The Science &Culture - International Society for Industrial ...

The Science&Culture

ofIndustrial EcologyAbstracts from the inaugural meeting

International Society for Industrial Ecology

12-14 November 2001—The Netherlands

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This document features abstracts from talks and posterspresented at the inaugural meeting for the InternationalSociety for Industrial Ecology (ISIE). The abstractsclearly reflect the diversity and creativity inherent inindustrial ecology. The November 2001 meeting was thefirst of ISIE’s many anticipated outlets for encouragingscholars and practitioners to share their ideas and experi-ences.

If you would like more information about the ISIE, pleasesee our website: www.yale.edu/is4ie

The abstract document is organized into three sections:

I Abstracts from the speaking sessions,organized by session pg. 3

II Abstracts from poster session organizedalphabetically by corresponding author pg. 69

III Speaking program author index andcontact information pg. 112

IV Poster author index pg. 130

With each abstract is a notation as to whether the authorshave a full paper available. If you would like a full paperand the notation indicates that “yes” there is one available,please contact the author directly.

This document reflects the program as of19 October 2001.

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Technical Program I

Social Framework I

Radical Reformism: Embedding Indus-trial Ecology into Modernity

Renato J. Orssatto

Full paper available: Yes

According to a specialised research areawithin environmental sociology - the ecologicalmodernisation theory - industrial ecology prac-tices are constituents of a broader emergent so-ciological phenomenon: the radicalisation ofmodernity. The understanding of the fundamen-tals of such phenomenon is, therefore, crucial forboth the practice and theorisation of industrialecology. This is the main reason for this paperto approximate the disciplines of environmentalsociology and industrial ecology. By delving intothe main sources of dynamism that producedmodernity - the widespread trust in symbolic to-kens and expert systems, and the reflexive ap-propriation of knowledge - the paper argues thatindustrial ecology practices depend on the cre-ation of new types of expert systems withinorganisational fields. The paper anchors its mainarguments in the research conducted in the Eu-ropean automobile industry - a socio-technicalcontext undergoing ecological modernisation.The main conclusions of the paper relate to na-ture of reform required for industrial ecologypractices to facilitate sustainable industrial de-velopment. While radical technological innova-tions may be necessary, such radicalism in tech-nology may need, however, an incremental in-stitutional reform of modern societies. Together,radical technological innovations and incremen-tal institutional reform constitute the concept ofradical reformism, which is suggested for en-hancement of the ecological modernisationtheory, as well as for the development of the nor-mative programmes encompassed by industrialecology practices.

Integrating Intelligent Trial and Errorinto Industrial Ecology

Edward Woodhouse, Jack Swearengen,and Jeff Howard


Industrial Ecology (IE) scholar-practitionersfrom engineering and the natural sciences tendto write as if clean production and greener de-sign are largely matters of just making more sen-sible choices. In contrast, social scientists expectrampant disagreement about what constitutes“sensible,” count on institutional bottlenecks andorganizational dysfunction, and assume that un-welcome surprises and unanticipated side effectsare inevitable in any complex new activity. OughtIE take better account of social science thinkingin these regards? How?

Section I reviews recent IE literature to docu-ment what we see as the relative neglect of dis-agreement, organizational dynamics, and uncer-tainty. Section II summarizes social science re-search concerning a strategy of decision makingknown as Intelligent Trial and Error (ITE), whichassumes that uncertainty and disagreement areinevitable and explains how to cope strategicallyrather than trying to ignore or banish the prob-lems via analysis. Section III discusses how IEresearchers and practitioners might utilize ITEto make their technical-managerial innovationsmore robust in the face of uncertainty and dis-agreement.

The analysis is illustrated with examplesdrawn from manufacturing engineering, indus-trial design, chemical engineering, and other are-nas of technological practice.

Industrial Ecology: The Discipline andIts Relation to the Real World

Kjetil Røine and Martina Keitsch

Full paper available:Yes

Science and its different disciplines are aboutunderstanding and interpreting the “real world.”Despite the fact that scientists are actors in thatworld and therefore contribute to the constitu-tion and development of it, it is for analyticalreasons appropriate to distinguish between a dis-

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ciplinary scheme, based on theory of science, anda real world scheme, based on empirical evi-dence. This paper proposes to sketch out andconnect these two schemes for the emerging dis-cipline of industrial ecology.

In the disciplinary scheme we intend to placecore literature of industrial ecology within aframework of theory of science. We will analysethe contributions of Frosch & Gallopoulos(1989), Ehrenfeld (1995) and Graedel & Allenby(1995). The analysis bases on the tripartition ofontology, epistemology and methodology, as oneway of characterising and structuring a discipline.Ontology is defined as the theory of understand-ing the subject, i.e. what do we understand asthe subject. Epistemology means the theory ofour understanding, i.e. how do we understandthe subject, while the methodology is knowledgeabout the tools we use to interpret, express ordescribe our understanding. The different ap-proaches of industrial ecology mentioned above,will be positioned in relation to each other in theanalysis.

The “real world” scheme will show how theideas of Frosch & Gallopoulos, Ehrenfeld andGraedel &Allenby on industrial ecology can belocated in an empirical framework of reality. Ourempirical approach is based on the work ofGiddens (1984). Giddens’s structuration theorydescribes the relations and mutual influence be-tween human actions and structures. Thestructuration theory is our analytical instrumentfor studying real world subjects.

Our case, the “real world” subject, will be theplastic packaging sector in Norway. The plasticpackaging sector in Norway is subject to theimplementation of the environmental policy prin-ciple, called extended producer responsibility.The analysis will be on the company level in thissector. This concerns the description of how se-lected companies adopted the implementation ofextended producer responsibility regarding theirreaction and development to this governmentalpolicy. The selected companies are in differentupstream phases of the life cycle and representsome of the largest economical contributors tothe EPR system.

The intention of this paper is to develop aframework and a possible methodological toolfor the combination of theory, methods and prac-tice of industrial ecology and concrete problems

and requirements in companies and administra-tion. The goal is to bridge the gap between thedisciplinary and the non-academic self-percep-tion.LiteratureEhrenfeld, J.R. 1995. Industrial ecology: A stra-

tegic framework for product policy and othersustainable practices. In Green Goods, editedby E. Rydén and J. Strahl.Kretsloppsdelegationens rapport 1995:5.Stockholm.

Frosch, R. and N. Gallopoulos (1989). Strate-gies for Manufacturing. Scientific American.261 (3): 94 - 102.

Giddens, A. 1984. The constitution of society.Berkeley, CA, University of California Press

Graedel, T. and Allenby, B. 1995. Industrial Ecol-ogy, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,USA

Do Local Decision-Makers Ask forSubstance Flow Analysis?

Annica Lindqvist and Mats Eklund

Full paper available: No

The framework of Industrial Ecology includesseveral tools (e.g. Material flow analysis (MFA),Substance flow analysis (SFA), Life CycleAnalysis (LCA), Design for Environment (DFE))that aim to be supportive to environmental deci-sion-making on different organisational levels,such as manufacturing companies, industrial net-works and authorities. Seen from this perspec-tive, this paper deals with the potential of SFA tobe supportive to environmental decision-makingin local authorities.

Being responsible for the overall planning ofe.g. waste-treatment and energy in the local ter-ritory, Swedish local authorities play a vital rolein management of different substance, materialand energy flows. Since this includes manage-ment of complex societal systems that incorpo-rates a large number of different actors such ascitizens, industries and municipal owned com-panies, they are most likely benefited from in-formation describing the overall interactions,both within these systems, and between the sys-tems and the environment. However, SFA, orother flow-oriented approaches, are not yet com-

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monly used as tools for strategic environmentaldecision-making in Swedish local authorities.Thus, one has to ask the question what informa-tion needs is actually identified for strategic en-vironmental decision-making by the local au-thorities, and does the tool of SFA respond tothese needs. Furthermore, another question is ifSFA generate an improved basis for decision-making as compared to traditional environmen-tal monitoring used in local authorities. If not,there is a risk of the methodology of SFA to be-come separated from the environmental decision-making process, and thus not supportive for thepolicy-makers.

The paper discusses results from interviewswith officers at the environmental administra-tions and politicians on the local level in threestructurally different municipalities in Sweden.With the aim of studying if there is a need forthe kind of information from flow-oriented stud-ies like SFA, the interviewees were asked abouti) their need for information about the environ-mental situation ii) their need for informationabout interactions between different actors in thesystem being managed iii) if they experience alack of information in environmental decision-making of the local authority iv) the informationthey required for prioritisation between differ-ent environmental issues etc. The results fromthe interviews are then compared to the resultsfrom previously performed SFA in these munici-palities and the concept of SFA as described inliterature.

Theory in Substance Flow Analysis

Integrating an Actor-Oriented Perspec-tive into Regional ResourceManagement

Susanne Kytzia, Mireille Faist, andPeter Baccini


In the last decades a variety of tools have beendeveloped to give an answer to the questionwhich environmental problems are associatedwith which economic activity (e.g. SubstanceFlow Analysis or Life Cycle Assessment). Yet,

they have failed to combine this investigationwith an analysis of the system’s economic driv-ing forces. This paper introduces a method tocombine both aspects in a joint analysis. It isbased on a Substance Flow Analysis, which in-vestigates material and energy flows in a func-tionally defined sub-system of a regionaleconomy. A study of economic aspects is in-cluded by additionally gathering data on moneyflows, which correspond to the flows of mate-rial or energy. The processes of material trans-formation, transportation and storage are definedand interpreted as social systems within theirinstitutional framework. The findings from bothmaterial, energy and money flow analyses arecombined in a classification scheme accordingto their economic or ecological relevance.

This method is applied on the food produc-tion and consumption chain. It reveals two areasof improvement: (a) animal production and de-rived products and (b) refrigerating/sub-zero stor-age and responsible products. Economic actorsin area (a) are very sensitive to changes becauseanimal production and derived products domi-nate agricultural production as well as sales vol-umes in the food sector. Resource managementstrategies in area (b) will get much less attentionif they focus on technological improvementsbecause costs for cooling installations are com-paratively low. But if the strategies focus on salesvolumes of refrigerated or deep frozen productsthe reaction of economic actors will be strongerbecause they are likely to expect a continuingmarket growth. Based on the first application inthe case study “food production and consump-tion” we conclude that our method is a first steptowards a joint analysis of economic, technicaland natural parameters in a material managementsystem. Further development will focus on themoney flow analysis and aims at a differentiatedanalysis which is more closely linked to eco-nomic theory.

Study on Development of Environmen-tal Indicators for Evaluation of OrganicResource Cycle System

Toru Matsumoto and Hidefumi Imura


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Economic development in Japan after WorldWar II has brought about a number of dramaticchanges in the lifestyle of the Japanese people inrelation to their dietary habits. These changeshave been associated with the changing produc-tion and consumption patterns of food, and havecaused significant changes to the organic re-source cycle. This paper attempts to discuss theenvironmental indicators that effectively repre-sent the present organic-matter resource cycle offood origin. For this, material flow and environ-mental load pertinent to the complete chain ofhuman activities related to food consumption andproduction are analyzed for the case of Fukuokacity, based on methodologies of Substance FlowAnalysis (SFA) and Life Cycle Assessment(LCA). Activities include the agricultural sec-tor, food processing industry, food distribution,equipment for food storage and preparation, foodservice, household activities of cooking and eat-ing, and management of the disposal and recy-cling of food and packaging waste. The param-eters that control the organic-matter resourcecycle were defined, and a sensitivity analysis ofthe environmental indicators at the time of in-troducing countermeasures was performed.

Indicators for Chemical Product Inputin Different Sectors: Possibilities toInclude Chemical Products in Environ-mental Accounts

Viveka Palm and Kristina Jonsson


Environmental accounting is a system de-signed to combine environmental and economicdata. Due to the complexity of chemical use, datacovering issues on toxicity are normally not in-cluded in the systems. We would like to suggestsome broad chemical product indicators, adaptedto fit into environmental accounting. They givea picture of the national consumption of chemi-cal products, divided between different branches.Depending on the choice of aggregation methodand system boundary the magnitude of hazard-ous chemical products in Sweden lies between30 and 40 million tonnes, approximately equiva-lent to 3 or 4 tonnes/ capita and year. Two differ-ent aggregation methods are chosen. The broad-

est method starts with the EU-classification ofinherent risks. The other method is based on thecompanies’ own risk labelling of products, ac-cording to the risk for chronic diseases. Majorhazardous chemical product groups are petro-leum based products with between 25 – 30 mil-lion tonnes per year, depending on method. Ma-jor groups are chemical products with cancero-genic and health hazardous properties, mainlypetrol and diesel.

GREAT-ER—A New Decision SupportTool for Management and Risk Assess-ment of Chemicals in River Basins—Potential Applications for the EU WaterFramework Directive

Diederik Schowanek andTom C.J. Feijtel


The GREAT-ER (Geo-referenced RegionalExposure Assessment Tool for European Rivers)project team has developed and validated an ac-curate aquatic chemical exposure prediction toolfor use within environmental risk assessmentschemes. The software system GREAT-ER 1.0calculates the distribution of predicted environ-mental concentrations (PECs) of consumerchemicals and industrial point sources in surfacewaters, for individual river stretches as well asfor entire catchments. The system uses an ARC/INFO - ArcView (TM-ESRI) based Geographi-cal Information System (GIS) for data storageand visualization, combined with simple math-ematical models for prediction of chemical fate.At present, the system contains information forfour catchments in Yorkshire, one catchment inItaly, one in Belgium and three in Germany, whileother river basins are being added. GREAT-ER1.0 is currently being expanded with models forthe terrestrial (diffuse input), air and estuarinecompartments to become a multi-environmentalGIS-based chemical exposure assessment tool.The paper will illustrate a number of applica-tions of the model in the context of chemical riskassessment and the EU Water Framework Direc-tive.

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Thermodynamics

Exergy, Emergy, and Life CycleAssessment

Bhavik R. Bakshi, Jorge L. Hau, andNandan U. Ukidwe


Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has emergedas an important tool for incorporating environ-mental considerations in engineering. It expandsthe scope of typical engineering decision mak-ing beyond the traditional process or equipmentscale to the global scale. Before LCA, many tech-niques have been developed for considering en-vironmental aspects of processes at the equip-ment and process scale. These techniques areuseful for pollution prevention and for enhanc-ing process efficiency, and include, exergy analy-sis, energy integration, mass exchange networks,and pinch technology. Like other engineeringmethods, these methods are based on sound prin-ciples of thermodynamics. In contrast, methodsfor analysis at a global scale such as, LCA lack athermodynamic framework. Although severalresearchers (Ayres et al., 1998; Connelly andKoshland, 1997) have identified the relevanceof thermodynamics to LCA and industrial ecol-ogy, a framework for thermodynamically basedanalysis at the global scale is still missing.

This presentation will propose a rigorous ther-modynamic framework for LCA and for includ-ing the contribution of ecological goods and ser-vices into engineering decision making. Theframework is based on combining the methodsof exergy analysis, emergy analysis and life cycleimpact assessment. Exergy analysis is a popularapproach for the analysis of individual equipmentand processes, and has also been suggested asan approach for quantifying resource consump-tion and the impact of emissions in LCA. How-ever, neither exergy analysis nor LCA accountfor the contribution of ecological products andservices that are essential for any activity. Emergyanalysis is another thermodynamic approachdeveloped and used mainly by systems ecolo-gists for analyzing ecosystems. Unlike exergyanalysis and LCA, it accounts for the contribu-tion of nature’s products and services such as,rain, wind, photosynthesis, soil, petroleum, etc.

However, emergy analysis does not consider theimpact of emissions.

This presentation will discuss the relationshipbetween exergy and emergy, and show that theyare complementary properties. It will be shownthat emergy is thermodynamically equivalent tothe cumulative exergy of consumption calculatedall the way to solar energy. Traditionally, exergyand cumulative exergy analysis consider all re-sources to be similar in terms of their ecologicalinvestment. Consequently, these methods do notconsider the ecological services required to cre-ate different natural resources. Emergy analysisshows that this assumption is flawed, since theecological investment in making a resource suchas, coal can be significantly different from thatfor making limestone, wood or rain. Thus,emergy analysis can be used to extend exergyanalysis beyond the scale of artificial (man-made)processes, all the way to the basic sources ofenergy and their flow through the ecosystem. Theresulting approach can account for the fact thatthe ecological investment in natural resources canvary significantly. The relationship between ter-minology used in emergy and exergy analysissuch as, transformity and cumulative degree ofperfection will also be clarified. Establishing thislink between exergy and emergy analysis allowsthe expansion of exergy based engineering ap-proaches to include ecological products and ser-vices. The resulting analysis is more completethan that by existing methods, since it accountsfor all the hidden flows or externalities.

A thermodynamic framework for LCA can-not be complete without thermodynamic meth-ods for assessing the impact of emissions. Froma thermodynamic point of view, the impact ofemissions may be measured by the emergy re-quired to absorb the impact or the exergy loss ofthe impacted system. For example, the impactof acid rain may be measured in terms of theemergy of the trees, forest, lakes, and organismsthat are affected by the increase in acidity.

The practical challenges in implementing theproposed framework will be identified, and someapproaches for meeting the challenges will bepresented. Information about the exergy andemergy of inputs may be obtained from life cycleinventory databases or from economic input-out-put tables. Shortcomings of these approaches andbenefits of using materials flow analysis at a

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sectoral level will be discussed. For thermody-namic impact assessment, practical methods forconverting the results of an impact assessmentmethod such as, Ecoindicator-99, into corre-sponding emergy input will be presented. Finally,illustrative case studies based on the industrialchlor-alkali process, and the life cycle of soy-bean oil will demonstrate the synergy betweenexergy and emergy analysis, and the thermody-namic approach for impact assessment.

ReferencesAyres, R. U., Ayres, K., Martinas, L., Exergy,

waste accounting, and life-cycle analysis, En-ergy, 23, 355, 1998.

Connelly L., Koshland C. P., Two aspects of con-sumption: Using an energy-based measure ofdegradation to advance the theory and imple-mentation of industrial ecology

Resource Conservation and Recycling.19, 3, 199-217, 1997.

Entropy Production as a Measure forResource Use Applied to MetallurgicalProcesses.

Stefan Goessling


One of the main components of evaluatingindustrial processes according to their ecologi-cal impact is measuring their overall use of natu-ral resources. According to the second law ofthermodynamics, ‘use’ or ‘consumption’ is re-ally transformation of matter and energy to aphysically less useful state. The physical mea-sure for this transformation is the accompany-ing production of entropy. Therefore an obviousmeasure, although rarely used, for the resourceuse of a process is the associated entropy pro-duction.

When streams of matter and energy passthrough an industrial process, they are transferredto a number of output streams, at least one ofwhich is called a product. Considering a steady-state process, as are many industrial processes,the total entropy content of the output streamshas to be higher than that of the input streams.The difference, the produced entropy, is a directmeasure of how much the matter and energy

passing through the process have been degraded.Degradation is to be understood in its physicalmeaning as loss of the ability to perform work.Applying an entropy balance to the inventory ofany given process facilitates the calculation ofthe internal entropy production, thereby reduc-ing the large amount of data to a single numberproportional to the overall resource use. Whencomparing the entropy production of all stepswithin a process chain, one can pinpoint the lo-cation with highest resource use, indicating agood starting point for optimisation strategies.Comparing different process alternatives, one canidentify the one with lower resource use, indi-cating a lesser ecological impact.

The method of entropy balancing has beenapplied to case studies in the metallurgical sec-tor, namely primary and secondary copper pro-duction. The processes that have been studied inparticular were the flash smelter, the converter,the anode furnace and the electrolytic refinery.It could be shown that the main entropy produc-tion during the production of one ton of refinedcopper takes place in the flash smelting unit, fol-lowed by the converter.

Nevertheless, comparing the entropy produc-tion with the ‘service’ of the process at hand (i.e.the increase in copper concentration), it wasfound that the converter and the falsh smelteralso have the highest ‘entropic efficiency’. Onthe contrary, anode furnace and electrolytic re-finery contribute only little to the copper con-centration increase but have an entropy produc-tion of the same order of magnitude as the othertwo processes which makes them significantlyless efficient in the sense of overall resource use.Further investigating the main sources of entropyproduction resulted in the identification of pos-sible starting points for optimisation.

Other key examples, like space heating andenergy conversion, have been worked out. En-tropy balancing has been compared to similarapproaches which try to aggregate process in-ventories in order to yield a measure of resourceuse. These are cumulative energy consumption,the MIPS concept and exergy analysis. Compar-ing results with the complementary method ofexergy analysis yields good agreement.

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Thermodynamics Applied. Where?Why?

Gerard Hirs


In recent years thermodynamics has been ap-plied in a number of new fields leading to agreater societal impact. The paper gives a sur-vey of these new fields and the reasons why theseapplications are important. In addition it is shownthat the number of fields could be even greaterin the future and could lead to savings in humaneffort, use of land and water and of energy andnatural resources. Achieving these savings is acontribution to a sustainable society.

Entropy as a Quality Measure forIndustrial Metals Management

Helmut Rechberger


The objective of establishing material bal-ances is to better understand industrial metabo-lism and to provide a basis for decision makingin resource and environmental management. In-dustrial management of metals shows the follow-ing pattern: metals are extracted from ores andconcentrated, refined, and shaped through sev-eral process steps. The resulting semi-finishedproducts are used for the manufacturing and fab-rication of a multitude of goods and products.These goods are consumed, used, and installedin infrastructure. Once they become obsolete,materials can be recycled, disposed of, or hiber-nate in the infrastructure.

Statistical entropy (SE) is introduced as ametric to evaluate the contribution of each pro-cess (e.g., milling of ores) to the whole systems’(e.g., Europe) overall metal management. Gen-erally, SE is a tool to quantify the variance of adistribution of a property of any system. It canbe shown that a substance balance can be de-fined by the properties “mass-flows of materi-als” and “substance concentrations”. ApplyingSE to these properties yields a normalized met-ric in the range between [0,1], the relative statis-tical entropy (RSE). The RSE is zero (0) if the

system or process maximally concentrates theinvestigated substance. The RSE is unity (1) ifdilution or emission maximally dissipates thesubstance.

Today’s metal management is characterizedby the following RSE trends: Production of metalproducts with high purity (>99%) from ores (1-5%) decreases RSE-values from around 0.5 to<0.1. Manufacturing and fabrication of consumergoods increase entropy. Depending on the usepattern of the metal this increase can be moder-ate to high (0.2<RSE<0.4). Installing goods inthe infrastructure results in another entropy in-crease (0.4<RSE<0.6). Waste management canreduce the entropy again by concentrating met-als. It is shown that today this is not efficientsince recycling rates could be higher. However,even the contribution of an optimized wastemanagement is limited. This is due to the factthat the still growing stock in the infrastructureserves as a buffer for waste management. Oncethe residence time of the stock has expired wastemanagement will have to accept greater amountsof wastes. Then an optimized system can reducethe RSE to levels below 0.2.

