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Tourism Management 26 (2005) 833–844

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The theme park experience: An analysis of pleasure,arousal and satisfaction

J. Enrique Bignea,�, Luisa Andreua, Juergen Gnothb

aDepartment of Marketing, Faculty of Economics, University of Valencia, Avda. Naranjos s/n, 46022 Valencia, SpainbDepartment of Marketing, School of Business, University of Otago, Clyde St. Dunedin, New Zealand

Received 24 September 2003; accepted 11 May 2004

Abstract

This article analyses how visitor emotions in a theme park environment influence satisfaction and behavioural intentions.

Emotions consist of two independent dimensions, i.e. pleasure and arousal. Two competing models were tested. The first model is

derived from the environmental psychology research stream as developed by (An Approach to Environmental Psychology, MIT

Press, Cambridge, 1974), where the visitor’s arousal generates pleasure and, in turn, approach/avoidance behaviour. This emotion-

cognition model is supported by Zajonc and Markus (1984). The second model to be tested is based on Lazarus’ (Emotion and

Adaptation, Oxford University Press, New York, 1991) cognitive theory of emotions. In this latter model, emotions are elicited by

visitors’ disconfirmation of the theme park. Using confirmatory factor analysis, it was supported that the cognitive theory of

emotions better explains the effect of pleasure on satisfaction and loyalty. Additionally, consumers’ willingness to pay more for the

service is more likely to be induced by disconfirmation than by satisfaction alone. Managerial implications concerning the

cognitive–affective sequence of satisfaction are discussed.

r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Emotions; Satisfaction; Behavioural intentions; Tourist behaviour; Spain; Theme park

1. Introduction

Satisfaction research has recognized the need toincorporate both affective and cognitive componentsin modelling consumer satisfaction (Wirtz, Mattila, &Tan, 2000). It is suggested that a purely cognitiveapproach may be inadequate in modelling satisfactionevaluations, so it is particularly important to includeemotional variables (Liljander & Strandvik, 1997;Oliver, Rust, & Varki, 1997; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999).However, to date, there is a lack of research on theemotional effects affecting consumer satisfaction andbehavioural intentions when consumers are involved ina service setting. Because consumers interact with the

e front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

urman.2004.05.006

ing author. Tel.: +34-96-382-83-12; fax: +34-96-382-

ess: enrique.bigne@uv.es (J.E. Bigne).

service environment and personnel during the consump-tion experience, understanding consumers’ affectiveresponses becomes critical (Szymanski & Henard,2001; Wirtz et al., 2000; Zins, 2002). Such understandingis paramount in tourism services, with importantemotional involvement regarding the tourist experience(Barsky & Nash, 2002; Ryan, 1999).

Focusing on tourists’ subjective experiences (Vittersø,Vorkinn, Vistad, & Vaagland, 2000; Gnoth, Zins,Lengmueller, & Boshoff, 2000a, 2000b), the need tointegrate cognitive and emotional concepts in order toexplain tourist satisfaction and behavioural intentions ishighlighted (Zins, 2002). In fact, one of the objectives ofmarketing and applied social sciences is to developknowledge to influence behaviour. Early studies havefocused on understanding the bases of action from atheoretical standpoint. Work on behavioural intentionsgoes back to research carried out by Fishbein and Ajzen

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(1975), who investigated the relationship betweenbeliefs, attitudes, intention and behaviour. Before1980, the theory was known as the Fishbein–Ajzenbehavioural intentions model or as the extended model,which forms part of the Theory of Reasoned Action(TRA) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The TRA makes‘attitude-towards-behaviour’ a determinant of inten-tions and introduces a second determinant, which isreferred to as the subjective norm. The latter is theinternalised influence of people who are important to arespondent. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)introduces a further determinant of intention calledperceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1991). A recentstudy by Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) goes into greaterdepth and expands the TPB by integrating the achieve-ment of personal goals and introducing emotionalvariables (i.e. anticipated emotions) as important ante-cedents in decision-making processes.

Although researchers agree on the importance ofrelationships between emotional variables, consumersatisfaction and behavioural intentions, there are noconclusive findings. Furthermore, the interplay betweenemotions and cognition is still unresolved Chebat andMichon (2003). This knowledge gap motivated thepresent research, whose conceptual contribution in-volves the identification and development of theoreticallinkages between these variables. Drawing on therevision of studies coming out of psychology andmarketing (e.g., Bagozzi, Gopinath, & Nyer, 1999;Liljander & Strandvik, 1997; Perugini & Bagozzi,2001), interesting inter-relationships of emotions withconsumer satisfaction and behavioural intentions are tobe found. The main purpose of this study is to propose amodel that explains the cognitive–affective determinantsof satisfaction and their consequences. First of all, aconceptual framework of cognition, emotions andsatisfaction is presented. Based on previous studies,two competing models combining emotions and cogni-tion are tested using confirmatory factor analysis. Theempirical study is applied in a sample of 200 visitors to atheme park. Theme parks are considered a form ofleisure activity because they provide an opportunity forentertainment during an individual’s discretionary freetime (Milman, 1991). According to Milman (2001) thepopularity of theme park and attractions will continueto grow, as they are increasingly associated with newvacation experiences.

