The Settler's Ridge Site, An Early Woodland Leimbach Phase Upland Encampment in Northern Ohio

NORTH AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGIST, Vol. 30(1) 23-55, 2009

THE SETTLER’S RIDGE SITE, AN EARLY

WOODLAND LEIMBACH PHASE UPLAND

ENCAMPMENT IN NORTHERN OHIO

CRAIG S. KEENER

KEVIN NYE

JOSHUA NIEDERMIER

Professional Archaeological Services Team

ABSTRACT

In the summer of 2007 the Settler’s Ridge site (33-AS-32), an Early

Woodland upland encampment, was investigated through a series of cultural

resource investigations. Excavations at the site suggest a single or limited

occupation during the Early Woodland sometime between 569 to 624 B.C.

The size of the site, depositional patterning of the artifacts, and feature outlay

indicate a small sized encampment probably related to hunting activities in

the uplands. This article summarizes the analysis of the lithic and ceramic

assemblages, radiocarbon dates, site structure, and the depositional patterning

evident at the site. Pottery recovered during excavations is Leimbach

Cordmarked, which is representative of much of the northern Ohio area

during the Early Woodland. Few Early Woodland upland sites in northern

Ohio containing pottery have been intensively studied. Consequently,

Settler’s Ridge adds important information on how upland landforms were

used during this period.

The Early Woodland Period in northern Ohio is generally given a time frame of

600 B.C. to A.D. 1 with a “Transitional Period” between the Late Archaic and

Early Woodland occurring from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. It is during this transitional

23

� 2009, Baywood Publishing Co., Inc.

doi: 10.2190/NA.30.1.b

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period that pottery (e.g., Leimbach series) makes it appearance and becomes

increasingly used. During the Early Woodland, termed the Early Woodland

Leimbach phase, there is a marked increase in ceramic variation and the

establishment and common place use of ceramics across the northern Ohio region

(Stothers and Abel, 1993:30). Early Woodland Leimbach sites are centered within

the region between Sandusky Bay and the Vermilion River, although sites have

been recorded in less frequency to the west and east of this area in Ohio. Settlement

strategies that arise in this period appear to be oriented around semi-permanent

residential base camps (e.g., Seaman’s Fort), most likely used throughout the

autumn and winter. These types of sites contain evidence of oval or circular

structures and appear to be comparable to the sedentary hamlets developing in

southern Ohio around the same time (Abrams and Freter, 2005; Dragoo, 1976;

Webb and Baby, 1957; Webb and Snow, 1974). The Early Woodland inhabitants

were hunter and gatherers that relied extensively on meat (deer and fish; Bowen,

1992; Price et al., 1985; Stothers and Abel, 1993) and nut harvesting. Hickory was

the dominant nut resource used followed by walnut and beechnut (Demuth, 1990,

1991; Stothers and Abel, 1993). It is during this time some domesticated cultigens

appear such as amaranth, chenopodium, knotweed, maygrass, sumpweed, squash,

and sunflower suggesting that small-scale garden cultivation was occurring (Ford,

1985; Ozker, 1982; Smith, 1995; Wymer and Abrams, 2003). Mortuary related

sites are represented by mass burial pits (e.g., Williams Cemetery, Marblehead,

and Danbury; Redmond and Scanlan, 2008) and there is less emphasis on mound

building as evidenced in southern Ohio.

In northern Ohio, hamlet-like or semi-permanent encampments (base camps)

such as Seaman’s Fort, Leimbach, and Weilnau and secondary procurement sites

that radiate from these sites, what Stothers and Abel (1993) term “auxiliary” sites,

are located in and along river valleys or along the lake front of Lake Erie.

Auxiliary sites are comparable to the short-term residential bases and field camps

as defined by Binford (1980) although we disagree with Stothers and Abel’s

placement of Leimbach and Weilnau into this category as these sites exhibit

a significant number of characteristics typical of a base camp (e.g., numerous

pit features, non-portable artifacts, a midden, diverse tool assemblages, and/or

evidence of residential structures). Field camp/short term residential bases would

not be limited to the major drainages but would radiate outward from the more

permanent base camps into the more distant upland regions. Encampments in the

uplands tend to be small in size and represent hunting and collection activities

most likely occurring in the autumn and spring (Bergman et al., 1998; Keener and

Nye, 2007; Railey, 1991; Seeman, 1986). There is far less documentation on

this type of Early Woodland site in northern Ohio. The recent excavations at

Settler’s Ridge (33-AS-32) provides intensive documentation of a small upland

site which may serve as a comparable database for other such sites in the northern

Ohio region. The site can also be compared with several other contemporary

Early Woodland site assemblages (e.g., President’s Club and 33-LI-183) recently

24 / KEENER, NYE AND NIEDERMIER

investigated in central Ohio that represent small upland residential encampments,

but that contain a different but related pottery style, Dominion Thick (Keener

and Nye, 2007).

SITE DESCRIPTION

Settler’s Ridge is located just east of the City of Ashland in Montgomery

Township, Ashland County, Ohio (Figure 1). The site is located on a glacial

hummock on a hummocky moraine of the Late Wisconsinan glacial period (Pavey

et al., 1999). A small unnamed intermittent stream is situated within 15 m (50 ft)

of the north edge of the site. The nearest sizable tributary is Jerome’s Fork, which

is a secondary drainage of the Muskingum River, and is located approximately

1.8 km (1.1 mi) to the east. Settler’s ridge is situated in the upper drainage area

of Jerome’s Fork near the watershed divide with the Vermilion River, which is

associated with the Lake Erie drainage basin. The site is 7,875 m2 (84,770 ft2) in

size and centered on the apex of the hummock landform (Keener et al., 2008).

THE SETTLER’S RIDGE SITE / 25

Figure 1. Drainage map showing the location of Settler’s Ridge.

Settler’s Ridge was first discovered in 1975 by Dr. David Bush (Heidelberg

College), during a surface collection of an agricultural field. During this

reconnaissance investigation, a grab sample totaling 169 artifacts was collected

and the site was recorded as 33-AS-32. In 2007 the area containing Settler’s Ridge

became part of a proposed 74.8 ha (185 a.) development planned by Loral

Investments, LLC. The United States Army Corp of Engineers was involved

with the project, and based on the previous findings by Bush, recommended an

archaeological survey for the development and a reassessment of Settler’s Ridge

(33-AS-32). Professional Archaeological Services Team (PAST) performed the

Phase I survey as well as the Phase III data recovery investigation of Settler’s

Ridge when the site was determined to be eligible to the National Register of

Historic Places. The archaeological investigation involved intensive controlled

surface collection transects, geophysical survey (conducted by Berle Clay of

Cultural Resources Analysts, Inc), some limited test unit excavation, and exposure

of 2,900 m2 (31,216 ft2) of the subsurface through mechanical plow zone removal

(Keener, 2007; Keener et al., 2008).

The investigations recovered a total of 6,624 artifacts (6,092 FCR, 401

lithics, and 131 prehistoric pottery fragments). A total of 20 cultural features

were uncovered that include 16 post molds, one small pit, and three large basin

shaped pits. Temporally diagnostic artifacts indicate three cultural components

associated with the site: Early Archaic, Late Archaic, and Early Woodland.

The Early Woodland period, however, appears to be the dominant

component. Table 1 lists the projectile points recovered, all from surface

collection. Over half of the points are Early Woodland (e.g., Adena

Stemmed) or Late Archaic to Early Woodland transitional types (Perkiomen

Broad and Susquehanna Broad; Justice, 1987). The Early and Late Archaic

points have a minor representation. The only temporally diagnostic group of

artifacts recovered from feature context was the pottery assemblage, which

came from one feature, a small pit. The entire ceramic assemblage , which

probably represents one vessel, is Leimbach Cordmarked. Radiocarbon dates

from three separate feature samples also confirm a strong association to the

Early Woodland. Table 2 lists the radiometric data. All three features have mean

dates that fall between 569 to 624 cal B.C. The conventional dates are virtually

identical and may suggest the features at the site represent a single occupation or

that the site was occupied only a few times at around the same time during the

Early Woodland.

THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGE

Lithic debitage was mainly recovered from controlled surface collection

transects that were spaced at 3 m (9.8 ft) intervals. The site was walked twice in

opposite directions (north to south and east to west). Raw material type and size

grade counts were utilized as was a technological analysis of the assemblage


Tab

le1

.P

roje

ctile

Po

int

Lis

t,T

yp

olo

gy,an

dA

ge

Ran

ge

for

Sett

ler’s

Rid

ge

Descri

ptio

nn

Flin

tty

pe

Tem

po

ralp

eri

od

aT

ime

ran

ge

a

Lecro

yB

ifu

rcate

dS

tem

med

McW

hin

ney

Heavy

Ste

mm

ed

Bre

wert

on

co

rner

no

tch

ed

Perk

iom

en

Bro

ad

Su

sq

ueh

an

na

Bro

ad

(rew

ork

ed

into

hafted

scra

per)

Kra

mer

Ad

en

aS

tem

med

1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Up

per

Merc

er

Up

per

Merc

er

Dela

ware

Up

per

Merc

er

Up

per

Merc

er

Flin

tR

idg

e

Up

per

Merc

er

Earl

yA

rch

aic

Late

Arc

haic

Late

Arc

haic

Late

Arc

haic

/Earl

yW

oo

dla

nd

Late

Arc

haic

/Earl

yW

oo

dla

nd

Earl

yW

oo

dla

nd

Earl

yW

oo

dla

nd

6,5

00

B.C

.to

58

00

B.C

.

4,0

00

B.C

.to

10

00

B.C

.

2,9

80

B.C

.to

1,7

23

B.C

.

1,7

20

B.C

.to

1,7

23

B.C

.

an

din

toE

arl

yW

oo

dla

nd

1,7

00

B.C

.to

70

0B

.C.

55

0B

.C.to

15

0B

.C.

80

0B

.C.to

20

0B

.C.

aJu

stice

(19

87

)


Tab

le2

.R

ad

iom

etr

icD

ate

sfr

om

Sett

ler’

sR

idg

e

Featu

re#

/Beta

#

Co

nven

tio

nal

rad

iocarb

on

ag

e

Calib

rate

dd

ate

(68

.2%

pro

bab

ility

)aC

alib

rate

dd

ate

(95

.4%

pro

bab

ility

)aM

ean

date

a

Featu

re1

/2

39

86

7

Featu

re2

/2

39

86

8

Featu

re3

/2

39

86

9

24

30

±7

0B

P

24

90

±4

0B

P

24

30

±6

0B

P

74

6–4

05

calB

C

76

3–5

41

calB

C

74

2–4

06

calB

C

76

6–3

97

calB

C

78

1–4

17

calB

C

76

1–4

00

calB

C

57

2calB

C

62

4calB

C

56

9calB

C

aD

ate

sco

rrecte

du

sin

gth

eIn

tCal0

4calib

ratio

ncu

rve

(Reim

er

et

al.,2

00

4)

an

dth

eO

xC

al4

.0calib

ratio

nso

ftw

are

(Ram

sey,2

00

1)


(based on Pecora, 2002). The primary flint type recovered at the site was Upper

Mercer flint (n = 321 (81.4%)), distantly followed by Vanport flint (n = 45

(11.3%)), Delaware chert (15 (3.8%)) and unknown/glacial varieties (14 (3.5%)).

Upper Mercer is a high quality flint that is the closest source material to

Settler’s Ridge located at outcrops approximately 64.3 to 80.5 km (40 to 50 mi) to

the east and southeast.

The flint debitage/tools were assigned a size grade using a series of wire

mesh sieves that include >1 in (G1), 1 in > 1/2 in (G2), 1/2 in > 1/4 in (G3), 1/4 in

> 1/8 in (G4), and < 1/8 in (G5). Table 3 shows the results of the size grade and

raw material counts for each flint type. Size grade analyses infer in a general

manner that flake size is related to the stage of manufacture (sensu Ahler, 1989),

consequently large size grades reflect early reduction stages, while smaller grades

indicate late stages. The assemblage at Settler’s Ridge has a high percentage of

Grade Size 3 and 4 artifacts, which suggests latter reduction stage activities such as

late biface blank and tool production, and tool rejuvenation.

Table 4 shows the results of a technological analysis (using Pecora, 2002) of

the Settler’s Ridge assemblage, which is a more refined approach in interpreting

the type of reduction activity that best represents the site. The analysis places

individual flakes into the following group categories: initial reduction flakes

(decortication flakes), early biface reduction flakes, late biface reduction flakes,

and pressure flakes. The analysis found that the assemblage has the highest

percentage of material represented by Late Biface Reduction and Pressure Flake

debris. This indicates a focus on late reduction activities occurring at the site such

as the conversion of late biface blanks into preforms and/or tools. It also indicates

tool rejuvenation activities. This is supported by the recovery of a number of

biface fragments, late biface blank fragments, and numerous projectile points

including a reworked point.

A total of 44 formed lithic artifacts were recovered and are listed on Table 5.

The formed artifacts can be divided into those items related to tool manufacture

(e.g., cores, bifaces, biface blanks (early and late), and performs) versus actual

tools (e.g., projectile points, modified flakes, scrapers, groundstone tools). There

were 30 tools recovered from Settler’s Ridge, which is a relatively large amount

representing 7.5% of the total lithic assemblage. Most of the tools, however, are

projectile points (n = 19 (63.3%)) and overall the tool assemblage shows a

moderate amount of diversity.

The analysis of the lithic assemblage suggests that embedded flint

procurement activities are associated with the site and that these activities

were integrated into the seasonal subsistence cycles exhibited by the local Early

Woodland population. The lack of high percentages of early to middle stage

reduction debitage at the site and distant location from Upper Mercer quarries

would appear to support the notion that prepared blanks were transported to

Settler’s Ridge where limited tool production and rejuvenation of existing tools

occurred.


Tab

le3

.S

ize

Gra

de

an

dR

aw

Mate

rialC

ou

nts

for

Sett

ler’

sR

idg

eLith

icA

ssem

bla

ge

Site

#F

lint

typ

eG

rad

e1

Gra

de

2G

rad

e3

Gra

de

4G

rad

e5

To

tal

Sett

ler’

s

Rid

ge

aU

pp

er

Merc

er

Van

po

rt

Dela

ware

Un

kn

ow

n

To

tal

2(1

.1%

)

0(0

%)

2(1

4.3

%)

0(0

%)

4(1

.7%

)

34

(19

.2%

)

7(1

9%

)

9(6

4.3

%)

3(3

7.5

%)

54

(22

.8%

)

96

(54

.2%

)

18

(48

.6%

)

2(1

4.3

%)

4(5

0%

)

12

0(5

0.6

%)

40

(22

.6%

)

12

(32

.4%

)

0(0

%)

1(1

2.5

%)

53

(22

.4%

)

5(2

.8%

)

0(0

%)

1(7

.1%

)

0(0

%)

6(2

.5%

)

17

7(7

4.7

%)

37

(15

.6%

)

14

(5.9

%)

8(3

3.8

%)

23

7(1

00

%)a

aD

oes

no

tin

clu

de

the

Bu

sh

su

rvey

(19

75

)co

llectio

n.


Tab

le4

.T

ech

no

log

icalLith

icA

naly

sis

Resu

lts

for

the

Up

per

Merc

er

Assem

bla

ge

at

Sett

ler’s

Rid

ge

Co

llectio

nF

lint

Initia

l

red

uctio

n

Initia

lb

iface

red

uctio

n

Earl

yb

iface

red

uctio

n

Late

biface

red

uctio

n

Pre

ssu

re

flake

To

talte

ch

dia

gn

ostic

Su

rface

co

llectio

n/

Test

un

its

Featu

res

To

tal

U.M

erc

er

(n)

U.M

erc

er

%

U.M

erc

er

(n)

U.M

erc

er

%

U.M

erc

er

(n)

U.M

erc

er

%

23

12

.6

0 0

23

11

.6

7 3.8

2

11

.8

9 4.5

33

18

.1

2

11

.8

35

17

.6

68

37

.4

9

53

77

38

.7

51

28

.1

4

23

.5

55

27

.6

18

2

10

0

17

10

0

19

9

10

0

EARLY WOODLAND CERAMICS

There are many shared attributes among Early Woodland ceramic types from

the Western Great Lakes and Ohio Valley region as a whole such as Fayette Thick

of the Middle Ohio Valley, Marion Thick from Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, and

Michigan, and Leimbach Thick of northern Ohio (Cramer, 1989; Shane, 1975;

Stothers and Abel, 1993). Ceramic types are generally described as thick grit

tempered vessels with, variations in surface treatment, vessel form with typology

seemingly relying on geographic location (Clay, 1980, 1986; Griffin, 1943;

Mayer-Oakes, 1955; Ozker, 1982; Prufer et al., 1989; Shane, 1975). Cramer

(1989) presented similarities between Fayette Thick, Dominion Thick, Leimbach

Thick, and the Half Moon Cordmarked type from the Upper Ohio Valley in her

work on Dominion Thick pottery. While Dominion Thick represents an Early

Woodland type established in central Ohio it differs from the assemblage from

Settler’s Ridge in that Dominion Thick vessels are described as possessing a

plain surface and flat-bottomed bases (Cramer, 1989; Keener and Nye, 2007).

The assemblage recovered from Settler’s Ridge most resembles the Leimbach

Series as defined by Shane (1975) and redefined by Stothers and Abel (1993).

The Leimbach Site, located in Lorain County, Ohio, was excavated by Orrin

Shane in 1965. The analysis of this ceramic assemblage resulted in the naming

of the Leimbach series which is considered the earliest example of ceramics in

the region occurring as far back as ca. 1,000 B.C. however not prevalent nor

with much variation until ca. 600 B.C. (Shane, 1975; Stothers and Abel, 1993).

Further analysis of material from several sites resulted in the redefining of the


Table 5. List and Percentages of All Formed Artifact Types

Artifact type Count %

Biface

Early Biface Blank

Late Biface Blank

Marginally Modified Flake

Projectile Points

Abrader

Hammerstone

Hafted scraper

Banded Slate Pendant

11

1

2

7

19

1

1

1

1

25

2.3

4.5

15.9

43.1

2.3

2.3

2.3

2.3

Total 44 100%

four types within the Leimbach Series; Leimbach Thick, Leimbach Cordmarked,

Leimbach Plain, and Leimbach Decorated (Stothers and Abel, 1993). Although

all four types have been found in direct association as evidenced at Seaman’s

Fort, Leimbach Thick is believed to be the earliest type (Stothers and Abel,

1993). Outside of the Leimbach Site, Leimbach pottery has been found at

several other sites in northern Ohio including Danbury (33-OT-16) in Ottawa

County, Seaman’s Fort (33-ER-85) and Weilnau in Erie County, Mohawk Rock

Shelter in Geauga County, the OEC 1 Site (33-CU-462) in Cuyahoga County,

Mentor Lagoon #4 Site in Lake County, and Stanford Knoll (33-SU-138) in

Summit County (Kollecker, 2002; Lee, 1986; Redmond, 2001, 2005; Redmond

and Scanlan, 2008; Shane, 1975; Vietzen, 1945).

The ceramic assemblage (n = 131) recovered during the excavations at Settler’s

Ridge consists of a total of 75 sherds and 56 sherdlets. Sherdlets measuring less

than 1.3 cm (½ in) in diameter or that are missing one or both surface(s) were not

used in this analysis. Prior to analysis effort was made to attempt to combine as

many sherds as possible in order to better assess manufacturing techniques applied

to the assemblage. Those efforts resulted in 47 sherds being joined to at least one

other sherd which reduces the total site assemblage to 41 ceramic items. In one

case a total of 18 sherds were joined together to form a rather large partial vessel

measuring 180 mm high by 155 mm wide and is comprised of three rim sherds, 14

body sherds, and the single lug recovered from the site (Figures 2-4). Other than

the partially reconstructed vessel 40 sherds remain that include six rim sherds

(15%), 32 body sherds (80%), and two basal sherds (5%). The assemblage likely

represents one vessel.

The entire assemblage was situated within Feature 2 (a small pit) with the

exception of two sherdlets collected from the plow zone interface of a 1m2 test unit

positioned above the feature. Radiocarbon dating of Feature 2 resulted in a

conventional radiocarbon date of 2490 ± 70 BP (BETA-239868) (see Table 2).

Analysis of the material consisted of the recording of observable attributes such as

temper, thickness, surface treatment, and shape. Based on the observed attributes

of the assemblage, geographic location of the site, and calibrated radiocarbon date;

the collection from Settler’s Ridge is most likely affiliated with the Leimbach

Phase (600 B.C.–A.D. 1) of the Early Woodland period for northern Ohio.

The following is the detailed results of the ceramic analysis of the Settler’s

Ridge assemblage based on the physical attribute observations. When appropriate,

attribute descriptions of Leimbach Thick (Shane, 1975) and Leimbach Cord-

marked (Stothers and Abel, 1993) are included after the analysis results.

PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE SETTLER’S

RIDGE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGE

Numerous sherds from the assemblage exhibit typical convex/concave coil

breaks. The basal sherds (n = 2) do not exhibit distinct coil breaks but based on the



Figure 2. Front view of partially reconstructed Leimbach Cordmarked

vessel at Settler’s Ridge.


Figure 3. Profile of reconstructed Leimbach Cordmarked vessel

at Settler’s Ridge.


Figure 4. View of various rim pieces from Settler’s Ridge

ceramic assemblage.

thickness, the base was most likely constructed as a single piece while the rest

of the vessel was coiled from the base up. Coiling is a common method of vessel

construction found in many Early Woodland types (Cramer, 1989; Stothers and

Abel, 1993). The entire assemblage is tempered with granitic material and quartz

with some small occurrences of flint and possibly iron pyrite. The average size

of the temper ranges from 0.1 mm to 6 mm with a density range of 10–50%.

Exterior color variation was found between rim and body sherds. The rim

sherds were typically very dark gray to grayish brown along with yellowish

brown (10YR 3/1-3/2 and 5/4-5/8) while the coloration of body sherds were

found to be strong brown, reddish yellow, light yellowish brown to brownish

yellow (7.5YR 5/6-6/6 and 10YR 6/4-6/6). The darker color of the rims has been

suggested by some (i.e., Cramer, 1989; Shane, 1975) to indicate an inverted firing

of the vessel.

Variation in color was also observed between the interior surfaces of body

and basal sherds. Generally speaking, the interior color of body and rim sherds

ranged from very dark gray to yellowish brown (10YR 3/1-5/4) whereas the

basal sherds exhibited a reddish yellow to strong brown (7.5YR 6/6-5/6).

Surface treatment was represented by 30 cordmarked pieces and 10 plain.

Cordmarking on the exterior surface appears to have been applied by a cord

wrapped implement. Cord thickness ranges from 0.65-2.1 mm with an average

thickness of 1 mm. Spacing between parallel cords ranges from 1-4.6 mm and

average spacing is 3.4 mm. A “Z” twist cord was utilized on all the sherds where

twist could be observed (Hurley, 1979). The cord impressions on the majority

of sherds were applied in a vertical and oblique orientation over the entire vessel

up to the lip with randomly applied impressions occurring frequently on body

sherds. The rims appear to have been marked with a cord-wrapped implement

in either a vertical or oblique fashion with the occasional overlapping impression

(Figure 4). This method is observed on the assemblages from the Leimbach Site

and Seaman’s Fort. Cord impressions do not appear on any of the interior

surfaces and appear to have been smoothed and six sherds exhibit some small

parallel grooves that may be the result of brushing. Plain interiors with “remnant

cord-roughening (often fabric impression), scarification, or channeling is often

apparent on the interior upper rim of the vessel only” is how Stothers and Abel

(1993:48) describe the surface treatment of the Leimbach Cordmarked type. The

sherds exhibiting a plain exterior surface represent either a plain exterior vessel

or a portion of a cordmarked vessel where the cord impressions have either been

obliterated or were never present on a given portion of a corded vessel. The notion

that the plain pieces are part of the same vessel was confirmed when two sherds

from this assemblage, one with a cord impressed exterior and another exhibiting

a plain exterior, were joined together. Additional support is found in a plain

exterior sherd that represents a small basal sherd; the other basal sherd is sig-

nificantly larger and possesses areas of plain surface treatment among cord

impressions elsewhere on the sherd (Figure 5).


There are a total of six partial rim fragments (Figure 4) all of which appear to

represent slightly flaring everted rims as was observed in the assemblages from

the Leimbach Site and Weilnau (Shane, 1975; Stothers and Abel, 1993:45-46).

The lips of the rim fragments at Settler’s Ridge are flat to slightly rounded with

some slight exterior thickening or folding toward the exterior and three were

decorated with cord impressions. The partially reconstructed vessel rim fragments

were used to estimate the vessel aperture and found an approximate diameter of

200 mm. The rim circumference of a vessel with this diameter would be 628 mm.

The reconstructed partial vessel represents approximately 24.6% of a whole

vessel (see Figure 2). The widest portion of the vessel is the shoulder where the

lug is located and measures approximately 220 mm in diameter. The maximum


Figure 5. Basal sherds and lug from Settler’s Ridge ceramic assemblage.

circumference (not including the lug) of the vessel would be approximately

691 mm. One of the two basal sherds is significant enough in size to determine

shape, which appears to be a narrow conoidal form (see Figure 5). A similar basal

sherd from Feature 8 at Seaman’s Fort was radiocarbon dated to 460 B.C.

(Stothers and Abel, 1993:46).

The thickness varies across the vessel with the rims being the thinnest portion

possessing a range of 4.6-8.5 mm and average thickness of 7 mm, body sherd

thickness ranges from 8.1 mm-16.7 mm with an average thickness of 11 mm, and

basal sherds range in thickness from 18.2 mm-22 mm with an average thickness of

20.1 mm. Viewed in profile the thickest portion of the vessel would be the base

and from there wall thickness gradually becomes thinner up to the rim (Figure 3).

The thicknesses of the sherds from Settler’s Ridge all fall within the ranges

of Leimbach Thick as reported by Shane (1975) and Leimbach Cordmarked

presuming the thickness provided by Stothers and Abel (1993) are body sherds.

The single cylindrical “doorknob” shaped lug that was recovered occurs approxi-

mately 56 mm below the rim, has a maximum length of 28 mm, maximum exterior

diameter of 23 mm, and maximum interior diameter of 20 mm. The lug was

riveted through the vessel wall and the exterior end was then built up and

smoothed into the exterior surface of the vessel. There is a slight upward slant

of the lug toward the rim. Riveted lugs or pots are also present at Weilnau,

Leimbach, Danbury, and Seaman’s Fort (Redmond and Scanlan, 2008; Shane,

1975; Stothers and Abel, 1993).

Review of the published literature indicates that Settler’s Ridge is the southern

most recorded example of Leimbach Cordmarked pottery in northern Ohio as

defined by Stothers and Abel (1993). The site is associated with the upper drainage

system of the Muskingum River valley as opposed to the Lake Erie basin.

The topographical location of Settler’s Ridge also differs from other recorded

Leimbach sites in that it is located in the upland moraine area, at a great distance

from any major drainage. The nearest drainage, Jerome’s Fork (a secondary upper

drainage of the Muskingum River), is located approximately 1.8 km (1.1 mi) to the

east of the site. Most other Leimbach sites are located on valley floor landforms,

lake front edges, rock shelters, and bluff edge locations. Table 6 contrasts land-

form information associated with other significant Leimbach related sites.

Excavation of Settler’s Ridge produced a smaller assemblage of ceramic

artifacts than were recovered from the excavations at larger sites like Leimbach,

Seaman’s Fort, and Weilnau, but still provides valuable information regarding

the growing knowledge of Early Woodland ceramic technology. The Settler’s

Ridge assemblage greatly resembles the Leimbach Cordmarked ceramic type

in temper, sherd thickness, surface treatment, presence of riveted lugs, rim and

basal shape and comparable radiocarbon dates. The small vessel form exhibited by

the reconstructed pot from Settler’s Ridge represents the variability within the

Leimbach Series, which may reflect vessel function (see Stothers and Abel,

1993). Perhaps the smaller vessel’s size is related to transportation needs making it


easier to carry the item to a more distant upland encampment. Schiffer and

Skibo (1987) observed that portability and ease of manufacture of pottery was

prioritized by hunter-gatherer populations in the eastern United States. The

Settler’s Ridge vessel (based on diameter ranges) is approximately 23% smaller

than the vessel forms found at the larger base camp sites like Danbury, Seeman’s

Fort, and Weilnau (Redmond and Scanlan, 2008; Stothers and Abel, 1993) and

consequently would have been easier to carry over longer distances.

FEATURE OUTLAY AND ARTIFACT PATTERNING

The features identified at Settler’s Ridge are clustered on the top of the

hummock landform in the flatter and best drained portion. All of the features

(n = 20) were mapped in and shown to scale on Figure 6. Figure 7 shows

plan/profiles of the four pits while Table 7 presents physical attribute information.

The distribution of the features is interesting as it suggests different activity

areas. The four pits are situated in somewhat of an arc configuration along the

apex of the hummock, while most of the posts are clustered northeast of this arc

in between pits 1 and 9. The pits are not clustered together and may represent

distinct occupation episodes or alternatively may be part of one short-term occu-

pation of the landform. The radiocarbon dates (from three of the four pits)

suggest the latter explanation is more likely. The lack of numerous pits indicates

that the landform was not frequently chosen as a campsite over time, unless this

is a product of plowing.

The post cluster denotes a specific area where possible structures or specific

activities were focused. While no distinct structure outline is evident there are


Table 6. Regional Leimbach Related Sites

with Landform Information

Site Landform

Leimbach

Danbury

Mentor Lagoon 4

Seaman’s Fort

Weilnau

Mohawk Rock Shelter

OEC 1 (33-CU-462)

Stanford Knoll (33-SU-138)

Settler’s Ridge

Terrace remnant

Lake front

Lake front

Bluff edge

Bluff edge

Rock Shelter

Terrace

Terrace

Glacial hummock


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6.

Featu

res

iden

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at

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Figure 7. Plan and profile views of Features 1, 2, 7, and 9.

Tab

le7

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11

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96

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basin

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sm

all

pit

pit

pit

24

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24

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(9.4

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27

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14

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L,F

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five post features (11, 15, 16, 21, and 22) that may represent a portion of a linear

or partially curved wall. These five posts also have similar diameter/depth

measurements of 34/20 cm (13.4/7.9 in.), 36/35 cm (14.2/13.7 in.), 36/38 cm

(14.2/14.9 in.), 36/26 cm (14.2/10.2 in.), and 29/30 cm (11.4/11.8 in.) respec-

tively. Four posts (15, 16, 21, and 22) are rather evenly spaced from one another

with distances ranging from 2.2 m to 2.3 m (7.2 ft to 7.5 ft) apart. If these posts

are related they likely represent some kind of lean-to, wind break, or partial

enclosure. Such types of structures or post clusters have been found at other

small residential camp sites (Broyles, 1976; Keener and Nye, 2007). This is not

to say that the posts do not represent some other activity related to hunting such

as supports for drying racks. Circular structures found at larger sites like Weilnau

or Seaman’s Fort are clearly absent.

The intensive surface collection at Settler’s Ridge allowed for a distribution

analysis of the artifacts recovered at the site. These distributions were super-

imposed on the feature locations to identify if possible patterning was present and

whether any correlation with particular features or feature groupings existed.

Figure 8 shows lithic debitage densities for the Upper Mercer flint assemblage, the

dominant flint type (81.4% of debitage). The Upper Mercer concentration is

clearly focused within the area of the post cluster suggesting that flint reduction

activities were occurring in this specific area.

Figure 9 shows the fire cracked rock (FCR) distribution across the site. FCR

shows a different distribution as opposed to flint debris as the highest densities are

situated in a linear band just south and adjacent to the pits (Features 1 and 2). The

highest FCR densities are adjacent to the south side of the largest pit (Feature 1).

This feature had the highest count (n = 5,161) and weight (70,171 g) of FCR

present in a feature at the site and the amount of FCR debris just south of the

feature suggests the upper portion of the feature had been truncated by cultivation.

Feature 2 had the second highest amount of FCR in weight (6,223 g) and FCR

clusters to the south of this feature. These findings are similar to other upland sites

(Keener and Nye, 2007) where surface FCR concentrations are typically found

overlapping or lying in close proximity to pit locations.

FEATURE CONTENT

Feature content was primarily represented by FCR (n = 5,549) of which

90.3% came from Feature 1 (n = 5,161). Most of the FCR (91%) recovered in

feature context was 32 mm or less in size. This is probably indicative of long

burn times as opposed to re-use of the material (Pagoulatos, 1992). Due to the

amount of FCR recovered at Feature 1 it may have served as a cooking facility.

Only a small amount of flint debitage (n = 36) was recovered from feature context,

none of which were tools. The only temporally diagnostic material found in

feature context was the ceramic assemblage in the Feature 2 pit. Flotation samples

from six of the features were analyzed which resulted in the identification of wood



Fig

ure

8.

Su

rface

dis

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Up

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Fig

ure

9.

Su

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dis

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at

Sett

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e.

charcoal (n = 3,027 (98%)), nutshell (n = 43 (1%), squash rind (n = 2), and seeds

(n = 2) (Leone, 2008). No faunal remains were recovered. Wood charcoal was

heavily represented by hickory (39%) and oak (27%). Table 8 shows a summary

of the counts, percentages, and ubiquity of various identified wood species repre-

sented. Identifiable nutshell remains were represented by hickory and hazelnut.

Table 9 shows counts, percentages, and ubiquity of the nutshell assemblage.

Overall the nutshell quantities were low at the site suggesting it was not specif-

ically used for nut processing. Nonetheless, four out of six analyzed features

contained nutshell indicating that nuts (primarily hickory) were used by the

site occupants. Two squash rinds and two seeds (one unidentifiable and one

raspberry/bramble) were recovered in one of the pits but the seeds were likely

produced by “seed rain” after use and abandonment of the feature. The evidence

of squash indicate the probable presence of a container that could hold liquid

such as water or, as Ozker (1982) has suggested, store nut oils.

Based on the interpretation of the botanical remains, the high wood charcoal

density suggested large quantities of fuel being burnt at Settler’s Ridge, most

likely during colder months such as the late autumn or early spring (Leone, 2008).

While some nutshell was utilized at the site, the lack of high densities of this food

source or seeds and the lack of grinding slabs or nutting stones do not support a

focus on the processing of nuts or horticulture. This indicates that other logistical

activities, such as hunting, were the focus of the short-term encampment.


Table 8. Identified Wood Summary of Samples from Settler’s Ridge

Type Count

Percentage of

identified wood Context ubiquity

Hickory

Oaka

Elm/Hackberry

Ash

Beech

Maple

Chestnut

Sycamore

Walnut

Pine

Total – identified

45

32

19

5

5

4

3

2

1

1

117

39%

27%

16%

4%

4%

3%

3%

2%

1%

1%

100%

100%

83%

67%

33%

50%

50%

17%

17%

17%

17%

aAll oak species combined.

SITE FUNCTION

Settler’s Ridge has a moderate lithic assemblage that appears to represent a

small short-term residential base that was probably occupied by a small number

of occupants, perhaps a family group. This type of site represents the dispersal of

small groups of people from a larger base camp for the purposes of hunting and/or

collecting nut resources. Base camps are found along major drainages and are

typically large in size, contain numerous pits, middens, a very large variety

of tools, non-portable artifacts (e.g., pottery, hammerstones), storage facilities,

habitation structures, and human internments (Binford, 1980; Brown and Vierra,

1983; Stafford et al., 2000). They are often used seasonally and repeatedly over

time. In contrast, upland residential camps situated away from major drainages are

much smaller in size and often reflect a more limited time range of use so

consequently their reflective assemblages are smaller and less complex. Settler’s

Ridge contains a number of the expected features of a base camp, such as the post

cluster indicating a probable expedient habitation related structure, non-portable

artifacts (pottery, hammerstone, and abrader), but lacks storage pits, a midden, or a

large lithic assemblage. The evidence at Settler’s Ridge suggests that the site was

used for a short duration but acted as a temporary location from which the

occupants utilized upland resources during the late autumn or early spring.

Although no faunal remains were found, it is probable that the site represents a

short-term hunting encampment. The inhabitants at Settler’s Ridge most likely

spread out from this encampment on a number of logistical resource extractive or

exploitive activities (satellite sites) (Binford, 1980).

On a larger regional level, Settler’s Ridge may support the long distance

logistic mobility model proposed by Lovis et al. (2005) for hunter and gatherer

settlement systems in the Great Lakes region. In their approach, large resi-

dential bases are situated along the coastal lowland areas of the Great Lakes and

their corresponding major tributaries. Major residential sites associated with

the Leimbach phase (e.g., Danbury, Seaman’s Fort, Weilnau) are found at these

locations. During colder seasons resources were more restricted and evidence of


Table 9. Identified Nutshell Summary from Settler’s Ridge

Type Count

Percentage of

nutshell assemblage Context ubiquity

Hickory

Hazelnut

Walnut family

Total

31

1

11

43

72%

2%

26%

100%

33%

17%

33%

long distance logistic mobility should be found in the more remote upland

locations primarily related to hunting but also incorporating nut collection

as well. Lovis et al. (2005) draw upon both ethnographic and archaeological

evidence showing that hunting groups tend to average 50 km (31 mi) trips

radiating outward from their main encampments into upland regions of their

presumed territory. Settler’s Ridge is located approximately 53 km (33 mi)

from the Leimbach site (the closest recorded base camp) that is situated on the

Vermilion River to the north. This falls close to the expected range of a long

distance logistic mobility system and would suggest that Early Woodland groups

utilized the upper drainage of the Vermilion River to access the upland area of

the watershed divide with the Muskingum River drainage. This of course is a

preliminary premise that is hampered by the lack of investigations in the upper

drainages of the Vermilion and Upper Sandusky Rivers as well as the upper

drainage systems of the Muskingum River such as the Mohican River and

Killbuck Creek. Supportive evidence of long-distance logistic mobility will be

the finding of similar sites like Settler’s Ridge that are generally small in size,

presumed short term in occupation and related to resource extraction activities

(both animal and plant) during colder months.

The recovery of Leimbach pottery at Settler’s Ridge is of interest in how it

may have been used at the site. There are varying opinions as to whether pottery

found in upland locations is made on site (Bergman et al., 1995; Keener and Nye,

2007) or carried there from the larger ceremonial sites situated along the major

drainages (Seeman, 1986). Bergman et al. (1995) and Keener and Nye (2007) have

suggested that the ceramic vessels served utilitarian purposes related to storage

and cooking in association with the collection of nut mast food items and/or other

plant material found at the upland locations and that ceramic vessels may have

been made on site. The local subsoil clays at Settler’s Ridge are suitable for

ceramic manufacture; however, the seasonal tie of the site to the late autumn or

early spring means colder temperatures and additional drying times. Average daily

temperatures for Ashland County in October and November are 11.8°C and 4.8°C

(53.3°F and 40.6°F) respectively (USDA, SCS, 1980). Recent research by Frink

and Harry (2008) on pottery manufacture in the Arctic (western Alaska) have

demonstrated that ceramics can be made in colder environments. Pottery in this

region is conducted during the summer months which average 15°C (59°F). Like

the late autumn and early spring periods in Ohio, the weather in western Alaska

exhibits wet, high humidity, and windy conditions. Ideally, pottery manufacture

occurs during dry and warm temperatures, with low humidity, little rainfall, and

long periods of sunshine (Arnold, 1989:71). Nonetheless, using slab construc-

tion techniques and low firing temperatures, western Alaskan populations were

able to produce ceramic vessels. Frink and Harry (2008:110) point out that

the construction of these vessels involved several months of processing. It seems

unlikely at a short-term encampment, such as Settler’s Ridge, that a lengthy

expenditure of time was devoted to the manufacture of one vessel. Frink and Harry


also point out that the coiling method is not commonly used in the colder

environment as these vessel forms take longer to dry and are less prone to hold

their shape during construction. Consequently, we agree with Seeman (1986) that

the pottery at Settler’s Ridge was made at a larger more permanent encampment

and then brought to the site. As mentioned earlier, the Settler’s Ridge vessel

may represent a specific variant of the Leimbach series, purposely made smaller

in size to help facilitate transportation to a more distant upland location.

Even though nut processing for storage may not have occurred at Settler’s

Ridge, hickory appears to have been involved in elements of daily subsistence.

The pottery provided a utilitarian function as a cooking vessel, which allows

hickory to be boiled and thus makes it easier to prepare. Other similar Early

Woodland encampments, such as the President’s Club site, 33-LI-1094, and

33-LI-183 which contained Dominion Thick pottery, found in upland settings

of central Ohio, have similar assemblages that involve a small number of vessels

(n = 1-2) (Keener and Nye, 2007; Weinberger, 2003). Nutshell totals at the

Licking County sites were also low again suggesting that nut processing was

not the focus of the encampment and that the pottery may have been used as

cooking implements for boiling meat rather than as storage items. Vessels could

be left at a site, cached, like other non-portable site furniture (e.g., nutting stones,

hammerstones) and used in subsequent seasonal occupations.

The finding of pottery in an upland setting in northern Ohio is important

as it adds to a growing number of recorded Early Woodland upland sites

(e.g., President’s Club, 33-LI-183) containing evidence of ceramic use (Keener

and Nye, 2007). This is demonstrating that the presence of ceramics was not

exclusive to valley floor locations represented by the larger hamlets or base

camps but was also an essential part of the upland field camps. The findings

at Settler’s Ridge and other upland sites suggest that one or a few ceramic vessels

were transported to these more remote locations to help in the preparation of

daily meals. Once the use of the camp was complete the pottery was discarded,

or if the site was re-used seasonally pottery could be left behind and pre-

sumably cached in pit features for future use such as may be the case at Feature 2

at Settler’s Ridge and which was found at 33-LI-1094 (Church and Updike,

2007; Weinberger, 2003).

CONCLUSIONS

Settler’s Ridge is significant since as a representative upland Early Woodland

Leimbach Phase site situated far from any major drainage it provides a distinct

contrast with other known Leimbach related sites (e.g., Danbury, Leimbach,

Seaman’s Fort, Weilnau) located on the valley floors and bluff edges of larger

drainages (e.g., terrace, levee) or in the case of Danbury and Mentor Lagoon 4,

along a lake edge. Settler’s Ridge also provides comparative similarities and

contrasts with other recently recorded Early Woodland upland sites from other


nearby regions such as those sites situated in central Ohio that have contem-

poraneous Dominion Thick pottery associations (Church and Updike, 2007;

Keener and Nye, 2007; Weinberger, 2003). While more sedentary-like settlements

were developing in the Early Woodland there was still a great reliance on the

upland areas for food and lithic resources. Local populations dispersed into small

logistical mobile groups to take advantage of these resources (Lovis et al., 2005).

The excavations at Settler’s Ridge provide well documented information on a

short-term residential encampment occupied by a small group of people, perhaps

a family group or small hunting party, that were exploiting upland resources

during the late autumn or early spring season. The excavations also demonstrate

that the use of pottery was an essential element of the camp, and probably related

to cooking activities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank Alan Ratliff of Loral Investments, LLC who

paid for the archaeological survey of the sites. David Snyder of the Ohio Historic

Preservation Office provided insightful comments during the excavations and

review of the CRM investigation. Special thanks go to Mark Seeman and Brian

Redmond for reviewing and commenting on our original drafts of this article.

We also thank Roger Moeller for editing the manuscript.

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Direct reprint requests to:

Craig S. Keener

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The Settler's Ridge Site, An Early Woodland Leimbach Phase Upland Encampment in Northern Ohio

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