The overall trend in the RSE from ore extrac-tion to landfilling of wastes varies among differ-ent metals. First results indicate that coppershows a decreasing trend across its life cycle andmay serve as a model for future metals manage-ment. On the other hand zinc clearly shows anincreasing trend marking non-sustainable man-agement. This is mainly due to dissipative useof zinc in products (chemicals, pharmaceuticals,etc.) and galvanizing of steel. Also emissionsfrom galvanized products have the potential toincrease entropy significantly.

Statistical entropy reinforces a better under-standing of industrial metabolism. Material bal-ances of complex systems are quantified by asingle metric. Hence scenarios and alternativescan be easily compared. In combination withother criteria optimized systems can be designed.The results show that entropy is a useful and ac-curate indicator for the quality of substance man-agement by any system.

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Theory in Corporate Integration

Environmental Communication ofJapanese Industry

Midori Aoyagi-Usui


We investigated the Environmental commu-nication strategies of Japanese industry. Our re-spondents are Japanese companies, who pub-lished or planned to publish “The environmen-tal report”. We focus on the relationship betweenstakeholders’ response and changing strategiesof companies’ environmental information disclo-sure. We found the companies who received ob-jections from stakeholders about their environ-mental countermeasures are more likely to dis-close their environmental information.

Organisational Challenges to IndustrialEcology—A Comparative Analysis ofThree Companies’ Efforts to DevelopEnvironmentally Responsible CorporateCultures

Thomas Dahl, Øivind Hagen and StigLarssæther


The concept of Industrial Ecology representsa holistic view on industrial systems’ impact onthe environment. At the same time there seemsto be a trend in industry to expand the systemborders of production units and to view each unitas a part of a bigger value chain.

This paper presents a study of three manu-facturing companies’ efforts to develop their pro-duction-processes and marketing in line withprinciples of industrial ecology. The companiesrepresent a variety of product spectres and havetheir factories and sales offices in several coun-tries, mostly Europe, but also the US. All havetheir main quarters in Norway.

The companies have been concerned withfinding methods for recycling and to integratetheir products into larger recycling loops. Whiletechnical solutions to problems in some of therecycling systems can easily be found, it seems

more difficult to work with the organisationalissues connected to introducing industrial ecol-ogy. One major challenge for all three compa-nies has been to include proactive environmen-tal thinking in production processes and strate-gic actions. Handling environmental aspects isin general not seen as the core activity, and isoften regarded as an extra burden instead of abusiness opportunity. One explanation is that thereward systems of the companies are not stimu-lating environmental thinking to the extent nec-essary in order to compete with other pressinginterests. This might be a symptom indicatingthat green issues have not been integrated intothe deeper levels of the organisational culture,although the environment holds a rather centralposition in the images these companies projectto their markets. Our findings also indicate thatwe in all three companies find internal forces withslightly different value systems and strongerambitions towards a proactive environmentalstrategy than the dominating positions. The ac-tual environmental performance of the compa-nies can thus be seen as the result of an ongoingnegotiation between different meanings on corecompetence and strategic importance of environ-mental issues in product development and mar-ket communication.

Innovation Strategies – Impacts onEconomic, Ecological and Social Co-Management

Raimund Schwendner


This paper will be dealing with the integra-tion of technological and organizational innova-tion strategies, creating a variety of processes,instruments and quality criteria for economic,ecological and social co-development. Thesestrategies are expected to meet sharp manage-ment requirements for effective system integra-tion and mutual learning. They have to supportboth human resource and organizational devel-opment.

As a counterpart to incremental co-evolution,the co-management of economic, ecological andsocial development has to create and speed up

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“triple-win-strategies“. They are designed to addhigh level value to economic development andto serve ecological and cultural diversity as well.This will affect a number of issues:1) Evaluation of Economic Perspectives:

a) Comprehense “innovation-based value“and “sustainable quality“

b) Redesign reward systems within peergroups and organizational networks

c) Master heterogeneous problem solvingstrategies

2) Process of Ecological-Economic Goal Set-ting:a) Analyse multi-focal effectors, indicators,

ambiguous factors and meta factorsb) Implement mutual learning and negotia-

tion strategiesc) Initiate interactive paradigm management

on both regional and organizational levels3) Leadership capabilities:

a) Improve integrated leadership within or-ganizational networks

b) Redesign network information and com-munication

c) Link shareholder-, stakeholder- and sus-tainable value management

Interactive innovation strategies are helpfulto establish and link both economic and ecologi-cal sustainability, coping with a variety of socialchallenges. As a model, this may be helpful toimprove economic, ecological and social co-de-velopment in general.

The paper will offer a variety of analyticaland methodological procedures such as effectoranalysis, mutual value analysis, interactive sce-nario learning and multi-project management. Tomeet the challenge of comprehensivesustainability, such instruments have to beadapted to technological, organizational and re-gional utilization. They are useful to amalgam-ate many-sided efforts of co-development. Inorder to gain excellent results, this approach willinvolve different styles of creativity and prob-lem solving strategies. This includes corporateas well as customer oriented coaching and net-work-based „self-controlling“. Further more, the“trilogy of capability“ will be of crucial impor-tance, including1) the evaluation of relevant criteria which are

associated with the subtext (meaning), con-

text (circumstances) and supratext(transformability) of innovation strategies,

2) initiative management, and3) preventive risk and conflict management.

Theory in Life Cycle Assessment

Towards a More Credible Handling ofEnvironmental Values in LCA Studies.

Magnus Bengtsson


In many life cycle studies, impact assessmentmethods that include weighting between envi-ronmental issues are used to make sense of theresults of the inventory analysis. The way inwhich this value laden element of LCA is handledcan be important for the credibility of the con-clusions drawn, especially when these are com-municated to people who have not been involvedin the life cycle study in question. The presentresearch study can be seen as a test of how theresults of some existing and widely used LCAweighting methods are received by differentkinds of actors (e.g. people working for envi-ronmental authorities, industrial companies,NGOs and fund managers). The research ap-proach is qualitative: reactions and discussionsof weighting and weighting methods are recordedthrough group interviews. Issues dealt with in-clude: the acceptance for weighting of differentenvironmental changes as such, the parametersincluded in (and not included in) different meth-ods, the underlying principle of the methods,the outcome of different methods when these areapplied to product cases. Statistical significanceis not the aim of this kind of studies. The pur-pose is rather to investigate whether qualitativelydifferent “logics,” i.e. ways of thinking and rea-soning about environmental weighting, can bediscerned. Knowledge of such mental or culturalpatterns is important when life cycle studies arecarried out and when results are communicatedto various actors. Hence, the study is expectedto give enhanced understanding of how weight-ing can be handled in a more credible manner inlife cycle studies. These results will be usefulboth for further methods development, for the

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work of LCA practitioners and for the variousaudiences for LCA results.

Life Cycle Activity Analysis: An Opti-mizing Approach to Industrial Ecology

Fausto Freire and Sten Thore


Life Cycle Activity Analysis (LCAA); a math-ematical programming decision support modelfor the optimization of the entire life cycle ofproducts; is presented. LCAA is a new tool forthe mapping of hierarchical production and re-covery chains, their impact on the environment,and for a holistic evaluation of new technolo-gies, environmental strategies or policies. LCAAinvolves three successive stages of analysis: i) adescription of all participating activities (process-ing, transport, use, recovery) as a product trav-els from its “cradle” to its “grave”, including theinventory of ancillary materials and energy sup-plied to each activity, economic costs and envi-ronmental burdens; ii) the formulation and nu-merical solution of a linear or nonlinear math-ematical programming model and iii) the evalu-ation of a set of environmental scenarios of in-terest to policy-makers or stake-holders.

The application of LCAA is illustrated usingcase studies brought from the Portuguese andEuropean market for bottles, tires and plasticcomponents. The potential of LCAA, the typeof problems to be addressed, and its relevance toenvironmental policy in the context of industrialecology are further explored.

Risk Trade-off Analysis of Demand-sideManagement: Combining Life-CycleAssessment and Risk Assessment

Yurika Nishioka, Jonathan I. Levy,Gregory A. Norris, Andrew Wilson,Patrick Hofstetter, andJohn D. Spengler


Increased residential insulation can potentiallyprovide environmental and public health benefits,

given reduced emissions from power plants andresidential fuel combustion. Quantification ofthese benefits could assist in developing energycodes that are socially optimal, considering botheconomic and environmental endpoints. Withinthis study, we construct a combined life cycleassessment and risk assessment, with the goal ofestimating the public health benefits of increas-ing residential insulation for new housing fromcurrent practice to the latest International EnergyConservation Code. We model state-by-state resi-dential energy savings and evaluate particulatematter (PM2.5), NOx, and SO2 emission reduc-tions. To estimate public health benefits, we useregional dispersion models coupled with expo-sure efficiency concepts to estimate exposure. Wedetermine concentration-response functions forpremature mortality and selected morbidity out-comes using current epidemiological knowledgeof effects of PM2.5 (primary and secondary). Ouranalysis of the population risks associated withthe reduced end-use energy consumption showsthat the concentration reduction of air pollutantsis not necessarily proportional to the health ben-efits. One unit of pollutant concentration reduc-tion is more effective in reducing health effectsin areas that are more densely populated thanwhere there is less population density. As the nextstep, in order to assess the net benefits of thispolicy decision, we consider three impact path-ways in addition to the population risk reductionfrom the reduced end-use energy consumption;(1) a decrease in the processing of fuel sources,leading to a decrease in population and workerexposure to air pollutants from the upstream pro-cess chains of fuel source processing activities;(2) an increase in the processing of insulation,leading to an increase in population and workerexposure to air pollutants from the upstream pro-cess chains of insulation manufacturing activi-ties; and (3) changes in indoor quality associ-ated with increased insulation in the buildingenvelope, leading to changes in exposure of oc-cupants to indoor pollutants. For the analysis ofpopulation risks associated with the upstreamimpact pathways, we propose combining eco-nomic input-output LCA with exposure effi-ciency concepts to estimate population risks.Economic input-output LCA may be comple-mented by information from the process-basedLCA to disaggregate sectors into sub-sectors that

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produce more specific commodities. For the cal-culation of risks to workers, we propose usingindustrial injury and fatality statistics within theinput-output LCA for the short-term occupationalhealth effects. For the long-term health effectsto workers and home occupants, we propose us-ing epidemiological studies and estimates of pro-duction changes to estimate risks. By aggregat-ing the health endpoints of each impact pathwayin terms of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs)and the monetized values, these public healthbenefits are compared with the cost implicationsfor homeowners (i.e., installation and operatingcosts) to determine the influence of external costson benefit-cost calculations.

Spatial Economics

The Evolution of Industrial SymbioticNetworks - The Case of Kalundborg

Noel Brings Jacobsen andStefan Anderberg


The concept of “industrial symbiosis” hasduring the last decade attracted increasing atten-tion in many countries in all parts of the world.The eco-industrial park in Kalundborg is one ofthe most internationally well-known examplesof a local network for exchanging waste prod-ucts between industrial producers. It is an ex-ample of a spontaneous network, which haveevolved over a period of several decades. Inspiredby network theory, this paper presents an analy-sis of the evolution of the Kalundborg symbio-sis and discusses what can be learned from thiscase, that is of general value for the realizationof local industrial-symbiotic networks. The aimis to improve the understanding of the complexlocal development dynamics behind industrialsymbiotic networks. The analysis includes physi-cal preconditions and possibilities as well localeconomic and environmental effects of the real-izations, but focusses particularly here on iden-tifying central mechanisms, including techno-logical, institutional, organizational, economicand mental elements, behind the development ofthe symbiotic network of Kalundborg. A frame-

work for different mechanisms, which both shapeopportunities and create barriers to the develop-ment of industrial symbiosis will be presentedand discussed. Even if the Kalundborg symbio-sis in many respects is quite particular, insightsin this case should definitely be able to contrib-ute with new dimensions to the planning of eco-industrial parks.

Self-organization, Cooperation andIndustrial Symbiosis

Marco A. Janssen and Frank Boons


Industrial symbiosis engages separate indus-tries in a collective approach to competitive ad-vantage involving physical exchange of materi-als, energy, water and/or by-products (Chertow,2000). The concept of industrial symbiosis isinspired from concrete realizations of eco-indus-trial parks, such as in Kalundborg, Denmark. Thefew examples of success have been evolved spon-taneously. In various countries governmentalpolicy is focuses on creating industrial symbio-sis. However, these policies fail to stimulate re-quired long-term cooperation between firms. Inthis paper we will try to understand why currentpolicies are doomed to fail. To address this ques-tion we will discuss recent concepts on self-or-ganization and cooperation. This will provideinsights under which conditions cooperation canemerge and persist. Furthermore, by translatingthese insights to industrial parks can extract sug-gestions for improving policy.

Waste Management Policies: An Ap-plied General Equilibrium Analysis

Heleen Bartelings, Ekko C. van Ierland,and Rob Dellink


Current waste management policies are notsufficient to obtain a significant reduction inwaste generation of both industries and house-holds. Waste generation is too high due to cer-tain characteristics of the waste market, for in-stance flat assessment pricing for treatment of

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solid waste and regulations that indirectly pro-mote the use of virgin materials in the wastemarket. This paper presents an empirical model-ing analysis of the efficiency of current wastemanagement policies and calculates the socialcosts of waste generation. The goal of this paperis to show that social costs of waste managementare inefficiently high and that these costs can bereduced by changing certain characteristics in thewaste market.

An applied general equilibrium model is de-veloped to simulate the waste market. The modeldescribes a national economy with three (ordi-nary) production sectors, an extraction sector, arecycling sector, a municipality as collector ofsolid waste, three waste treatment sectors (i.e.composting, incineration and landfilling) and twoconsumer sectors. Some attention will be givento the spatial aspects of waste treatment by in-troducing transportation costs for transportingwaste from the municipality to the waste treat-ment sector. The model is applied on the wastemarket in The Netherlands. The results show thatthe specific characteristics of the waste marketcause a sub-optimal level of waste generation andhence significantly higher social costs for wastetreatment.

Recycling, International Trade and theEnvironment: An Empirical Analysis

Pieter J.H. van Beukering


Over the last decades of the 20th century a largenumber of countries have experiences a substan-tial increase in materials recycling. During thesame period, the international trade of recyclablematerials between developed countries and de-veloping countries has grown as well. A specifictrade pattern gas emerged: waste materials re-covered in developing countries are exported todeveloping countries for recycling.

This contribution will discuss the economicand environmental significance of the simulta-neous increase in trade and recycling of recy-clable materials.

Technical Program II

Social Framework II

The Social and Political Context ofIndustrial Ecology: Extrapolations onthe Theory of Ecological Modernization

Maurie J. Cohen


The social and political theory of ecologicalmodernization seeks to situate industrial ecologyand current developments pertaining to thesphere of social-environmental reform within abroader social scientific context. Theorists havesought to use ecological modernization to un-derstand new political configurations movingenvironmental policymaking away from conven-tional reactive command-and-control regulatorymeasures toward proactive engagement and afuller appreciation of notions of sustainability.During most of the past decade researchers havefocussed their attention primarily on the politi-cal and economic realignments that will be nec-essary to facilitate ecological modernity and morecomplete acceptance of the principles of indus-trial ecology. This paper will provide a histori-cal overview of the theory of ecological mod-ernization and highlight recent attempts to ad-dress the cultural underpinnings that are likelyprerequisites for the enthusiastic embrace of in-dustrial ecology and its allied fields.

Ecological Modernisation

Yasuhiko Hotta


Along the development of environmental poli-tics school in 1990s, environmental political dis-course of Ecological Modernisation has becomeone of the most important focuses of study ofenvironmental politics in industrialised society.Ecological Modernisation represents the idea thateconomic growth and environmental protectionare essentially complementary (J. Dryzek, ”ThePolitics of the Earth”, Oxford: Oxford, 1997: 15).And environmental problems are considered as

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opportunities rather than troubles to a restruc-turing of the capitalist political economy alongmore environmentally sound lines (ibid.: 141).From this point of view, industrial ecology is anexpression of Ecological Modernisation whosemain focus is on restructuring of industrial sys-tem.

This paper tries to situate concept of indus-trial ecology in ecological modernisation dis-course. At the same time, this paper argues thatecological modernisation initiatives includingindustrial ecology promotes the idea of eco-effi-ciency and voluntary regulation to encourage theactive participation from private industrial sec-tor in environmental policy making. These ini-tiatives have a very similar character promotedtransnationally. Domestic environmental initia-tives are incorporated with transnational envi-ronmental initiatives. This trend represents alegitimisation process of shift of private indus-trial and corporate sector into playing a signifi-cant role in a transnational political arena. Thispaper emphasizes the significant role of thislegitimisation process by transnational discoursecoalitions among international organizations,private business entities, network of academia,national agencies and NGOs in transnationalenvironmental policy making.

Material Culture – A Critical MissingDimension in Industrial Ecology

Chris Ryan

From the framework of Industrial Ecology thecritical (and productive) points to intervene inthe current industrial eco-system seem clear. Inthe author’s research institution, four approachesto changing current systems of production andconsumption have been identified. These ap-proaches do not define new systems, they reflecta mix of pragmatic and theoretical/conceptualstarting points for system change. These ap-proaches raise important questions about theconceptualisation of the ‘system’ which is thesubject of analysis and action. This is particu-larly clear when it comes to the issue of con-sumption and most evident in those approacheswhich seek to significantly reduce material flowsby ‘dematerialisation’ (‘servicisation’ etc). It isapparent that the ‘system’ cannot be adequately

described in terms of technical, material, logis-tic and economic aspects. The value of materialthings, as one aspect of the system which sig-nificantly affects the consumption of productscannot effectively be reduced to attributes offunction, cost, availability, material flow. Thevalue of things incorporates aspects of humanbehaviour and perception, opening up whateconomists like to portray as the irrational withinthe system. Attempts to deal with real systemschange have to engage with complex issues ofwhy things are consumed, invariably leading toa search for ‘underlying’ causes and the all tooeasy simplification of ascribing outcomes to bio-physical ‘needs’, or manipulated ‘wants’, or dis-placed ‘desires’. This paper will examine somecharacteristic examples of such thinking encoun-tered in the context of approaches to systemschange. It proposes a broad framework to buildup knowledge in this critical area, bringing to-gether work in a number of areas/disciplinesaround a new ‘field’ referred to as Material Cul-ture, building on work from design studies.

Postindustrial Ecology

Gregory Unruh

Successful industrial ecology experiments andpublic policy efforts are creating interconnectedtechnological systems that minimize currentlyrecognized environmental disutilities. This pa-per argues, however, that combined institutionalframeworks and technological systems are sub-ject to numerous sources of “irreversibility”which can lock-in these systems for extendedperiods of time. Designers of industrial ecosys-tems naturally focus on solving current problemsand, because of the complexity of the naturalworld, are largely unaware of potential futureproblems these systems may create. There arenumerous historic examples of technological“solutions” that solve one environmental prob-lem only to create another: the automobile as theturn-of the-century solution to horse wastes be-ing an infamous example. Recognition of thistendency requires industrial ecologists and policymakers to design evolution, both technologicaland institutional, into their industrial ecosystemsand policies.

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Corporate Integration in Practice

“Resource Management” (RM)Contracting

Paul Ligon and Tom Votta


Contracts are pervasive in the solid waste fieldand directly influence the way in which approxi-mately two-thirds of the US waste stream is man-aged. In addition to municipal solid waste, hun-dreds of millions of tons of construction anddemolition, nonhazardous industrial waste, andhazardous wastes are managed through contrac-tual arrangements. Although widespread, con-tractual relationships have generally not beenviewed as a mechanism for advancing pollutionprevention or “resource efficiency.” An emerg-ing concept called “resource management” (RM)contracting seeks to address this issue.

Typical organizational disposal contracts sendexactly the wrong economic signal to waste man-agement contractors: more waste equals moreprofit. RM contracts cap disposal compensationand provide direct financial incentives to con-tractors that identify and implement cost-effec-tive, resource efficient source reduction and re-covery options. Thus, if a contractor identifiesnew or improved markets for disposed materi-als, or options for preventing waste altogether,they receive a portion of the savings resultingfrom the innovation. This arrangement enhancesrecovery of readily recyclable materials such ascorrugated cardboard and wood pallets, whileproducing tangible source reduction and marketdevelopment for difficult to recover materialssuch as paint sludge and solvents.

The concept of using contractual relationshipsto reduce, not just handle, waste is a novel ideathat is attracting increasing attention in both in-dustry and government. The General Motors(GM) corporation, for example, a leader in thedevelopment and use of RM contracting, has re-alized substantial benefits as a result of RM con-tracting. One year after implementing RM con-tracts at most of its North American Plants, GMrealized a 20% reduction in overall waste gen-eration (30,000 tons), a 65% increase in recy-cling (from 50,000 tons to over 82,000 tons), anda 30% decrease in waste management costs. To-

tal disposal at GM plants that have implementedRM to date has declined by more 50% as a resultof RM contracting. Similar results are expectedat other Midwest organizations that are pursuingdevelopment of RM contracts, including the Cityof Omaha, ConAgra, Inc., West Des MoinesSchool District, and various others. Based on thisexperience.

By changing the ways in which organizationsdemand and incentivize integrated waste man-agement services, RM has the potential to trans-form the waste disposal industry into an indus-try that profits from mutually beneficial resourceefficiency gains, rather than ever increasing quan-tities of waste. Widespread diffusion of RMpromises to be one of the single most importantdrivers to source reduction, recycling, and recov-ery in the next decade.

The proposed presentation will address RMcontracting practices and present RM results andtechniques from diverse demonstration organi-zations throughout the nation that are participat-ing in the Tellus Institute’s national initiative toadvance RM contracting.

Environmental-Economic Supply ChainManagement of Suppliers, ContractManufacturers and Recyclers: The BigChallenge of an Original EquipmentManufacturer (OEM)

Menno Nagel


The supply chain of an OEM contains muchdiversity. It contains semiconductors, printedboards etc., but also recyclers and contract manu-facturers. The life cycle of products contains theComponent Realization Process (CRP), ProductRealization Process (PRP), Product Use Process(PUP) and Product End-of-Life Process (PEP).From a supply chain approach the CRP is man-aged with global applicable Environmental Per-formance Tools, which generate a performanceper supplier. Based on the performance suppli-ers can be ranked, compared, classified etc. anda proposed price reduction can be derived. Thelinkage and balance between a bad performanceand a big proposed price reduction and vice versais the environmental-economic cornerstone in

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suppliers’ negotiations. This linkage transfersenvironmental quality into the scope of Total Costof Ownership (TCO). In this scope the result ofa worldwide assessment of 25 printed board pro-duction facilities will be shown. Currently, theOEMs are outsourcing the product assembly tocontract manufacturers. The contract manufac-turers are a part of the PRP and should be man-aged from a supply chain approach. They areservice providers to the OEM. For the owningof the service the TCO-elements as product qual-ity, delivery and price have been integrated intothe negotiations, but not the environmental per-formance of the assembly site. Other service pro-viders are recyclers, which are a part of the PEPshould be managed as well. For the owning ofthis service the TCO-elements as product mass,the material content and price are a part of thenegotiations, but not the environmental perfor-mance of the recycler itself. In both supply chainsthe ranking, comparison etc. from an environ-mental perspective and the linkage to proposedprice reductions is not investigated. This prob-lem is researched from the experience in the CRPsupply chain. This paper will outline the newchallenges from a strategic view.

