ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The Successive Use of Information andCommunication Technologies at Work

Keri K. Stephens

Department of Communication Studies, University of Texas at Austin, TX 78712-0115

Past research on information and communication technology (ICT) use has largely

assumed that people use only one ICT per task. Yet completing a task often requires

a mix of ICTs used over time. ICT succession theory argues that by examining the

modalities—for example, auditory, visual, and textual—found in ICTs today, we can

predict how to use follow-up or successive ICTs to complete tasks efficiently and effec-

tively. The six propositions that form the core of this theory make predictions linking

tasks and types of successive ICT use. Using complementary modalities should help peo-

ple best accomplish persuasion, status, information, and problem-solving tasks. This

strategy should also increase the likelihood that communicators will reach their audi-

ence. Using mass media as a precursor, should ICT help people best accomplish infor-

mation, status, and learning tasks. Using text-capable ICTs as a follow-up strategy is

most helpful in persuasion, information, and problem-solving tasks.

doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2007.00308.x

Information and communication technologies (ICTs), by themselves, are justobjects, ‘‘simply dead matter’’ (Poole & DeSanctis, 1990). But when two or more

people interact, ICTs become an important component in the process of commu-nication. As communication scholars, we often consider communication as being

processual, but our research tends to simplify this process to the lowest commondenominator—using one ICT for a given task.

The practice of comparing ICTs is a longstanding tradition in communicationscholarship. Organizational studies typically examine a managerial context. Onemight ask, for example, how managers send messages via an ICT that allows them

to most effectively or efficiently reach employees (Daft & Lengel, 1984, 1986; Daft,Lengel, & Trevino, 1987; Dahle, 1954; Walton, 1959, 1962). Contemporary studies

have focused on rank-ordering existing ICTs and attempting to match ICTs to theirvarious uses (e.g., media richness theory and uses and gratifications). But as scholars have

shown, simply rank-ordering ICTs, which change over time, is an oversimplification

Corresponding author: Keri K. Stephens; e-mail: keristephens@mail.utexas.edu

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of how ICTs are used (e.g., Orlikowski, 2000) because it focuses only on an ‘‘imme-diate incident’’ (Saunders & Jones, 1990, p. 29).

As people in organizations use technology to accomplish tasks, they do not useone ICT isolated from other ICTs. There are myriad communication options, and

many tasks require ongoing communication that unfolds over time. For example,people often send an e-mail and then upon receiving no reply, they use the telephoneto follow-up with that same person. When they reach their intended recipient, they

say, ‘‘I just sent you an important email, do you have any questions?’’ Not only doesthis example likely ring true with most people’s experiences but also prominent

scholars in interpersonal communication (e.g., Walther & Parks, 2002), psychology(Hesse, Werner, & Altman, 1988), and management (Boczkowski & Orlikowski,

2004; Saunders & Jones, 1990) have called for further study of the phenomenon ofICT use combinations. Walther and Parks explain, ‘‘Communication efficiency may

rest on sequences or combinations of ICTs rather than isolated choices about a dis-crete medium’’ (p. 534).

Enlarging our perspective on ICT use can take many forms, but the focus here is

on combinatorial ICT use. This concept, originally developed in mathematical the-ory, has since been applied to many disciplines such as chemistry, economics, and

computer science. Although there are many variations on the original concept, thecombinatorics perspective provides guidance relevant to viewing the workplace as an

environment filled with combinations of ICTs. In combinatorics, relevant variablesare combined and equations or experimental conditions are created to find solu-

tions. Focusing on successive or follow-up ICTs is one step in understanding morerealistically how ICTs can be and are used.

There are three major advantages to expanding our current view of ICT use toinclude a successive ICT perspective. First, and of particular importance to commu-nication scholars, is that this view more closely approximates interactional commu-

nication. If we are to understand the complexities involved in using ICTs forcommunication, it is imperative that we conceptualize our theories as more pro-

cessual. Another contribution of this current work is that it links specific communi-cation tasks with features of ICTs and then sets forth a series of propositions that are

testable. Finally, a successive ICT predictive model provides practical value. In workenvironments where people are increasingly receiving an excessive amount of mes-

sages from peers, supervisors, subordinates, and clients, receiving sound adviceabout using ICTs to complete tasks should be welcome.

Definitions and boundary conditions of the theory

To frame this theoretical contribution, it is important to first briefly understandwhat is known about ICT use and how that contrasts with a successive ICT use view

(see Figure 1). This figure illustrates how ICTs are used both discretely, where onlyone ICT is used to complete a task, and sequentially, where more than one ICT is

used in succession to complete a task. Most prior research has not viewed ICT use as

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a process, so the focus has been on the linear path located on the left side of Figure 1.Previous research has demonstrated that many variables influence ICT use (e.g.,

media traits, social influences, organizational influences, and individual differences).The past research on influences is helpful and it provides guidance to this theory-building effort. Yet this prior work focused on how ICTs are used, not on how they

are selected based on the ICT characteristics. As Figure 1 illustrates, sometimesdiscrete ICT use accomplishes tasks, but it is far more frequent that people use ICTs

successively to communicatively complete tasks over time.It is important to define ICTs and elaborate on several types because these serve

explanatory and limiting functions in this work. Here, ICTs include technologies thathandle information and enable communication among human actors. This defini-

tion is more limiting than some that also include information exchange betweenelectronic systems, but the focus of this theory is on interaction between people.

Face-to-face communication is also included as an ICT, both as a comparison pointand because in this model it functions like a technology channel by facilitatingcommunication among human actors.

Defining specific ICTs is difficult because they are constantly changing. They canbe comprised of a single communication channel, such as the simple telephone that

only has an auditory channel, or they can be multimodal, such as face-to-facecommunication, because communicators receive information from both auditory

and visual channels. Contemporary communication devices, such as mobile phones,complicate this further because their text-messaging functions constitute multiple

channels or embedded ICTs. This complication makes distinguishing their functionsdifficult (Flanagin & Metzger, 2001; Hollingshead & Contractor, 2002; Vertegaal,2003). Although elaborating on the channel differences found in the various ICTs is

likely worthwhile, to maintain the scope of this document, this work focuses only onthis distinction when it helps to inform the processual nature of this theory.