2. Conceptual framework and research hypotheses

This research deals with the nature of emotions,disconfirmation and consumer satisfaction, as well asthe relationships between them. The principal theoriesthat explain such concepts are explained, because theyconstitute the theoretical basis for the model. Specifi-

cally, a literature review of the appraisal theories ofemotions (see Bagozzi et al., 1999), the cognitiveapproach to satisfaction (principally, the disconfirma-tion paradigm) and literature in favour of an affectiveapproach to satisfaction (Westbrook, 1987; Wirtz &Bateson, 1999), all suggest the importance of studyingcognitive–affective modes in behaviour formation.Given the diversity of affective variables (Cohen &Areni, 1991), this study centres on emotions. Emotionsare considered to be more intense than moods in theirrelationship to the stimuli that they are provoked byBatson, Shaw, and Oleson (1992).

Emotions consist of two independent dimensions, i.e.pleasure and arousal (Russell & Pratt (1980)), and it isevidenced that arousal influences pleasure Chebat andMichon (2003). A dimensional approach to explainingemotions is reasonable, based on previous studies(Menon & Kahn, 2002). The dimensional approxima-tion presumes that the emotional space is made up of alimited number of non-specific dimensions, such aspleasure, arousal and dominance (Mehrabian & Russell,1974; Russell, 1980). In recent marketing studies, therehas been considerable consensus in respect to their bi-dimensional character (Mano & Oliver, 1993; Mattila &Wirtz, 2000; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999), and this reflectsthe degree to which different individuals incorporatesubjective experiences of pleasantness/unpleasantnessand activated/deactivated subjective feelings into theiremotional experiences (Feldman, 1998). Whereas plea-sure refers to the degree to which a person feels good,joyful or happy in a situation, arousal refers to theextent to which a person feels stimulated and active. Inthis study, the emotions were measured based onRussell’s model (1980), which comes out of environ-mental psychology (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974), andhas been used in later research in marketing (Wirtz &Bateson, 1999; Wirtz et al., 2000). It appears to have anumber of advantages for conceptualising serviceexperiences over its competing models, which may beone reason for its popularity in services research (Wirtz& Bateson, 1999).

Consumer satisfaction is a concept that has been widelydebated in the literature (Bowen, 2001; Kozak, 2001; Oliver,1997; Ryan, 1995; Yuksel & Yuksel, 2001). Many studieshave suggested definitions without any real consensus(Giese & Cote, 2000), and this leads to a situation of acertain ambiguity as to the nature of satisfaction (Babin &Griffin, 1998). Traditionally satisfaction was considered tobe a cognitive state, influenced by cognitive antecedents,and with a relative character, i.e. it is the result of thecomparison between a subjective experience and a priorbase of reference (Oliver, 1980). Recently, the need tounderstand satisfaction from a more affective perspectivehas been highlighted always in connection with cognitiveinfluences (Oliver et al., 1997; Phillips & Baumgartner,2002; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999). In view of previous studies,

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Loyalty

Pleasure

Willingness to pay more

Positive arousalPositive

disconfirmation

Satisfaction

++

+

+

+

+

H1

H2

H3

H4a

H6

H7

H5b+

H5a

+H4b

+

Fig. 1. Proposed model—Model 1.

Willingness to pay more

Pleasure

Loyalty

Positive arousalPositive

disconfirmation

Satisfaction+

+

+

+

+

+

H8a

H1

H4a

H7

H6

H5b

H5a

+

H3 +

+H8b

+H4b

Fig. 2. Competing model—Model 2.

J.E. Bigne et al. / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 833–844 835

consumer satisfaction can be defined as a cognitive–af-fective state resulting from cognitive evaluations (in-cluding disconfirmation), as well as from emotions theseevaluations evoke.

Disconfirmation means that the results of a serviceexperience are inferior (or superior) to what wasexpected by the consumer when he/she made a decisionto purchase (Oliver, 1997). This will have negative (orpositive) implications for the evaluation of the serviceexperience. Consumers select services in the hope thatthese services will offer a series of benefits. Therelationship between disconfirmation and emotions hasbeen contrasted in previous studies (Menon & Dube,2000; Oliver et al., 1997; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999),corroborating the positive relationship between themagnitude of the disconfirmation and the intensity ofthe emotion in order to explain consumer satisfaction(Woodruff, Cadotte, & Jenkins, 1983). It would thereforeseem coherent to assume that a service short ofperformance expectations can cause displeasure, and thatperformance exceeding expectations can cause pleasure(Wirtz & Bateson, 1999). Although this cognitive andaffective sequence shows a cognitive appraisal and thencreates the emotions, there is evidence for approachingthis issue the other way around, i.e. emotions do notalways need cognitions (Zajonc (1980).

The debate between the cognitive and affectivesequence is an acknowledged and re-emerging researchissue (Chebat & Michon, 2003; Dube, Cervellon, &Jingyuan, 2003). Two schools of thought are confrontedin this debate. On one hand, there is the emotion–cogni-tion approach. Zajonc and Markus (1984) contend thatan emotion can be generated by biological, sensory orcognitive events. Arousal and motor activities are the‘hard’ representations of emotions. The experience ofemotion, which requires a cognitive input, is the ‘soft’representation of affect. Only arousal is a necessaryconsequence of the generation of emotion. For Zajoncand Markus (1984), the experience of emotion is simplythe cognition of having an emotion. On the other hand,the cognition–emotion school of thought (Lazarus, 1991)posits the causal role of cognition as a necessary but notsufficient condition in order to elicit emotions. Externaland internal cues must be appraised in terms of one’s ownexperience and goals. ‘‘Appraisal of the significance of theperson–environment relationship, therefore, is bothnecessary and sufficient; without a personal appraisal(i.e., of harm or benefit) there will be no emotion; whensuch an appraisal is made, an emotion of some kind isinevitable’’ (Lazarus, 1991 p. 177).

In line with the above, a series of hypotheses on thecognitive–affective sequence of satisfaction are pro-posed, taking into account the two schools of thought.Both perspectives are brought together in two compet-ing models combining emotions and cognition. In thefirst model, the positive arousal felt by the visitor

influences the visitor’s perceptions of the theme park(i.e. disconfirmation) and pleasure. The competingmodel hypotheses that disconfirmation influences visi-tors’ arousal, thus enhancing visitors’ pleasure. Figs. 1and 2 show the two competing models. In the first model(see Fig. 1) it is assumed that, independently of appraisal(e.g. disconfirmation), arousal influences visitors’ satis-faction through the pleasure dimension. Russell, 1980found that pleasure and arousal were independentdimensions. Berlyne (Berlyne, 1971; Berlyne, 1974;)hypothesized that arousal influences pleasure. The pathfrom arousal to pleasure is verified in current marketingstudies (Babin & Attaway, 2000; Chebat & Michon,2003; Wakefield & Baker (1998)).

Pleasant feelings are not necessarily correlated withstrong arousal (Dube, Chebat, & Morin (1995); Spangen-berg, Crowley, & Henderson (1996)). Considering thelarge spectrum of arousal, the influence of arousal overpleasure may be either positive or negative (Chebat &Michon, 2003). However, assuming an amusing (enjoy-able) theme park experience, the effect of arousal onpleasure should be positive. More formally,

Hypothesis 1. Positive arousal should positivelyinfluence visitor pleasure.

Several researchers in psychology (Kahneman, 1973;Mano, 1992, Sanbonmatsu & Kardes, 1988) have

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examined the relationship between arousal and subse-quent information processing. For example, Kahneman(1973) found that more arousing stimuli elicit moreattention and more elaborate network encoding inmemory than less arousing stimuli. This is consistentwith the view that a positive arousal is expected toprovoke a favourable perception of the theme parkenvironment, under the approach/avoidance model(Mehrabian & Russell, 1974; Donovan & Rossiter(1982)). Hence, Hypothesis 2 is stated.

Hypothesis 2. Visitor arousal contributes to positivedisconfirmation, which is derived from cognitiveevaluations of their theme park experience.

Research into consumer satisfaction from a cognitivepoint of view has been dominated by the disconfirma-tion paradigm. This paradigm suggests that consumersatisfaction is a result of the comparison between theperceived performance with some standard before theconsumption. A direct causal relationship betweendisconfirmation and satisfaction has been empiricallyconfirmed (Cadotte, Woodruff, & Jenkins, 1987; Bowen,2001; Szymanski & Henard, 2001), and therefore thisrelationship is modelled in the present study as follows:

Hypothesis 3. Positive disconfirmation contributes tothe levels of consumer satisfaction.

Whereas the early models of satisfaction were centredmainly on the cognitive processes in order to understandand explain consumer satisfaction (Oliver, 1980), there isalso theoretical support for linking emotions withsatisfaction (Mano & Oliver, 1993; Liljander & Strand-vik, 1997; Erevelles, 1998; Phillips & Baumgartner, 2002;Westbrook & Oliver, 1991). In line with previousresearch, the proposed model points out that, togetherwith the cognitive component, the emotions (pleasureand arousal) positivelyimpact satisfaction. Therefore,

Hypothesis 4a. The pleasure dimension positivelyinfluences visitor satisfaction.

Hypothesis 4b. The arousal dimension positivelyinfluences visitor satisfaction.

Based on a multi-stage model of consumer behaviour(Moutinho, 1987; Woodside & King, 2001), the evalua-tion typically results in strong feelings of dissatisfaction,which has ramifications for tourists coming back orswitching to other tourism attractions and for tellingothers about favourable or unfavourable parts of theirexperiences (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Kozak, 2001).Given that the cost of retaining an existing customer isless expensive than prospecting for a new customer(Spreng, Harrell, & Mackoy, 1995), behavioural inten-tions are a very important consideration for marketers.Behavioural intentions are directly influenced by custo-mer satisfaction (LaBarbera & Mazursky, 1983), and

some authors suggest that satisfaction is more influentialin forming one’s behavioural intentions than servicequality (Cronin & Taylor, 1994). Most marketingscholars studying behavioural intentions distinguishdifferent behavioural dimensions, such as loyalty andwillingness to pay more (Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasura-man, 1996; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1999; Baker &Crompton, 2000; Dean, Morgan, & Tan, 2002). Insummary,

Hypothesis 5a. Visitor satisfaction positively influ-ences the loyalty towards the theme park.

Hypothesis 5b. Visitor satisfaction positively influ-ences the willingness to pay more.

Few empirical studies include both affect and cogni-tion as mediators to consumer behaviour. Some market-ing scholars have studied the influence of positiveemotions as a moderating variable in the relationshipbetween satisfaction and brand loyalty (Bloemer & deRuyter, 1999; Oliver et al., 1997), but these are centredsolely on positive emotions. The sixth hypothesis iscongruent with the approach/avoidance model (e.g.,Mehrabian & Russell, 1974) and findings by Donovan &Rossiter (1982). It is believed that visitors derivingpleasure from the experience are more likely to exhibitpositive behavioural intentions, such as positive word ofmouth and intention to return (i.e. loyalty). Therefore,

Hypothesis 6. The pleasure dimension positivelyinfluences visitors’ loyalty behaviour.

While there is a significant body of scientific researchon the effects of disconfirmation on satisfaction, theresearch corpus on theeffect of disconfirmation onbehavioural intentions is much more limited. In themarketing literature, the cognitive sequence of discon-firmation–satisfaction–intentions have been given onlypassing attention among effects and co-occurrences ofsatisfaction (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Oliver et al.,1997). Considering that theme parks charge a pay-one-price admission fee to visitors (Camp, 1997), theappropriateness of the perceived price versus whatcustomers really receive (i.e. disconfirmation) remainsan interesting and practical issue. Regarding willingnessto pay more (Zeithaml et al., 1996; Baker & Crompton,2000; Dean et al., 2002; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1999), itis supposed that visitors who positively evaluate theirtheme park experience (positive disconfirmation) aremore likely to pay more for the entertainment service.The following hypothesis summarises this expectation:

Hypothesis 7. Positive disconfirmation contributes tothe levels of willingness to pay more.

The competing model (Fig. 2) assumes that thedisconfirmation or appraisal construct is an antecedentto visitor emotions. Marketing scholars such as Bagozzi

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& Moore,, 1994 and Bagozzi et al. (1999) have relied onthe cognitive theory of emotions to explain consumerbehaviour. Consistent with this argument, the followingeighth hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 8a. The visitor’s positive disconfirmationcontributes to the feelings of pleasure.

Hypothesis 8b. The visitor’s positive disconfirmationcontributes to feelings of positive arousal.

Hypothesis 2 in the proposed model (see Fig. 1,Model 1) posits that the arousal dimension of emotionsis an antecedent to cognition (e.g. Zajonc & Markus,1984), whereas Hypotheses 8a and 8b, in the competingmodel (see Fig. 2, Model 2), assume that cognitiveprocesses (i.e. disconfirmation) influence both dimen-sions of emotions (e.g., Lazarus, 1991).

3. Research methodology

3.1. Research approach and sampling frame

As a basis for the methodological approach thepresent study follows a positivist paradigm. The test ofthe competing models is carried out by means of anempirical study in the area of leisure and tourismservices which, given its hedonic nature (Ryan, 1997;Wakefield & Blodgett, 1999; Gnoth et al., 2000a, 2000b),generates consumer emotions (Hirschman & Holbrook,1982; Goossens, 2000; Mattila & Wirtz, 2000). Researchon tourism attractions is interesting due to the fact thatthese services allow studying emotional reactions inconsumers (Otto & Ritchie, 1996; Vittersø et al., 2000).Moreover, in recent years, the leisure and tourismindustry has faced intense competition from a widerange of rapidly emerging innovative leisure products(Milman, 2001; Stevens, 2000). The applied study ofvisitor experiences in the theme park industry is there-fore of theoretical and practical interest.

The intrinsic peculiarities of emotions and consumersatisfaction during a service experience have an effect onresearch methodology. Thus, a qualitative and quanti-tative approach has been adopted (Bigne, 2000). On theone hand, ten in-depth interviews were carried out withemployees as well as with visitors of theme parks. Inaddition, two consumer focus groups were set up, withthe objectives of analysing visitor experience in tourismattractions, and of marking out as precisely as possiblethe characteristics of possible responses to the ques-tionnaire used in the quantitative research. On the otherhand, a quantitative focus was adopted. Specifically,personal interviews were conducted inside the themepark, i.e., during the experience of the service itself, asthe stimulus that evokes visitor emotions. The use ofquestionnaires for gathering information on consump-

tion emotions is based on the retrieval hypothesis(Solomon, Bamossy & Askegaard (1999)), i.e., byidentifying the evaluation of the visitor interviewedduring his/her visit to the theme park.

Survey data were collected in a Spanish-Mediterra-nean theme park from consumers aged 18 or older. Atheme park setting was selected as an ideal location forthe aim of the study since these parks are generallyassociated with highly emotional experiences (McClung,2000). The theme park where the fieldwork was carriedout covers a surface area in excess of one million squaremeters. Inside the theme park, there are attractions forchildren and adults, shows, restaurants and shops. Withthe goal of providing a greater sensation of reality, theuse of modern technology applied to this type of settingsis especially evident: special effects, animated robots,three-dimensional imaging, among others. At the sametime, the atmosphere and the activity in the theme parkcontribute to having the visitors enjoy, generally speak-ing, an active participation. Visitors usually spend oneday in the theme park. In fact, 81% of the visitorsinterviewed responded that they had spent the wholeday there.

Duly trained interviewers arranged the interviews,which were conducted during the 2001 summer season.With the objective of getting up close to the stimuli thattriggered the emotions that the consumer experiences asa visitor during his/her enjoyment of the attractions, theinterviews were carried out in situ. An interviewer wasstationed outside the entrance to the attraction; theinterviewees, 200 consumers over the age of 18 (48.5%male, 51.5% female), were selected at random. Othersocio-demographic characteristics are as follows: agegroup 18–34 years (41%), 35–54 years (56%), 55 andolder (3%); regarding respondents’ monthly incomes,the percentages were: below, similar to, and above US$1082 (26.1%, 32.2% and 41.7%, respectively), andregarding nationality: 91.3% Spanish and 8.7% inter-national visitors. Visitors were mainly accompanied bytheir families (79.8%) or friends (18.2%).

3.2. Questionnaire and measurement scales

Together with the classification questions related tothe socio-demographic variables and the theme parkexperience (duration of stay, previous experience intheme parks, travel companion, etc.), multiple-itemscales of the different constructs dealt with in theproposed conceptual model (emotions, disconfirmation,consumer satisfaction, and behavioural intentions) wereincluded in a structured questionnaire. These constructswere measured as follows.

Emotions were measured by twelve items (Russell,1980), representing the pleasure and arousal dimensions.Pleasure was measured with a 5-point semantic differ-ential scale, with the following six items: angry–satisfied;

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unhappy–happy; dissatisfied–very pleased; sad–joyful;disappointed–delighted, and bored–entertained. Analo-gously, six items measured arousal: cheerful–depressed;quiet–anxious; enthusiastic–calm; nervous–relaxed; ac-tive–passive, and surprised–indifferent.

Perceived disconfirmation was measured using 2 items:Oliver’s (1980) 5-point semantic differential scale ran-ging from ‘‘overall, the amusement service was worsethan expected’’ to ‘‘better than expected’’, and Churchill& Surprenant’s (1982) 5-point semantic differential scaleranging from ‘‘overall, my expectations about the themepark were too high: it was poorer than I thought’’ to‘‘too low: it was better than I thought’’.

Satisfaction was measured on a five-item, 5-pointLikert-type scale based on Oliver’s (1997) scale: (1) thisis one of the best theme parks I could have visited, (2) Iam satisfied with my decision to visit this theme park, (3)my choice to visit this theme park was a wise one,(4) I have really enjoyed myself in this theme park, and(5) I am sure it was the right thing to visit this themepark.

Behavioural intentions were measured using theZeithaml et al. (1996) scale. Specifically, loyalty andwillingness to pay more were selected, with four and twoitems, respectively. The loyalty items were: (1) saypositive things about the theme park, (2) recommendthis theme park, (3) encourage friends and relatives tovisit it, and (4) come back to this one in the future. Itemsfor measuring willingness to pay more were as follows:(1) come back to the theme park even if the priceincreases, and (2) pay a higher price than for otherservices for the benefits of this theme park.

4. Results

4.1. Measurement analysis

Regarding emotions, and in particular, the pleasure

dimension, the Cronbach alpha turned out to be high(a ¼ :91); in contrast, the reliability of arousal with 6items was low (a ¼ :68). Reviewing the values obtainedin other studies that have used these scales, it becameevident that in these studies the reliability coefficient ofarousal was also lower than that obtained for pleasure.For instance, in the study carried out by Dawson, Bloch& Ridgway (1990), the dimension of pleasure achieved aCronbach’s alpha coefficient of .72, whereas for arousalthe value of a obtained was .64. In research carried outby Oliver et al. (1997), the a values corresponding toarousal were also low (Study 1: a ¼ :56, Study 2:a ¼ :67), while the pleasure dimension reached highervalues (Study 1: a ¼ :89, Study 2: a ¼ :84). To improvethe reliability for arousal, it was necessary to eliminatetwo items (a ¼ :74). The validity test based on the ten-item scale through the second-order confirmatory factor

analysis (CFA), used the EQS program (Bentler 1995;Byrne, 1994). The dimensionality, construct reliability(pleasure and arousal were: rc ¼ :93 and rc ¼ :80,respectively), and convergent validity (S–Bw2ð34Þ ¼75:04, po:01, NFI = .94, NNFI = .95, GFI = .92,AGFI = .87, CFI =.96, RMSEA = .08) were verified.

The test for content validity of disconfirmation derivedfrom its domain specification in previous literature (seeOliver, 1997), resulted in a relatively low Cronbach’salpha coefficient (a ¼ :67). With regard to overall

satisfaction, content validity, exploratory reliability(a ¼ :90), construct reliability (rc ¼ :90), unidimension-ality, and convergent validity (S–Bw2ð5Þ = 8.03, p ¼ :15,NFI = .98, NNFI = .98, GFI = .98, AGFI = .94, CFI=.99, RMSEA = .07) are all supported. Regardingbehavioural intentions, loyalty and WPM were alsoreliable, with 4 (a ¼ :90) and 2 items (a ¼ :87),respectively.

After analysing each measure separately, a CFA wasperformed, first of all, with the 23 measurementvariables combined into a single factor. The robustMaximum Likelihood was selected for an estimationalgorithm. The results obtained in this model werecompared with those obtained for the six-factor model(disconfirmation, pleasure, arousal, satisfaction, loyaltyand willingness to pay more). The single factor modelshowed clearly unsatisfactory goodness of fit indices(S–Bw2ð230Þ = 1133.54, po:01, NFI = .59, NNFI = .59,GFI = .55, AGFI = .46, CFI =.63, RMSEA = .16,AIC = 1005.07). On the contrary, the 6-factormeasurement model showed a reasonable fit (S–Bw2ð215Þ= 401.30, po:01, NFI = .87, NNFI = .91, GFI = .84,AGFI = .80, CFI =.93, RMSEA= .07, AIC = 32.08).

Once the fit of the six-factor measurement model wasverified, the construct reliability and construct validitywere estimated. First of all, following the recommenda-tions by Anderson & Gerbing (1988) and Hair,Anderson, Tatham, & Black (1995), the constructreliability (rc) is calculated for each factor. These resultsare shown in Table 1. Taking into account that valuesabove .6 are considered sufficiently appropriate (Bagozzi& Yi, 1988), the scale reliability is verified. Therefore,the items proposed for measurement of the latentvariables are providing consistent measures. Second, ascale has construct validity when it has convergent,discriminant, and nomological validity (Peter, 1981;Steenkamp & van Trijp, 1991). Convergent validityexists when the different items of the same latentvariable are strongly correlated. Scale convergentvalidity can be verified by checking the t tests of thefactor loadings in such a way that if all of the factorloadings of the manifest variables that are measuring thesame construct are statistically significant, they serve asevidence to support the convergent validity of theseindicators (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). In this study, allof the factor loadings are significant for po:001.

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Additionally, all of the loadings are above .5, whichmeans convergent validity of all the scales used(Steenkamp & van Trijp, 1991).

The discriminant power of the six factors was assessedbased on confidence intervals (Anderson & Gerbing,1988). All possible correlations between the six factorsrepresented in the scales were calculated, as well as theconfidence interval �2 standard errors. The conditionthat there can be no values of 1 within the interval wasmet in the present research, thus confirming thediscriminant validity of the scales analysed. Finally,scales show nomological validity when the constructbeing measured is capable of bringing to light relation-ships with other constructs which, conceptual ortheoretically, should exist (Peter, 1981). This type ofvalidity needs to be based on theoretical relationships,and for this reason this analysis was consigned to bedealt with after the estimation of the theoretical model,and will be discussed further below.

To illustrate the cognitive and affective paths of thevisitor’s theme park experience, structural equationmodelling (SEM) was used. The variables described inTable 1 were entered in both models. Maximum

Table 1

Construct measurement summary: CFA and scale reliabilitya

Item Item description summary

Disconfirmation (rC ¼ :70)DISC1 Worse/better than expected

DISC2 Poorer/better than I (had) expected

Pleasure (rC ¼ :93)PLEA1 Angry–satisfied

PLEA2 Unhappy–happy

PLEA3 Dissatisfied–very pleased

PLEA4 Sad–joyful

PLEA5 Disappointed–delighted

PLEA6 Bored–entertained

Arousal (rC ¼ :80)AROU1 Depressed–cheerful

AROU2 Calm–enthusiastic

AROU3 Passive–active

AROU4 Indifferent–surprised

Satisfaction (rC ¼ :91)SAT1 This is one of the best theme parks I have ever visited

SAT2 I’m pleased to have visited this theme park

SAT3 I was a good idea to visit this theme park

SAT4 I have really enjoyed myself at this theme park

SAT5 I don’t regret having visited this theme park

Loyalty (rC ¼ :90ÞLOY1 Say positive things about the theme park

LOY2 Recommend this theme park

LOY3 Encourage friends and relatives to visit it

LOY4 Come back to this one in the future

Willingness to pay more (rC ¼ :87)PAY1 Come back to the theme park even if the price increases

PAY2 Pay a higher price than for otherservices for the benefits of this

aFit statistics for measurement model of 23 indicators of 6 constructs: S–Bw.80, CFI =.93, RMSEA = .07, AIC = 32.08.

Likelihood (ML) Confirmatory Factor Analysis wasperformed. The ML solution maximizes the probabilitythat the observed covariances are drawn from apopulation that has its variance–covariances generatedfrom the process implied by the model, assuming amultivariate normal distribution. According to (Golob,2003, p. 8), ‘‘corrections have also been developed toadjust ML estimators to account for non-normality’’.The competing models were set up and estimated withEQS for Windows 5.7b (Bentler, 1995).

A moderate violation of multivariate kurtosis as-sumptions showed up in the study sample (Mardia’scoefficient 10.42), which could have led to overestima-tion of chi-square, underestimation of fit indices andunderestimation of standard error of parameter esti-mates (Dube et al., 2003; West, Finch, & Curran, 1995).Thus, this study utilizes the Satorra–Bentler Scaled chi-square (S–B Scaled w2) and robust Comparative FitIndex (Robust CFI), robust statistics and fit indices thatare corrected for abnormality. Among the commonprograms (Hox, 1995), EQS produces a robust chi-square and standard errors to handle non-normal data(Bentler, 1995).

Mean Std. deviation Std. loading t value

3.44 1.18 .87 10.90

2.99 1.01 .58 6.83

3.88 .92 .86 14.74

3.94 .84 .87 13.10

3.87 .89 .84 14.18

3.93 .94 .85 14.12

3.92 .89 .81 13.67

3.96 .89 .81 12.47

3.96 .90 .82 13.84

3.60 1.08 .55 7.64

3.83 .98 .82 14.23

3.56 .93 .60 8.22

3.10 1.15 .52 7.81

3.74 .87 .87 13.02

3.72 .95 .86 12.81

3.68 .94 .89 13.88

3.71 1.03 .88 15.87

3.88 .76 .92 11.37

3.92 .76 .94 11.28

3.88 .75 .85 10.13

3.46 .99 .58 7.68

3.05 1.09 .93 13.99

theme park 2.97 1.10 .82 10.88

2ð215Þ ¼ 401:30, po:01, NFI = .87, NNFI = .91, GFI = .84, AGFI =

ARTICLE IN PRESSJ.E. Bigne et al. / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 833–844840

4.2. Hypothesis testing

Model 1

In the first model, where emotions are antecedent tocognition, the effect of arousal on visitor disconfirma-tion is significant (b= .429, t ¼ 5:15). Likewise, arousalstimulates visitor pleasure (b=784, t ¼ 14:94) as antici-pated in Hypothesis 1. Thus, visitor arousal improvesthe positive disconfirmation, which is derived from thecognitive evaluation of the visitor’s theme park experi-ence. Positive disconfirmation has significant effects onsatisfaction (b= .306, t ¼ 5:95), and pleasure directlyinfluences visitor satisfaction (b= .418, t ¼ 4:81). Thearousal dimension has non-significant effects on satis-faction (b= .111, t ¼ 1:17). The combined effect ofarousal and pleasure on satisfaction is, however,significant (b ¼ :784� :418 ¼ :327). This path has alsobeen hypothesized in the competing model. Fig. 3 showsthe path-standardized parameters. Structural parameterestimates and robust-t values are found in Table 2.

Satisfaction directly influences loyalty behaviour (b=.303, t ¼ 3:81). As assumed, pleasure influences loyaltydirectly (b= .332, t ¼ 5:06), although an indirect effectthrough the satisfaction construct(b ¼ :418� :303 ¼ :126) was also evident. The pathbetween satisfaction and willingness to pay more is notsignificant (b= .131, t ¼ 1:22), and consequently,Hypothesis 5b is not confirmed. However, the direct

Loyalty

Pleasure

Willingness to

pay morePositive arousal

Positivedisconfirmation

Satisfaction

.77

.35

.36

.40

.37

.20

.10

.35

.10

Fig. 3. Model 1 (standardized parameters).

Table 2

Model 1—Affect–cognition structural model estimates (robust-t values)

Disconfirmation = Arousal

.429 (5.15)

Pleasure = Arousal

.784 (14.94)

Satisfaction = Arousal

.111 (1.17)

Loyalty = Pleasure

.332 (5.06)

Willingness to pay more = Disconfirmation

.220 (2.72)

effect of positive disconfirmation on willingness to paymore is significant (b= .220, t ¼ 2:72). Fit statisticsassociated with this model are good (S–B Scaled w2=9.86; df= 5; p ¼ 0:07; NNFI=.96; CFI=.98; RobustCFI= .98; RMSEA= 0.07; CAIC=�21:09).

Model 2

The competing model (Fig. 4) assumes that perceiveddisconfirmation influences visitor emotions, i.e. pleasureand arousal. This model yields a better fit (S–B Scaledw2= 6.32; df=4; p ¼ :18; NNFI=.99; CFI=.99;Robust CFI= .99; RMSEA= .05; CAIC=�18:77)(see Table 3). Positive disconfirmation influences visitorarousal directly (b= .282, t ¼ 4:68). Although the pathbetween cognition and pleasure is not significant,disconfirmation influences visitor pleasure indirectly(b ¼ :282� :751 ¼ :212). As a result, hypotheses 8aand 8b are confirmed. Analogously to the findings ofModel 1, cognitive and affective variables have sig-nificant effects on satisfaction. Although the influence ofdisconfirmation on arousal is confirmed, the direct effectof arousal on satisfaction is not significant. Even thoughthe arousal dimension has non-significant effects onsatisfaction, the combined effect of arousal and pleasureon satisfaction is significant (b ¼ :751� :418 ¼ :313).

With reference to the non-significant direct relation-ship between arousal and satisfaction, this can be due to:(a) enjoyment and fun factors weigh more than the

+ Pleasure + Positive disconfirmation

.418 (4.81) .306 (5.95)

+ Satisfaction

.303 (3.81)

+ Satisfaction

.131 (1.22)

Willingness to pay more

Pleasure

Loyalty

Positive arousalPositive

disconfirmation

Satisfaction

.09

.74.40

.20

.37

.10

.36

.35

.35

.10

Fig. 4. Model 2 (standardized parameters).

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 3

Model 2—Cognition–affect structural model estimates (robust-t values)

Arousal = Disconfirmation

.282 (4.68)

Pleasure = Arousal + Disconfirmation

.751 (13.08) .078 (1.90)

Satisfaction = Arousal + Pleasure + Positive disconfirmation

.111 (1.24) .418 (4.77) .306 (5.89)

Loyalty = Pleasure + Satisfaction

.332 (4.86) .303 (3.77)

Willingness to pay more = Disconfirmation + Satisfaction

.220 (2.63) .130 (1.22)

J.E. Bigne et al. / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 833–844 841

excitement ones and, (b) the satisfaction construct has alarge impact or is influenced by other non-controlledaspects in this study. In spite of this, an indirect effect ofarousal on satisfaction by means of the pleasuredimension is verified. In sum, findings corroborate thecognitive–affective perspective for explaining consumersatisfaction.

As expected, pleasure and satisfaction influenceloyalty behaviour directly. Furthermore, an indirecteffect of pleasure on loyalty through the satisfactionconstruct (b ¼ :418� :303 ¼ :126) is also corroborated.However, satisfaction is not a significant antecedent ofwillingness to pay more. The model reveals that positivedisconfirmation influences this behavioural intentiondirectly.

The two models under investigation are constructedfrom the same latent variables and indicators. They onlydiffer in the order of cognitive and affective variables.The first model follows the primacy of affect versuscognition. Fit statistics are marginal. Despite a strongCFI (.98) and low RMSEA (.07), the S–B Scaled chi-square statistic fits poorly (S–B w2= 9.86; df= 5;p ¼ 0:07; CAIC =21.09). The competing model (Model2) is more robust than the previous one: the S–B Scaledchi-square statistic provides strong indications of modelfit (S–B Scaled w2= 6.32; df=4; p ¼ :18; NNFI=.99;CFI=.99; Robust CFI= .99; RMSEA= .05;CAIC=18.77). Particularly the Consistent AIC, usedto asymptotically compare structural models (Bozdo-gan, 1987), indicates the better model through a lowerCAIC value.

The structural equation model supports Hypothesis 1(positive arousal influences visitor pleasure) and Hy-pothesis 2 (visitor arousal improves positive disconfir-mation). While the cognitive–affective sequence ofsatisfaction is corroborated, Hypothesis 3 (disconfirma-tion influences satisfaction) and Hypotheses 4a/4b(arousal and pleasure influence on satisfaction) aresupported. However, arousal influences satisfaction onlyindirectly through the pleasure dimension. As expectedin Hypothesis 5, satisfaction influences loyalty. At thesame time, the path from pleasure to loyalty is doubly

significant: directly and indirectly through satisfaction.Thus, Hypothesis 6 (pleasure influences loyalty) isaccepted. Finally, the influence of disconfirmation onwillingness to pay more (Hypothesis 7) is alsosupported.

The SEM depicting cognition (i.e. disconfirmation) asan antecedent to emotions supports the hypotheses: apositive disconfirmation influences visitor pleasure(Hypothesis 8a) and visitor arousal (Hypothesis 8b).However, the cognitive effect of disconfirmation onpleasure appears to be fully mediated by visitors’arousal.

5. Discussion and conclusion

This study compared two competing models of theimpact of emotions on satisfaction, willingness to paymore and on loyalty. They thus integrate the environ-mental perspective of Mehrabian & Russell (1974) withgeneral research into consumer satisfaction (Wirtz et al.,2000) and behavioural intentions (Zeithaml et al., 1996).The models differed in terms of the primacy of affectversus cognition on these outcomes.

Since the mid-1980s, an increasing number ofconsumer researchers have pursued an extension of themainstream approach in consumer satisfaction, whichdefined satisfaction primarily as a cognitive construct.The current experiential view offers an integrativeframework for explaining consumer satisfaction, con-sidering both the cognitive (i.e. disconfirmation) andaffective (i.e. emotional dimensions) antecedents.

The result that (cognitive) disconfirmations evokearousal which, in turn, influences feelings of pleasure hasimplications for management and future research. Thedichotomy is between entertainment and informationand while the experiential side is, no doubt, of majorimportance, the results suggest that information primingpositive disconfirmations can increase satisfaction aswell as willingness to pay. In other words, assisting in orimproving the perceptual process of the disconfirmationmay impact satisfaction as well as willingness to pay.

ARTICLE IN PRESSJ.E. Bigne et al. / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 833–844842

The form this manipulation can take, however, needsfurther research as, for example, suggestions to visitorsthat expectations may have been or will be surpassed(thus increasing the perceived disconfirmation) may alsochange the anchor of the expectation. Such research isall the more important as our results indicate that notsatisfaction but disconfirmation impacts the willingnessto pay more. The model may therefore benefit from theinclusion of a value-for-money component in order tosee whether the willingness to pay more is mediated byperceptions of value for money the disconfirmationexperience may evoke.

Consistent with Russell’s model, emotions have twoindependent dimensions, i.e. pleasure and arousal(Russell & Pratt (1980)). Similar to Chebat & Michon(2003), during the amusing theme park experience,positive arousal influences visitor pleasure positively.Pleasure is strongly linked to consumer satisfaction andloyalty in experiencing tourism attractions. Arousal is,however, a mediator variable in the relationship betweendisconfirmation and pleasure. In other words, we arereminded that the disconfirmation of the theme parkexperience should not be over-stimulating so thatnegative arousal and displeasure occurs.

The strength of the direct impact of pleasure onloyalty is similar to that of satisfaction. It is anindication that the (physiological) experience of pleasureby itself creates loyalty so that both the promise ofpleasure and satisfaction (rather than merely satisfactionthrough pleasure) need attention. It may thus be helpfulto assist visitors in remembering the experience throughafter-sales services such as brochures, certificates orother memorabilia that remind of the physiologicalpleasure, in order to bolster word-of-mouth propagan-da.

The finding that the emotional consequences onbehavioural intentions impact loyalty is also indictedin other research dealing with the role of anticipatedemotions in decision-making processes (Goossens, 2000)and motivation formation (Gnoth et al., 2000a, 2000b),as well as in the model of goal directed behaviour(MGB) by Perugini & Bagozzi (2001). An interestingcontribution of the latter MGB is the introduction ofanticipated emotions as important antecedents indecision-making processes. Any form of reminders orevocations of the physiological pleasure one might feelduring the experience will therefore assist in generatingvisits.

The findings have to be considered within thelimitations of the research methodology. It includesthe singular focus on one leisure and tourism servicecategory, i.e. theme park. The replication of thetheoretical structure should be tested for other LTScategories, e.g. museums, adventure tourism. Anotherlimitation stems from the use of self-report measures ofaffective and cognitive bases (Derbaix & Pham, 1989).

These explicit measures are more likely to be tied todeliberative affect and cognition, because they encou-rage an active search in memory for specific emotionalexperiences and cognitive beliefs associated with thefocal leisure experience.

The models depicted in Figs. 1 and 2, with theintroduction of disconfirmation, consumption emotions,satisfaction and behavioural intentions, suggest a widerange of research possibilities. First, in order to obtainmore generalisable results, it would be interesting toreplicate the model for other hedonic services. Forexample, Barsky & Nash (2002) suggest that theemotions a guest feels during a hotel stay are criticalcomponents of satisfaction and loyalty. Second, inbuilding towards a clearer understanding of consump-tion emotions evoked through experiencing leisure andtourism services, this research would also like to suggestnew variables to be taken into account for futureenquiries. For instance, pertinent goals for futureresearch would be to study the effects of atmospherics(McGoldrick & Pieros, 1998) on consumption emotionsin experiencing tourism attractions. As atmospherics arenot directly related to the core experience they mayeither add together with the core experience orseparately on pleasure and satisfaction. Third, therelationship between the dimensions of service excel-lence (i.e. intangibility, reliability, customer care, amongothers) and consumer judgment relative to servicequality (Dean et al., 2002; Ryan, 1999) is anotherpossible area of future research, linked to consumptionemotions. Lastly, and given the growing recognition ofthe importance of creating and delivering experience-based perceptions of value (Schmitt, 1999; Robinette &Brand, 2001; Woodruff, 1997), the model built for thepresent study as well as any future model shouldconsider the contributions value-for-money delibera-tions have on the outcome variables.

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