STABIS—An Integrated EnvironmentalManagement Tool

Alfred Posch


Environmental management is no longer avoluntary minor matter but is rather becoming acritical executive function. Although many or-ganizations have already implemented an envi-ronmental management system (EMS) accord-ing to international standards, in particular theISO 14000 series and the EMAS regulation, theintegration of the EMS in their conventionalmanagerial decision support systems is usuallylacking. However, focussing only on monetaryobjectives can easily lead to negative environ-mental impact while actions concentrating ex-clusively on sustainability may lack acceptancebecause of high costs or other negative economicconsequences. In order to make economicallyand ecologically efficient decisions a commondatabase is necessary. This is the starting-point

of our R&D-project STABIS. STABIS stands forthe German term “Stoffstromanalyse-,Bewertungs- und InformationsSystem”. Thismeans that an integrated managerial informationsystem based on the analysis of material flowsas well as on the economic and ecological as-sessment of clearly defined systems is to be de-veloped. The objective of STABIS is to providea tool that enables industry to achieve a holisticknowledge-based environmental managementapproach. First questions concerning the overallvision and mission, the environmental objectivesand targets of the company, existing legal andother requirements and restrictions, need to beanswered. On the basis of this first analysis acustomized configuration of STABIS can be un-dertaken. A core function of this tool is to analysetechnical-physical as well as economic data ofidentified critical processes or materials. It is cru-cial that STABIS must not be a stand alone solu-tion.

Hence, data-gathering has to start in the ex-isting enterprise-resource-planning system (ERP)of the specific organization. Only data that is notcontained in the ERP has to be provided addi-tionally, e.g. by manual data-entry or other ex-isting stand alone applications. Data redundancyin different information systems within the sameorganization should thus be avoided, data integ-rity and compatibility reached.

Concerning the possibilities for data-retrieval,the user interface has to support changing de-mands without requiring modification of the en-vironmental management tool. The database ofSTABIS has to be edited and processed in a waythat different levels of analytical detail can eas-ily be required. While top management is likelyto prefer highly aggregated information lowermanagement levels might have more detailedoutput needs.

The most critical success factor of develop-ing STABIS is the transformation of the envi-ronmental targets into a comprehensive set ofperformance measures that provides the frame-work for a continual environmental evaluationof the organisation’s activities. Since STABISclaims to be an integrated environmental man-agement tool it is crucial to combine environ-mental and economic performance measures ina way that provides decision makers with an ap-propriate set of measures.

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This integration in existing management in-formation and decision support systems dependsstrongly on the tools applied in the specific or-ganization and can be reached for example byextending any existing Balanced Scorecard Man-agement Program (Kaplan/Norton) or as part ofso-called benchmarking activities.

Case Study: “Green” Construction andEnvironmental Management SystemImplementation at a Small Parts Manu-facturing Facility Using the Concepts ofIndustrial Ecology

James Russell and Walter H. Peters


During the last 400 years, human knowledgeand the concurrent use of power have developedexponentially. The fruits of this labor can besummed up as modern life and modern conve-niences in the developed world. However, theseconveniences have come at a cost. Human sys-tems have grown so large that they are at risk ofoverwhelming the biological systems in whichthey are embedded. As scientific knowledge andunderstanding has increased, the realization thatthe earth is a complex system full of interactionsand interrelationships among the biota, land, at-mosphere, and oceans has developed along withthe realization that human activities are inti-mately tied into these systems. Even though theyplay an ever-increasing role in earth systems,human activities are currently not coordinatedwith or integrated into earth systems in a coher-ent manner. This research intends to explore theinteractions between industrial activities (includ-ing the built environment and manufacturingactivities) and earth systems in order to devisedecision-making and design methodologies thathelp create solutions which bring industrial ac-tivity into coherence with earth systems.

This case study describes the process includ-ing necessary requirements and major problemsassociated with constructing and operating asmall parts manufacturing facility in the mid-lands of South Carolina using the concepts ofindustrial ecology. Major areas of discussion in-clude:

• Facility Siting• Facility Design• Facility Construction• Environmental Management System Imple-

mentation• Input output analysis using IE concepts• Identifying aspects and impacts using IE con-

cepts• Setting and carrying out goals

Modeling

Substance Flow Normalisation

Anders Grimvall and Erik Löfving


Substance flow analyses are normally carriedout to detect or elucidate long-term trends in thehuman impact on the environment. However, thedata collected for such purposes can be stronglyinfluenced by short- and medium-term fluctua-tions. Temporal variation in weather conditionscan cause spurious trends in substance fluxes inthe natural environment, and production and con-sumption levels vary with the business cycles.This raises the question of how comparisons overtime or across populations can be facilitated bysome kind of data pre-treatment aimed at sup-pressing irrelevant variation. In several sciences,different types of normalization or standardiza-tion techniques have long been used. For ex-ample, there is a strong tradition of using indi-ces to suppress irrelevant variation in economictime series of data. In the environmental sciences,regression-based normalization techniques pre-dominate. Several authors have demonstratedthat a substantial part of the temporal fluctua-tions in the deposition of atmospheric pollutantscan be explained by variation in wind direction,temperature and the amount of precipitation. Afew scientists have normalized substance flowsin rivers to a given water discharge. In this paperwe first review the major principles of normal-izing time series of data, and then we discuss inwhat respects existing procedures need to bemodified to the meet the demands on such pro-cedures for the analysis of temporal trends insubstance flows. More precisely, we show that

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the normalization techniques used in economicsand the environmental sciences have a commontheoretical framework that can be given a simpleprobabilistic interpretation. Furthermore, we dis-cuss how normalization of substance flow datacan be accomplished without violating funda-mental mass balances. The methods proposed areillustrated with empirical data regarding nitro-gen fluxes in the biosphere and the technosphere.

MFA Modelling

Ruben Huele, Ester van der Voet, andRené Kleijn


The quantity of emissions from an economicsystem is determined by both the size of the flowsinvolved and by the technological infrastructurethrough which the materials are flowing. Emis-sions can be reduced either by volume basedpolicies (?), which reduce the size of the flows,or by transforming the technological infrastruc-ture, reducing the leakage from the system intothe environment. The distinction is reflected inthe mathematical representation of the techno-logical infrastructure as a Markov chain and theflows as an initial state of the system. The ap-proach assumes a dynamic model, for which thestatic model is a special case. By standard linearalgebra elegant measures can be derived to de-scribe the system.

Based on data from a simplified case of ni-trogen flows in the Netherlands, the method isillustrated.

Infrastructure Ecology

G.P.J. Dijkema, J.R. Ehrenfeld,E.V.Verhoef, and M.A. Reuter


Infrastructures represent a special class of in-tegrated complex systems. We conjecture thatdesign and management of infrastructures cangreatly benefit from the concepts developed byindustrial ecologists.

Industrial Ecology is a newly emerged multi-disciplinary discipline, which launch was marked

by the books of Allenby, Graedel and others. Itis seen by its advocates both as a mechanism tosupport sustainability in industry, and as a novelparadigm or toolkit that will help to establishintegrated complexes of industrial plants.

The ecology analogy not only involves com-plex structures, however, but also the concept ofsystems that incorporate mechanism that enableeffective response to a dynamic environment. In-deed, in a number of infrastructures a major con-cern is whether the relatively inflexible hardwarein the infrastructure sectors can be adequatelydesigned and managed to keep up with increas-ing external dynamics. Liberalisation, marketforces, shifting regulation and new business strat-egy models have initiated changes in the com-panies and public bodies that own parts of theseinfrastructures. At the same time vertical unbun-dling of integrated companies is in progress,whilst new forms of horizontal bundling emergethat lead to convergence of infrastructures. Percompany, production and service activity port-folios are being reshuffled, separated, demergedor outsourced. The new relationships establishedin the infrastructure sectors must been enabledby new and existing infrastructure hardware.

In our contribution, an overview is given onthe R&D into the application of Industrial Ecol-ogy to infrastructure analysis, design and man-agement that we label ‘Infrastructure Ecology’.The validity of the ecology analogy is tested fora number of important infrastructures. Some in-frastructure developments identified by using theInfrastructure Ecology analogy will be described.Finally, a set of issues to be addressed in Infra-structure Ecology will be formulated as elementsof a research agenda.

Ecology provides a rich source of inspirationfor the elucidation of man-made systems, andwe give examples of he analogies largely fall intothree classes.

1) the analogy in system structure between ourindustrial society and nature (eco)-systemsprovides a useful insight into the position ofinfrastructures in our industrial system

2) as an example in analogy of complex systemoperation we addressed different modes ofcompetition.

3) we addressed sustainability a desirable char-acteristic of ecosystems desirable for indus-trial systems

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As the body of knowledge of Ecology is vast,and the application to infrastructures appears tobe limited, it is to early for a research agenda,other than one that says: explore the body-of-knowledge of ecology. Notably the notion ofEvolutionary Ecology, and the concepts devel-oped therein appear promising for some Infra-structure Ecology, as extensive infrastructuresystems evolve, largely in response to the regu-latory and market conditions prevailing. Thus bylearning from the mechanisms and drivers ofevolution of populations and communities andtheir interrelationships we may be able to learnsomething useful to develop the proper condi-tions for stakeholders interaction that lead to sus-tainable infrastructure development.

MFA in National Economies I

Key Questions to MFA for NationalEconomies

Marina Fischer-Kowalski


For the first time now we are in the favourablesituation of seeing a large number of countriespresenting their “material flow accounts” on anational level, often for longer time series, doneon the basis of similar accounting methods. In-dicators like “direct material input” (DMI), “to-tal material requirement” (TMR), “domesticmaterial consumption” (DMC) and “domesticmaterial output” (DPO) have been calculated fora number of countries, and have been related topopulation numbers and economic performance.EUROSTAT, the European Statistical Office, hasrecently issued guidelines on how to calculatethese indicators, and OECD has established aworkgroup for a similar purpose. It is now hightime for the scientists involved in this field tocritically review their achievements, to see whatsubstantive, methodological and political lessonscan be learned from this broad spectrum of na-tional experiences.

My contribution shall serve as an introduc-tory framework to this series of panels on “bulkMFA”; this is why I will concentrate on posingquestions that should invite answers from the part

of the panelists, rather than attempting to givethese answers myself.1) In doing (bulk) material flow analysis for na-

tional economies, have we by now arrived atsound methods? Do national MFAs generatecomparable results? Where are the key weak-nesses of our methods? What are the most im-portant, and the most promising directions ofmethodological improvements?

2) Do we operate with adequate concepts andindicators? Do we properly understand theirmeaning? Do we position these conceptswithin appropriate frameworks? (Frameworkssuch as environmental impacts, green ac-counting, physical scale of economies, modesof subsistence and life styles, material inten-sity and efficiency…)

3) Do we, with the help of our basic model andour indicators, properly understand the dy-namics of socio-economic metabolism, anddo we understand ongoing change? Can wedeal with the role of technological change?Can we analyse problems of intragenerationalequity (such as North-South exchanges), andproblems of intergenerational equity? Ho welldo we understand the metabolic impact ofaffluence and economic growth, and how welldo we understand the impact of populationdynamics?Are we able to provide actors with an appro-

priate understanding of environmental risk andsustainability problems? What relevant interven-tion strategies are we able to propose, and towhich actors? What are the major problems weshould be able to contribute in finding solutions?

I shall confine myself to options, to pros andcons, how these questions could possibly be an-swered, and hope for the other panelists to pickup some of them and contribute their own an-swers.

The Role of MFA Indicators in the EUSustainable Development Strategy

Anton Steuer

Abstract unavailable

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Material Flow Analysis for the Euro-pean Union and Beyond —Implicationsfor Statistics and Policy

Stefan Bringezu,


The metabolism of the EU-15 was analyzedto provide indicators on the volume and compo-sition of total inputs and outputs, on the efficiencyof resource use, and the balance of inputs andoutputs was used to measure the physical growthof the economy. Three major results are of spe-cial concern for policy and future accountingpractices. (1) Resource requirements are increas-ingly being shifted to foreign regions which lim-its the value of pure (supra-)national accounts;the use of Direct Material Input (DMI) as a proxyfor Total Material Requirement (TMR) will bediscussed based on regression analysis. (2) Thereis a shift of outflows to the environment fromdeposition on land towards emission into the at-mosphere which reveals the limits of traditionalwaste accounting and policy. (3) The physicalgrowth of the technosphere represents an increas-ing threat to sustainability, and linkages are re-quired to land use accounts and management. Inall cases, results and interpretation critically de-pend on accounting conventions. Obstacles andpossibilities for improved international harmo-nization will be discussed.

Lessons from Japanese MFA

Yuichi Moriguchi


Japan highly depends on imported natural re-sources, which are often accompanied by envi-ronmental significance. Intensive import of tim-bers harvested from tropical rainforest has beena typical issue. Japan’s participation to anOECD’s pilot study on natural resource account-ing in the beginning of 1990s was driven by suchcontext. On the other hand, material flow analy-sis/accounting (MFA) was studied mainly to re-spond to the domestic issues of increasing solidwastes. A schematic chart describing Japan’smacroscopic material flow balance has been pub-lished on the annual ‘Quality of the Environment’

report, what we call ‘White Paper’ since its 1992edition. Dissemination of an English edition ofthe report created the opportunities for EuropeanMFA experts to involve Japan to internationalcollaborative efforts in this field.

The main focus of international joint MFAstudies, of which outcomes were published twiceby WRI, was put on the development of indica-tors and the comparison of their numbers/histori-cal trends. The results were disseminated tobroader Japanese audiences through anothermandated ‘White Paper’ on material cycles, ofwhich first edition was just published in the sum-mer 2001. A key phrase “mass-production, mass-consumption and mass-disposal” is often usedto characterize the society today with material-intensive production-consumption pattern andlife-style. The nation- wide MFA meets the needsto quantitatively describe the state of such situa-tion.

Beside this mainstream of the nation-wideMFA, there are considerable existing stock andfuture potential of other inter-related studies;those on environmentally extended economicinput-output analysis, emission inventories ofGreen house gases and other pollutants, wasteprevention and recycling indicators, consider-ation of ‘hidden flows (or ecological rucksacks)’within life-cycle assessment, and so on.

However, there still remain many issues to besolved. The most critical problem is data avail-ability; in particular, poor availability for esti-mating imported hidden flows. Institutional/sta-tistical backing for data gathering and compila-tion is not sufficient. To meet the policy needsfor MFA from waste prevention and recycling,many detailed technical issues have to be dis-cussed. Disaggregation of MFA by industrialsectors and by type of materials is another chal-lenging research subject, in order to link indica-tors and policy measures for improving environ-mental efficiency of industrial activities. If thisdisaggregation of MFA is made consistently witheconomic input-output tables, it will provide uswith further opportunity of integrated analysisof material cycles and the economy. We mayalso have to learn from the experiences of analo-gous studies at more microscopic levels, such asmaterial flow cost accounting at a corporate level,material flow analysis within the Zero-Emissioninitiative.

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Industrial Symbiosis I

Building Partnerships for SustainableDevelopment

Phillip E. Barnes


A model for symbiotic partnerships is builtthrough utilizing a geographic information sys-tem (GIS) database to design an ecological ap-proach to economic development. Based on anopen systems concept where organisms interactwith their environment and change according toexternal events or stimuli, planned economicdevelopment can be better controlled by utiliz-ing tools that provide organizational leaders withinformation to measure the influence of theseevents or stimuli on their ecosystems.

As living ecosystems, all organizations: gov-ernment, industry, NGOs, municipalities, inter-act in a dynamic environment. The organiza-tions feed, (input) produce waste (output) multi-ply (through expansion and growth) and die(mergers, takeovers, failing) Through sustainableplanning and partnerships, the organization, suchas an industrial site or company operating withina community, can utilize technologies tostrengthen partnership information flows, whichenhance sustainable growth and development.

The GIS database model presented in thispaper demonstrates the effectiveness of partner-ships in the development of waste exchanges,brownfield inventories, resource requirements,entrepreneurial development, and organizedcommunication flows. Shown on various scalesof networks, the database builds a foundation fordecision-making that will benefit economic de-velopment efforts within a defined area, e.g.,municipality, county, state, region, etc.

The GIS database model will accomplish threemain objectives for sustainable development ini-tiatives:1) Provide information necessary for proper sus-

tainable development planning within identi-fied areas

2) Enhance entrepreneurial activity in regard toabandon site redevelopment through businessincubators based on sustainable business de-sign

3) Establish networks intended to create a sym-

biosis effective, which will propagate the eco-logical benefits of partnership development

Sustainability in an Eco-Industrial Park

Jane Powell


Lifecycle assessment has traditionally beenused to determine the environmental impacts ofproducts, but there has been a move to expandthis concept to services such as waste manage-ment. This paper will examine if it is feasibleand appropriate to extend the LCA concept evenfurther to assess the environmental consequencesof an eco-industrial park. This will also involveconcepts such as eco-design, industrial ecologyand materials flow analysis.

An eco-industrial park is a group of indus-tries that seek to maximise their use of resourcesand minimise their impact on the environment.This is achieved through collaboration and in-ter-company partnering. In addition to theminimisation of individual uses of energy andmaterial resources, collaboration between thecompanies can lead to closed loops of materialand energy use. Where a particular waste streamdoes not have a re-use value it may be used as anenergy resource, recovering both heat and elec-tricity.

This paper will introduce a new EC fundedproject; to design an integrated industrial sys-tem for the optimisation of energy and materialsfor a new eco-industrial park in Langhe, North-ern Italy. The project includes the layout andbuilding design, the use of alternative buildingmaterials, the development of an integrated in-formation system, and the use of LCA and re-lated methodologies to establish the environmen-tal impacts resource and energy flows and thedesign of alternative technologies.

The main topic of this paper is if and howLCA, and other related techniques, can be usedin such a broad, holistic study. Can the variousassessment techniques be integrated and used todetermine if an eco-industrial park can truly meetthe mandate of sustainability?

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Building a New Eco-Park in SantaPerpètua de Mogoda (Catalonia)

Xavier Gabarrell Durany andTeresa Vicent Huguet


Industrial ecosystems are theoretically an at-tractive idea, although not many practical caseshave been developed. This communication con-siders the prerequisites to successfully transforma already existing industrial estate into anecopark. Santa Perpètua de Mogoda is a city lo-cated near Barcelona that has several industrialestates. In December 1998 the Municipality con-sidered the conversion of two of them (Can Rocaand Urvassa) into an ecopark. During two years,an interdisciplinary scientific group from theUAB has been preparing the strategic steps tofollow to achieve such change. The study hadtwo different parts: diagnosis and planning phase.In the diagnosis, a forum in which the firms par-ticipated, and the educational target actionsplayed an important role. At this moment, theelected politicians are evaluating the study todecide its total implementation.

Some of the characteristic of this industrialestates are: at the present moment more than 100enterprises are installed there; most of them haveless than 50 workers; the industrial sectors arediverse; there are no major firms; the coopera-tion and the knowledge among them are verypoor. So, at the beginning, it seems that these arenot the best one conditions to apply the indus-trial ecology.

The intention of this communication is topresent the methodology followed, the obstaclesfound, the relationships between the differentdecision-makers, and to show that industrial eco-logical principles can also be used with mediumand small enterprises.

Closing the Loop

System Modelling for Decision Supportin Industrial Ecology

Roland Clift, Warren Mellor, ElizabethWilliams, Adisa Azapagic, andGary Stevens


This paper will present a modelling approachdeveloped to inform decisions over the routingof materials through a sequence of different eco-nomic applications, over logistic systems for dis-tribution and collection, and hence over supply-chain relationships needed for the developmentof the Industrial Ecology. The modelling ap-proach – CHAin Management of Products:CHAMP – combines Life Cycle Assessment andProcess System Analysis. It has been developedin collaboration with a group of industrial com-panies representing all parts of the supply chainand potential industrial ecology for thermoplas-tic polymers, from polymer production throughdifferent products to end-of-first-life materialmanagement and recovery.

CHAMP has been formulated so that it ap-plies to individual materials, components andcomplete products. The properties of a materialat any point in the industrial ecology arecharacterised by a set of technical characteris-tics termed utilities. The elements of the utilityvector include intrinsic and extrinsic materialproperties such as (for polymers) impact strength,density and hardness. They also include geo-graphical location; this enables distribution andcollection to be included within the same over-all model framework as processing operations.Each activity within a system modelled usingCHAMP is described by the changes it bringsabout in the utility set of materials passingthrough the operation and by its costs of opera-tions and its environmental interventions or im-pacts. The environmental effects are treated ona life cycle basis by including the complete sup-ply chains of energy and materials used by theactivity.

Routing of materials through the networkmaking up the industrial ecology is controlledby acceptance gates which check whether a ma-

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terial is suitable for entry into any specific activ-ity or for routing to a possible subsequent activ-ity. Where the material properties are unaccept-able, it can be routed to another activity eitherby the investigator or automatically by the modelsoftware. In this way a full model of the pos-sible industrial ecology can be built up to inves-tigate, for example, alternative scenarios, the ef-fect of new processes or applications, andwhether specific processes or additives shut offpossible avenues for recovery and re-use.

The CHAMP methodology has been used bythe industrial participants, and has led to rede-sign of some products – and, in one case, devel-opment of a new product – and of a major logis-tics system for recovery and re-use of contain-ers. The combination of material processing andlogistics within a common framework has provedto be particularly valuable.

The approach is now being extended to themost widely-used metals. Essentially the sameframework is used, but with some differences dueto the longer service lives of metals in applica-tions other than packaging.

Evaluating Alternative Life-CycleStrategies for Electrical Appliances byWaste Input-Output Model

Shinichiro Nakamura andYasushi Kondo


Impacts of three alternative life-cycle strate-gies for electrical home appliances on economicactivity, waste emission, and landfill consump-tion are analyzed by use of the Waste Input Out-put Model (WIO) [1]. The WIO table (the data-base for WIO model) is an accounting systemthat integrates the conventional Economic Input-Output (EIO) table with the inter-sectoral flowof waste via emission, treatment, recycling, andfinal disposal. The current research is based on aWIO table for Japan for 1995 that comprises of80 industrial sectors, 30 waste types, and 3 wastetreatment processes. While the WIO model issimilar to the EIO model in many respects, theformer is fundamentally different from the latterin its observation of material balance of waste,and in the integration of engineering system

model of waste treatment. Using the WIO wecan evaluate impacts of alternative product life-cycle strategies on the emission of waste includ-ing carbon dioxide, landfill consumption, andeconomic activity such as sectoral output and em-ployment.

