The Social Capital as an Element of Development

International Journal of Operations and Logistics Management www.absronline.org/journals p-ISSN: 2310-4945; e-ISSN: 2309-8023 Volume: 3, Issue: 1, Pages: 80-100 (March 2014) © Academy of Business & Scientific Research

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The Social Capital as an Element of Development

Carlos German Palafox Moyers1, Joel Enrique Espejel Blanco2, Benjamin Burgos Flores3, and Javier Antonio Garcia Pequeño4

1, 2, 3 & 4. Economics Department, University of Sonora. Boulevard. Luis Encinas and Rosales, Col. Centro. Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico, P.C. 83000

The objective of this paper is to analyze the composition and level of consolidation of Social Capital quantified through the Trust and Solidarity, the Collective Action, and the connection and the Social Inclusion in the town of Navojoa. Through the Analysis of Principal Components were identified the principal variables which form the Social Capital. After determined the components, it was adapted to the local context the questionnaire that develop the World Bank. Subsequently was made and validated a structural model to test the causal relations proposals between the variables object to analysis. The results obtained evidenced that the Social Capital is vulnerable and it have a poor develop, which encourage the increase of high rates of violence, poverty, job insecurity and marginalization, that obstruct the regional develop. The governmental implications are design social policies that allow a pacific coexistence and encourage the economic develop and social of the region. Keywords: Social Capital, Social Trust, Violence, PLS Models, Mexico

INTRODUCTION

In Mexico, during the period of the ex-president Felipe Calderon Hinojosa (2006-2012) the fight against organized crime was placed in the center of his governmental agenda, and, even with that, according to the statistics of the National System of Security, the Calderon administration showed a monthly average of 74% increase in federal crimes. There was an increase of at least 1 out of the 5 violent crimes in the 32 states of the Mexican republic during the time stated. Also, in 24 federal entities the average victims of kidnapping increased as well.

From the failed strategy of the government of Felipe Calderon against organized crime it is necessary to respond to the structural reasons of violence and insecurity in Mexico. It is important

to analyze the risk variables that are also converted into propensity factors for violence and criminality in a specific territory.

The socioeconomic factors of major relevance are poverty, marginalization and the lack of physical infrastructure. The variables that influence on the criminality and violence are gangs, organized delinquency, weapons, drugs and the consumption of alcohol. Finally, the variables linked with the institutional atmosphere and the social organizations are: the lack of presence of authority, the low levels of social organization and social cohesion, the absence of culture of legality and the environment of impunity.

Int. j. oper. logist. manag. p-ISSN: 2310-4945; e-ISSN: 2309-8023 Volume: 3, Issue: 1, Pages: 80-100

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Globally, giving complete information about the magnitude and types of violence against girls, boys and teenagers in different regions, is almost impossible, due to what the different studies and documents show.

Results, such as the ones shown in ―Violence, Crime, and Social Development in Latin America and the Caribbean‖ quantify violence and build precise indicators of the magnitude of each of the various manifestations that present important difficulties. Some sources of information are security organisms, judicial statistics and health statistics, which present noticeable sub-registries.

Additionally, this report mentions that there are ―violent acts like rape and domestic violence that are rarely denounced, even if these acts are recognized by the legal system as crimes. The lack of denouncements are in a way due to the lack of real capacity – or as perceived by the population – of the competent authorities to combat the violent behavior and give protection to the victims for further retaliation by the aggressors. Even though there are a few surveys of victimization in the region, those that have been made attest the high level of sub-registries of violent acts in the official statistics. Rubio (1998) estimates that in Latin America the proportion of violent incidents that are denounced are barely between 15% and 30%. The lack of information systems about the magnitude of violence for each of the types of violent behaviors in the region, in the aggregate level as well as in local level, does not contribute to the development of better interventions of policies for control and prevention‖. We can see an example of this reflected in Graph 1.

GRAPH 1 HERE

Focusing on the concept of Social Capital, this has generated a strong controversy in his definition, measure and dimension between specialists of this topic. However, it can consider of what means the Social Capital part of recognition of the social relations.

The term of capital makes reference to the solidarity, generosity, cooperation, reciprocity, networks and others. The Social Capital would be indicate as a intangible good, in contrast with other concepts or economics variables,

nevertheless, for this reason it shouldn't be less importance and it should be consider in the design of public policies and social programs. Hence the importance of know the functioning of the relations that exist between the different social groups and the institutions of the region. In addition, social relations are a field rarely analyzed quality of life that has nothing to do with the standardization to economic indicators (Bebbington, 2005).

The contribution of the concept of Social Capital is fundament in the explanation of social relations, with base in the framework of collective action. Without any doubt this proposal gives the support to institutionalism of the norms, establishment and forms that constitute the networks, organizations and institutions that allow social interaction and societies develop.

The characteristic of the investigation is the analysis of Social Capital from a micro-social perspective, considering the fact of this paper is focus in the study of the more conflictive colonies of Navojoa, in the other hand, in other investigations the measure it has used from the perspective of macro-social analysis, such as the case of quantification of Social Capital in Tanzania (Narayan y Pritchett, 1999); Bolivia, Burkina Faso e Indonesia (Grootaert, 2001; Grootaert y van Bastelaer, 2001); Ghana y Uganda (Narayan y Cassidy, 2001); Thailand y Vietnam (Carpenter, Daniere y Takahashi, 2004); Chile (Asesoría para el Desarrollo, 2006); México (Rubio, Herrero y Perez, 2007; Seeds, 2009); Taiwan (Chang, 2009); y Albania y Nigeria (World Bank, 2011).

The objective of this investigation is to analyze the composition and the level of consolidation of Social Capital in the town of Navojoa, this region is located in the south of state of Sonora, whose the principal characteristic is a town with poor industrial develop, high levels of poverty, a strong composition of natives and rural, high territorial dispersion, as well as a very high social violence and with these have methodological elements for design social policies which allow a pacific coexistence and these prompt the economic develop and social of this region.

The Social Capital as an Element of Development Palafox et al.

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This paper is structured on this way. In the first part is explained the introduction of this research. In the second part are described the principal theories and perspectives of the international organizations that tackle the Social Capital, as well as the proposal hypothesis of work. In the next part is exposed the design of the methodology used to give answer to the objectives of investigation. In the fourth section are presented the results obtained of the measure of Social Capital in the town of Navojoa. Finally, it's presenting the principal conclusions of this research.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Theories about Social Capital

In the theoretical dimension are two broad streams that tackle the topic: (1) the first, it can be define as the structural dimensions developed principally by Bourdieu (1986) y Coleman (1988); and, the second is known as the cultural dimensions developed by Putman (1993).

The first theoretical stream considered, especially by Bourdieu, that the Social Capital is "the aggregate of the actual or potential resources that are linked with the possession of a enduring network of relations more less institutionalized of knowledge and mutual recognition, in other words, with the belonging to a group that give to every member the support of Social Capital acquired, a credential that allow accredited, in the diverse means of the word. (Bourdieu, 1983). Thus the Social Capital would be conformed for social networks that people obtain between them for felt secured and they can get a benefit of this, for that is necessary that the network will be flexible, stable and useful. Therefore, the networks can be closed, unidirectional, symmetric, and horizontal and in the opposite it‘s say, open, multidirectional, asymmetric or vertical; the links can be strong or weak, with points to other networks or to his inside.

The second theoretical stream is directed to subjective events, values and attitudes whose central focus is the generalize trust. The theorist representative of this stream is Putman whose greatest contribution emerge with his recognized

work in Italy, in which shows empiric evidences about the relation that exist between the components of Social Capital —trust, the norms of reciprocity and the networks— and a high governmental performance (Putman, 1993). In the investigation that compare the south and north of Italy (Putman, 1993) analyzed the Social Capital in terms of involvement of the civil society as part of a number of participants in electoral process, newspaper readers, member of cultural groups, religious, sports and cultural and the trust of these about the public institutions. The results achieved determine that the north of Italy, where all the indicators are high, they show high rates of governability, institutional performance and economic develop and social too.

In this analysis about relations between the partnerships, trust, civic compromise, this author has always maintained that the civil associations or of volunteers provide areas of social interaction in which facilities the learning of activities and solidarity behaviors and of cooperation between the members whose tendency is generalize the joint of the society (Putman, 1993).

It is from of these authors that emerge different streams about the concept of Social Capital, with distinct theoretical proposals and different empiric works (Table 1). The importance of this paradigm is reflecting in the multiple works that have been published in the last decades with the purpose of take and explain a part of daily life. These series of works have motivated to the international institutions to do a set of investigations linked more to the empiric area than the theoretical

TABLE 1 HERE

Perspective of the International Organisms about Social Capital

The term of Social Capital has been resuming by some institutions as the United Nations Program for Development (UNDP), the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and the World Bank (WB). The United Nations Program for Development (UNPD) formulate that the "Social Capital makes reference to the interpersonal relations that can be used in the production of goods and services. The


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emphasis formulates the institution of his potential as productive factor, the grade that use and his performance in the society. In addition emphasize the importance of freedoms of the persons either as way to increase the opportunities to choose or favor the election of the individual as agents of his own development" (UNPD, 2008).

The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) formulates as focal point the inclusion of the persons in the position of inequity and in the management of formal institutions of association and participation as the important elements of Social Capital. This institution put emphasis in the inversion of Social Capital because this supposes a positive effect in the poverty, the inequity, exclusion, and furthermore social problems. Thus the reduction of the poverty and inequities generate a virtuoso circle reinforcing the Social Capital via the social cohesion. The orientation of ECLAC (2001) formulate "in our vision, should be directed and develop a social politic of long term that increase the equity and guarantee the inclusion, based firmly in the principles of universality, solidarity and efficiency: in a patron of economic growing that generates a appropriate volume of quality employment; and in a reduction of the productive divide between the small and big business, and between distinct economic sectors".

The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) formulates the reflection about Social Capital in two ways: (1) the conceptual contributions about the links between Social Capital, ethical values and cultural; and (2) alternatively the strengthening of participation (Yamada, 2001). In the first emphasize Klisberg (2000; 2001) that include the climate of trust, the grade of associative, the civic conscience, ethical values and the culture. In the second stand out the forms of social organization of the region as the communitarian institutions, traditional authorities, the kinship networks and neighbors, religion organizations and of services, and others, volunteer associations and of auto help.

For its part, the World Bank (WB) also coincide the Social Capital linked to the norms, of trust, the values, the attitudes, and networks between persons and institutions in a associative

framework or of collective actions and of cooperation. Thus the Social Capital groups the notions of trust, associative, civic conscience and predominates ethical values, the in joint facilities or difficult the development of a determinate society (World Bank 1998; World Bank 1999).

Once presented the visions both theoretical as institutional is important point out the relation that has between the Social Capital, the development projects and the market. Thus, it secured the access to the markets in a crucial step in the economic improvement of the sectors more unsecured of society. Without doubt that the defining characteristic of be poor is the lack of connexion with the formal economy even the lack of credit, capacitating and technological development. The Social Capital of the poor people is derive primarily of the family and of the neighbors, and it can serve, in a first moment as a network of daily secure and important, but the Social Capital of powerful allow them promoting their interests. Help to the poor people to transcended their networks of security in order to it can have access to additional resources is one of the big challenges of economic development.

In the modern economy aren‘t only important the traditional productive factors as the labor force, capital and land but that have an important place the knowledge in the elaboration of goods and services. Is important differentiate between the tacit knowledge and the explicit. The tacit knowledge is which that remained in a ―unconscious‖ level, is find disarticulated and is implemented and executed when is necessary and of a mechanical way without the individuals realize of his content, is something that is known but that result difficult to explain it. Furthermore the explicit knowledge is know, it has and is fully conscious when is executing, is the more easy of share with the others because is find structuring and in the most of the times schematized for facility his diffusion. The tacit knowledge, which for years has accumulated a determined region, is an essential element in the elaboration of the public policies. One of the forms more relevant appears in the more modest sectors of the population, accumulate as Social Capital. The socialization of tacit knowledge consists in share


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experiences. It generated skills and knowledge from of the observation, imitation and practice. The fundamental part for obtain tacit knowledge is the experience.

This type of knowledge results essential in the design and execution of the projects of development and secured the emphasis to the population more vulnerable. This type of projects direct to these sectors of the population creates more trust and loyalty. One of the better examples is the programs of collective microcredits as that implement the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. But also other projects in other sectors with intersectional links obtained positive results as the capacitating to rural technicians, better and more capacitating to the project administrators.

In order to a public policy really has success for strengthen the Social Capital of a region trough of the developing models should be contemplating three conditions: (1) secured a market demand of the production of these communities; (2) access to credit, capacitating and basic technologic development and make use of the tacit knowledge that it has accumulate trough of the time on the region; and (3) secured the better operation of public sector, the institutions, the communications as well the judicial system. If fault some of these conditions the effect of the public policy won't be full to strengthen the Social Capital.

In the last years has been directed a quantity of multiple investigations about the Social Capital something centre in the general facts of the topic and others about more specific topics, the totality of them trying to explain what happens in the daily life, using their instruments and tools to formulate the indicators that allow explain and analyze thoroughly each one of those components. However, the moment of generate the indicators, as in the theoretical analysis, it doesn't has a generalize consensus about indicators that express the level of Social Capital that exist in the region of study. Furthermore, it's encouraging the effort that is directed to implement distinct investigations that allow evaluated qualitative the social relations of groups and specific regions. In the next section is developing the conceptual model with their respective hypothesis of work.

Hypothesis Formulation

In accordance to Ablanedo, Layton and Moreno (2008) one of the fundamental elements of the measure of Social Capital is the trust, as that is variable facility the interactions between the integrants of a determinate society. Additionally, the author's proposal that the trust have which those interactions to the interior of a society will be more fluent, agile, simple and efficient, at the fact of that allow go more there of inner circle, and with that find the better persons to perform the activity that is necessary to make in the community. In this regard, the concept of social trust stands out the importance of the Social Capital (Narayan and Cassidy, 2001), because the positive externalities of that variable are relate with the presence of Social Capital in form of generalize trust (Herreros, 2004).

Is a fact, that the variable trust is determinate for the collective action and cooperation (Gordon, 2005; Ablanedo, Layton and Moreno, 2008) proper to the higher levels of compromise and participation that generates their members inside of a determinate community (Newton, 2001), as well as for the volunteer contribution of their integrants (Carpenter, Daniere y Takahashi, 2004). Furthermore, Putman (2000) determine that the social interaction (solidarity) is the one that facility the learning of attitudes and cooperative behaviors for the development of the trust of the members of a community. Also, the trust and solidarity that perceive the members of a community generates a higher level of cohesion and social inclusion (Oxoby, 2009).

In resume, the social links of trust allow reinforce the collective action (Ottone and Sojo, 2007), but in turn, the networks o social groups that generates trust between their member due the compromise, the participation and the volunteer contribution determine a higher cohesion and social inclusion in the community. Therefore, with base in the scientific contributions in mention and theoretical arguments is formulating the next hypothesis of work:

H1. To mayor Trust and Solidarity perceive for the population of the colonies more conflictive of the town of Navojoa will be increasing the Collective Action and Cooperation of the community.


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H2. To mayor Trust and Solidarity perceive for the population of the colonies more conflictive of the town of Navojoa will be increasing the Cohesion and Social Inclusion of the community.

The contribution of the concept Social Capital is basing in the explanation of social relations, with base on the framework of the collective action that develop a determinate society (Ostrom, Ahn, y Olivares, 2003). According to the World Bank (2011) the collective action is a dimension of Social Capital that determines the range of social cooperation when it isn't impost for an external force (e.g. externalities). In turn, this international organization defines other concept that is linked with the collective action, the social inclusion. The social inclusion determines who in the community is including in: (1) the collective action and cooperation, (2) the decision making, and (3) the access to public services. Therefore, the cohesion and social inclusion evaluates the perception of the social unit and the coexistence in the community to the specific experiences with the exclusion of the process of decision to the services and the benefits of the social projects (World Bank, 2011). Consequently to understand the social inclusion should be analyze his opposite, the social inclusion, whose limitations can be overcome trough of the social structures and the forms of communitarian interaction (collective action) that‘s generate in the social areas which in turn conducive the social inclusion (Azuero, 2009). In that regard, the cohesion and social inclusion is a fundamental characteristic of the community which depends of the accumulation of Social Capital (Dayton, 2003).

To Oxoby (2009) the social inclusion is centre in the two fundamental aspects: (1) access to the rights and resources of the community and (2) the presence of obstacles/problems in the social groups without consider the direct presence of the rights or institutions in question. Thus with base in the previous theoretical arguments is proposing that to higher levels of collective action and cooperation that perceive the community will increase the links of cohesion and social inclusion between the population of that municipality. In consequence, it‘s proposing the next hypothesis:

H3. To mayor Collective Action and Cooperation perceive for the population of the colonies more conflictive of the town of Navojoa will be increasing the Cohesion and Social Inclusion of the community.

METHODOLOGY

The design of the investigation includes the qualitative methodology and quantitative. The qualitative methodology included the elaboration of interviews in deep with the focus of violence, which we allow to go in depth more beyond of the superficial aspects of the real causes of the behavior of the key personalities of the town of Navojoa. In respect to the quantitative methodology was used the multivariate techniques of Analysis of Principal Components and the Structural Models PLS to measure the causal relations proposal between the variables object to analysis, as it's presenting in the next sections.

Data Collection

To check the hypothesis of work were carried out a series of methodological steps:

• It was conducted a discussion group with the objective of depth in the opinions of a reduce number of respondents and with that affirm the bases to the consequence development of the scales that quantified the concept of Trust and Solidarity (TS), Collective Action and Cooperation (CC) an Cohesion and Social Inclusion (SI).

• To improve the grade of adjust, the scales of measure were subject to the opinion of different external specialize assessors in Social Capital (apparent validity).

• The recollection of information was conducted by a group of trained consultants, used the Integrate Questionnaire for Measure of Social Capital develop for the World Bank (2011), the above by personal interviews. The statistic instruments had closed questions. The respondents have to show his agree level o disagree with a series of affirmations used the Likert Scale of 5 points.

• Specifically, in the questionnaire was collected information about the structural dimensions and cognitive of the Social Capital (e.g. groups and networks; trust and solidarity), the principal forms


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in that operate the Social Capital (e.g. collective action and cooperation; information and communication) and the more important areas of application and results (e.g. cohesion and social inclusion: empowerment and politic action).

• The interviews were compiled in the colonies more violent colonies of the town of Navojoa. According to the information provided by the Directorate of Public Security of the Municipality of Navojoa and the Ministry of Public Security of the State of Sonora (MPSSS), the colonies with a high incidence of crimes are the Colony Tierra Blanca, Sonora, Jacaranda I and II and the 16 de Junio, as well as conurbation communities and rural zones that, although separate of the city of Navojoa presents high grades of crimes records (Own elaboration with base in the criminal semaphore of the MPSSS, 2012). After identify the colonies more violent of the municipality of Navojoa, it were applied randomly 130 questionnaires to adult people the days 28, 29 and 30 of September of 2012 in the colonies that have a incidence of violence higher than 66% under the captions of "theft to persons" and "intentional injuries" with object to quantified the Social Capital of the municipality object to analysis.

• After the previous methodological procedures, the size of the sample, once carried out the processes of depuration, it was of 129 valid questionnaires, represented a sample error of the ± 2,9% to a infinite population with a trust level of the 95% (see table 2).

TABLE 2 HERE

Statistical Analysis of Data

To the case of the quantitative methodology was conducted the next actions:

• It was identified the principal variables that integrate the Social Capital trough of the Analysis of Principals Components, which were Trust and Solidarity (TS), Collective Action and Cooperation (CA) and Cohesion an Social Inclusion (SI).

•After identified the variables, it was adapted to local context the questionnaire that develop the World Bank to determine the Social Capital in the municipality of Navojoa.

• It was formed and valid a structural model to measure the proposal causal relations (hypothesis) between the variables that make up the Social Capital, above under the statistical methodology of Structural Equation Models with the technique of Partial Least Squares (PLS Model).

• The methodology used to the analysis of the data have been the structural models PLS based on components/variances applied the statistical packet PLS-Graph version 3.00, as well as the informatics packet SPSS version 19.0 to Windows.

As indicates the methodology of the structural PLS models it has to validate the model of measure, therefore it was proceeded to direct the next empirical tests:

• Individual reliability indicators. It was calculated trough of the factorial charges (loading) to the case of reflective constructs, as well as the communality of the indicators, as it's indicate in Table 3. In the Table 4 is presenting the results of the reliability of the indicators.

• Construct Validity. It was examined by the calculus of Cronbach's Alpha (α) and the Composite Reliability Coefficient (ρc) (Table 5). The results of these statistical parameters are observed in the Table 6. Furthermore it was determined the convergent validity and discriminate validity (Table 7). In the Table 8 is showing the statistical results of the procedure in mention by the matrix of standardized correlations between the different latent variables.

TABLES 3 to 8 HERE

Furthermore, after validity the model of measure, its procedure to the validation of the structural model by that it was conducted the next statistical criteria:

• The variance explained (R²). The variance explained of the endogenous variables o dependent (R²) must be same or high than 0,100 (Falk y Miller, 1992) (Table 9).

• The coefficients path or standardized regression weights (β). The coefficients path or standardized regression weights (β) must achieve at least a value of 0,200 (Johnson, Herrmann y Huber, 2006), for that it consider significant but a scientific criteria more rigorous is that it must be located above of


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0,300 (Chin, 1998) (Table 9). In the Table 10, it shows the statistical results of both empiric procedures.

TABLE 9 & 10 HERE

Also, it must be determining the power of the prediction of the structural model by of statistical tests of the Adjustment Goodness of Fit Index (GoF) and Value Q² (Table 11). In the Table 10 its showed the results of the Stone-Geisser test y en la Table 12 the goodness of adjust of the measure model and structural model.

TABLE 11 & 12 HERE

DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

After valid the models of measure and structural was examined the statistical results with the objective of contrast the hypothesis of work formulated in the proposal conceptual model.

The results obtained of structural model demonstrated that when the population of the colonies more conflictive of the municipality of Navojoa perceives higher levels of trust to persons of his colony, owners of store, teachers, nurses and doctors are increasing their collective action and cooperation to the community (H1: β = 0,6468; p > 0,01). In contrast when exist distrust caused by the bad image that it's perceive to the persons of the other colonies, the local government and central, as well as the police, the causal effect proposal is eclipsing, as demonstrated the factorial charges and the significance of the indicators (Table 4).

Concerning to the causal relation that proposal to higher levels of trust and solidarity that perceive the habitants of the colonies more conflictive and violent of the municipality of Navojoa will be increase the links of collectivity and cooperation communitarians between the members of the community, it has found empirical evidences that support that relation (H2: β = 0,6484; p > 0,01).

Finally, the last hypothesis formulate theoretical that to higher levels of collective action and cooperation measure trough of the decision making and the access to the public services generates to inside of the community determine positivity the cohesion and social inclusion, above due to that the members of the colonies are

consider inside of the process of decision to the services and benefits of the social projects (H3: β = 0,3147; p>0,01).

CONCLUSIONS

In Navojoa, en the last decades, it had came developing different forms of social coexistence that was centered in the cooperation, trust, reciprocity between the individuals and the different social groups of the region. These series of characteristics and values of the community favored to the social cohesion to transit to better conditions of coexistence and economic development of the region. However currently, perhaps for the model of neoliberal development implemented in the decade of the eighties in the Mexican economy, it has observed a strong tendency to a life model of individual-egoist character, which is above of the collective values, solidarity and communitarian.

But at the current trend of privilege the individual above the collective and communitarian, this aspect has came development in a framework of complex phenomena such internal as external, such as the financial productive crisis of the 2008, the increase without precedent in the extreme multidimensional poverty and the huge gap in the income distribution between the population; join to increase in the precarious jobs, as well as the informal economy and above all a marked increase of the levels of violence in their diverse modalities; social violence, institutional violence, communitarian, of the organize crime, of genre, domestic and against to women. While we are come to front to this series of facts in previous years, now it seems that it have increase the risk factors that create detonates conditions to their staggering.

Even though of that the municipality of Navojoa had been characterized for a quiet city, the currently life elapses in the framework previously indicated, to the different groups that it conformed their population that are affected of differential way according to their socioeconomic condition, of genre, generational and of ethnic. Under this context and if we used the concept of Social Capital, we will have to do something relations as the familiar dimension, as in the educative sector,


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in communitarian centers, in the workplace, in the civil society, in the ethnics and in the public sector and we will ask why and as we have come to these set of situations of precarious job, social marginalization and structural violence.

We recognized that the currently situation, as that the most of municipalities of the country, they are living a series of complex problems and of different magnitude that affects the peaceful and fraternity in and between the communities. Of these set of complex and different problems are presenting a weak Social Capital with poor develop what without doubt favor the increase of the violence and marginalization, however, otherwise, it observed important efforts to generate and it encourage the citizen participation and of the social organization as answer to the levels of poverty and the violence of part of the different sectors of the society, between the Municipal Government, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), Business Organizations, Associations of Professionals, Unions, Civil Organizations, among others.

The measure of the Index of Social Capital isn't an easy work, it require of high precision and methodological rigorousness. Currently it exist few works of investigation that cover from the theoretical-methodological perspective the calculus of this statistical instrument under the micro social focus which is very important to making decisions in the design, execution and evaluation of public policies of social character. Therefore the relevance, the pertinence and the urgent of quantify the key elements as the trust, citizen participation, the access of the information, the leadership and the collective action in samples of social groups that component a determinate municipality, as the case of Navojoa. In Mexico, it is not enough with promote a social conscience in the citizens, we need to action a social willingness between the different social groups with principal objective and priority of reconstruct the social tissue and productive.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors are grateful for financial support of the Ministry of the Interior (SEGOB), the National

Commission to Prevent and Eradicate Violence against Women (CONAVIM) and Federal Subsidy for Municipal Public.

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Note: The accessibility of the links of the web sites were contrasted to September of 2012.

AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHIES

Carlos German Palafox Moyers

PhD in Economic Sciences and Researcher-Professor Fulltime. Economics Department, University of Sonora. Boulevard. Luis Encinas and Rosales, Col. Centro. Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico, P.C. 83000. Telephone: 662 259 21 67.

Email: [email protected]

Joel Enrique Espejel Blanco

PhD in Economics Science and Business and Researcher-Professor Fulltime. Economics Department, University of Sonora. Boulevard. Luis Encinas and Rosales, Col. Centro. Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico, P.C. 83000. Telephone: 662 259 21 67.


Benjamin Burgos Flores

PhD in Economic Sciences and Researcher-Proffesor Fulltime. Economics Department,

University of Sonora. Boulevard. Luis Encinas and Rosales, Col. Centro. Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico, P.C. 83000. Telephone: 662 259 21 67.


Javier Antonio Garcia Pequeño

PhD Candidate in Economic Integration and Professor of Economics. Economics Department, University of Sonora. Boulevard. Luis Encinas and Rosales, Col. Centro. Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico, P.C. 83000. Telephone: 662 259 21 67.


mailto:[email protected]





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APPENDIX

Table 1: Evolution of the principal theoretical of Social Capital

Year Theoretical Streams of Social Capital

1986 Bourdieu

1987

1988 Coleman

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993 Putman

1994

1995 Fukuyama

1996

1997 Burt Knack

1998 Portes Woolcock Nahapiet

1999 Foxley Paxton

2000 Adler

2001 Narayan

2002 Grootaert y van

Bastelaer

Source: Elaborate based on Claridge (2004) y Gallo Rivera y Garrido Yserte (2009).


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Table 2: Data sheet of the field investigation

Geographic ambit Navojoa, Sonora

Universe Persons who lives in the colonies with

more violence.

Methodology Personal Interview by structure

questionnaire with measure scales

Sample procedure Randomly-Stratified

Sample size 129 valid questionnaires

Sample error ± 2,9 %

Trust level 95 %; p = q = 0,5

Date of the field work September de 2012

Table 3: Statistical criteria of the reliability of the indicators

Criteria Definition Formula Empiric rule

Factorial Charges (λ)

The individual reliability of the indicators is measure with factorial charges; these are the correlation between the variables and each one of the constructs. A high factorial charge allow associate a construct to a determine variable (Hulland, 1999).

λ ≥ 0,707: Reliability of the satisfactory indicator (Carmines y Zeller, 1979). λ ≥ 0,550: Reliability of the satisfactory item (Hair et al., 1999) for new scales, it says, that it don't have theoretical support yet.

Communality of the

indicators (λ2)

For determine the communality of the indicators is estimate the square of the correlation between manifest variables and his own latent variable.

λ2 ≥ 0,500: Communality of the satisfactory indicator. Indicates the percentage that represents the variance of the manifest in relation with the construct.

Source: Adapted to Espejel et al. (2011).


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Table 4: Results of the reliability of the indicators

Indicators Construct Factorial Charges

(λ)

Communality (λ2)

Trust and Solidarity

CS4.3A - Trust in persons of his colony 0,805*** 0,6480

CS4.3B - Trust in persons of other colony 0,199

CS4.3C - Trust in the owner of the shops 0,716*** 0,5126

CS4.3D - Trust in the functionaries of the local government

0,164

CS4.3E - Trust in the functionary of the central government

0,256

CS4.3F - Trust in the police -0,011

CS4.3G - Trust in the teachers 0,789*** 0,6225

CS4.3H - Trust in the nurses and doctors 0,627** 0,3931

CS4.3I - Trust in the strangers 0,306

Collective Action and Cooperation

AC5.4 - What possibilities have of those persons that it doesn't participate in the activities of the community will be criticize or fine?

0,354

AC5.5 - If it had a problem with the service of water in this community, What possibilities have of that the persons cooperate to treat of resolve the problem?

0,724*** 0,5242

AC5.6 - Supposed that something very unfortunate happens to somebody of the colony, like a serious illness or the death of one of the parents. What probabilities have of that some persons in the community organize them to help it?

0,802*** 0,6432

AC5.7 - What proportion of persons in your colony have a clear contribution to the activities of the community?

0,754*** 0,5685

AC5.8 - What proportion of persons in this colony contributes with time or with money to the achievement of objectives of common develop like (Rural: create a contribution or repair a road; Urbane: repair a road or repair a communitarian center?

0,804*** 0,6464

Cohesion and Social Inclusion

IS6.1 - How classify the social unit of this colony? 0,872*** 0,7604

IS6.2 - Generally, it exist differences of characteristics between persons that lives in the same colony.

-0,033

IS6.10 - How much force have the feeling of union or proximity in his colony?

0,859*** 0,7379

*** Value t > 2,576 (p < 0,01), ** Value t > 1,960 (p < 0,05), * Value t > 1,645 (p < 0,10), n.s. = no significance. N/A = Not applicable


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Table 5: Statistical criteria of the validity of the construct

Criteria Definition Formula Empiric Rule

Cronbach Alpha

(α)

The Cronbach Alpha is a measure of internal consistency of the construct, which analyze the reliability of the scales of measure when the indicators that compose possesses a high correlation (Cronbach, 1970).

Through correlation matrix of the items: α = ηρ

1+ ρ (η – 1) Where η is the number of items and ρ is the arithmetic mean of the lineal correlations between each one of the items.

The α must be as minimum 0,7 (Cronbach, 1970; Nunnally, 1978).

Composite reliability coefficient

(ρc)

The internal consistence of the indicators that measure the construct is evaluated by the reliability of the construct. It says, the validity with that measures the manifest variables to the same latent variable (Nunnally, 1978).

ρc = (Σ λi)²

(Σ λi)² + Σi var(εi)

Where λi are the factorial charges for a indicator and var(εi) = 1 – λi.

The composite Reliability Coefficient must be high than 0,6 (Bagozzi e Yi, 1988; Chin, 1998). Therefore it does establish a criteria more strict: ρc de 0,8 (Nunnally, 1978).


Table 6: Results of construct the validity

Construct

Indicators

Cronbach

Alpha (α)

Composite

Reliability

(ρc)

Analysis

Variance

Extracted

(AVE)

Trust and Solidarity

(CS4.3A; CS4.3C; CS4.3G; CS4.3H) 0, 7537 0, 8439 0, 5764

Collective Action and Cooperation

(AC5.5; AC5.6; AC5.7; AC5.8) 0,7913 0, 8648 0, 6158

Cohesion and Social Inclusion

(IS6.1; IS6.10) 0, 6644 0, 8558 0, 7480


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Table 7: Statistical Criteria of the construct of validity: convergent validity and discriminate


Convergent Validity

The Coefficient of Analysis of the Variance Extracted (AVE) is the quantity of variance that a construct obtain of their indicators with relation to a quantity of variance due the measure error. (Fornell y Lacker, 1981).

AVE = Σ λi²

Σ λi² + Σi var(εi)

Where λi are the charges for a indicator y var(εi) = 1 – λi.

AVE > 0,500 (Fornell y Lacker, 1981).

Discriminate Validity

The discriminate validity check if the construct analyzed is significantly away of the other constructs with it have a theoretical relation (Roldan, 2000).

The square root of the AVE of the latent variables must high than the square of the correlations between the latent variables.


Table 8: Results of the construct validity: convergent validity and discriminate

Construct 1 2 3

Trust and Solidarity (1)

0,7592

Collective Action and Cooperation (2)

0,6468

0,7847

Cohesion and Social Inclusion (3)

0,6468

0,6024

0,8648

Note: The indicators about the diagonal (in bold) represent the results of the square root of the AVE between the constructs and their measures. According to Sanchez and Roldan (2005) in order to the discriminate validity compliance, the indicators about the diagonal must be higher than the indicators below of the same.


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Table 9: Statistical criteria for the validity of the structural model


The variance explained of

the endogenous variables o dependent

(R²)

The coefficient determination (R²) indicates the proportion of variance explained by the exogenous construct in each one of the endogenous constructs (Levy et al., 2006).

R²ni = 1 – [var(ζi) / var(ηi)]

Where var(ζi) is the estimated variance of the error of the variable and var(ηi) is the total variance.

Chin (1998): R² = 0,67: ―substantial‖ R² = 0,33: ―moderate‖ R² = 0,19: ―weak‖ Falk y Miller (1992): R² ≥ 0,1 = Variance explained satisfactory

The coefficients

path standardized

(β)

The coefficients of the standardized regression (β) showed the principal effect of the independent (exogenous) above a dependent variable (endogenous) in the proposed structural PLS model (Levy et al., 2006).

The estimates values for the path relations in the structural model must be in significant levels. The significantly must be evaluating in PLS-Graph using the technical of resample: bootstrapping (Chin, 1998).

Value t > 2,576 (p < 0,01); Value t > 1,960 (p < 0,05); Value t > 1,645 (p < 0,10). The coefficients β must be achieve a value of 0,2 to consider them acceptable (Chin, 1998).


Table 10: Results of the analysis of PLS structural model

Hypothesis

Sing of the

Hypothesis

Coefficients path standardized (β)

Value t (Bootstrap)

H1: Trust and Solidarity→ Collective Action and Cooperation

+ 0,6468 12,2700***

H2: Trust and Solidarity → Cohesion and Social Inclusion

+ 0,6484 12,5113***

H3: Collective Action and Cooperation → Cohesion and Social Inclusion

+ 0,3147 3,0054***

Nota: *** value t > 2,576 (p < 0,01), ** value t > 1,960 (p < 0,05), * value t > 1,645 (p < 0,10), n.s. = no significant.

Construct Variance Explained

R² Stone-Geisser Test

Q²

Trust and Solidarity 0,2997

Collective Action and Cooperation 0,4183 0,3510

Cohesion and Social Inclusion 0,4780 0,2541


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Table 11: Statistical Criteria of the prediction of the structural model


Stone-Geisser Test (1974; 1975)

or prediction power

(Q²)

The value Q² (cross validated redundancy) measures the predictive relevance of the determinate constructs and with that determine the power of prediction of the PLS structural model (Stone, 1974; Geisser, 1975). This test is calculating by the technical blindfolding.

Q² = 1 – ΣD EΣD ΣD OΣD

Where D is the omitted distance, E is the sum of squares the prediction errors and O is the sum of the squares of the observations. This test is calculate using the technical blindfolding, dividing in 7 groups the data matrix of each construct (Tenenhaus et al., 2005).

Q² > 0: Poder de predicción satisfactorio en el modelo. Los valores por encima de cero demuestran que la predicibilidad del modelo es relevante (Sellin y Keeves, 1989). Q² < 0: Carencia de poder de predicción (Chin, 1998). Q² negativos y cercanos a ceros, posible relevancia predictiva de los constructos (Sáenz, Aramburu y Rivera, 2007).

Adjustment Goodness of

Fit Index (GoF)

This index value at the same time, the quality of the model of measure and the structural model by the arithmetic mean of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and the arithmetic mean of the variance explained (R²) (Tenenhaus et al., 2005).

___ __ GoF = √( AVE) *( R²)

Where: ___ AVE is the arithmetic mean of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) of the latent variances. __

R² is the arithmetic mean of the variance explained.

El GoF varies between 0 y 1, to high value, close to 1, better be the index (Tenenhaus et al., 2005; Tenenhaus, 2008).


Table 12: Goodness of Fit Index of the model of measure and structural

Construct

Analysis Variance Extracted

(AVE)

Variance Explained

(R²)

Goodness of Fit Index

Trust and Solidarity 0,5764

Collective Action and Cooperation 0,6158 0,4183

Cohesion and Social Inclusion 0,7480 0,4780

Arithmetic mean 0.6467 0,4481 0,5383


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Graph 1: Homicide and Suicide Rates of the Different Regions of the World Health Organization

The Social Capital as an Element of Development

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