Understanding how people use ICTs over time is another scope-limiting concept.Most ICT research to date has assumed that people use ICTs discretely—only one at

a time—so there is not a discussion of time or process. People can also use multiple

Influences

Communication

Media traitsICT choice point

Socialinfluences

Individualdifferences

Organizationinfluences

Task completion Incomplete task

Task

Task

Figure 1 ICT use and task completion.

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ICTs at the same time, which is considered simultaneous use (Monge & Kalman,1996). This might happen when people are in a face-to-face meeting and use their

mobile phone to send a text message to a colleague. Explicating simultaneous use isworthy of study, but it is different than the focus of this work.

Contrast this simultaneous use with sequentiality—a time-based view of oneentity succeeding another (Monge & Kalman, 1996). Applying this definition toICT use, any time people use one ICT followed by another it qualifies as sequential

use and these sequences likely get quite complex. Complex sequences are also aninteresting area for research but first we need to understand simple sequences, such

as the focus here on successive—or follow-up—ICT use. In this case, simplicity isalso practical because as people try to complete tasks, follow-up communicative

attempts likely happen.In the sections that follow, I first briefly review past research on ICT use with

a focus on the influence variables that likely affect successive ICT use. Next, I outlinethe types of organizational tasks and the ways to group ICTs that further facilitatea theory-building effort. Using a range of interdisciplinary theories, I next develop

a set of testable propositions that predict how the features of ICTs can be used tooptimize follow-up and task completion. I also discuss potential problems with

successive ICT use, limits to this theory, and suggest directions for future research.

Past research on ICT use

Influences on ICT use

Influences on ICT use can be categorized into four main groupings: media traits, socialinfluences, organizational influences, and individual differences. Briefly reviewing theseprovides an important baseline for understanding how researchers over the past several

decades have tried to create predictive models for ICT use. Some of these influences—that is, media traits and social influences—play a dominant role in ICT succession

theory (IST), yet all four of these influences are still considerations in every step ofa processual view of ICT use (see Figure 1). The remaining two influences, organiza-

tional context and individual differences, also provide explanatory value in why peopleshould use certain types of ICTs for follow-up on earlier task-completion attempts.

Media traits

An underlying belief in many communication media theories is that an ICT isdefined by certain traits or inherent features. Two such theories, media richness

theory (Daft & Lengel, 1984, 1986; Daft et al., 1987; Trevino, Daft, & Lengel,1990) and social presence theory (Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976), attempt to

link media traits with desired task outcomes. Both of these theories approach ICTsfrom a similar ‘‘matching’’ perspective, which means that ICTs should be matched to

tasks. Empirical studies grounded in media richness theory (or social presence the-ory) tend to rank-order ICTs along a continuum of richness, based on their traits.

Face-to-face communication normally ranks the highest, and e-mail and letters rank

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the lowest. A ‘‘lean’’ channel such as e-mail is essentially stripped down and thuslacks the four richness features of: (a) the ability to transmit multiple signals—for

example, nonverbal cues, voice intonations, and the verbal message itself, (b) accessto immediate feedback from the receiver, (c) a chance to tailor the message to the

real-time situation, and (d) the ability to incorporate conversational language suchas slang and ambiguous references.

Social influences

Empirical studies of media trait theories produced mixed findings, so scholars began

looking to variables other than those embedded in the ICT itself for a more completeunderstanding of organizational ICT use. The most prominent theory found in this

arena is the social influence model (Fulk, Schmitz, & Steinfield, 1990). The essence ofthis contribution is that social variables, such as group norms or comments made by

coworkers, influence ICT use decisions. Empirical tests of social influence modelhave generally supported this notion (however, see Rice et al., 1992, for an argumentagainst this notion). A fundamental consideration of social influence theory is that

other people matter in two key ways. First, enough other people must be using thesame or compatible ICTs for communication to occur. This is called critical mass

(Markus, 1990), and until the technology is adequately diffused, it cannot be widelyused (Rice, Grant, Schmitz, & Torobin, 1990; Rogers, 2003). Second, group members

observe others’ behavior, the consequences of that behavior, and the emotionalreactions of others, and they adjust their own behavior (Fulk, 1993).

Another model that provides insight into how others influence ICT choice is thetask closure model (Straub & Karahanna, 1998). Their model posits that knowledge

workers in organizations are driven to complete tasks. As workers use ICTs toaccomplish closure goals, they are more productive, less stressed, and experienceless task fragmentation. Although Straub and Karahanna’s model is clearly a contri-

bution to media use literature, especially with respect to considerations of recipientavailability, their model is static because they define task closure as ‘‘the completion

of a communication transmission segment’’ (p. 171). Thus, their model is highlyfocused on the psychological effect on the communication initiator when the

receiver’s availability is considered, rather than on the communication process ofusing media to complete a task.

Organizational influences

Organizations also play an important role in ICT use. In the ICT use literature, job

category, or the roles and positions occupied by organizational members (Rice &Shook, 1990), tends to predict different patterns of ICT use. The roles that people

occupy provide a measure of horizontal differentiation, whereas the positions pro-vide vertical organizational differentiation. So both job roles and managerial status

can affect ICT use (Adams, Todd, & Nelson, 1993; Carlson & Davis, 1998; Lee, 1994;Markus, 1990, 1994a, 1994b; Markus, Bikson, El-Shinnawy, & Soe, 1992; Rice, 1993;

Rice & Shook, 1990; Rice et al., 1992; Scott & Timmerman, 1999).

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Individual differences

Much like the vast list of organizational variables, prior research has also uncovered

many individual-level differences that play a role in ICT use. The most prominentempirical finding in this category is that experience with an ICT matters (e.g.,

Carlson & Zmud, 1999; Fulk, Schmitz, & Ryu, 1995; King & Xia, 1999; Walther &Burgoon, 1992). King and Xia found that ‘‘an individual’s choice of media fora certain task is significantly correlated with one’s experience with the media rather

than the rationally evaluated fit between media and tasks’’ (p. 168). Personal pref-erences can also account for some of the variance in ICT choice (e.g., Carlson &

Zmud, 1999; King & Xia, 1999). For example, not all communicators prefer havingaccess to nonverbal cues (Walther & Parks, 2002). This likely affects the ICTs they

use when communicating.

ICT succession theory

Identifying tasks

Although past research has clearly established that many variables influence ICT use,we know very little about how people use subsequent ICTs, in succession, to com-

plete work tasks. Obviously, a follow-up attempt to use an ICT is likely dependent onthe initial ICT chosen and the related outcome; therefore, it is important to provide

some overarching theoretical categories that allow us to group ICTs for the purposesof making predictive claims. Several theories provide guidance, but the overarching

perspective used here relies on specific media traits and the communication channelsavailable. Therefore, while IST is based on the premise that ICT use is socially

constructed over time, the model presented below limits the influence considerationsto ones typically considered as more deterministic and predictable in a localizedcontext.

Successive ICT use likely varies by task type, and within the context of organi-zational ICT use, there are several major types of tasks. To help differentiate tasks,

especially now that the Internet is playing a prominent role at work, scholars havesuggested that uses and gratifications (e.g., Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1974)—

originally developed to study television and radio—is worthy of additional study(Charney & Greenberg, 2002; Lin, 2002; Newhagen & Rafaeli, 1996). Charney and

Greenberg claim, ‘‘[C]urrently, uses and gratifications seems to be most useful fordescribing the various reasons or motivations for choosing one medium over

another’’ (p. 381). This perspective has proved useful in compartmentalizing orga-nizational tasks and linking them to specific ICTs (Charney & Greenberg, 2002;Dobos, 1992; Flanagin & Metzger, 2001).

Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) study using uses and gratification is one of the fewthat include face-to-face communication, the Internet, and four other computer-

mediated ICTs in a single study. They developed a 21-item questionnaire using threetheoretical frameworks: uses and gratifications, organizational issues, and symbolic

uses of ICTs. A factor analysis resulted in 10 clusters of uses: information, learning,

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play, leisure, persuasion, social bonding, relationship maintenance, problem solving,status, and insight into oneself. The cluster information reflects ICT use simply to

obtain information. The learning cluster refers to generating ideas, learning aboutoneself and others, and learning how to do things. The third cluster, play, was the

response to the item play, which appeared as a separate cluster in Flanagin andMetzger’s study. The leisure cluster included the following items: to be entertained,to relax, and to pass time when the person is bored. The fifth cluster, persuasion, refers

to the use of ICTs for persuading, negotiating, bargaining, or getting someone to dosomething. The social bonding cluster reflects ICT use to lessen loneliness by interacting

with others. Relationship maintenance is also a social dimension, and it refers to ICTuse for getting to know others, for providing others with information, and for staying

in touch with others. Problem solving refers to ICT use for solving a problem, makingdecisions, and contributing to a pool of information. The ninth cluster, personal status,

refers to the use of ICTs in order to impress people or to feel important. The finalcluster is called to gain insight into myself and refers to the use of ICTs as self-help tools.

Flanagin and Metzger (2001) found that information seeking is an important

communicative function of most ICTs. Learning is a need filled primarily by theinformation-retrieval and information-giving functions of the Internet. E-mail,

the telephone, and face-to-face communication are used heavily when people arepersuading others, bonding socially, and maintaining relationships (Flanagin &

Metzger, 2001).

Clustering ICTs and linking them to tasks

Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) study also found that the similarity of ICT use across

the needs clustered into three categories: (a) unmediated interpersonal communi-cation, mostly served by face-to-face communication; (b) mediated interpersonalcommunication, mostly served by e-mail, telephone, and Internet-conversations;

and (c) mass communication, mostly served by information retrieval and exchangeon the Internet, books, magazines, and newspapers. Face-to-face communication

was ranked the highest at fulfilling all but 3 of the 21 needs. When face-to-facecommunication was supplanted by mediated ICTs, Flanagin and Metzger suggested

that this was due to mediated ICTs’ abilities to connect people across distances.Furthermore, face-to-face communication was not significantly better than mass

communication when people want to be entertained or to pass the time.Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) findings provide considerable guidance in group-

ing ICTs and tasks. Their finding that face-to-face communication is a uniquely

useful communicative technology is supported by previous communication research(e.g., Daft & Lengel, 1984, 1986, Short et al., 1976; Olson & Olson, 2000). Face-to-

face communication is multifaceted because it has many cues, verbal and nonverbal,available to communicators; it is synchronous; and it allows communicators access

to immediate feedback. This evidence suggests that any theory concerning processualICT use should also consider face-to-face communication as a versatile technology

when used alone or in combination with other ICTs.

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Although face-to-face communication does seem to be helpful for fulfilling manyneeds, prior research suggests that it is not always ideal (Walther, 1992; Walther &

Parks, 2002), or possible (Olson & Olson, 2000). In their summarizing piece DistanceMatters, Olson and Olson claim that although face-to-face communication is very

important for collaboration, ‘‘we should not fall into the trap of singling out face-to-face interactions as the gold standard’’ (p. 167). They suggest that we examine thefeatures of face-to-face communication to see if there are ways to approximate the

current collaborative characteristics of face-to-face communication that functionwell in remote interactions. Furthermore, face-to-face communication lacks built-

in memory, access to text, multiple addressability (unless in a group setting), repro-cessability, and reviewability, features that are important for many tasks (Clark &

Brennan, 1991; Dennis & Valacich, 1999; Markus, 1994a; Sproull & Kiesler, 1991).ICTs allow what is often called computer-mediated communication (CMC), which

offers many of the features that face-to-face communication lacks. E-mail and com-puter conferencing systems, where communication occurs by encoding text mes-sages, are considered types of CMC (Walther, 1992). The textual nature of these

messages makes them quite unique. In a study conducted by Rogen Internationaland Goldhaber Research Associates (2001), researchers found that e-mail use

increased more than 600% in the 6 years between 1995 and 2001. Eighty-five percentof the executives surveyed in this study claimed that e-mail had improved organi-

zational communication in part because of the quick and broad distribution ofinformation. Although e-mail is used frequently in organizations today and it pro-

vides textual information, e-mail is not the only ICT capable of fulfilling thesefunctions. Yet this does suggest that textual features of ICTs make them unique

complements to other ICTs lacking this capability.Documentation tasks—those requiring textual data—did not appear in Flanagin

and Metzger’s (2001) study, yet there is considerable evidence that documentation needs

play a role in both discrete and successive ICT use. This consideration also changes howthe mediated ICTs—defined as e-mail and telephone in Flanagin and Metzger’s study—

should be treated in a successive use condition. Although both of these ICTs have theability to connect people across distance, the features inherent in each of these ICTs

suggest that they might be used differently to follow-up communicative attempts. Forthis reason, mediated ICTs capable of conveying textual information are separated

conceptually from those capable of communicating only oral information.In summary, to link tasks to successive ICT use, we must first identify typical

organizational tasks and group ICTs into meaningful categories. Using Flanagin and

Metzger’s (2001) framework, there appear to be 10 distinct task types, and consid-ering the pervasive use of documentation in organizations today, an 11th one is

included. To group ICTs by features that inform a successive use view, we find thatface-to-face communication is unique, that mass media cluster together, and that

mediated communication that is textual is likely different from mediated commu-nication that is strictly oral. Next, I use these groupings, along with past theoretical

and empirical work, to develop propositions for successive ICT use.

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Theoretically derived propositions concerning successive ICT use

There are many interdisciplinary theories that provide guidance for how ICTs might

best be used successively for task completion. The majority of these theories concernissues of redundancy and the role that multiple channels play when trying to max-

imize task completion in terms of efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency is typicallyconsidered an outcome measure that results in keeping costs low, whereas effective-ness is meeting the quality objectives of the situation. Although these are broad

outcome measures, the theoretical propositions that follow can also fulfill otherobjectives, like meeting others’ needs and preferences, which are highly communi-

cative outcomes.

Information theory and cost minimization

Communication scholars have relied on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) informationtheory (see Dahle’s 1954 study) and Marschak’s (1968) cost minimization perspec-

tive (see Hsia’s 1968 study as well as Reinsch & Beswick’s 1990 findings) to show thatan oral plus a written channel improves recall. The similarity between these twoperspectives is their view that redundancy is good because it fills in the gaps and

reduces errors.Dahle’s (1954) directly examined combinations of ICTs. He ran three different

experiments using both organizational and student subjects. His objective was tocompare the effectiveness of five different channels of communication—oral, writ-

ten, oral and written, bulletin board, and grapevine—commonly used to transmitinformation from managers to employees. Dahle equated effectiveness with com-

prehension and measured the results using testlike survey methods. He found thatregardless of population, transmitting information using a combination of oral and

written channels was the most effective for comprehension. His study defined ‘‘oral’’as face-to-face communication in a group setting, and his written information wasdistributed in a printed letter format.

Consistent with Dahle’s (1954) findings, in 1968, Hsia empirically demonstratedthat auditory plus visual information increased the accuracy of message trans-

mission better than either auditory or visual stimuli alone. Despite the fact thathis subjects were junior high school students, his finding is useful because he pro-

vides a solid theoretical explanation for how these channels convey informationand his experimental design with 192 subjects is robust. Theoretically, he relies

on information theory principles to explain how these different channels func-tion to convey information. He also debunks Broadbent’s (1958) theoretical viewthat people become overloaded when they receive information through multiple

channels. To do this, he explains that the information received via a discrete chan-nel does not approach a person’s processing capacity. Rather, in multichannel

situations, one channel simply provides additional cues that reinforce, not inter-fere with, information provided by other channels. He claims that ‘‘information

processed through bisensory modalities usually possesses a certain amount ofredundancy. [referred to as] between-channel redundancy’’ (p. 326). Redundancy,

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he claims, is largely what determines communication efficiency and depend-ability, whereas noise—providing old or the exact same information—has the

opposite effect.Reinsch and Beswick (1990) used a cost minimization theoretical perspective to

study voicemail implementation by relying on Marschak’s (1968) perspective oncosts associated with how people decide to seek and communicate information.Reinsch and Beswick define three types of costs: access, error, and delay. Access

costs—similar to ease of use—might be relevant to subsequent ICT use, but errorand delay costs are most directly germane. Essentially, when things are important or

errors are costly, multiple channels are likely to be used. Reinsch and Beswick claimthat ‘‘dual channel messages heighten redundancy and reduce errors’’ (p. 807), and

this is what prompts message initiators to use multiple ICTs to send messages. Inaddition to this information perspective, there is also work from education and

psychology that supports the finding that people use multiple ICTs to improvecomprehension (e.g., Paivo, 1990).

Dual coding model

In both the traditional classroom and now in the distance education arena, research-

ers have shown that if teachers want to improve retention, they should presentmaterial using different sensory modes (Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 2000; Mayer,

1997; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995; Paivo, 1990). Theseeducational findings are also relevant in organizations because communication often

has instructional goals (Daly & Vangelisti, 2003).Psychology provides a theoretical reason for this practice with Paivo’s dual

processing model. Allan Paivo and his colleagues claim that humans make separatesense of auditory and visual stimuli in a process called dual coding (Clark & Paivo,1991; Paivo, 1990; Thompson & Paivo, 1994). Paivo found that using a combination

of oral and visual information affects working memory. When streams of informa-tion work together to provide differently coded information about the same topic,

they reinforce each other, improving audience interest and recall.A common objective in organizations is to improve audience interest to facilitate

persuading others. Capturing attention is a problem because today many organiza-tional members receive over 20 e-mails a day (Rogen International & Goldhaber

Research Associates, 2001), still meet face-to-face with others, use the telephone, andsearch the Internet. In this overcommunicative environment, people must thinkstrategically about using ICTs to capture the attention of others. Mass media and

health communication researchers have spent decades on this issue of attention.Health campaigns cannot succeed in changing individuals’ behaviors without

achieving widespread exposure to their messages (Hornik, 2002; Rimal, Flora, &Schooler, 1999; Rogers & Storey, 1987). Exposure can be maximized through the

use of multiple channels (Backer & Rogers, 1993; Flora, Saphir, Schooler, & Rimal,1997; Rogers & Storey, 1987). In the health communication literature, channels

are typically conceptualized as either mass media or interpersonal in nature, and

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campaigns are urged to adopt a mixture of both (Backer & Rogers, 1993; Rogers &Storey, 1987).

Expanding the notion of ‘‘Dual’’

One challenge inherent in applying this research to ICTs is that dual is the wrongword to explain ICTs and their channels. Currently, several ICTs contain more thantwo modalities. There is at least a trimodal communicative capacity—oral, visual,

and textual—and some ICTs have olfactory and other modalities. To ensure that wedo not limit the future possibilities of ICT capabilities, we should adopt the word

multimodal, which is quite prominent in the learning literature.Distinctions between modalities are often unclear in theoretical and empirical

work. This is apparent in the studies mentioned earlier in this document. For exam-ple, face-to-face communication as an ICT has both an oral and a visual mode. The

visual mode allows others to read nonverbal communication and receive cues notpresent in a strictly oral mode such as the telephone. But face-to-face communica-tion does not have the ability to allow for textual encoding. For some tasks, such as

providing documentation, textual data is essential.

Complementary modalities. These theories and empirical studies demonstrate the

usefulness of strategically choosing a subsequent ICT that has different, yet comple-mentary modalities. Redundancy is likely productive. Linking these findings back to

common organizational tasks, there are several task types that likely fall into twocategories: (a) interest-generating, for example, tasks related to persuasion and status;

and (b) recall-oriented or accuracy-related tasks, that is, tasks related to informationand problem solving. Interest-generating tasks such as persuasion and status are

different from more cooperative tasks such as problem solving. Yet, redundancyplays an important role in these different types of tasks. We know that ICTs tendto have auditory, visual, or textual features embedded in them. By maximizing

combinations of these modalities, people can likely complete tasks more successfully.This leads to the first proposition concerning complementary use.

Proposition 1: Maximizing modalities through complementary successive ICT use

increases the effectiveness and efficiency of task completion for persuasion, status,

information, and problem-solving tasks.

This proposition suggests that if people want to accomplish persuasion, status, infor-mation, and problem-solving tasks, successive ICT use should offer productive redun-dancy. For example, if face-to-face communication were used as the initial ICT, e-mail

might be used to follow-up. If e-mail were used as the initial ICT, then face-to-facecommunication might be used to follow up. It is difficult to theoretically predict which

of these patterns works best for each task because ICT use is influenced by many social,organizational, and individual variables (see Figure 1), but it appears that maximizing

modalities improves the likelihood of successful task completion.Complementary successive ICT use also aligns with a communication perspec-

tive of tailoring messages to audience needs. Prior research has shown that people

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have individual preferences (e.g., Carlson & Zmud, 1999; King & Xia, 1999) anddifferential access to ICTs (e.g., Fulk et al., 1990). By using a different and modality-

expanding ICT in a successive attempt, communicators increase the likelihood ofreaching their audience. To illustrate this, take the case of a chief financial officer for

a bank (Browning, Sætre, Stephens, & Sørnes, 2004). She believes so strongly in thevalue of rehearsability and reprocessability that she despises the telephone because itprovides her no time to plan responses to questions and it does not leave a written

audit trail. It is unlikely that her communication partners know her strong personalpreference is for e-mail. Yet, if someone phones her, receives no reply, and sub-

sequently e-mails her, the likelihood of a response is greatly increased. This leads tothe next proposition concerning complementary successive ICT use.

Proposition 2: Complementary successive ICT use increases the likelihood that

communicators will reach their audience.

Mass media as proactive strategy. Complementary strategies are helpful when thetasks involve collaboration or high levels of interaction, yet there are tasks that can be

completed alone as well. Although there are many models of information-seekingbehavior, Ramirez, Walther, Burgoon, and Sunnafrank’s (2002) model considers

how people use computer-mediated strategies when they seek information in com-munication situations. Although their work is limited to social information seeking,

they provide some insight into how successive ICT use might develop in an infor-mation-seeking context. They claim that ‘‘it is likely that communicators begin by

gathering information passively, evaluate said information, and begin formulatingimpressions of others, which serves as the basis for determining whether or not to

proceed interactively’’ (Ramirez et al., 2002, pp. 224–225).People might search using an anonymous mass media source to help them

appear more knowledgeable when they proceed interpersonally. This knowledge

can make people appear more expert and organized—two concepts linked toenhancing source credibility (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953; McCroskey, 1966).

Theoretically, literature on impression management (Goffman, 1959; O’Sullivan,2000; Rosenfeld, 1994), uncertainly reduction (Berger & Calabrese, 1975), and social

costs (Falcione & Wilson, 1988) explains this behavior. O’Sullivan developed a modelthat explains how ICTs can be used strategically for impression management. Of

particular interest in this situation is his notion of ‘‘openness’’ versus ‘‘closedness’’and how people can use ICTs to manipulate the ‘‘amount, nature, and timing’’(p. 407) of their communication. We also know from the organizational newcomer

literature that people new to an organization can reduce their uncertainty by gatheringorganizational information. In Miller and Jablin’s (1991) seven-strategy information-

seeking model, one strategy is called overt and it is described as asking direct ques-tions of others. The other six strategies are more covert, and they are most useful

when the information-seeking event seems to have high social costs (Miller & Jablin,1991; Teboul, 1995). This passive search process using mass media can be considered

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Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association 497

a proactive strategy because it has the capability to change the nature of the sub-sequent interaction. Linking this use of mass media to the previously defined orga-

nizational tasks, we see the following proposition develop.

Proposition 3: Using mass media as a precursor ICT increases the effectiveness and

efficiency of information, status, and learning tasks.

Documentation as a follow-up task. The theories above explain the positive effects

of maximizing modalities in successive ICT use, yet there are likely times whenpeople need and want to reduce errors or to provide an audit trail by documenting

their communication. Quite often documentation might be the actual task, and asmentioned previously, while not included in Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) study, it

provides insight into subsequent ICT use.Documentation tasks might also be linked closely to key organizational variables.

For example, Reinsch and Beswick (1990) studied voicemail use in comparison toother ICTs using a sample of 985 employees in a U.S. industrial organization. Theirfindings suggest that organizational members of fairly low managerial level expressed

a need to document their messages. Reinsch and Beswick claim that this is explainedby cost minimization theory because people lower in the organizational hierarchy

are concerned about blame assignment issues. It is now quite easy with an ICT suchas e-mail to document a conversation and, in a single click, to copy multiple people

on the message (Sproull & Kiesler, 1991; Thomas & King, 2006).Documentation is also a unique follow-up task. It not only allows people to

create a written record that helps them avoid blame, but ICTs capable of accomplish-ing documentation tasks can also provide inclusion, meaning management, and

organization functions. For example, it is easy—some argue too easy—to followup an oral conversation with documentation that is copied to a broader audience.The follow-up message can be a restatement of the understanding or a strategic

reshaping of that conversation. Finally, documentation can serve an organizingand agenda-setting function. Essentially, documentation helps reinforce commit-

ments because it is easier to walk away from an oral commitment than from a writtenone. The tasks that should benefit from using documentation as a productive follow-

up strategy are those where complementary successive use was predicted: persuasion,information, and problem solving. What is unique about this proposition is that it is

more specific because it predicts the utility of textual follow-up. This leads to thenext proposition.

Proposition 4: Using text-capable ICTs as a successive strategy increases the

effectiveness and efficiency of persuasion, information, problem-solving tasks.

Tasks that benefit less from multimodal successive ICT use

The remaining tasks found from Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) factor analysis are

play, leisure, insight, learning, relationship maintenance, and social bonding. These

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498 Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association

appear to be different types of tasks than the ones found in previous propositions.They group along two conceptual areas termed personal and social. The four personal

tasks are play, leisure, insight, and learning. These are tasks that individuals do, oftenby choice, and sometimes without interaction with others. When they involve others,

the goals are not necessarily strategic but rather to fulfill individual needs.The social tasks of relationship maintenance and social bonding certainly involve

others, so much so that successive ICT use is likely similar due to proximate con-

siderations of these others. Consider the finding that mediated ICTs are used more toconnect people over distance (Flanagin & Metzger, 2001). This suggests that if people

are trying to maintain relationships with others who are proximate, they might useface-to-face communication; however, if their communication partners are distant,

they will likely use a mediated ICT repeated over time.There is further evidence that personal and social tasks are different when we

examine documentation as a follow-up strategy. In tasks such as information, prob-lem solving, persuasion, and status, documentation is clearly a strategic way toreduce errors, but with personal and social tasks, documentation needs are less

obvious. This leads to the following propositions:

Proposition 5: Tasks that are personal and social in nature benefit less from multimodal

successive ICT use than do information, problem-solving, persuasion, and status

tasks.

Proposition 6: Documentation is less likely used as a follow-up strategy with personal

and social tasks than with information, problem-solving, persuasion, and status

tasks.

Summary of propositions

Linking tasks and media traits provides the basis for predicting when people will usedifferent patterns of ICTs in succession. Complementary strategies are most helpful

for persuasion, status information, and problem-solving tasks. Furthermore, docu-mentation is often a productive follow-up need for these same four tasks. Comple-

mentary strategies are also helpful when people try to reach their audience. Massmedia provide a unique, low-social-cost way to passively gather data prior to engag-

ing another person. This strategy is likely helpful for information, status, and learn-ing tasks. Finally, tasks that are personal and social in nature may well occur over

time, but they benefit less from complementary strategies due to the strong consid-eration of personal needs and the needs of others. For a summary of the proposi-tions, see Table 1.

Problems created by successive ICT use

Despite the benefits of successive ICT use, there are likely times that using combi-

nations of ICTs creates new problems. The obvious problem is that advocating theuse of more than one ICT could increase the amount of communication people

receive. Studies continue to show that people are overloaded with messages at work

K. K. Stephens ICT Succession Theory

Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association 499

(Rogen & Goldhaber, 2005; Thomas & King, 2006). Encouraging people to use

complementary ICTs could contribute to this pressing, work-related concern.Thomas and King studied e-mail messages in the army and found that e-mail createsand affects overload because people feel pressured to respond and tasks can mush-

room and are then easily delegated. If we overload our communication partners, theywill either stop responding to our messages or they will ignore them altogether.

Another concern is that in an attempt to cover all the modes, people will (a) putmessages in writing that are better left undocumented or (b) increase travel costs for

the organization. Some proprietary messages, those with inappropriate content, orthose with conflicting information should not be put in writing. Although docu-

mentation can help improve accountability, it can also be used as a powerful weaponin the wrong hands. As for travel costs, when people put priority on face-to-face

communication, they might choose costly travel to achieve face-to-face communi-cation over less expensive options, such as videoconferencing or teleconferencing.Obviously, cost will play a role in achieving the proposed complementary ICT use,

and sometimes costs will dictate the repeated use of a mediated ICT.

Summary and future directions

Like most conceptual arguments, this work can and should be elaborated by furtherstudies that explore other angles. As mentioned previously, this model limits our

understanding of ICT use to successive ICT use. It is likely that an examination ofsimultaneous ICT use might add additional explanatory value to this model. Thiscurrent model also assumes that different ICTs are used successively and it would

likely be informative to explore instances when the same ICT is used repeatedly.Prior research in interpersonal communication has shown that using CMC over

Table 1 Propositions for Successive ICT Use

Proposition 1: Maximizing modalities through complementary successive ICT use

increases the effectiveness and efficiency of task completion for persuasion, status,

information, and problem-solving tasks

Proposition 2: Complementary successive ICT use increases the likelihood that

communicators will reach their audience

Proposition 3: Using mass media as a precursor ICT increases the effectiveness and

efficiency of information, status, and learning tasks

Proposition 4: Using text-capable ICTs as a successive strategy increases the effectiveness

and efficiency of persuasion, information, and problem-solving tasks

Proposition 5: Tasks that are personal and social in nature benefit less from

multimodal successive ICT use than do information, problem-solving, persuasion, and

status tasks

Proposition 6: Documentation is less likely used as a follow-up strategy with personal and

social tasks than with information, problem-solving, persuasion, and status tasks

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500 Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association

extended periods of time allows people to form strong impressions of their com-munication partners (Walther, 1992).

Another consideration for this model is to further explore the differencesbetween ICTs that have multiple modalities embedded in them. For this conceptual

work, I have deliberately avoided making claims about specific ICTs such as e-mailor mobile phones. I have instead spoken of traits that might be present in some ICTsand not in others. Then, I linked these explanations to the overall predictive IST. This

is important for theoretical work because ICTs are changing so rapidly. Only 5 yearsago, asking about a mobile phone assumed that this ICT was an oral channel, but

today it is equally likely to contain textual information because of the accessibility oftext messaging.

A next step would be to test this conceptual work with actual ICTs, realizing thatthese can change over time. This is important because, regardless of the methodology

chosen to test these ideas, people do not think of traits as isolated from a tangiblepiece of technology. Interviewing or surveying ICT users will provide data wherepeople talk about their use of specific ICTs such as e-mail, mobile phone, or web

conferencing. Even observations of ICT users will likely uncover the use of combi-nations of specific ICTs. Although tests of this theory will likely involve specific ICT

devices, we should heed the advice of Nass and Mason (1990) and focus on theo-retically meaningful variables instead of specific ICTs that might morph as newer

technology becomes available. Only then can we develop additional theory andempirical findings that have enduring significance.

With the focus in this work on successive ICT use, there are several fruitfulavenues for research. Experimental design offers a controlled environment capable

of manipulating tasks and follow-up ICTs. There are ways to link this to outcomemeasures such as the efficiency and effectiveness of task accomplishment. Althoughthis will allow for causal claims, it will also suffer the criticism of being conducted in

an artificial laboratory environment. Diary approaches and surveys are anotheroption for examining a variety of variables in the field using self-reported data.

Finally, qualitative methods such as observational and interview research allow fora field perspective on this issue.

The focus of this theory is on the workplace use of ICTs, and there has beena proliferation of different mobile devices in recent years. Multifunctional devices

represent a good opportunity to test this theory. BlackBerries and mobile phonesoften offer both oral and textual modes. Furthermore, the mobility of these devicesmeans that people using them likely also engage frequently in face-to-face commu-

nication as well. The availability and capabilities of these devices can facilitate datacollection from both a sender and a receiver perspective. Collecting data from both

perspectives can help further refine this theory and can explicate potential overloadproblems associated with advocating successive ICT use.

Although the theory here focuses exclusively on follow-up, it will be important tofurther develop the concept of combinatorial ICT use. Future theorizing should

examine how best to sequence ICTs over extended periods of time. Variables such

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Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association 501

as the number of ICTs, the time lag between ICT use, and the mix of different ICTsare all important in the quest to more fully understand how to optimize ICT use.

Computer simulations will likely help us examine more complex relationships. Theyallow us to study ‘‘the behavior of complex systems, or systems composed of multiple

interdependent processes’’ (Harrison & Carroll, 2006, p. 35). ICT use is certainlyinfluenced by interdependent processes, that is, social, media, organizational, andindividual influences. By identifying the major influence variables, time structures,

and outcomes, simulations offer promise to help us further unravel the complexinteractions involved in organizational ICT use.

Conclusions

IST focuses on predicting how ICTs are used as follow-up technologies to helppeople accomplish tasks. This theory is one step toward better understanding com-

binatorial ICT use. As people continue to be overloaded with information, knowinghow to be productively redundant with communication attempts is a worthwhile

objective. And with the barrage of device options available today, for example,BlackBerries and mobile phones, it is increasingly important for scholars to keep

pace with these changes. This is a relevant consideration because ‘‘there is a growingconsensus that microelectronically based information technologies are altering the

way we live, work, communicate, and organize our activities’’ (Orlikowski & Barley,2001, p. 146). A combinatorial view of communication helps us succeed and managein an increasingly global and often virtual organizational environment.

Acknowledgments

This work is derived from a doctoral dissertation. I would like to thank Larry

Browning, Jan Oddvar-Soernes, Ron Rice, and Craig Scott for comments on earlierdrafts of this document. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Inter-national Communication Association Conference in Dresden, Germany, June 2006.

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K. K. Stephens ICT Succession Theory

Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association 507

ICT Succession Theory 1

L’usage successif des technologies de l’information et des communications au

travail

Keri K. Stephens University of Texas at Austin

La recherche précédente sur l’usage des technologies de l’information et des communications

(TIC) a largement supposé que les gens n’utilisent qu’une seule TIC par tâche. Pourtant, la

complétion d’une tâche requiert souvent une combinaison de TIC utilisées au fil du temps. La

théorie de la succession des TIC soumet qu’en examinant les modalités (par exemple auditives,

visuelles et textuelles) présentes dans les TIC d’aujourd’hui, il est possible de prédire comment

utiliser des TIC subséquentes ou successives pour compléter les tâches de façon efficiente et

efficace. Les six propositions qui forment le coeur de cette théorie formulent des prédictions qui

relient les tâches et les types d’usages successifs de TIC. L’usage de modalités complémentaires

devrait aider les gens à accomplir au mieux des tâches de persuasion, de statut, d’information et

de résolution de problèmes. Cette stratégie devrait également augmenter la probabilité que les

communicateurs atteignent leur auditoire. Utilisant les médias de masse comme un précurseur,

les TIC devraient aider les gens à accomplir aux mieux les tâches d’information, de statut et

d’apprentissage. L’usage, comme stratégie subséquente, des TIC permettant l’usage de texte est

le plus utile dans les tâches de persuasion, d’information et de résolution de problèmes.

Der fortwährende Gebrauch von Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien am Arbeitsplatz

Keri K. Stephens

University of Texas at Austin

Forschung zu Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien (IuK) basierten oft auf der

Annahme, dass Menschen nur eine IuK pro Tätigkeit oder Aufgabe einsetzen. Zur Erfüllung

einer Aufgabe bedarf es jedoch häufig eines Mix an IuK über eine gewissen Zeitraum hinweg.

Die IuK-Abfolge-Theorie postuliert, dass man durch die Untersuchung von IuK-Modalitäten –

z.B. auditiv, visuell und textbasiert – vorhersagen kann, wie nachfolgende IuK genutzt werden

müssen, um eine Aufgabe effizient und effektiv zu erfüllen. In 6 Prämissen, die den Kern der

Theorie ausmachen, werden Vorhersagen angestellt, welche die Aufgaben und die Typen von

IuK-Nutzung miteinander verknüpfen. Die Nutzung komplementärer Modalitäten sollte

Menschen helfen, Persuasions-, Status-, Informations- und Problemlöseaufgaben am besten zu

erfüllen. Diese Strategie sollte die Wahrscheinlichkeit erhöhen, dass Kommunikatoren ihr

Publikum erreichen. Indem man die Massenmedien als einen Vorläufer benutzt, sollten IuK

Menschen am besten helfen, Informations-, Status- und Lernaufgaben zu erfüllen. Die Nutzung

textfähiger IuK als eine Folgestrategie hilft am meisten bei Persuasions-, Informations- und

Problemlöseaufgaben.

El Uso Sucesivo de las Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación en el Trabajo

Keri K. Stephens

University of Texas at Austin

Investigaciones previas sobre el uso de la tecnología de la información y la comunicación

(ICT) han asumido, en su mayoría, que la gente usa solamente una ICT por tarea, aún

cuando para completar una tarea requiera a menudo el uso mixto de las ICTs a través del

tiempo. La teoría sucesiva de la ICT sostiene que al examinar las modalidades—por

ejemplo, auditiva, visual, y textual—encontradas hoy en las ICTs, podemos predecir

cómo hacer seguimiento ó usar las ICTs sucesivamente para completar tareas eficiente y

efectivamente. Las seis proposiciones que forman el centro de esta teoría hacen

predicciones que vinculan a las tareas y los tipos sucesivos de uso de la ICT. El uso de las

modalidades complementarias debería ayudar a la gente a llevar a cabo mejor las tareas

de persuasión, estatus, información, y solución de problemas. Esta estrategia debería

también incrementar la probabilidad de que los comunicadores alcancen a sus audiencias.

Usando a los medios masivos como precursor, la ICT debería ayudar a la gente a llevar a

cabo tareas de información, estatus, y aprendizaje. El uso de las ICTs de texto como una

estrategia de seguimiento es más útil en tareas de persuasión, información, y solución de

problemas.

工作中信息和传播技术的连续性使用

Keri K. Stephens

德州大学奥斯仃分校

过去有关信息和传播技术（ICT）使用的研究大都假定人们在执行每个任务时只使

用一种ICT。然而，完成一项任务经常要求随者时间的推移混合使用多种ICT。ICT

连续性理论认为，通过检测ICT中诸如听觉、视觉、和文本等形式，我们能预测怎

样使用连续性的ICT来有效地完成任务。由这个核心理论衍生的六个概念将任务和

连续性ICT的使用联系起来进行预测。使用互补性的形式应该帮助人们最佳地完成

劝说、地位、信息、问题解决等任务。这个策略也提高了传播者到达他们受众的可

能性。将大众媒体当作前导，ICT应该帮助人们最佳地完成信息、地位和学习等任

务。将可解读文本的ICT作为跟进策略，则在劝说、信息和问题解决等方面最具帮

助。

작업에서의 정보 통신 기술(ICTs)의 연속적인 사용에 관한 연구

Keri K. Stephens

University of Texas at Austin

요약

정보통신기술 (ICT) 사용에 관한 기존의 연구는 주로 사람들이 오로지 한가지 일에서

하나의 ICT 만을 사용한다는 것을 가정하였다. 그러나 작업을 완수하는 것은 여러번에

걸쳐 ICTs 의 혼합된 사용을 요구하고 있다. ICT 연속이론은 현재의 ICTs 에서 발견되는

여러 양상들, 예들들어 음성, 시각, 그리고 텍스트 등을 연구하는 것에 의해, 우리는

작업들을 효과적이고 능률적으로 끝내기 위해 어떻게 ICTs 를 연속적으로 사용하는

가를 예측할 수 있다고 주장하고 있다. 이 이론의 핵심을 형성하는 6 가지의 전제들이

연속적인 ICT 사용의 작업들과 형태들을 연계하는 예측을 만든다. 보완적인 양상들을

사용하는 것은 사람들이 설득, 상태, 정보, 그리고 문제 해결책을 가장 잘 달성할 수 있도록

도움을 줄 것이다. 이 전략은 또한 통신자들이 그들의 청중들에게 도달할 수 있는

가능성을 증대시킬 것이다. 대중매체들 선구자로 사용하는 것으로, ICT 는 사람들이 정보,

상태, 그리고 학습상황을 가장 잘 수행할 수 있도록 도와줄 수 있다. 텍스트 사용이 가능한

ICTs 를 후속 전략으로 사용하는 것은 설득, 정보, 그리고 문제해결 작업에 있어 가장

유용할 것으로 보인다.