The first life-cycle strategy we consider is theopen loop “material recycling” of the type rep-resented by the home appliances recycling lawthat was put into effect in Japan this spring. Thesecond refers to “reuse” strategy where parts ofdiscarded appliance (plastics) are reused in themanufacturing of new appliances, subject to theimplementation of design for disassembly(DFD). The major difference between the twostrategies consists in the way recovered plasticsare used, and in the efficiency of disassemblingprocesses. Under the recycling strategy, the re-covered plastics are mixed and of law qualitywhich could be used as reduction agents in steelmaking, but not as materials for appliances. Thethird strategy is concerned with the extension ofproducts life by increased maintenance and up-dating efforts. We find that both the reuse andmaintenance & updating strategies outperformthe recycling strategy in terms of environmentalimpacts (carbon dioxide and landfill consump-tion), whereas the latter could have significantnegative impacts on the economy conditional onthe relationship between the reduction in the de-mand for new products and the increase in thedemand for maintenance service. Reuse turnedout to be effective in reducing both landfill con-sumption and CO2 emission without significantreverse effects on the economy.

References:1) Nakamura, Shinichiro: Input-Output Analy-

sis of Waste Cycles, First International Sym-posium on Environmentally Conscious De-sign and Inverse Manufacturing, Proceedings,IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, 1999,pp.475-480.

The Economics of Downcycling

Danilo Pelletiere


The downcycling of goods, materials and en-ergy from their highest to lowest use after pro-

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duction and prior to disposal is an important el-ement of industrial ecology. There appear to bemany instances where what no longer has valueto one consumer or process has value to another.It is the belief that such transfers can be carriedout economically as they occur in natural eco-systems that drives much of the research in in-dustrial ecology and related fields. What can eco-nomics tell us about downcycling? How doeseconomics explain why downcycling that mightappear “economical” does not occur? This pa-per will provide a basic review of the economicsof downcycling and how it might explain theapparent failure of economically efficient econo-mies to be resource efficient. The first part ofthe paper provides a treetops overview progress-ing from a discussion of how downcycling doesnot occur under orthodox economic assumptionsthrough the various types of market distortionsin which it might emerge, including transporta-tion costs, spatially heterogeneous factor distri-butions, imperfect information, the presence ofdistortionary policies, and fundamentally differ-ent perceptions of human behavior. The secondpart of the paper provides an illustration of howthese factors come into play in the internationaltrade in used automobiles. This paper is basedon on-going dissertation research.

Technical Program III

Education

Practical Experience in TeachingIndustrial Ecology to InternationalStudents at a European TechnologicalUniversity

Saul M. Lemkowitz, Geert H. Lameris,and Gijsbert Korevaar


Industrial Ecology has been taught annuallyat Delft University of Technology as a separate,introductory course since 1999. It is a small (2-3credit points) elective course given in English tointernational under- and graduate students using,as basic text, Industrial Ecology: Policy Frame-

work and Implementation, by B.R. Allenby(Prentice Hall, 1999). This is augmented as nec-essary by articles from journals, magazines, andnewspapers.

While Industrial Ecology has only been givenover the last three years, it is based on integra-tion of academic areas with a much longer de-velopment at Delft University. These include: riskanalysis; science, technology and society stud-ies (STS); didactics; and sustainable technology.The first three have been developing for 25 yearsor more at Delft. Risk analysis is largely techni-cal; STS-studies stress critical examination ofsocietal basics, like institutions and worldviews.Didactic studies stress good teaching methods.The last area, sustainable technology, goes backonly four years. While it also incorporates ele-ments of the first three areas, it concentrates onsustainable design - what this is and how toachieve it.

The organisation and content of the coursefollows largely from Allenby’s book. But, asnoted above, this is augmented firstly with lec-tures and literature critical to the concept of In-dustrial Ecology, or certain applications (e.g.Earth-scale engineering) and, secondly, by moredetailed literature when deemed necessary (e.g.external costs; risk; complexity). Important tonote is that, with the exception of some intro-ductory lectures, the students give the lecturesthemselves and direct the group activities persitting. Students wind up the course with a shortessay applying the principles of Industrial Ecol-ogy to a practical problem, like automotive trans-port. Student-teacher interaction is intense andoccurs largely as between equals.

We have good experience in teaching Indus-trial Ecology this way. Our engineering studentsfind the basic concepts of Industrial Ecology, aspresented by Allenby, easy to understand, eventhough they find the book challenging to read(being non-native speakers reading a book writ-ten by an American lawyer). More importantly,they become enthusiastic about their own studyby grasping that Industrial Ecology integratestheir technical discipline (e.g. chemical or civilengineering) into a ‘holistic’ approach for achiev-ing a more sustainable world - this without pre-senting a trivialised picture of technology as, initself, the great techno-saviour of humanity.

But problems remain. Chief amongst these is

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that while students find the principles easy tounderstand, applying them to a practical exampleis anything but simple. Good case studies wouldgreatly facilitate teaching.

Based on our experience, we discuss effec-tive and critical teaching of an introductorycourse on Industrial Ecology to university stu-dents from different engineering disciplines, in-cluding plans for improvement.

Industrial Ecology Curriculum atNTNU - An Interdisciplinary Approach

Martina Maria Keitsch


The Norwegian University of Science andTechnology is the second largest university inNorway with 18.000 students. For the main pro-file is technological higher education and re-search, NTNU intends, however, to be a univer-sity of technological and societal correspon-dence. Thus, particular programmes are dedi-cated to interactions between technology andnatural science on the one hand and humanitiesand social sciences on the other hand. The In-dustrial Ecology Programme is one of the mainconcepts to realise multi- and interdisciplinarityat NTNU. It started in 1993 supported by NorskHydro and in fellowship with MIT and was for-mally launched in August 1998, as a comprehen-sive and long-term interdisciplinary programme.

Characterising the industrial ecology curricu-lum and research at NTNU can be illustrated bysketching out two domains. The first called “eco-logical modernisation” concentrate on the microand meso level - it seeks to order and optimiseoperations on specific sectors like for exampleproduct design, product use, cleaner production,sustainable energy use, waste minimisation andenvironmental management. However, ecologi-cal modernisation marks not an isolated strategybut acts in a wider frame. It is influenced by ques-tions such as: “How to satisfy the needs of thepresent without depleting the achievement of theneeds of future generations?” The answers pointstraight to social issues, as companies and con-sumers actions and clearly implicate prescriptiveand normative dimensions instead of merelyempirical, technological or economical re-

sponses. Ecologically desirable transformationsmight cause material and as well as social con-flicts. To manage those difficulties “structuralecologisation” provides a corresponding plan toecological modernisation. It acts upon a macrolevel within fields like economy, sciences, poli-tics and education, bases on the idea to modifythe perceptions and the interpretations of envi-ronmental values in general, and works broadlyand enduringly problem preventing. The twodomains represent the fields of industrial ecol-ogy as well as industrial ecology invite research-ers to combine projects from natural sciences andtechnologies on one hand with projects fromhumanities and social sciences on the other.

Industrial Ecology is implemented on differ-ent education and research levels - from the be-ginners’ phase up to Ph.D. studies and Post-doc-toral inquiries. The PhD. Course: “IndustrialEcology - theoretical and methodological ap-proach to multi-disciplinary research” considersthat students, working with sustainability andindustrial ecology, often come from different dis-ciplines. In their PhD thesis the students are askedto integrate theories, ideas and methods fromseveral areas in their work. The course shall makethe students capable to understand, analyse andcombine those unlike perspectives, while theyfocus on their particular case. The course shouldfirstly give support to develop an individual re-search design for the students’ concrete case.Secondly, it should advance the interaction be-tween the “Two cultures” -a goal which is inher-ently tied to the concept of industrial ecology.

Environmental Issues in Manufacturingfor Engineers: An InterdisciplinaryCourse at Northeastern University

Jacqueline Isaacs


Incorporation of interdisciplinary courses thataddress environmental and economic issues inmaterials processing into an engineering curricu-lum brings a necessary component for fosteringbroader perspectives for students. Students mustbe given opportunities to develop skill sets (e.g.,effective communication, critical thinking, infor-

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mation literacy and interpersonal skills) thatstimulate life long learning, especially with re-gard to the new ABET 2000 accreditation crite-ria. These skill sets become enhanced for un-dergraduate and graduate students who partici-pate in courses that involve active learning inteams and case studies.

Case methodology in research has long beenlauded as an effective method for rigorously ad-dressing research hypotheses. Application ofthese methods in teaching encourages studentsto ask how” and “why” questions on their own.By addressing these questions using a case-basedmethod of instruction, students must apply andhone their critical thinking skills, e.g. definingissues, using sound reasoning, and making deci-sions. Interactive interdisciplinary courses offeran essential route to fostering and raising theenvironmental literacy of undergraduate andgraduate engineering students.

Environmental issues are not usually “cut anddry” problems with simple answers; rather, theseissues are interconnected with many other as-pects, including technological and economic con-straints. An opportunity to debate these issues,exchanging knowledge and points-of-view on therepercussions of various engineering technolo-gies and design choices, is a valuable addition tothe engineering curriculum.

The course, entitled “Economic and Environ-mental Issues in Product Manufacturing”, is of-fered both as an upper-class technical electiveand as a graduate course in the Department ofMechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing En-gineering. In this course, students explore envi-ronmental and economic aspects of differentmaterials used in a product throughout the lifecycle and are introduced to concepts of indus-trial ecology, life cycle analysis and technical costmodeling. Students, working in teams, analyzecase studies of specific products fabricated us-ing metals, ceramics, polymers and paper. Inthese case studies, students compare cost, energy,resources used and emissions generated throughthe mining, refining, manufacture, use and dis-posal stages of the product life cycle. Studentsdebate issues in legislation – manufacturer take-back, packaging, ecolabeling - and issues in dis-posal strategies - landfill, incineration, reuse andrecycling. They also examine difficulties asso-ciated with environmental impact assessments,

and the development of decision analysis toolsto weigh the tradeoffs in technical, economic andenvironmental performance. To stimulate classdiscussion, visiting lecturers from industry giveoverviews of issues as seen from their perspec-tive. During the course, students assess alterna-tive materials used for beverage can manufac-ture, using technical cost models and LCA com-parisons. Difficulties associated with environ-mental impact assessments, and the developmentof decision analysis tools to weigh the tradeoffsin technical, economic and environmental per-formance are discussed.

On overview of the course will be presented,along with an assessment of the past four offer-ings of the course. Students in mechanical, in-dustrial, civil and chemical engineering haveparticipated in the course, offering interestingperspectives to discussions. Group presentations,class participation, quizzes and written reportsprovide means for student assessment.

Education: Industrial Ecology throughthe Lens of Product Design

Ann Thorpe


We’ve often heard it said that a product de-signer shouldn’t have to become an environmen-tal scientist. Rather, the designer must be able toask the right questions. This paper argues that inorder to contribute to industrial ecology, a de-signer does in fact need to become an environ-mental scientist, in the same way that productdesigners must become ergonomic specialists,marketers/psychologists, manufacturing engi-neers and artists. These latter four are the tradi-tional areas of knowledge for product design. Weneed to add a fifth area of knowledge:sustainability.

By “knowledge of sustainability” we meanan understanding of three inter-related systems—natural, cultural and economic. The paper arguesthat designers need this framework as a basis forunderstanding and then contributing to industrialecology.

The paper profiles two case studies that illus-trate how this framework can be integrated intodesign education. The first case documents how

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sustainable design can be put into a “specialevent” class within a traditional industrial designcurriculum in the US context. In this case thestudents were not asked to become environmen-tal scientists. The second case documents thecurrent and ongoing effort to integrate this newarea of knowledge throughout the curriculum ina BA (Hons) product design course in the UK,where students are asked to learn principles ofenvironmental science and use scientific conceptsto develop and evaluate sustainable design pro-posals.

The paper explores the possible role for de-signers with respect to industrial ecology, sug-gesting that young designers who are currentlybeing educated could have more leverage giventhe proper tools. In addition, the paper addressesissues of assessment, teaching tools, and theproblem of finding the right expertise to buildthe class or curriculum.

Sustainable Cities/Tourism

Integrated Urban Planning and Estima-tion System for Recycle OrientedSustainable City

Tsuyoshi Fujita and Tohru Morioka


The relationship between urban form andsustainability is one of the most urgent concernsboth for urban planners and environmental policymakers. Decades of growing urbanization in the20th century, which have enabled massive indus-trial accumulation as well as continual intra andinter migration of population from rural areas tourban and peripheral areas, brought various tan-gible and intangible environmental costs not onlyfor the cities themselves but the surrounding re-gions as well as the nation and the global envi-ronments.

While several plans and concepts have beenproposed such as growth management, sustain-able planning, compact city, or industrial sym-biosis, those concepts need to be defined fromimplementational planning and policy perspec-tives in order to identify the appropriate urbanmanagement strategies for a long run. In thispaper, authors attempt to establish the planning

and estimation systems which provide planningalternatives to cover wide range of urban man-agement tools such as spatial management, en-ergy supply management, transportation manage-ment, and material resource management, as wellas provide objective estimation indicators forurban utility and environmental impacts.

After various planning concepts and imple-mentations are surveyed such as compact citytheory, sustainable development and its applica-tion for urban management, planning alternativesfor a century- long urban environment manage-ment are firstly proposed. Alternative planningoptions for a long-run urban management arediscussed organized. They constitute of those inspatial management business-as-usual type spa-tial control which allow sprawl development inperipheral areas, mono-centric compact city typecontrol, and multi-central compact city type con-trol schedules. Practicality and conditions toimplement those options are also discussed.Other option categories include those for energysupply system, transportation system, and mate-rial resource management system, namely re-cycle centers for building wastes. Relationshipsamong different management options are inves-tigated and combination of management optionsare brought as the strategic management sce-narios. Indicators to compare the different sce-narios and options are discussed and eco-effi-ciency estimation process is proposed scopingon carbon dioxide and solid wastes as primaryfactors for environmental impacts.

Secondly, land use patterns for Osaka City areprojects for one hundred years from 2000 basedon the existing locational data of buildings andtheir duration period functions and environmen-tal impacts for different scenarios and optionsare investigated. The following results are ob-tained: (1) The efficiencies of energy supplyingand solid waste recycling are improved by stra-tegic down zoning in suburb areas (2) This sys-tem can be applied to future urban environmen-tal planning such as estimating environmentalinfrastructure’s efficiency or comparing land de-veloping alternatives.

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Tourism and Environmental Impacts: ALook at Sustainability

Christine Ng, Katie Bergman, CarolineGraham-Brown, Rodolfo Farber, andArpad Horvath


This paper looks at several of the environmen-tal impacts that tourism has on the environment.As the definition of tourism is non-trivial, weexamine the various ways that this definition hasbeen addressed, enabling us to distinguish be-tween several different types of tourism. Afterformulating our definition, we apply it to ouranalysis of tourism in the U.S. and the EuropeanUnion. We then determine the dimensions oftourism’s impacts, focusing mainly on the im-pacts on infrastructure. Data are obtained fromvarious sources and applied to the hotel, restau-rant, and transportation sectors. Conclusions aredrawn based on an analysis of four categories:energy use, water consumption, emissions, andwaste generation. However, the scope of thispaper is to understand the implications and lim-its of sustainable tourism through the develop-ment of a detailed model using specific data fromthe four categories.

The aim is to arrive at a set of criteria that canreduce the impact of tourism on the environment,and hence improve the sustainability of the in-dustry. We evaluate tourism’s contribution to to-tal energy use, water consumption, emissions,and waste generation in the U.S. and the E.U.,and we compare this to its contribution to theeconomy, measured by the gross domestic prod-uct (GDP). Even having limited our analysis toprimarily the lodging and transportation sectors,we find that both U.S. and European tourism areresponsible for a greater share of domestic wa-ter consumption than their share of their respec-tive country GDP. Our analysis serves as a lower-bound estimate of environmental impacts, andwater consumption stands out as the most sig-nificant problem. While tourism’s energy use,emissions, and waste generation do not demon-strate a disproportionately large share of the to-tal, inclusion of more recreational and travel ac-tivities is required to make this analysis conclu-sive. This paper includes a discussion of the tour-ism industry’s current approaches to environmen-

tal improvement, and the extent to which large-scale implementation of these strategies wouldaffect the industry as a whole, both environmen-tally and financially.

Urban Energy Metabolism: Frameworkand Case Study

Marc Melaina and Gregory A. Keoleian


A comprehensive framework for measuringthe energy metabolism of an urban communityis developed using tools of industrial ecology.Energy flow analysis, material flow analysis andlife cycle energy analysis are used to constructan integrated model for measuring energy me-tabolism. While previous models have capturedthe inputs of energy resources in the form of com-mercial fuels, they tend to disregard the embod-ied energy associated with goods and servicescrossing community boundaries. The embodiedenergy of goods and services imported by a com-munity accounts for the material production andmanufacturing energy requirements that oftenoccur outside the boundaries of the community.Life cycle energy analysis can be used to mea-sure this upstream energy consumption. Theframework accounts for the embodied energy formaterials as well as the total fuel cycle of energyresources imported by a community, includingextraction, processing and distribution processes.Modeling challenges discussed include systemboundary definitions and allocation rules. Thisframework is also compared with more generalmetabolism studies from systems ecology as wellas other studies of urban metabolisms.

The case study characterizes major energyflows through Ann Arbor, Michigan, a city of114,000 residents in the United States. Fourmajor energy flows through the city are quanti-fied for the year 2000: transportation fuels, elec-tricity, natural gas and locally produced renew-able fuels. These flows contribute, respectively,to approximately 29%, 35%, 36% and 0.2% oftotal primary energy use associated with the cityof Ann Arbor. These flows sum to approximately35.4 PJ (peta = 1015) of primary energy per per-son. The flows support six major energy sectors:transportation, commercial, residential, indus-

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trial, municipal government and the Universityof Michigan. These sectors contribute, respec-tively, to approximately 35%, 21%, 25%, 6%,4% and 9% of energy use within the city.

This study also examines energy use associ-ated with several major material flows, includ-ing automobiles, construction materials, food,and water. While data availability for embodiedenergy of goods and services is limited, an ex-isting mass flow analysis for the city is used toestimate the significance of this component rela-tive to fuel and electricity consumption. For ex-ample, a recent life cycle assessment for the U.S.food system by the Center for Sustainable Sys-tems indicated that the average primary energyconsumption is 42 GJ/capita/year. This valueencompasses agricultural production, transpor-tation of raw and processed products, food pro-cessing, packaging materials, food retail, com-mercial food service and household storage andpreparation. It was assumed that the energy usedfor food retail, commercial food service andhousehold storage and preparation occurs withinthe community. According to this energy alloca-tion, the embodied energy of the food crossingthe Ann Arbor city limits is 2.8 PJ, which is eightpercent of total primary energy consumption as-sociated with fuels.

Total energy use for the Ann Arbor metabo-lism is analyzed in terms of greenhouse gas pro-duction and energy use per capita income. Theresults of this urban metabolism study are com-pared with regional and national energy use pat-terns as well as other studies of urban energymetabolisms from around the world.

General Policy Issues

“Transition Management” in TheNetherlands

Marko Hekkert, Ruud Smits, andHarro van Lente


To reach desired environmental goals, long-term environmental policy is needed. The prob-lem with most environmental policy efforts isthat they are strongly focused on the short term.This type of policy is often not effective to reach

system changes as often advocated by the fieldof Industrial Ecology.

In the Netherlands a new concepts has recentlycome up in policy discussions. It is called ‘Tran-sition Management’. Transition managementaims to support a transition from one dynamicequilibrium to another. The transition is the re-sult of several coupled technologic, economic,ecologic en social processes. Examples of po-tential transitions are the shift to sustainable en-ergy systems, the shift to sustainable productionand consumption systems, and the shift to sus-tainable agriculture in The Netherlands.

The basic ideas behind transition managementis that long term thinking will be used to influ-ence short term decisions, it is focused on creat-ing learning processes, the aim is to reach sys-tem changes (innovations, steering is done interms of multi-level and multi-actor networks, itaims to keep the playing field open to preventlock in of sub-optimal technologies.

At Utrecht University we have studied thisabstract concept and translated it into specific,down to earth roles that governmental and inter-mediary organisations can play in order to beeffective in transition management.

In our paper we will explain this concept fur-ther, state the roles that governmental and inter-mediary roles can play and we will explain howthis concept may influence environmental policymaking.

Transition Management

Derk Loorbach and Jan Rotmans


In our modern society we are confronted withcomplex and structural problems. Especially inthe field of environmental and ecological issues,this complexity is manifest. Because traditionalpolitical and scientific approaches towards thesecomplex issues fail to address all facets of thiscomplexity, we have to find new and interdisci-plinary ways to define and address these prob-lems. Based on the concept of transitions as so-cietal transformation processes with determin-able characteristics, the concept of transitionmanagement provides a framework for policy-makers as well as societal actors in which they

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can work together towards possible solutions.In the view of globalisation and increasing

interdependencies amongst societal actors wehave to address complex issues from amultidisciplinary point of view and be aware ofthe interrelations that exist between, for example,the fields of economy and ecology. On a smallerscale, this multidisciplinary approach also pre-supposes the interaction between economical,ecological, societal and political actors. Thus,policy-making in general has to consider thesefeatures of modern society. Our proposed con-cept of transition management as a policy-op-tion to address structural and complex problemsis primarily based upon the notion of multi-ac-tor, multi-domain and multi-level interactions.We state that because of these interactions policy-makers have to develop policies in collaborationwith the relevant societal actors.

The recent agricultural crises and the grow-ing concern with the (over)use of energy re-sources in modern society are triggers for struc-tural societal transformation processes and openup options for policy-makers that were until nowunrecognised. We argue that by constructing in-terdisciplinary networks we can formulate long-term goals from which we derive short-term ac-tions. In order to really manage such transitionprocesses diverse tools have been developed suchas network- and actor analysis, the facilitationof interactive and participative processes, the useof scenario’s and models and so on. The paperwill specifically address these policy-options oftransition management and thus the relevancy ofthe concept for policy-making in the field of en-vironmental issues.

The focus of the research presented in thepaper is on the concept of transition management.The main objective of this research however isto make these ideas applicable to the practice ofpolicy making. Based on the transition conceptwe have to change the way in which we definesocietal problems and the way in which we con-struct solutions for these problems. By combin-ing different observations and options, linked toeveryday policy-making (interactionism, multi-level governance) we can construct a theoreticalframework which allows us to structure and or-ganize policy-making processes. The thus struc-tured, goal-oriented and multi-actor transitionprocess overcomes criticism on the current prac-

tice of policy-making that it would be undemo-cratic and that there is no ground for legitimiz-ing of the interactive policy-making practiced,for example, by the European Commission.

Long-term Energy Efficiency Agree-ments Between Dutch Industry andGovernment

Ton van Dril and Leon van der Palen


With the start of a new round of long termagreements with industry on energy efficiency,the Dutch government has introduced the optionof improving energy efficiency in productionchains. Companies can now be credited for in-novations that save energy elsewhere, outsideplant limits. These innovations include materialefficiency and substitution, energy savings in theuse phase of their product, extending the life-time of components and improving recycling.This research on present experiences with thistype of energy chain management focuses onimplementation within the companyorganisation. Research has been done on the pa-per and metal chain. LTA-efforts up to now havea strong engineering focus on energy equipmentwithin the company. A broader scope of energyefficiency in production chains requires specificefforts from sales, purchases and design depart-ments, and a firm commitment from companymanagement. The findings are that there are sur-prisingly few technological barriers for imple-mentation, but a firm policy incentive and knowl-edge of energy accounting is still lacking.

Life Cycle Assessment Cases

The Ecological Footprint of a MobilePhone

Sibylle Frey, David J. Harrison and EricH. Billett


The Ecological Footprint (EF) is a conserva-tive estimate of human pressure on global eco-

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systems and has often been suggested as asustainability indicator for the human impact onEarth [1]. The EF represents the total productivearea of land and water ecosystems required tosustain the resources, wastes, and emissions of apopulation wherever that land may be located.The world’s EF changes proportionally with glo-bal population size, per capita consumption, andintensity of the used resource technologies [2].Traditionally, the EF has been applied to globalor other geographic levels.

In this paper, we will discuss how the EF canbe applied to electronic products. Based on lifecycle energy assessment methodology, we useda bottom-up approach to estimate thebioproductive space needed to appropriate theresources and emissions of a mobile phone. Forthe direct land use, the methodology includes es-timates from the density of materials, size of orebodies, overburden, and biomass accumulation.As electronic products contain a wide range ofmaterials including precious and rare earth met-als, we have made statistical estimates regard-ing the energy and overburden arising from ex-traction and processing. For indirect land use,fuel specific carbon sequestration by forests andestimates for the oceans’ carbon absorption ca-pacity were included. We also use area as a singleindicator to make our results comparable to theworld-average bioproductive space of 1.92 hect-ares per person based on 1996 data or 1.89 hect-ares without sea space [3]. The results will givea snapshot of a mobile phone’s demand for eco-system services. Our previous estimates [4] sug-gested that the EF of a PC is about 9 per cent ofthe terrestrial area of a world-average citizen,which is probably underestimated. Although theresults of this case study are a crude approxima-tion, they indicate the magnitude of human ap-propriation of ecosystems by a single product.

References:1 Wackernagel, M., Lewan, L. Borgstöm

Hansson, C. (1999). Evaluating the use ofnatural capital with the ecological footprint.Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Ambio.28 (7) 604-12.

2 WWF- World WildLife Fund For Nature(2000). Living Planet Report. http://panda.org/livingplanet/lpr00/download.cfm

3 Wackernagel, M., Callejas, A. Deumling, D.(2000). World of EF-1996-sumaries-WWF.xls. http://www.rprogress.org/ef/LPR2000/. Redefining Progress, USA; Cen-tre for Sustainability Studies, Mexico.

4 Frey, S.D,. Harrison, D.J,. Billett, E. (2000).Environmental assessment of electronic prod-ucts using LCA and ecological footprint. In:Joint International Congress and Exhibition.Electronics goes green 2000, Berlin, Ger-many, 11-13 September 2000. 253-258.

Greening of the Ivory Tower

Thomas Gloria and Greg Norris


Purchases by US colleges and universitiesexceed $60 billion annually. This research dem-onstrates the capability to identify which of thenearly 500 categories of college and universitypurchasing activities reported by the US Bureauof Economic Analysis (BEA) carry the greatestshare of direct and upstream environmental life-cycle burdens related to climate change for theaverage US university, and for specific universi-ties on a case-by-case basis.

The contribution of emissions from upstreamproduction activities can be enormous. In a re-cent investigation of the nearly 500 sectors ofthe US economy the following surprising resultswere found:• for a majority of sectors, upstream emissions

exceed direct emissions;• for many sectors upstream emission are 5-10

times direct emissions; and,• the largest sector in terms of upstream emis-

sions is the construction sector with upstreamemissions 5 times its direct emissions.This effort is an initial step to build collabo-

ration among universities to collectively measuretheir environmental burdens. The approach willallow universities to determine a comprehensivebenchmark to measure improvements over time,critical in the process to prioritize long-term strat-egies. Further, the results of this method wouldassist universities in establishing purchasing pri-orities to effectively reduce environmental harm.

There is an urgent need for universities toeducate future generations of environmental lead-

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ers that will affect policy decisions on climatechange. The path to learning and civic engage-ment begins with keeping your own house inorder. Professional and personal commitment inhigher education will be motivated by first handunderstanding of environmental issues in eachinstitution’s decision-making. By fostering stew-ardship and transparency, institutions of higherlearning are better equipped to lead and inspireothers.

Hydrogen Production and Fuel CellCars: A Life-Cycle Assessment

Edgar Hertwich and Anders Stromman


Fuel cells promise clean energy conversionfor small scale power plants and mobile systems.They are more efficient than combustion enginesor turbines and avoid generating combustion by-products such as PM2.5, hydrocarbons, and ther-mal NOx. Their fuel, hydrogen, does not con-tain sulfur or heavy metals. The hydrogen forfuel cells can be produced through a range ofprocesses, including steam reforming of fossilfuels and electrolysis of water. Hydrogen can beproduced on-board from gasoline, natural gas,or methanol, or in stationary plants. We haveconducted a preliminary assessment of fuel-cellvehicles (FCV) and compared it to gasoline-pow-ered internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV).We included only direct hydrogen FCV becausethe literature shows that methanol or gasolineFCV have a lower energy efficiency. Because ofthis lower efficiency and the emissions of CO2and other pollutants, methanol or gasoline FCVoffer no clear environmental benefits over cut-ting edge ICEV.

Our assessment based on published data in-dicates that hydrogen-powered fuel cell cars areindeed environmentally advantageous, primarilybecause of the reduction of air pollution in highlypopulated areas. Cost projections, although un-certain and contingent on some technologicalbreakthroughs, suggest that these pollution re-ductions increase the cost of driving somewhat,but they are affordable. We have found signifi-cant discrepancies in published data for bothhydrogen production and fuel cell manufactur-

ing, discrepancies that cannot be explained bythe uncertainty connected to assessing an emerg-ing technology alone. These discrepancies affectthe affordability and eco-effectiveness of FCV.Our analysis suggests that a more careful assess-ment especially of the hydrogen production isrequired. Even using the most optimistic num-bers in the literature, however, a fuel cell basedtransportation system will not bring the requiredreduction in CO2 emissions to compensate forincreasing demand unless a CO2-free source ofhydrogen is employed. CO2 capture in fossil fuelbased systems and electrolysis powered by re-newable electricity are two options investigated,but both are resource intensive. Significant in-creases in the material intensity and the energyintensity of the infrastructure, both of the vehiclesand the fuel supply, suggest that a fuel cell/hy-drogen transportation system is not the silverbullet promised by some. Local air pollution,primarily particulates, NOx and VOC, will con-tinue to be the main drivers for the introductionof fuel cell cars as “zero emissions vehicles.” Ouranalysis suggests that fuel cell cars are indeedworthwhile pursuing. Their environmental ben-efit, however, may not be as large as advertised.Other strategies, aimed at reducing mobility andshifting demand to collective transport, need tobe pursued in parallel.

Indicators

Sustainability Spaces: A New Concept toEvaluate Development Using IndicatorSystems

Claudia Binder, Arnim Wiek andMarcus Fenchel


This paper develops the concept of“sustainability space” based on indicator systemsfor evaluating development within defined sec-tors. Currently, to assess development, indica-tors are collected and evaluated individually andsummarized in indicator lists, divided into eco-logical, economic and social aspects. Indicatorsoften interfere with each other, leading possiblyto contradictory results. That is, while one indi-

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cator reflects a positive development, anothermight mirror a negative one at the same time. Asimple example is increasing economic growthand decreasing environmental quality duringcertain periods of economic growth. Not con-sidering the relationship among indicators couldlead to a long-term degradation of the stabilityof the anthroposphere (defined here as the sphereof human-environment interactions, coveringecological, social and economic aspects). It isthus questionable whether the current practiceof gathering data to monitor these indicators in-dividually is sufficient and appropriate to sup-port decision making to reach sustainable devel-opment.

To achieve sustainable development, it is nec-essary to consider the effects of one indicator onthe others; i.e., applying a systemic perspective.Indicator systems, in contrast to indicator lists,pursue this goal. Based on the understanding ofthe dynamic interrelationships within groups ofindicators, we identify the type of interferenceamong indicators, classifying it into neutral, syn-ergistic and antagonistic. Note that the type ofinterference is likely to change over time.

Based on these indicator systems we intro-duce the concept of “sustainability space”. A“sustainability space” is developed by identify-ing “sustainability ranges” for each indicator independency of the other indicators within thesystem. The ranges are estimated with a varietyof methods including inter-, and transdisciplinarymethods, for example the concept of ecologicalthreshold, expert interviews, system dynamics,etc. The “sustainability space” shows the effectof one indicator on the other indicators withinthe system. Thus, it permits to assess trade-offsof development strategies. Taking the simpleexample mentioned above, it might be appropri-ate to overuse the environment over a period oftime to increase income, which, in turn, couldbe and often is used for improving environmen-tal quality. First, income is traded against envi-ronmental quality and then vice versa. The“sustainability space” is a tool for early recog-nizing these trade-offs and therefore could sup-port the designing of policies for sustainable de-velopment.

In this paper we will apply the concept of“sustainability space” to the case of agriculture.

Indicators for Eco-efficiency in Recy-cling Systems

Arne Eik, Helge Brattebo, BerntSaugen, Havard Solem, andSolveig Steinmo


In order to obtain an industrial ecological flowof material and energy in societies recycling ofused products and materials is an important strat-egy. However, to justify a further growth in therecycling rate for some materials and productsthere is a need for improved environmental- andeconomical performance in recycling chains.

The concept of eco-efficiency was introducedby the World Business Councils on SustainableDevelopment (WBCSD) in 1992. Since then ithas been widely adopted among companies tomeasure and improve the value added per prod-uct or service while progressively reducing theenvironmental influence per product or serviceto the market. However, emphasise has until nowmainly been put on the main production stageand to some extent the user stage of products orservices, not on the end-of-life stage where re-cycling is one important option. In this paper,which is a result of the case-study “Eco-effi-ciency in recycling systems for plastic packag-ing” within the Norwegian research programProductivity 2005-Industrial ecology, we havedeveloped three categories of indicators thatshould be applied by decision-makers to evalu-ate and improve the eco-efficiency of recyclingsystems. The general applicable indicators(GAIs), which we have developed to be total netcosts, amount of material recycled, CO2-emis-sions and energy consumption in the definedsystem, can be used to measure the eco-efficiencyof all kinds of recycling systems. In addition, ifneeded, the system specific indicators (SSIs)should be developed for the particularly systemanalysed. GAIs and SSIs are the overall systemindicators for evaluating the eco-efficiency per-formance of the whole recycling system. Theactor specified indicators (ASIs) should thereaf-ter be developed for each of the most involvedactor in the actual system to identify their con-tribution potential to the performance of the over-all system indicators. We have developed indi-cators within the three categories and applied

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them to measure the eco-efficiency of the recy-cling system for plastic packaging from house-holds in the municipality of Trondheim, Norway.Due to steadily improved sorting in householdsand at the central sorting plant the eco-efficiencyhas increased from 1999 to 2001. However, tocompete with the option of incineration withenergy recovery we have shown that there is aneed for further technological and organisationalimprovements in the recycling chain. We havedeveloped three recycling scenarios with differ-ent technological and organizational options andthereafter evaluated the eco-efficiency of thesescenarios. The evaluations show that recyclingof the plastic packaging from households in cit-ies is a future solution from both an economical-and environmental point of view.

Challenges in Making and Using SocialIndicators for Sustainable Development

Øivind Hagen


It is common to divide the concept sustain-able development into three different aspects; anenvironmental, an economic and a social dimen-sion. While the environmental dimension is con-nected to the wellbeing of ecological systems andhuman impacts on these systems, the economicdimension is related to creation of wealth basedon natural resources and how to state the valuesof this. The social dimension is about how wealthis distributed and what human wellbeing is about.Indicators for sustainable development are usu-ally based on this tripartition of the concept andreported along these dimensions.

The use of indicators and measurement, andthe belief in it as a catalyst for changes has itsroots within a positivistic scientific tradition andstatistics. The focus has most of all been on is-sues and phenomenon that can be quantified andcounted, i.e. phenomenon that can be describedand evaluated with quantitative scientific meth-odologies often being reported in numbers. Ex-amples of quantifiable indicators for a company’senvironmental effort could be litres of spill fromthe production process or the amount of moneyinvested in pollution preventing initiatives. How-ever, indicators for sustainable development also

need to be able to say something about less count-able phenomenon, phenomenon of a more quali-tative nature. Such phenomenon are often de-scribed and evaluated by text and therefor re-ported in less absolute terms than countable phe-nomenon. An example of a qualitative indicatorfor a company’s environmental profile could bethe employees’ attitude toward environmentalissues.

With the risk of being too categorical, we willargue that the quantitative-qualitative dichotomyis reflected in the tripartition of sustainable de-velopment. Environmental and economic issuesare mostly reported in and measured along quan-titative scales. Social issues could also be evalu-ated along quantitative scales (like e.g. systemsfor employees’ participation, number of accidentsand pension benefits), but qualitative aspects (likee.g. identity with corporate environmental policy,job-satisfaction and commitment) are more im-portant for this dimension than the other two. Inother words, a discussion on social indicators willalso include qualitative issues, while a discus-sion on environmental and economic indicatorsis limited to quantitative issues.

Having in mind the recent popularity of con-cepts like industrial ecology, corporate social re-sponsibility and extended producer responsibil-ity, we ask what role social indicators can playto move societies, companies and individualstowards sustainability. Important questions to bediscussed are: What is the state of the art on so-cial indicators for sustainable development?What are the pitfalls and challenges for makingand using social indicators? What is the relation-ship between economic, environmental and so-cial indicators? And not the least, what are goodsocial indicators for companies efforts towardssustainable business practices?

MFA in National Economies II

Methodological Experiences fromAdvising the Generation of NationalMaterial Flow Analysis’ in DevelopingCountries

Christof Amann


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Since the early 1990s, the instrument ofeconomy-wide or national material flow analy-sis (NMFA) is widely accepted as one major toolto operationalize sustainable development. Na-tional MFAs were provided for a large numberof industrial and developing countries, e.g. Aus-tria, Brazil, China, Denmark, Finland, Germany,Japan, Sweden, The Netherlands, United King-dom, United States, Venezuela. Due to a certainlack of international comparability large effortstowards harmonizing methodology were madeby the European Commission (ConAccountproject) and the Statistical Office of the Euro-pean Union (EUROSTAT). Most recently,EUROSTAT published guidelines for “economy-wide MFA”.

These guidelines are the result of a long dis-cussion processes of a great number of scientificand statistical institutions dealing with NMFA.

We used the EUROSTAT guideline for thegeneration of NMFA of two developing coun-tries, Brazil and Venezuela. This work was car-ried out in a project on “Sustainable Develop-ment of Amazonia”, funded by the EuropeanCommission. Trying to use the guideline as strictas possible, we found that methodology is appli-cable in general, but that there are some difficul-ties in detail questions. These problems concernthe following topics: It is still not clear where toset the border between direct input (into thesocio-economic system) and hidden flows, es-pecially for materials like natural gas, crude oil,and iron ore. We found that on the one hand theunderlying system borders are different in someof these material categories, and that for someof the materials data are normally not availablein the necessary form.

Another problematic task is biomass, espe-cially grazing, where official statistics are rarelyavailable, and where methods for estimations arenecessary. In most cases, this material fractionis one of the largest and therefore a lot more ef-fort should be put in finding international com-parable estimation processes. Another importanttask is the clarification of dealing wirth subsis-tence economies, more or less negligible inhighly industrialized countries, but very impor-tant in developing countries. Here, standardizedmethods for calculations are highly needed. Wewill discuss the usefulness of regional and localmaterial flow analysis (RMFA, LMFA) for pro-

viding data on a national level.Finally, we will discuss further research

needed and suggestions for an internationally har-monized method of NMFA. This includes thedevelopment of new indicators and their relationto modes of subsistence.

Testing the Kuznets EnvironmentalCurve in the Input of Materials inEconomy

Paulo Ferrão, Pedro Conceição andÂngela Canas


Material flows sustain national economies:raw materials enter the economies to be used forproduction, materials leave the economies aspollution. Both extraction of raw materials andpollution affect the natural environment and bothare linked with each other, given the Mass Con-servation Principle. The input side of the materi-als flow into the economy has been gaining muchattention, essentially because controlling the in-put of materials is seen as a solution to someproblems, such as controlling pollution andwaste. Most importantly, material flows are seenas key for sustainable development. In this con-text it has been advocated the need to limit theinput of materials leading to calls for demateri-alization.

Many studies have focused on the quantifica-tion of the input side of material flows into theeconomy using the technique of Material FlowAccounting. However the insights provided bythose studies have generally been limited. In thispaper, the validity of a popular hypothesis in thefield of pollution studies - the EnvironmentalKuznets Curve (EKC) - is tested in the contextin which the levels Direct Material Input (DMI)per capita (a common indicator of the input ofmaterials in national economies) are mappedagainst Gross Domestic Product (GDP) percapita. The quadratic (evolution in inverted-U)and cubic (evolution in N) versions of the EKCare tested in a econometric study of DMI paneldata ranging from 1960 to 1998 for 16industrialised countries. Both the inverted-U andN shaped EKC are tested in models considering

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GDP per capita as the only explanatory variableand DMI per capita as the dependent variable.Country and year fixed and random effects mod-els are used, and corrections for non-sphericaldisturbances are made.

The results indicate a quite strong and robustsupport for an EKC evolution in the form of anN shaped curve in all the models tested. The in-verted-U curve is supported only in the fixedand random effects models. Overall, the statisti-cally stronger models are the quadratic and cu-bic with country random effects, on the one hand,and the cubic with country and year fixed ef-fects, on the other. Within-country DMI percapita variation seem to be best accounted witha cubic (N-shaped) model on income per capita.Autocorrelation correction performed to a sub-set of observations for pooled and country ef-fects models confirms these qualitative results.Between-country DMI per capita variation is notwell described either by a quadratic or cubic func-tion of GDP per capita. These results suggest thatother factors not captured by GDP per capita,specific to each country, are relevant to explainthe DMI per capita evolution. Also, time episodesseem to influence this indicator, suggesting thatthe EKC evolution is may not be an automaticevolution caused by GDP per capita stimulus.

Analyzing Material Flows—A NecessaryCondition Towards Sustainable Devel-opment in Taiwan: The Case of Con-struction Aggregates

Teng Yuan Hsiao, Yue Hwa Yu andIddo K.Wernick


Spurred by economic and industrial develop-ment, construction in Taiwan has grown rapidlyover the last 20 years. Resulting shortages in thedomestic supply of construction aggregates haveforced the Taiwanese government to account forexisting reserves and identify options to satisfyfuture requirements. To guide this activity, amethod, which is based on the Industrial Ecol-ogy model, which advocates a systematic sourceview and industrial material sinks, as well as theweb of economic enterprises that influence their

flow through the economy, is proposed herein.This work will show the total construction ag-gregate requirements, materials intensity and ef-ficiency in Taiwan. Furthermore, these experi-mental results are compared with developedcountries including USA, Japan and Germany.This study also serves as a model for the mate-rial flow system on construction aggregates inTaiwan. An interdisciplinary study was con-ducted to understand the system and propose fea-sible solutions that allow for continued economicgrowth with minimal environmental impacts. Asthe flow of physical resources impacts both eco-nomic growth and environmental quality, thiswork is an essential component to ensuring sus-tainable development in the Republic of China.

Measuring Sustainability ThroughMaterials Flow Analysis of IndustrialSystems in Antarctica

R.J. Klee


Increasingly there is a general sense that ourindustrial society’s use and disposal of materialsaffects our planet in ways that are detrimental toour long-term survival. However, we currentlyhave limited means of quantifying this sinkingfeeling. This research approaches such quantifi-cation by studying one of the few industrial sys-tems on the planet where systematic measure-ment is possible, namely the scientific researchstations in Antarctica.

Most people equate the word “Antarctica”with an otherworldly land of ice and snow, fullof penguins, seals, whales and the occasional sci-entist. However, there is another side of Antarc-tica that few care to notice. A collection of in-dustrial centers has been built to support the sci-entific researchers who take the photographs ofthe penguins, measure the extent of the ozonehole, and observe the melting of the ice cap.There are currently 80 such industrial installa-tions spread throughout the continent, operatedby 29 different countries. In response to the po-tential hazards of placing an industrial centerright next to a penguin colony, the countries thatperform research in Antarctica signed the 1991

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Protocol for Environmental Protection to theAntarctic Treaty (the Protocol). In doing so, thesignatory nations

agreed to make the preservation of the natu-ral laboratory of Antarctica a “fundamental con-sideration” in all their activities in Antarctica.As a result of the Protocol, each of the 29 coun-tries that conduct scientific research in Antarc-tica must keep accurate records of the materialsthey bring onto and remove from the continent,and they must have plans in place for the han-dling and management of these materials.

Furthermore, this and any other informationon a country’s Antarctic activity must be madefreely available to all interested parties, in thename of science and peaceful coexistence on theice. Antarctica is arguably one of the few placeson our planet that has systematic, non-proprietarydata regarding the flows of materials into andout of its industrial centers. The continent of Ant-arctica thus serves as a unique “petri-dish” inwhich to study the movement and eventual fateof materials in industrial society.

I am collecting and analyzing industrial ma-terial flow data for the years 1995-2000 fromfourteen countries that operate industrial centers(i.e. scientific research stations) in Antarctica. Myresearch offers the unique opportunity to observeand quantify multi-national environmental phi-losophies, management tools, and implementa-tion programs focused around a common prob-lem of operating an industrial center in Antarc-tica. I will present industrial material flow datafor the Antarctic stations of New Zealand, theUnited Kingdom, and perhaps other countries,and I will discuss the potential sustainabilitymeasurements that will be applied to this dataand used to compare each country’s industrialactivity.

Technical Program IV

Industrial Ecology: The Metaphor

Industrial Ecology’s Hidden Philosophyof Nature: Fundamental Underpinningto Use Nature as Model

Ralf Isenmann


Goal and Scope:In this contribution a fundamental underpin-

ning for industrial ecology’s use of nature asmodel is presented. The underpinning providesan impressive battery of philosophical argumentsbringing to bear against the sort of probablyraised fallacies and facile proclaimed critics bysceptics who often overlook industrial ecology’sstimulating role towards sustainability.

In industrial ecology nature is interpreted asmodel in order to gain fruitful insights for deal-ing with natural resources and services for a moreefficient use of matter, energy, waste, by-prod-ucts, time, space, etc., meeting ecological con-straints. However, in contrast to its intuitive ap-peal, industrial ecology lacks of efforts to un-derpin and conceptualise this non-mainstreaminterpretation of nature. Hence there is urgentneed for research on industrial ecology’s under-lying philosophical assumptions.

The tangible object is: firstly, as a larger goal,to make philosophical thinking quite accessibleto industrial ecologists while its content is of in-terest to professional philosophers; secondly,more precisely, the contribution aims (i) to pro-tect “nature as model” against inflationary useof biological analogies as merely rhetoric, (ii) toshield industrial ecology from sceptics, and (iii)to avoid it against obvious shortcomings.Methods:

According to the above-mentioned goal andscope, basic epistemological and ethical aspectsare situated in the centre. Four major philosophi-cal methods are applied: (i) classification-frame-work to specify the interpretation of nature; (ii)dialectic principle of thesis, antithesis, and syn-thesis to settle the dispute between sceptics’ andprotagonists’ viewpoints concerning nature asmodel; (iii) basics of anthropology to explain

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how it is even possible to understand nature byscience and to look to nature for a model by re-flexive manner; (iv) epistemologically-based ar-chitecture of industrial ecology science to dem-onstrate that the reflexive interpretation of na-ture as model represents a paradigm serving ashelpful heuristic and influencing industrialecology’s research and practice.Results and Conclusions:

It is possible to elucidate industrial ecology’shidden philosophy of nature by reflexive man-ner. An impressive battery of philosophical ar-guments are presented to underpin industrialecology’s interpretation of nature as model. Con-sequently it seems plausible to learn from naturei.e. industrial ecologists may selectively applynature’s smart solutions, evolutionary strategies,and ecological principles for balancing ecosys-tems and industrial systems. The keynote is tobe aware of nature’s hypothetical status. Natureas model provides a minimum that can be con-sidered but it does not represent an all-inclusivechecklist that guarantees sustainability or ethi-cal fairness itself.

Metaphorically, nature as model providesvaluable insights as eye-catcher. From this rheto-ric sense we can learn by gaining inspiration andencouraging creativity to derive ecological in-novations. However, additionally to linguisticaspects, nature as model can also serve as para-digm from an epistemologically-based perspec-tive. This paradigmatic sense includes rhetoricuse as metaphor but broadens the interpretationas smart biological analogy and exceeds the con-notation as picturesque note by far. Nature asmodel is seen as “regulative idea” that providesa helpful heuristic guiding industrial ecology’sresearch programme. Such a regulative idea playsa dominating role that is i) to arrange our way ofthinking, ii) to organise our imagination of phe-nomena, and iii) to govern our decision-making.

Industrial Ecology – A Paradigmaticand a Practical Source for Sustainability

Jouni Korhonen


The concept of industrial ecology (IE) hasbeen interpreted with different perspectives in

the literature on the theme. Others understandIE as a paradigm, as a metaphor and as a newway to construct our basic world view. There-fore, industrial ecology is understood as a nor-mative source for sustainability. Others adopt IEin a more practical sense. In this shape of theconcept, metrics, tools, policy and managementinstruments are developed. These are used totrace, monitor, and calculate the flows of matterand energy within the societal and industrial sys-tems, and more importantly, between the soci-etal system and the natural ecosystem. Sugges-tions for action are presented for reducing theenvironmental burden of products, processes orof systems of these.

In this paper, the metaphoric aspect of IE in-cludes the four ecosystem principles of roundput(1), diversity (2), interdependency (3) and local-ity (4). It is argued that by using the ecosystemas a source for a sustainability metaphor, thesecharacteristics of a sustainable system can bediscussed in an unsustainable system. Such dis-cussion can benefit the current societal and in-dustrial systems that seem to be within an un-sustainable paradigm. If the most commonly usedIE principle of closed loops or roundput is un-derstood as recycling of matter and cascading ofenergy, it can be argued that this has already beenrelatively familiar within the unsustainable para-digm of modernity. When integrated with thecharacteristics of diversity, interdependency andlocality, the industrial ecology metaphor maymove toward a more sustainable paradigm.

The material and energy flow model of anecosystem is used in an industrial system for thepractical aspect of industrial ecology. The flowsof matter (biomass) (1), base cation nutrients (2),energy (3) and carbon (4) are considered by fo-cusing on material cycles and energy cascadesas they happen in an ecosystem and in compari-son to an industrial system. It can be beneficialto adopt this kind of a practical focus on theroundput principle in a complementarity relationwith the more metaphoric and paradigmatic as-pect of industrial ecology, which can include alsothe principles of diversity, interdependency andlocality.

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Production Systems in Industry andEcology: Some Comparisons Relevantto Industrial Ecology

Stephen Levine


Industrial ecology looks to ecosystems forboth descriptive and prescriptive models. De-scriptively, the ecosystem represents anarchetypical complex system, containing manyinteractions between system components, inter-actions that are largely the result of the flows ofenergy and materials that characterize both eco-logical and industrial systems. These flows giverise to a hierarchical structure, referred to astrophic levels in ecological systems and produc-tion stages in industrial systems. Prescriptively,industrial ecology proposes ecosystems as amodel of how industrial systems should ideallyfunction. This proposal is based on the beliefsthat (1) ecosystems display desirable character-istics regarding the recycling and reuse of mate-rials, (2) it would be desirable if industrial sys-tems had these characteristics as well, and (3) itis possible and practical to imbue industrial sys-tems with these characteristics. It is this proposaland the supporting beliefs that are examined inthis paper.

In particular, the evolutionary histories of eco-logical and industrial systems are very different,and, more specifically, the underlying forces thathave shaped those histories are different. Eco-logical systems are input driven. The availabil-ity of energy in the form of sunlight makes themajor part of the organic world possible, begin-ning with an autotrophic level and subsequentlyadding autotrophic levels. Each trophic level isitself input driven. Herbivores evolved due to theavailability of energy in the form of plant biom-ass; the resulting availability of biomass in theform of herbivores drove the development ofcarnivores. Detritivores too arose due to the avail-ability of energy in the form of organic material.By contrast, industrial systems are output driven.Final demand for products provides the overallimpetus, and each industry exists because of ademand for its output, not because the raw ma-terials it uses happen to be available. How doesthis evolutionary difference impact the prescrip-tive value of the ecosystem model? For starts it

is clear that recycling and reuse are an integralpart of ecological systems in a way they can neverbe for an output driven industrial system.

Industrial Ecology: The Biosphere -Technosphere Analogy

Ester van der Voet, Ruben Huele andRuud Stevers

Ayres (1989) first introduced the biosphere-technosphere analogy as a useful image to de-velop in his description of Industrial Metabolism.In short, this amounts to the following:• In the biosphere, evolution has resulted in ef-

ficient and problem-free use of materials andenergy in processes to create biomass

• In the technosphere, where we createtechnomass, “evolution” is still in its earlieststages

• By learning from the biosphere, society maydesign its technical processes in a more sus-tainable manner.Ayres has given us a powerful image with

obvious usefulness. We can think in many waysabout the 3rd evolutionary invention and itsequivalents for society, in fact that is what In-dustrial Ecology in its present days is mostlyabout: closing cycles, use waste as resource, cre-ate industrial ecosystems etc.. This type of re-search and design is very important and will re-main the core of IE for years to come. In themeantime it may be interesting to explore thebiosphere-technosphere analogy a bit further.

In the first place, there are some obvious pit-falls in the analogy:• Evolution has had 4 billion years, society must

do it much faster, we can’t leave it to time.• Evolution is at odds with any type of moral-

ity: there is no such thing as a “good” processdesign or way of living. Designs have to provethemselves in the real world: survival of thefittest.

• Nature represents a dynamic equilibrium: spe-cies appear and disappear, populations aredecimated and multiply again. Major disas-ters lead to new chances on the evolutionaryroad. In society we don’t want dynamics, wewant statics: disaster-free, risk-free, damagefree lives

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We should be aware of these differences aswell when we look for lessons from nature.

In the second place, there may be some newlessons to learn from the analogy:• New in this field, but already out there: the

evolutionary design of processes. This typeof design has only been possible since timecan be compressed by using computers. It isbased on random trial-and error and leads toremarkable products.

• Also new in this field is the use of naturalprocesses instead of modelling processes af-ter nature. Examples are agrification and bio-technology. Such processes have been usedfor a long time, but have not been a concernfor Industrial Ecology until recently. This addsa new dimension: not only the use and dis-persal of mass and energy, but also of geneticinformation may become problematical. Newtools, including ways to assess informationdispersal and its risks, are needed to deal with.

• Evolution discards species but keeps charac-teristics: all evolved basic characteristics arestill there, sometimes only in remote cornersof the world. Such a storage of options to bekept alive enables reaction to changing con-ditions. This storage occurs mainly in micro-organisms, which can react quickly and effi-ciently. Can we think of an analogy for soci-ety?

Material Flow Analysis in NationalEconomies III

Multi-stakeholder Decision Support inLong-term Construction MaterialChain Management: A Dutch CaseStudy Using an MFA Model

Daniel Mueller


The construction material household is influ-enced and shaped by decisions of many differ-ent stakeholders in government, industry andNGOs, including forestry, forest industry, min-ing, construction industry, owners and manag-ers of constructions and waste management.Most of these sectors have their own informa-

tion systems, which support decision making forinternal optimisation. There is a lack of infor-mation systems, which allow them to co-ordi-nate their strategies.

The TU Delft is investigating the Dutch con-struction material household with an MFA model.MFA models provide useful information aboutthe physical context of the stakeholders field ofaction. The effects of different measures can betested with scenarios. This allows different stake-holder groups to co-ordinate their strategies.

First results of the MFA model reveal the im-portance of the construction inventory. The dy-namics of the construction inventory determineresource consumption and waste production. Theconstruction inventory can be regarded as themotor of the construction material household. Incontrary to the forest inventory, there is hardlyany knowledge neither about the dynamics norabout the composition of the construction inven-tory.

The use of the model is being tested for inter-sectoral decision making.

Biological Metabolism and the MaterialFlow Balances of the Food Flux

Ilmo Mäenpää, Helmi Risku-Norja,Kauko Koikkalainen, Pasi Rikkonen,Pekka Vanhala


In this paper a materials flow model betweennature and the food chain part of the economy isoutlined, and the calculation method and prelimi-nary material flow balances for the food chainare presented. The calculations are based on thedata on the agricultural production in Finland in1995.

The material flows of the food chain comprisefour mutually linked loops: 1) the plant produc-tion 2) the livestock husbandry, 3) the food pro-cessing industry and 4) the human consumption.The plant production of agriculture amounts to13 millions tons. About 70 % of the plant pro-duction is used for feeding the livestock to pro-duce the animal products, meat, milk and eggs.A considerable residue from the livestock pro-duction is the manure used as fertiliser in plantproduction. Part of the products of plant cultiva-

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tion and almost all of the products of livestockhusbandry are further processed within the foodindustry to final foodstuffs. The residues of thefood processing industry are mostly returnedback to agriculture as livestock feeds. The hu-mans consume the foodstuffs, and in preparingfood part of the foodstuffs is lost as wastes. Themetabolic wastes of the consumed foodstuffs endup largely into the sewer systems, from whichthe dry matter is recovered as sewage sludge tobe used as fertiliser in landscaping and, to someextent, also in agriculture.

The system boundary between the economyand nature is defined in such a way that the pho-tosynthetic activity responsible for the plantgrowth is considered as the phenomenon of na-ture, while the biological metabolism of the live-stock and humans occurs within the economy.For exact balancing the metabolic material flows,it is necessary to integrate the flows of the nutri-tional materials, feed and food, with those ofwater and of respiration (oxygen in, carbon di-oxide out). Based on the energy approach of themetabolism, preliminary calculation method forthe different livestock species and for humanswill be presented in the paper. The total meta-bolic material flow balances for the food chainwith the four interlinking loops will be estimatedfor Finland in 1995.

The study is a part of the project “The Mate-rial Flows of Agriculture, Ecoefficiency and theSustainable Compatibility of the Food Produc-tion” carried out in collaboration between theMTT - Agrifood Research Finland and the ThuleInstitute at the University of Oulu. The resultswill also be contribute to the overall develop-ment of the material flow accounting statistics,as they are used in compilation of the Finnishphysical input-output tables.

Creating National Physical MaterialFlow Accounts

Donald Rogich


The potential to create a system of nationalphysical accounts, an analog to national eco-nomic accounts, is a reality. Using the UnitedStates as representative model, this paper out-

lines how meaningful national accounts can beconstructed using existing data, and supplemen-tary estimation methodologies.

This paper builds on the work of the WorldResources Institute, as represented in their re-port “The Weight of Nations,” to show howphysical accounts containing both macro (aggre-gated) material flow indicators and detailed sub-accounts can be developed. The aggregated ac-counts provide a strategic picture of the chang-ing scale of physical flows, and the sub-accountscan be structured such that they create an inter-face with tactical substance flow analyses. A dis-cussion of methods for aggregating material flowsub-accounts, based on mode of release, qualityof the flow, and transit time in the economy isalso provided.

Selecting the flows for inclusion in the ac-counts requires criteria which assure that the ac-counts are meaningful, but not overly detailed,and lacking in transparency. The accounts shouldprovide information on all important commod-ity flows, and transformations of the landscape,occurring in the process of resource extraction,and in the creation of the built infrastructure, inaddition to those flows classified as pollutants.Understanding, and managing the activities of acountry, using economic accounts alone, ob-scures the physical reality of these activities.Developing, and incorporating, a system of na-tional physical accounts is a major step towardsovercoming this deficiency.

Material Inputs in the PortugueseEconomy: The DMI approach

Paulo Ferrão, Pedro Conceição, andÂngela Canas


The Dematerialization debate, fuelled by con-cerns about sustainable development, and thesubsequent setting of international goals for re-source productivity increase, such as the Factor2 and 4, have risen the importance of indicatorsof input of materials in the national economiesprovided by Material Flow Analysis. One of themost popular is Total Material Requirement(TMR) which accounts the material aggregatethat enters national economies, measured in

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tones, with or without economic value. This in-dicator has been selected as a key indicator inthe European Union and in United NationsOrganisation, but is of complex calculation duethe general lack of information available on thequantities of not economically valued materials.A simpler and more easily calculated indicatoraccounting only the materials with economicvalue that enter national economies – the DirectMaterial Input (DMI) – can be used as a firstapproach to assess the evolution of the inputs ofmaterials, providing at the same time base infor-mation for a posterior calculation of TMR.

Most of the DMI calculations relying on na-tional official data have been performed for coun-tries with similar economic development in termsof Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita,such as United States of America, Japan andGermany. In this paper the results of the DMIcalculation for Portugal are presented, for theperiod from 1960 to 1998, following the meth-odology presented by Adriaanse et al. in the 1997study Resource Flows: The Material Basis ofIndustrial Economies. These results help thebroadening of the DMI data to lower levers ofGDP per capita, which is important due to thefrequent comparison between material input in-dicators and GDP. Additionally the variation ofthe DMI is submitted to a decomposition analy-sis to allocate the variation of the DMI to thevariation of several factors such as GDP percapita, the material intensity of GDP (DMI/GDP)and employment.

The results indicates a level of DMI in 1998of 174 million tones, nearly 18 tons in a per capitabasis, a level of DMI similar with those for Ja-pan and Germany. Nearly 70% of the DMI comesfrom the natural environment, being the mostimportant categories of materials coming fromthe domestic environment the categories of Rock,Clay and Sand (74%) and Biomass (25%). Whenconsidering the evolution one finds that DMI hasbeen increasing since 1960 (particularly after1987) being this evolution found driven mainlyby the Rock, Clay and Sand category, that hasincreased more than 2000% since 1960. Fromthe decomposition analysis, some periods of de-creasing material intensity of GDP before 1985are detected, although these are not able to trans-late in overall reduction of DMI due to the in-creasing DMI effect because of the increase in

GDP per capita. When considering employmentit was found that DMI per employer has in-creased.

Policy Cases in Industrial Ecology

Free Riding in Voluntary Programs:The Case of the USEPA WasteWiseProgram

Magali Delmas and Arturo Keller


Since the 1990s, more and more VoluntaryAgreements (VAs) involving regulatory agenciesand firms have been formed to develop techno-logical innovation or to reduce pollution. Ourstudy focuses on understanding free-riding be-haviors. Our research question is: What are theincentives that drive organizations to disclose in-formation on environmental performance?

We use the case of the US EPA Wastewiseprogram, which is a voluntary program estab-lished in 1994 as a non-regulatory means of pro-moting reduction of municipal solid waste andprevent pollution. The program is designed toprovide its members with cost-effective solutionsfor waste reduction. In 1999 there were more than900 organizations in the programs and only 20%of these were actually reporting their progress tothe EPA. This paper is based on 106 responsesto a questionnaire sent to Wastewise members.

Previous research in the economics literaturehas shown that information disclosure decreaseswith the cost of disclosure. We build on this lit-erature to show that disclosure will increase whenit provides potential benefits such as improvedreputation. This will depend on how strategic isenvironmental performance for the firm and theoverall reputation of the program. Our surveyindicates that firms will report their environmen-tal performance when enhancing their reputationis their primary incentive to enter the Wastewiseprogram and when upper management is in-volved. We also show that later entrants reportless than first entrants. The lax enforcement ofthe reporting requirements for first entrants mayimpact the behavior of later entrants. This maybe reinforced by the difficulty to monitor a grow-

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ing number of free riders by the EPA.Our paper has important policy implications.

Although firms are seeking help from the regu-latory agency to promote their environmentalefforts, certainty of the rules and their enforce-ment is a key component to avoid free riders.Furthermore, the involvement of the upper man-agement in such voluntary programs decreasesthe amount of free riding.

Renewables as Chemical Feedstocks –An Assessment Prepared Under theEuropean Climate Change Programme

M. Patel, C. Bastioli, K. Doutlik, J.Ehrenberg, D. Johansson, H. Käb, andJ. Klumpers


Between spring 2000 and summer 2001, theEuropean Commission organised its “EuropeanClimate Change Programme” (ECCP), aimed atdeveloping a set of policies and measures(P&Ms) for the EU to achieve its commitmentsunder the Kyoto Protocol. One of the objectivesof the ECCP was to obtain a comprehensive over-view of the reduction potentials for greenhousegases in all sectors. Another was to evaluate, ina broad stakeholder dialogue, the feasibility andeffectiveness of proposed policies and measures.A new feature in the climate policy field was theestablishment of a subgroup under the WorkingGroup Industry entirely devoted to the use of re-newable raw materials (RRM) as a chemicalfeedstock. This is in contrast to renewable en-ergy sources which have been on the policyagenda for several years already and for whichpolicy targets have been established. No suchtargets have as yet been established for the useof biomass as a chemical feedstock in the Euro-pean Union.

Four groups of products, which can be manu-factured from RRM, were studied, namely poly-mers, lubricants, solvents and surfactants. Thisselection comprises mature products which al-ready have considerable market volumes and atthe same time have a potential for increasedshares of RRM feedstocks (mainly for surfac-tants) and in some cases rapidly expanding prod-uct groups (e.g. plastics based on RRM).

In a first step, the quantities of polymers, lu-bricants, solvents and surfactants currently pro-duced from RRM in the EU were established.Next, the expected production volumes by theyear 2010 were estimated. Finally, the savingsof GHG emission relative to comparable prod-ucts based on petrochemical raw materials wereestimated. A distinction was made betweenfirstly, direct emission reduction due to a lowerGHG impact mainly in the production and wastemanagement stage and secondly, indirect emis-sion reduction, enabled mainly by lower energyuse in the use phase of the respective productcontaining RRM-based materials.

The main findings were:• The direct GHG emission reduction potential

amounts to approx. 2% to 4.7% of the totalCO

2 emissions from the chemical industry

(range: without resp. with P&Ms in place).This means that, in the short term, the in-creased use of RRM offers only a limitedemission reduction potential.

• The indirect GHG emission reductions couldbe considerably larger (by an order of magni-tude) than the direct GHG emission reduc-tions. Examples are the use of starch as fillerfor car tyres and vegetable based motor oil(reduced friction).

• In the long term, by making use of biotech-nology, large reductions of CO

2 emissions

could be achieved by producing bulk chemi-cals from biomass feedstocks. Additionally,due to their bio-degradability, substancesbased on RRMs have the potential to contrib-ute to the reduction of various health and en-vironmental risks by reducing contaminationof soil and water.The RRM group prepared a list of possible

P&Ms which would support an accelerated in-troduction of RRMs in each of the four productgroups studied.

Techno-economic Life Cycle Modeling

Dolf Gielen and Yuichi Moriguchi


Industrial ecology poses a framework formany research topics. This presentation focuseson national and international environmental poli-

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cies regarding bulk commodities.Bulk commodities are part of economic

policy, national security, agricultural policy orenvironmental policy. Contrary to environmen-tal policies for substances, environmental com-modity policies are much more complex becausecosts and benefits are uncertain. Transformationof bulk commodities constitutes a major part ofthe total economic activities (mining, agricultureand industry). As a consequence a change of bulkcommodity flows can have major economic im-pacts.

Commodity policies in the past were largelydriven by strategic concerns regarding the lackof adequate future supply of raw materials,amongst others driven by such messages fromthe scientific community. The European agricul-tural policy is still based on the principle of foodself-sufficiency. Environmental concerns pose arelatively new policy incentive. For example theinterest in energy policies can be explained bythe oil price increase during the 70s and 80s, andthe emergence of the global warming problemin the 90s

In fact prices of most commodities have fallenduring the last century. Moreover economistshave been arguing that natural resources can besubstituted, and technological development bal-ances resource exhaustion. This has lead to thewidespread belief that the resource scarcity prob-lems are in fact not severe, which has resulted ina declining policy interest in resource policies.This trend is in marked contrast with the emer-gence of industrial ecology as a policy field. Thisraises the question: are scientists mistaken or arepolicy makers misinformed? This question willbe discussed on the basis of studies regardingthe welfare effects of bulk materials policies.

The international trade of commodities is in-creasing rapidly. Moreover the scale of environ-mental problems is increasing. This poses newchallenges for environmental research. The re-cent problems regarding the Kyoto protocol showthe problems regarding international environ-mental policies with potentially significant eco-nomic consequences. As a consequence it is rec-ommended to include more elements of the es-tablished economics and policy sciences into theindustrial ecology field. In order to illustrate therelevance of such studies some examples will bediscussed regarding our recent work on inte-

grated techno-economic modeling on differentspatial scale levels for petrochemicals, iron andsteel and agriculture.

Ecodesign in the EU: Can We Hope forFactor X?

Arnold Tukker


As a support to the development of an Inte-grated Product Policy (IPP) in the EU, five lead-ing institutes (TNO, Vito, econcept, CfSD, VDI)in the field of sustainable product development(SPD) have analysed the state of the art in Eu-rope. For each EU member state, four elementsreflecting the demand and supply side of SPDwere analysed. It concerns method development,dissemination, and education (supply side ori-ented) and practical application (demand sideoriented). A structured, qualitative indicator sys-tem (based on so called ‘maturity profiles’) wasdeveloped that were used to obtain a judgementof a set of (inter)national experts per country oneach element. To get additional insight in practi-cal application, additionally an inquiry to theFortune 500 companies was performed.

The results showed that the EU countries canroughly de developed in three groups: ‘front run-ners’, who set the scene for about 10 years withregard to method development and dissemina-tion; ‘intermediates’, who have been setting uptheir programmes for some 5 years now; and‘inactives’, where SPD only in individual casesis practised. It was striking, though, that even inthe front runner countries practical applicationwas still quite limited. Even there ecodesign ismainly practised by several dozen of ‘champion’firms, and mainly concentrating on incrementalimprovements rather than re-design or systeminnovations. The front runners are mainly ad-vanced with regard to method development andto some extend dissemination and education. Theconclusions are straightforward. Concerningmethod development, dissemination of knowl-edge should take place from front runners to otherEU countries. New method development shouldmainly concentrate on issues still new for them(e.g. methods aimed at functional innovation).Dissemination should have more emphasis.

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Above all, it should be analysed how the demandside of SPD can be strengthened.

Note: this lecture will be an adapted versionof the talk held during the conference TowardsSustainable Product Design 5. Due to the timepressure I used an old summary for this abstract.I feel that even in its original form the messageis still new and interesting for IE practitioners,and for SPD practitioners from the US, but inorder to have a different story I’ll put some moreemphasis on the conditions that are needed tocome to widespread dissemination and applica-tion of SPD/ecodesign.

Structural Change and Economics

Exergy and Work: Accounting for theSolow Residual

R.U. Ayres

It has long been obvious that a feedback pro-cess involving energy (exergy) consumptionplays an important role in economic growth.Since the first industrial revolution, animal andhuman labor have been increasingly replaced bymechanical work, powered by fossil fuel com-bustion. Lower costs lead to lower prices, whichencourage increased consumption, which con-tributes to learning-by-doing and economies ofscale, resulting in lower costs, etc. Yet conven-tional economic growth theory does not explic-itly recognize this mechanism, merely introduc-ing a time dependent multiplier (the Solow re-sidual) called ‘technical progress’. We show thatmost technical progress in the US economy dur-ing the period 1900-1998 can be explained interms of increasing thermodynamic efficiency inconverting primary exergy to mechanical workor thermal quasi-work. Some implications forenergy (exergy) conservation and the so-called‘rebound effect’ are discussed.

An Approach to Dynamic Environmen-tal Life-cycle Assessment by EvaluatingStructural Economic Sequences

Thomas Gloria


This paper presents an approach to dynamicenvironmental life-cycle assessment based on thephilosophy of Structural Economics and the con-structs of temporal economic Input-Output in-terindustry modeling. Structural Economics pro-vides a framework that integrates ecological eco-nomic and environmental engineering concernsin a system-wide perspective that is suitable forcomparing the implications of alternative futurecourses of action. The Structural Economic phi-losophy is realized using a Sequential Interin-dustry Model (SIM) approach. SIM considers thetime consuming nature of the production processand the corresponding timing of industry input.In essence, SIM unravels the “whirlpools” ofinterindustry relationships, providing an empiri-cal approach to investigate transient behavior offinite economic activities. The methodology isdemonstrated via a case study examining theenvironmental implications of introducing FuelCell Electric Vehicles into the U.S Economy overa period of twenty years. Scenarios developedin the case study embrace the constructs of ex-perimental design, achieving rigorous results.

Assessing the Dynamics of IndustrialEcosystems

Matthias Ruth


Industrial ecology borrows concepts and toolsfrom engineering and economics in efforts toidentify optimal materials and energy use, andto reduce environmental impact of productionand consumption activities. As a result of theirchoice of concepts and tools, analyses are oftenstatic or comparative static in nature, tend to in-adequately represent the behavior of decisionmakers and thus fall short of their full potentialimpact in environmental investment and policymaking.

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This paper argues for the application of dy-namic approaches in industrial ecology to assessmaterials and energy use, technology change, andemissions. Three case studies of industrial en-ergy use in the USA are presented – one each forthe iron and steel, pulp and paper, and ethyleneindustry. The dynamic models of these indus-tries are used to investigate alternative carbonemissions and investment-led policies. The re-sults clearly point towards the need for differen-tiated policy approaches which take industry-specific features into account, in order to effec-tively influence, over time, industrial fuel mixand carbon emissions.

Structural Decomposition of the Iron,Steel and Plastic Flows in the DutchEconomy, 1990-1997

Rutger Hoekstra andJereon van den Bergh


Physical input-output tables of the iron, steeland plastic product flows for the Netherlands arepresented for 1990 and 1997. The relationshipbetween these flows and the economic structureis analyzed using structural decomposition. Thismethod decomposes the sources of physicalflows changes into different changes in the mon-etary and physical input-output tables. Techno-logical, trade, consumption and sector shift ef-fects can be distinguished using this method. Forthe technological change the substitution of metaland plastics will be highlighted. Conclusionabout the main driving forces of the metal andplastic use change over this period will be drawn.

Eco-Design I

Models and Tools for End-of-LifeProduct Management

Manbir Sodhi and Winston Knight


At end-of-life products must be processed fordisposal and/or recycling. This involves a net-

work of operations including collection, trans-portation and storage, together with combinationsof disassembly, bulk recycling and disposal of aportion of the product by landfill or incineration.The economics of the overall recycling networkis often dominated by the costs of collection andstorage because of the relatively low value ofrecovered materials. In addition decisions of thebest combination of disassembly and bulk recy-cling may be necessary, along with other deci-sions concerning the batching of products forprocessing and so on. Determination of the mosteffective arrangement for a recycling networkinvolves consideration of the various steps in theprocess. This paper outlines models for determi-nation of best operating conditions for differentstages in the overall process. Included are mod-els for collection logistics, product analysis fordisassembly, analysis of materials separation andoverall recycling networks.

Models representing some of the lowest lev-els of the collection problem have been proposedand these allow an analysis of the operations ofa truck collecting material from a variety ofsources. The truck-sizing problem has been pre-sented as a constrained news vendor problem,with the amount available for pickup being thewaste material, and the constraints representingthe bin (truck partition) sizes. In addition, a modelintegrating the material recovery, disassembly,disposal and collection has also been formulated.

Models for determining the best separationsequences for material mixtures produced byshredding during bulk recycling have been de-veloped. These are used in combination with apreviously developed analysis tool for disassem-bly and environmental assessment. Bulk recy-cling of the product rest fraction at any stage ofdisassembly has been analyzed using the mate-rial separation analysis procedures describedabove. This analysis confirms the general find-ing that small products do not release sufficientmaterial value to overcome the labor costs ofdisassembly. However, bulk recycling of suchproducts can possibly result in sufficient recov-ered value to outweigh the costs of processing.The software tool for determining appropriateseparation sequences for material mixtures hasbeen used to investigate general problems of theprocessing of batches of different products thatresult in different material mixtures. The

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batching problem is one of selection of groupsof products to be processed together, i.e. asbatches, for separation by bulk recycling meth-ods. Since different products result in differentmaterial mixtures the benefits or disadvantagesfrom processing the mixtures together or sepa-rately can be determined.

Methodology for the Design of Sustain-able Chemical Processes

Gijsbert Korevaar , G. Jan Harmsen,and Saul M. Lemkowitz


Sustainable Development deals with largetime and spatial scales. This implies many un-certainties, for which robust chemical plants withrather long lives have to be designed. Moreover,design, including design of sustainable processes,occurs amidst competing societal, economic, andenvironmental constraints. The process designercan not influence most of these, although theconcept of sustainable development presupposesthat these constraints are integrated into everystep of the innovation process.

It is therefore necessary to develop a meth-odology which, firstly, enables engineers to ef-fectively incorporate the complex and oftenvague concept of sustainable development intodesign and, secondly, reduces complexity to aworkable level without neglecting essentialsustainability criteria. In our case we mean withdesign the conceptual process design phase,which results in the construction of a flowsheettogether with mass and heat balances. Based onthis, estimations can be made on the cost perfor-mance and the environmental benignity of theprocess.

Just like any other design, the conceptual pro-cess design of chemical process consists of fourstages. First, setting the problem definition rightconsidering the goal, constraints, and necessarydomain knowledge. Then optimally combiningthe solutions in the synthesis part, guided by thecreative and knowledge-based thinking of thedesigner. In the analysis of possible solutions, aprocedure of reiteration occurs to determinewhether the design is the best available solutionto the given problem; this includes applying vari-

ous criteria to test the robustness of the design.Finally the design is evaluated in the assessmentphase, from which it can go on to the next levelof detail. Of course, the steps are repeated fre-quently throughout this whole scheme.

From the perspective of sustainability, thereare some specific demands to a design method-ology. First, there must be a well-defined linkbetween the problem definition phase and theanalysis phase. Therefore we focus on methodsfor the definition of the design problem and thetrade off in the analysis phase. Secondly, syn-thesis tools have to be developed, so that the gen-eration of alternatives can be done constructivelytowards sustainability considerations. Further on,sustainability asks for a broader definition of theengineering practice; by this we mean that in asustainable design the process engineer musthave insight into the whole product and processlife cycle and also must have the openness towork with societal issues during the design.

Based on this, our research approach consistsof the following three parts.

1) Translating vague and broad societal consid-erations into concretely defined engineeringcriteria. These criteria concern important is-sues of the sustainable development debatethat should be understood and applied by pro-cess designers.

2) Secondly, the design methodology is con-structed using knowledge from both generaldesign theories and existing chemical engi-neering practice. The frameworkconceptualises and structures the approach ofthe design problem and locates appropriatedesign methods. The design methods solvespecific problems and generate alternativesolutions.

3) Developing new tools and guides applicableto specific aspects of sustainable design, suchas using insight into exergy for choosing op-timal chemical synthesis route.We present a short overview of our design

methodology illustrating every step by examples.In the problem definition phase, stakeholder as-sessment and scenario building are mentioned.In the synthesis phase, route selection is impor-tant as well as the use of guidelines based onfundamental insights, like irreversible thermo-dynamics, and thinking in terms of task insteadof unit operation. In the analysis phase, a forum

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discussion is helpful to assay the final designconcept against the stakeholders needs.

Industrial Ecology andGreen Chemistry

Rebecca Lankey and Paul Anastas


Over the past decade industrial ecology hasbecome a well-developed concept. The nextstage in evolution of industrial ecology will re-quire innovative technologies to further advancethe goals and ideas set forth by the industrial ecol-ogy community. Green chemistry and engineer-ing provides a fundamental approach towardsdesigning products and processes to prevent oreliminate pollution and waste. Green chemistryresearch and technologies offer methods bywhich industry can make tangible environmen-tal improvements while also maintaining or im-proving its economic viability. This talk willdescribe the relationship between industrial ecol-ogy and green chemistry and will provide spe-cific examples of how green chemistry and en-gineering technologies are providing solutionsto the challenges set forth by the industrial ecol-ogy and sustainable development concepts. Thepresentation will also describe how the envi-ronmental benefits of green chemistry technolo-gies can be analyzed with qualitative and quan-titative metrics and with the tool of life cycleassessment, and LCA case studies of selectedtechnologies will be presented.

Lifecycle Assessment of Toner Particles

Anahita Ahmadi, Brendan Williamson,Thomas L. Theis and Susan E. Powers


The xerographic industry has seen remarkableadvances in speed and quality of prints in thepast few decades. This technology is still im-proving today with many companies competingfor the future in copy and print technology. Oneof the main components in the xerographic pro-cess is the marking material, or toner. Toner isdry ink that creates the image on paper during

the xerographic process used in most copiers andsome large printers. The conventional methodof toner production is a process by which par-ticles are mechanically broken down to the de-sired size distribution. The manufacturing pro-cesses for toner production, however, are alsoprogressing as the industry advances. This isgood for researchers and scientists working onfuture technology, but what does this mean forthe environment? Are the new technologies nec-essarily better? What are the costs (or the ben-efits) associated with the new technologies? Toevaluate future technologies, the current technol-ogy must be evaluated as a baseline.

This presentation reports on a lifecycle assess-ment (LCA) that is being performed on a con-ventional toner manufacturing process. The goalof a life cycle assessment (LCA) is to examinethe environmental effects related to a process orproduct from the initial point where raw materi-als are gathered to the point where all the residu-als are recycled, reused, or returned to the earth.It is an evaluation tool that can be used to showareas of improvement within a process, or com-pare the environmental performance of similarprocesses. LCA’s consist of four main phases:scoping, inventory, impact, and improvement.During scoping, the problem, objectives, andprocedures are defined. The life cycle inventory(LCI) phase is critical and accounts for all thematerial and energy flows in the processes. Thesystem boundaries are also defined during theLCI. The impact phase consists of analysis ofthe data obtained in the LCI to determine indi-vidual steps within each process that have thegreatest environmental impact. Finally, improve-ments are suggested and implemented to opti-mize the process.

Initial findings suggest that the onsite manu-facturing process is nearly optimized for massflows (97% material yield) but does require largeenergy inputs, especially in the grinding process.The system boundaries have been extended bothup- and down-stream beyond the onsite process.Final results, problems encountered, and sugges-tions for future LCA’s, are the focus of the pre-sentation.

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Closing the Loop: Soft Barriers

Industrial Symbiosis: No Time to Waste

Maria Alexandra Aragão


The new ring-shaped economy aims at REDUC-ING, REUSING and RECYCLING the material flowsbetween the social and the environmentalspheres. Industrial ecology is one of the morefeasible and effective ways to close the circle,accomplishing the third «R».

Ecological association between companies(called INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY when carried out be-tween industrial undertakings) depends on thematching of their waste energy outputs and wastematerial outputs on one hand, to their energy andmaterial inputs on the other hand.

In the right background conditions (estab-lished by economic, fiscal and planning rules)these secondary energy and material flowsemerge from spontaneous convergences betweenindustrial undertakings. In this case we have SYM-BIOTIC INDUSTRIES. However, public authorities canalso unilaterally impose enterprise associations,for ecological reasons, when authorizing theproject of a new industry. In that case we havePARASITICAL INDUSTRIES. This situation is benefi-cial at least for one of the industries involvedbut, above all, it’s beneficial for the society as awhole.

Nevertheless, besides all the ecological ben-efits, one of the main reasons for the importanceof ecological associations between industries isto refine the European concept of WASTE as statedin article 1 a) of the 75/442/EEC framework di-rective on waste management.

After analyzing the concept of waste in thelegal doctrine and in the latest European Courtdecisions, we will conclude that in some condi-tions, recyclable materials reintroduced as SEC-ONDARY RAW MATERIAL in a production processshould be excluded from the concept of waste.This also will allow the distinction between re-cycling facilities and waste treatment facilities.

The core question is: when can we consider asecondary raw material not to be waste?

To answer the question we have to distinguishbetween:

a) internal recycling and external recycling,b) external recycling before and after consump-

tion, and, finally,c) exogenous and ENDOGENOUS EXTERNAL RECY-

CLING BEFORE CONSUMPTION.Only this last category can be exempt from

the application of the waste legislation (namelyrules on waste movements) without impairing thefundamental ecological purposes of EuropeanWaste Law.

Overcoming Opposition to UsingRecycled Materials: Industrial Ecologyin Manchester

Ian Douglas and Nigel Lawson


Many communities base their environmentalconcerns on the visible elements of pollution andcontamination. In Greater Manchester fears ofdioxins and other toxic materials from incinera-tor chimneys generally has inhibited the treat-ment of municipal solid waste (MSW) by incin-eration. The smoke emerging from chimneys thatis easily seen concerns people more than any hid-den leachates that may be escaping undergroundfrom landfills. Similar concerns over evidentparticles such as fragments of syringes and smallbatteries in soil forming materials manufacturedfrom MSW causes regulatory authorities to denypermission for its use as a soil improver onbrownfield sites which are being planted withtrees or other vegetation.

As much as 220,000 tons per annum ofGreater Manchester’s MSW could potentially berecycled as such soil forming material and beused as part of the remediation of contaminatedland and old landfill sites in lieu of requiring dis-posal in “new” sites. In Greater Manchester 900closed landfill sites and 3217 ha of derelict landwith potential for redevelopment, but which needadditional soil material for successful plantgrowth, still await reclamation. Trials are cur-rently being undertaken to enhance the accept-ability of this soil forming material reclaimedfrom MSW as a means of improving the organiccontent of surfaces of reclaimed sites.

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Concerns over the character and consistencyof the appearance of reclaimed materials and aperception that all secondary products are infe-rior may also restrict the use of building prod-ucts made from recycled aggregates derived fromconstruction and demolition waste (C&D waste).A survey of businesses involved in the differentstages of demolition, treatment and reuse of C&Dwaste is seeking to identify the contrasts betweenreal barriers and perceived problems in this as-pect of industrial ecology. This study of busi-ness strategies will complement a scientificevaluation and risk assessment of recycling con-taminated C&D wastes. Initial results alreadydemonstrate that total background levels of somepotential pollutants exceed current guideline lev-els even in supposedly uncontaminated material.Issues of risks associated with end uses and ofmobility of pollutants have to be addressed.These studies demonstrate the need to combinerobust science with a better understanding of theconcerns of the wider population in order to gainacceptance of recycling possibilities and enhancethe human ecology of old industrial landscapes.

Policy Design For Material RecoverySystems: A Case Study of Policy andTechnology Based Obstacles for Eco-efficiency in the Recycling System ofPlastic Packaging from Households inTrondheim, Norway

Hilde Nøsen Opoku and Arne Eik


Previous studies undertaken separately by thetwo authors have identified obstacles in the plas-tic recovery system in Trondheim – the third larg-est city in Norway -, at the political and admin-istrative levels and in terms of technology basedsolutions. The intention of this paper is to com-bine and elaborate on these findings.

Last year 22% of the national consumed plas-tic packaging was recycled in Norway. From thetotal annual consumption of 100.000 tons plas-tic packaging, 55.000 tons comes from the house-holds. Ultimately then, 55.000 tons plastic pack-aging should be collected and redistributed, alongnational guidelines, for further treatment at themunicipality level.

Norwegian municipalities have a great dealof autonomy concerning their waste collectionstrategies. Today more than half (250) of somefour hundred municipalities have introducedsource separation and recycling systems for plas-tic packaging. One of them is Trondheim, situ-ated by one of the fjords 500km north of the capi-tal Oslo.

In 1997 Trondheim municipality introduceda source sorting system based on four separatewaste bins at the curbside. The intention was toreduce the amount of waste going to the incin-erator and landfill, and to increase the potentialfor recycling. The local source sorting systemcontains three normal-sized bins: The one for‘Paper and hard paper ‘ together with the one for‘Environmental Waste’ are both designed formaterials recycling, while the purpose of the lastone, ‘Residuals’, is energy recovery. In additiona small container for hazardous waste is kept atthe household. The concern of our study is thebin labeled ‘Environmental waste’.

Instructions regarding the interior of this par-ticular bin have varied over time, a source of frus-tration in the populace. Throughout the period,however, ‘Environmental waste’ has included avarious set of sources. Today plastics, metal anddrinking beverages (drikkekartong) are collectedhere, often resulting in unclean fractions unsuit-able for material recovery.

Now, four years after the introduction of thesource separation system, only 9% of the totalamount of the plastic packaging waste from thehouseholds are recycled into new plastic prod-ucts. Our hypothesis is that these rather disap-pointing results lies in poor policy design due toinsufficient will and understanding of the prob-lem at both political and administrative levels,resulting in inadequate technical solutions.

Traditionally, as far as Industrial Ecology ismanifested in a tradition, advocates of IndustrialEcology from the technical and natural sciencestend to focus on economic and technical barrierswhen analyzing the efficiency of recycling sys-tems. The importance of sufficient policy designand implementation is often overlooked. On thecontrary, Social scientists have a hard time as-sessing the technology being used, ending upwith conclusions that might prevent a more ho-listic problem description. This study combinesthe two approaches hoping to overcome these

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shortcomings in our analysis of the plastic pack-aging recovery system in Trondheim.

Our data is based on an extensive analysis ofthe policy designed for the source sorting sys-tem and its implementation in a particular cityarea. Secondly, statistics of the recycling rate forthat particular area in 1999, 2000 and 2001 willbe analysed in comparison with the developmentat the policy level. Finally an LCA analysis iden-tifying where in the life cycle loss of materialoccurs will be carried out, to support suggestionsfor improvements in the system. The goal is tobridge empirical knowledge from traditionallytwo separated scientific cultures and give a moreprofound problem description of a recycling sys-tem.

Unique Non-profit Assists Auto Recyclerwith Environmental Compliance

Jack W. Scannell


Historically, in a similar way as municipallandfills, automobile recycling businesses wereoften established in less favorable, sparsely popu-lated geographical areas of little interest to theaverage person unless a used car part was needed.Given such isolation and low visibility to thegeneral public and regulatory agencies, these op-erations were left alone for many years to dobusiness and manage their part of the environ-ment at their discretion. Due to the nature oftheir business and a general hands-off policy,most developed into a visual eyesore and seri-ous potential source of pollution.

As land use needs and environmental regula-tions changed over the years, some automobilerecycling companies suddenly found themselvesscrutinized by different federal, state and localregulatory agencies. On-site investigations byagency inspectors frequently confirmed the se-riousness of the problems. The issues are var-ied, ranging from clearly identified land, air andwater pollution to complex environmental jus-tice concerns for nearby multicultural residen-tial neighborhoods. Consequently, these typesof companies have often been given an ultima-tum: clean up and comply, or shut down.

For some businesses, the task of cleaning upand doing what it takes to comply represents aninsurmountable problem due to the size of op-erations and lack of knowledge for overhaulinga large business operation for compliance withgovernment regulations.

While some companies may have chosen toshut down under these circumstances, one auto-mobile recycling company in Seattle, WA choseto seek technical assistance from a qualified non-profit environmental technical assistance orga-nization chartered for providing free services toindustry. The Environmental Coalition of SouthSeattle (ECOSS) is a local organization with aunique position within the community, and areputation for providing such qualified servicesto businesses in all industrial sectors. This paperdescribes some of the work by ECOSS staff toassist Affordable Auto Wrecking in correctingand/or improving their facility for required com-pliance with environmental regulations in themedia of air and stormwater. These activities alsoincluded the development and implementationof comprehensive plans for both source and struc-tural controls for pollution prevention in variousareas of the facility. As a result, Affordable AutoWrecking was able to continue full business op-erations as an improved environmental stewardand partner in the community.

Technical Program V

Social Framework III

Solving New Environmental Problemsby Going Beyond Regulation andResponse

Clinton Andrews


This paper describes the popular conceptionof an environmental problem-solving system thatrelies on government regulation and industry re-sponse, and then shows how it fails to addressimportant new environmental threats. It identi-fies alternative pathways for solving environmen-tal problems that focus much more on individual

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choices in a variety of social contexts, drawingon the experience of the recently completed NewJersey Comparative Risk Project.

The paper begins by arguing that environmen-tal policymaking in post-industrial countries mustchange to reflect the rise of “second generation”environmental problems. “First generation” en-vironmental problems included belching smoke-stacks, mountainous garbage dumps, and otherobvious insults. For these problems, a scientificconsensus existed regarding root causes and po-tential solutions. In recent years, first generationproblems have been supplanted by second gen-eration issues such as tailpipe emissions and sub-urban lawn runoff that are subtler and more dis-persed. Accompanying these newer problems arediffused responsibility and rampant scientificuncertainty, which conspire to paralyze existingpolicymaking processes.

The paper then maps the current governmen-tal regulatory system, which is supposed to workas follows: adverse environmental conditionsshould affect public perceptions, which shouldinfluence government policies, which shouldmodify the behavior of firms and other offend-ers, which should improve environmental con-ditions. This “problem-solving” conception isembedded in the civic dialogue about the envi-ronment, and it represents an optimistic, ratio-nalist vision of the processes by which environ-mental information affects environmental out-comes.

Next the paper dissects the problem-solvingmodel of environmental policymaking, showingthat other factors often drown out the weak sig-nals being transmitted from scientists, to citizens,to government, to polluters. While acknowledg-ing that the model has some descriptive and pre-scriptive value, the paper argues that it needsdrastic re-thinking. The paper offers a better ap-proach based on three central tenets. First,policymakers must concentrate on measuringwhat matters, as the indicators movement advo-cates. Second, it must reflect the decentralizednature of real environmental decision-makingand support both bottom-up and top-down ini-tiatives, as the devolution and green consumermovements do. Third, environmental policymaking must concentrate on reconciling compet-ing civic objectives, as the sustainable develop-ment paradigm attempts to do.

By examining environmental regulation as ifit were a coherent social problem solving activ-ity, we gain a better understanding of why itsometimes is not. We know that much social, po-litical, and economic activity in fact ignores en-vironmental problems rather than addressingthem in a timely manner. By integrating and ex-tending previous work on risk perception, pub-lic opinion, regulatory policy, and impact analy-sis, this paper presents a unified view of thewhole process of environmental improvement,and it shows how the process itself might beimproved.

New data are available to illustrate the themesoutlined above. The author is one of the princi-pals of the New Jersey Comparative Risk Project,a multi-year effort to characterize and then rankthe state’s environmental problems. Funded bythe US Environmental Protection Agency and theNew Jersey Department of Environmental Pro-tection, this project blends scientific knowledgeand stakeholder values in an elaborate processinvolving dozens of experts, repeated interactionswith stakeholders and public officials, and out-reach to the general public. For 75 environmen-tal problems spanning 11 major categories, sci-entists have prepared peer-reviewed analyses oftheir impacts on human health, ecological qual-ity, and socioeconomic concerns. This paper willuse illustrative results of this project as a spring-board for investigating broader questions aboutthe social framework of industrial ecology.

Stakeholder Involvement in Life-CycleAssessment

Robert Anex


Recognition of the contingent and social na-ture of human interpretation of the environmen-tal impacts and environmental risks created byboth public and private decisions has led to anincreased appreciation of the importance of in-volving stakeholders in the assessment of theserisks and impacts. Human responses to environ-mental change represent risk management strat-egies reflecting complex judgments about envi-ronmental and economic risks which are in-turnderived from more subtle social-cultural-psycho-

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logical judgments anchored in ethical and his-toric beliefs about nature and humans’ relation-ship with it. In order for analysis to capture thefull complexity of human responses to environ-mental change, stakeholders should be involvedin the process.

In risk assessment the need to involve stake-holders in evaluating and prioritizing risks forpolicy attention is becoming accepted generally.Arguments for stakeholder involvement in envi-ronmental assessments can be situated comfort-ably in the National Research Council’s (NRC)1996 prescription that reconceptualizes risk as-sessment as a recursive analytic-deliberative pro-cess, instead of the strictly top-down science-driven process. The 1996 NRC report identifiedtwo challenges in implementing the analytic-de-liberative process. The first of these concernedthe substance of risk-based decision-making:how to get the science right and how to get theright science. The second concerned the processof risk-based decision-making: how to get stake-holder participation right and how to get the rightstakeholder participation. In this paper, a risk-based LCA framework is proposed that recom-mends stakeholder participation strategies de-signed to meet these challenges and enhance theeffectiveness of policy-driven analyses such asLCA, based on the level of trust that stakehold-ers have of various policy participants.

Individuals, Social Groups, and Institu-tions: An Examination of the Locus ofDecision Making with Major Impact onthe Environment

Faye Duchin


Industrial Ecology focuses on 2 categories ofdecision makers, corporate managers and gov-ernment policy makers, and their control overmaterial and energy flows. Society of course in-cludes a wider set of decision makers, but theyare physically more dispersed, they are assumedto be more passive, and their impact is consid-ered more incremental and indirect. The key ex-ample of such “weak” decision makers is con-sumers. However, the social landscape is com-plex because of the extensive overlap of roles

(e.g., some consumers are also managers, allmanagers are also consumers, and no one is onlya manager and a consumer). In addition, the pros-pects for institutional changes that can strengthenweak decision makers, like the emergence of anenvironmental movement that influences groupbehavior or the creation of non-governmental,not-for-profit organizations in the public inter-est like Public Citizen, the U.S. organization thatlitigates on behalf of all consumers, are as sig-nificant as those for technological change. Thispaper explores the set of actors and the possi-bilities and constraints they face. I go on to sug-gest directions for broadening the social land-scape of Industrial Ecology in a way that is basedin social theory that relates categories of deci-sion makers to the flows of energy and materialsassociated with the activities that follow uponthe kinds of decisions they make on both a rou-tine and an exceptional basis.

Implementing Industrial Ecology – APolicy Science Exercise?

Arnold Tukker


Industrial Ecology (IE) typically focuses ongreening of major parts of our societal systems,usually asking for rather radical changes com-pared with the current situation on longer term.Metaphors used are ‘Factor X’, ‘transitions’, and‘system innovations’. IE seems to have its rootspredominantly in natural science oriented re-search: a typical issue of the Journal of Indus-trial Ecology mainly contains papers on massflow analyses, LCAs, input-output analyses, etc.

There is of course nothing wrong with that.Analytical tools can certainly help to give guid-ance into which direction the required systemschanges have to take place. However, when itcomes down to implementing the ideas of suchnatural science based IE research, a number oftypical problems is encountered. These problemsare mainly based in the fact that IE deals withlarge societal subsystems and hence a lot of ac-tors, and environmental problems that are inher-ently complex:1. Often, there is no such thing as one single view

on what is the problem, and the solution. There

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might be different paradigms or frames thatdifferent actors related to the IE system atstake adhere to.

2. Often, there is no clear dominant problemowner or decision taker either. It is the net-work of actors, working together (or not), thatlets things happen.Two examples will be given of such problems.

One is the problem of diffuse emissions leadingto polluted sediments in the Netherlands, askingfor an integrated, EU wide IE approach to therelated compounds – but where in fact EU regu-lation of free trade blocks all initiatives, sup-ported by those who do not like such a sourceoriented IE approach. The second example is thedebate on the use of a number of toxic substancesin products, where the balance of power in theproduction-consumption chain actually deter-mines if a risk-based management approach (us-ing the substances and keeping their productioninfrastructure intact) or a precautionary manage-ment approach (phasing large production systemsof chemicals out) is applied. The conclusion isstraightforward. Implementing Industrial Ecol-ogy implies:1. Dealing with an analysing the views of the

stakeholders that have key position in the IEsystem at stake;

2. Designing processes, based on the notion ofnetwork management, that can overcome op-posing views or other institutional barriers,and create arrangements that lead to action.Which means asking policy science to come

to rescue.

Eco-Design II

The GQFD as a Methodology of Envi-ronmentally-Conscious Manufacturing

Andrea Raggi, Luigia Petti, andLorella Mercuri


In today’s globally competitive market, de-sign and manufacturing of products that meetcustomer requirements and environmental con-straints has become the goal for most manufac-turing organizations. The concept of environmen-

tal quality is becoming increasingly importantand the “green” behaviour of many companiesis also a result of consumer demand for environ-mentally-friendly products. These issues must beconsidered at the product design stage.

Green Quality Function Deployment (GQFD)is a recently proposed tool, providing an efficientmethodology to face such problems.

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a sys-tem for translating customer requirements intoappropriate company requirements at each stagefrom research and product development to engi-neering and manufacturing to market and distri-bution. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) assessesthe environmental impacts for all activities tak-ing place over a product’s full life cycle, “fromcradle to grave”.

Environmental conscious manufacturing canbe implemented by integrating LCA (and LCC)into QFD matrixes.

This paper presents a critical review of thismethodology and an attempt to point out newadvancements.

Advances in Design for Environment atMotorola: 5 Years of Lessons Learned

Katrin Mueller, Michael Riess, MarkusStutz, Doreen Schnecke, SiegfriedPongratz, W.F. Hoffman III, IonNicolaescu, Steve Scheifers, andBob Pfahl


We first described the processes and methodsMotorola was using to implement Design forEnvironment in the Winter 1997 JIE. Many ofthose methods survive today but many aspectsof DfE have also changed. The intervening fiveyears have also seen considerable change in thecompetitiveness of environmental issues. It isno longer just regulation and environmental ac-tivists setting the pace of environmental innova-tion, companies are beginning to compete basedon the environmental attributes of their products.New initiatives have also been implemented tomeet the needs of management of portfolios ofproducts and the engineering design process. Yetmany issues remain. External regulations still

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loom, banning specific materials and demand-ing the design of recyclable products. This pa-per will describe how time and experience havemodified our initial Design for Environment ini-tiatives and what new directions are being takento implement DfE within Motorola.

Regional Material Flow Analysis

On MFA and Policy-Making, or What ifData Uncertainties Were Considered?

Fredrik Burström and Lena Danius


Regional material flow analysis/accounting(MFA) has been proposed as an analytical toolto be used in various environmental managementdecision-making situations, for example as a toolfor early recognition of major problem flows orstocks, priority setting, effective policy and goalmaking, follow-up/analysing trends, and screen-ing (Burström, 1999, Hendriks et. al., 2000, Udode Haes et al., 1998). However, data uncertain-ties in MFA, as in other environmental systemanalysis tools such as LCA, are very often ofvarying standard. This leads to questions like:How reliable are the results? How big recordeddifference between flows is necessary to guar-antee that one is larger than the other? Has animprovement really occurred from one year toanother? For LCA there exist a number of meth-ods to deal with data uncertainties (Björklund,2000). Data uncertainties connected with MFAstudies are however mostly not dealt with. Theusual way of handling these questions is to con-clude that, in spite of the unknown uncertain-ties, the result is good enough and that the cor-rect order of magnitude of the different flows areaccounted for.

Aiming to raise the awareness on the gener-ally neglected but very important issue of datauncertainties in MFA, the paper analyses howdata uncertainties affect the results in an MFAstudy and the possibilities to give policy recom-mendations for related to environmental policyand management. A newly developed model todetermine, present and calculate data uncertain-ties in MFA studies (Hedbrandt & Sörme, 2001)is modified and applied on data from an earlier

case study of nitrogen metabolism in the Swed-ish municipality of Västerås. Two situationswhere regional MFA is proposed to be useful willbe investigated: priority setting and follow-uprespectively. Priority setting is investigated byanalysing data uncertainties for different flowsand their mutual relation within one year, 1995or 1998. Following up is looked upon byanalysing the change of particular flows betweenthe two years 1995 and 1998.

When the nitrogen flows are analysed with-out consideration of data uncertainties, it appearsthat certain conclusions can be drawn concern-ing relative importance for the total load on theenvironment. But when data uncertainty is con-sidered, the conclusions are not so given. In thesituation when MFA is used as a tool for prioritysetting the following can happen: Two flows thatearlier seemed to be of the same importance, canin extreme situations vary so that any one of thetwo flows are twice as large as the comparedflow. Flows that initially seemed to be of differ-ent size may turn out to be of equal size. In thesituation when MFA is used as a tool for follow-ing up the following can happen: For flows re-corded from data with high uncertainty, thechange is no longer certain. Only when the datahave very low uncertainty a change remains evenwhen data uncertainty is considered.

In all, our study indicates in both cases thatthe consideration of data uncertainties makes theresults less certain and the policy recommenda-tions more ambiguous. Based on the analysis ofdata uncertainty in relation to the case study pre-sented in this paper, it is concluded that to useMFA as a tool for priority setting and follow-upis associated with considerable difficulties. How-ever, MFA is still a useful tool for screening inorder to identify areas for further and more de-tailed investigation.ReferencesBjörklund, A.E. (2000) Survey of approaches to

improve reliability in LCA. Manuscript sub-mitted to International Journal of Life CycleAssessment.

Burström, F. (1999) Materials accounting andenvironmental management in municipalities.Journal of Environmental Assessment Policyand Management, 1(3): 297-327.

Danius, L. & Burström, F. (2001)Kvävemetabolism i Västerås kommun 1995 och

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1998 (The nitrogen metabolism of Västerås1995 and 1998). Technical Report 2001:1.Royal Institute of Technology, Division of In-dustrial Ecology. Stockholm.

Hedbrant, J. & Sörme, L. (2001) Data vague-ness and uncertainties in urban heavy-metaldata collection. Water, Air and Soil Pollution(in print)

Hendriks, C. et al (2000) Material flow analy-sis: a tool to support environmental policy de-cision-making. Case studies on the city ofVienna and the Swiss lowlands. Local Environ-ment, 5(3): 311-328.

Udo de Haes, H., Huppes G. & de Snoo, G.(1998) Analytical Tools for Chain Management,Chapter 5 in: Managing a Material World: Per-spectives in Industrial Ecology, Vellinga, P.,Berkhout, F. & Gupta, J., eds., Kluwer Aca-demic Publications. Dordrecht.

Linking Energy, Material and EconomicFlows on the Local and Regional Level:First Steps Towards a Material-flowEconomy

Uwe R. Fritsche


The sustainability of local and regional de-velopments on the level of two new inner-cityneighborhoods (city quarters) in the German cit-ies of Neuruppin (Eastern Germany), andFreiburg (South-West Germany), is quantita-tively analyzed with respect to ecological andeconomic impacts, while social indicators areincluded qualitatively.

Based on this analysis, the linkages betweenthe ecological and economic impacts of variouslocal and regional activities and strategies toachieve a more sustainable neighborhood aredetermined, and “win-win” options identified.

The analysis of the real-world examples oflocal activities considers their full life-cycle im-pacts, and differentiates between local, regionaland national/global impacts.

The linking of micro-economic impacts withmeso-scale (regional) effects uses a process-chain (“bottom-up”) approach, while the nationaland global economic impacts are determined bymacro-economic input-output (“top-down”)

modeling.The material flows are linked to the economic

activities on the local/regional scale to determinethe effects of the local activities.

The project results are used in the consider-ations of local/regional actors and stakeholdersto determine their future implementation strate-gies for “sustainable development”.

The quantitative linkage of ecological andeconomic effects using a bottom-up allows firststeps in the direction of a material-flow economyon the local and regional scale.

This work is sponsored by the German Fed-eral Ministry for Education and Research(BMBF) under the program “Regionalsustainability”.

Detailed results can be found on the projectwebsite http://www.oeko.de/service/cities/

A System to Optimize Regional Materialand Energy Flow for Designing Recy-cling Society

Naohiro Goto, Koichi Fujie andTomotaka Usui


To maintain sustainable development, it isrequired to establish new society with low envi-ronmental load and low resource/energy con-sumption, i.e. recycling society. A method todesign the recycling society is to raise effective-ness of resource/energy utilization and recycleof waste.

Material balance of manufacturing process iscomposed of raw material input, product outputand waste generation. Ratio of the input to theoutput could be interpreted as effectiveness ofresource/energy utilization. Rise of this ratio isto increase the effectiveness. Recycle of wastealso plays an important role. The recycle makeswaste disposal and virgin resource/energy con-sumption reduce. This makes ratio of virgin in-put to output raise and brings the effectivenessincrease. In order to establish the recycle soci-ety, it is required to optimize theses materialflows.

The objective of this research is to developmethodology to optimize regional material flow,i.e. to maximize effectiveness of resource/energy

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and recycle of waste for recycling society. Pro-cedure is described as follow. First is to analyzeregional material and energy flow. Second is todesign waste utilization among industries, “in-dustrial network”. Last is to minimize environ-mental load and energy/resource consumption.We have developed a computer system for thisprocedure. It is composed of four compartments,analysis of regional material flow, design of in-dustrial network, optimization of the materialflow and some databases for the system.1) Analysis of regional material flow

There are two approaches for regional mate-rial flow analysis. One method uses input outputtable and estimates material flow among indus-trial sectors. The input output table shows rela-tionship among industrial sectors in cash flow.Then the cash flow should be converted to mate-rial flow by setting conversion factor. Thoughthis is the best to comprehend profile of regionalmaterial flow easily, it cannot investigate detailmaterial flow. Another method uses questionnaireand investigates material flow among individualfactories. Though this method is most accuracyto analyze, it cannot investigate all regional ma-terial flows. These two approaches complementeach other. By using same method water andenergy balance could be estimated.2) Design of industrial network

When regional material flow is analyzed, re-gional elemental flow could be also analyzed bysetting elemental composition of products. If el-emental composition of waste from one indus-try is similar to that of products from other in-dustry, industrial network between the two in-dustries can be connected.3) Optimization of regional material flow

In designing industrial network a lot of in-dustrial network candidates could be found. Thenetwork to minimize final disposal of wasteshould be selected. This kind of optimization isapplied to all industrial sectors, and industrialnetworks with maximum waste disposal reduc-tion show optimized regional material flow.4) Database

There are some databases for this system. Oneis on material balance in factory. It includes wastegeneration or waste recycle per each product.Another is on recycle technology. When one in-dustrial network is selected, it should be recog-nized whether the network is feasible or not. In

the reorganization, the database on recycle tech-nology is referred.

Improved Environmental Performanceby Means of System Innovation andNetworking: Case of a Regional EnergySupply System

Kirsi Hämäläinen and Hanne Siikavirta


A case study about a regional energy supplysystem of Jyväskylä, Finland is presented. Theenergy supply system is based on a network ofcompanies and organizations operating in theenergy generation and transmission fields inJyväskylä. The case of the energy generationsystem in the City of Jyväskylä shows how co-operating partners can enhance their environmen-tal performance and eco-efficiency by network-ing.

In order to illustrate the suitability of the net-work co-operation for enhancing environmentalperformance and eco-efficiency, a comparison isprovided by generating a model of an alterna-tive energy supply system. The comparison sys-tem is assumed to be based on companies andsites producing energy separately instead of co-operation. In the comparison system wood resi-dues from the neighboring industrial plants andprocessed chips from forest harvesting would notbe used as a fuel as in the current system. In ad-dition, the district heat distributed to the ruralareas surrounding the city of Jyväskylä and theprocess steam consumed by a local paper milland by a local paper machine producer would begenerated in separate boilers instead of the powerplants belonging currently to the system. More-over, the ash produced by the power plants inthe system and the heat extracted currently fromthe condensing water of the paper mill and fromthe district heating waters returning from the citywould not be utilized in the comparison system.

The fuel consumption and the environmentalloads related to the current system and to thecomparison system as well as the investmentsused for building up the systems are compared.Consequently, the eco-efficiency of the systemsis compared. The data used for modeling the sys-tems is acquired directly from the companies

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operating in the energy generation and transmis-sion fields in Jyväskylä. In addition to this site-specific data, secondary data gathered from sta-tistics and publications is used.

If the energy generation system of Jyväskyläwere not based on the network co-operation likein the current system, the primary fuel consump-tion and the environmental loads of the systemwould increase. The carbon dioxide (CO

2) emis-

sions generated by the system would be about30% higher than in the current system. More-over, the particle emissions would be nearly 20%higher than the emissions generated by the cur-rent system. In addition to the environmentalloads related to the current system, the invest-ments needed for building up the system wouldbe higher without co-operation. Thus, in the cur-rent system the energy produced in the Jyväskyläarea is generated with lower primary energy con-sumption and lower emission and investmentrates than in the comparison system, which doesnot rely on network co-operation.

The environmental performance and eco-ef-ficiency of the energy generation system ofJyväskylä has increased alongside with the net-work co-operation. In the Rauhalahti PowerPlant, which causes most of the environmentalloads related to the system, the specific emis-sion rates have decreased by 25% to 80% in lastten years. At the same time, the primary energyconsumption of the power plant has increasedby more than 30%. This illustrates that the growthin energy generation and thus, in the primaryenergy consumption has not been harmful for theenvironment. On the contrary, the growth hasenabled the energy companies belonging to theenergy supply system of Jyväskylä to invest inadvanced environmental protection technologiesand to environmentally more benign local fuels.

Corporate Integration - ICT

Economic and Environmental Implica-tions of Online Retailing in the UnitedStates

H. Scott Matthews andChris T. Hendrickson


E-commerce is revolutionizing product dis-tribution and other business functions. Imple-menting E-commerce is heavily dependent onboth constructed and digital infrastructure. How-ever, the implications of E-commerce for envi-ronmental quality, infrastructure requirements,economic impact and sustainability have not beensystematically assessed. Our research is focusedon a life cycle approach to estimating the eco-nomic and environmental implications as wellas sustainability of the Internet, specifically ofE-commerce, compared with traditional logisticsand manufacturing systems. For example, a casestudy of book publishing compares the traditionalretail system to electronic ordering (e.g. usingAmazon.com, a major American online retailer),and to a new system that would produce the bookat the time and place where the customer ordersit. We will generalize from our case studies toexamine impacts for transport congestion andinfrastructure needs from product delivery, in-cluding energy and transport infrastructures. Atone level, E-commerce may substitute for morecostly catalog or retail outlet marketing channels.We will use our Internet based life-cycle assess-ment model (EIO-LCA) which is based on aninput-output framework of the U.S. economyaugmented with the most current environmentaland resource use data.

The traditional logistics system starts withproduct manufacture and then distributes theproduct through regional warehouses, a retailstore, and finally delivery to the consumer. Thissystem is expensive and resource intensive. First,for almost every product, too much or too littleis produced since the product demand is uncer-tain. Second, the product moves much furtherthan from the manufacturer to the consumer.Third, the transport and storage require the prod-uct to stay in the system for a long time, whichexpends resources and provides many opportu-

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nities for damage or theft. While this system takesadvantage of economies of scale in productionand freight shipping, resources are used and pol-lution generated by the additional shipping andexcess production. E-commerce systems substi-tute “warehouses in the sky” with Federal Ex-press and UPS providing rapid delivery from themanufacturer’s warehouse or for products madeto order. However, packaging, airfreight andhome delivery also use resources and pollute. Itis not obvious which of the two systems resultsin less overall resource use and pollution. A fur-ther step is producing to order, to eliminate in-ventories. A possible future step would be “manu-facture to order” at the customer’s location whenthe order is placed. