a time when the hero must make the final set of decisions alone. He or she must

stand at the last threshold, face the final antagonistic force, and accept the consequences

of those decisions.

It is in this last confrontation that the hero's growth must be shown. He/she has

toyed with changing, with overcoming his flaws, and growing into something more.

Now, he or she must make the final leap. He becomes brave. He tells the truth. He works


hard. It is not enough that the hero understands the value of the growth. He or she must

act upon the growth in order to show that they have changed.

The climax of a story serves certain functions in the story itself. Up till now, the

hero's life has been out of balance and they have been searching for the object of desire

that will set the world in order again. They have been working toward filling their

want/need and overcome incredible obstacles in order to make it to this last climax. Now,

they win. It is not necessarily required that they achieve the want, but they must achieve

the need in order for the audience to be satisfied. It isn't even required for the hero to live

through the experience, as long as they grew and achieved their need before they died. In

the climax, the villain is defeated, the world is put back in place, and (in most cases) the

hero sets off for home again.

The Hero and the Repercussions

The hero now has what is needed to set his/her life back in order. They've grown

from the experience and overcome the major flaw along the journey. Now, they re-enter

their ordinary world to find they don't quite fit anymore. He creates a new ordinary world

melding the best from his experience and the world that surrounds him. Everything is in

balance again.

There must be genuine sense that the hero is better for the growth he/she has

undertaken. Their world is orderly and they understand the benefit of the change. The

audience must also see that the hero is better for having undergone transformation. Here,

it may be helpful to introduce other characters who have not undergone the same

transformation or have made opposite choices. Show the consequences for actions, both

good and bad, allowing the audience to get a good sense of repercussions.

;


The last image of a story is an important one. No hero is every totally complete,

just as no person has ever "arrived." There is always room to grow, capability for

transformation, and flaws that have not been worked out yet. In order to keep the

audience identifying with the character, allow some of those flaws to remain.

Micro-principles

Using stories to teach macro-principles (cultural or ethical traditions such as

lying, cheating, and stealing) is done by the journey previously discussed. Teaching

process-oriented micro-principles (mathematics, etc) is slightly different. Through hero-

audience bonding, it is possible to encourage an appreciation of micro-principles and to

some extend the processes involved. However, process-oriented learning is all about

practice and repetition. How can a story do that?

Interactivity.

By designing stories that are interactive and allow the student the chance to

participate, the repetition of processes can be made more interesting. Younger students,

especially, have a great ability to learn as they interact. The hero may ask the audience

for help, the storyteller may include exercises into the story, and the story will most

definitely include the hero working through the processes in order to reinforce the

learning.

Stories can also be used to introduce concepts that lie behind the processes in

micro-principles. When a character uses addition with something other than cold numbers

(perhaps bails of grain to feed the village) the learning is adapted for those who struggle

with logical-mathematical intelligence.

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Presentation and Craft

Learning Profiles and Medium

Once a story is constructed, its time to focus on telling the tale. This should not be

restricted to prose. It is possible to tell a story through a myriad of crafts including,

television, film, theatre, prose, oral, musical, poetry, graphic, and many more. In some

cases, a story lends itself to a specific medium. For instance, a story that requires a heavy

amount if inner reflection on the part of the hero would not be suitable for film, where the

characters thoughts are virtually never heard.

There is another factor involved in determining the presentation medium: learning

profile. This includes interest, experience, and dominant intelligence. Interest and

experience largely determine the attributes of setting and character for the story. Certain

crafts lend themselves to specific intelligences. For instance, theatre involves a lot of

movement, a hallmark of the Body-Kinesthetic intelligence. In also includes cooperation

and social aspects which involve interpersonal intelligence. For the purposes of this

study, the crafts are as follows:

1.) Oral- Telling a story audibly, usually involving nonverbal communications

2.) Drama- Students act out the story as depicted in a script or through

improvisation

3.) Prose- Written narrative with emphasis on introspective speech. Primary

form is a novel or short story.

4.) Motion Picture- Visually narrative, typically video or film

5.) Graphic- Story told through a series of still pictures (photography or

illustration).


6.) Music or Poetry- A story told in form of a poem or song

7.) Memoir- Story told through first hand accounts such as diaries or newspaper

articles.

8.) Interactive- Stories in which students (to an extent) portray segments and

determine the outcome of the story.

Logical-Mathematical Prose, Interactive

Musical Music or Poetry

Spatial

Body-Kinesthetic Drama, Interactive

Interpersonal Interactive, Memoir

Intrapersonal · Prose, Memoir

Naturalistic Drama, Prose

Age Appropriateness

It is important to note the appropriateness of a st?ry for the specific age, not only

in content, but in the complexity of the lesson or message. Younger students can only

assimilate or pick up on messages that are simple and extremely blatant. They do not yet

possess the ability to complete the vicarious bond between hero and audience. At the

same time, older students will benefit more from complex stories and investigations on

the theme from several points of view. Perhaps multiple characters grow, some for the


positive and some for the negative. This allows the students to explore different

repercussions.

Discussion and Implementation

It is not enough, simply to tell a story with a good message. Even if all the steps

are perfectly executed in a captivating tale where the lesson is wonderfully presented,

students do not learn by listening. Students learn by doing. It is important, after the story

has concluded, to include segments of practical discussion. Not theoretical analysis of the

literature, but truly pragmatic discussion of the lesson. Students must be encouraged to

act on the lessons learned and explore the topic with greater depth.

Conclusion

Research aside, it is obvious to virtually all people that storytelling can hold great

value for education. Stories can sweep students away and teach them when their guard is

down, when they believe they are having fun. Stories touch against the bare soul of a

person and resonate with the collective unconsciousness of the human race. They help us

to express our hopes and dreams and relate to the world in ways we could never hope to

otherwise.

The role of the storyteller is to be involved, not c_mly in the story, but also in the

student's lives. As any teacher must earn the respect of their pupils, storytellers must be

genuine) y concerned with student progress. The more and more the storyteller knows the

students (audience) the better they can craft the stories to reach that particular set of

people. Stories become alive in students when it surrounds their interests, beliefs, and is

told by one who genuinely cares.


There is still a long way to go in the field of educational storytelling. It is my

intention to continue that research, and to broaden the scope to transformational

storytelling (stories that teach, heal, and captivate). To that end, I will employ research

outside the fields of fiction and education, including research from bibliotherapy,

cognitive psychology, brain-based learning, literature, communications, and mythology. I

intend to refine the questionnaire survey and expand the range of interviews to a

multicultural test group.

Another area to focus research is that of cognitive psychology and neuroscience.

At the heart of the art of story is emotion. That is why stories captivate, characters create

empathy, and tales move us to laughter and tears. Research exists that shows emotion

plays a large part in the storing of information in the brain. Emotion is the reason a

persona can remember a joke told twenty years ago and forget the lecture last week.

However, it is my intention to pursue research into specifically which emotions are

beneficial to the learning process, how they are created, and how storytelling can be used

to foster their development. There is a long way to go, but I look forward to future study.


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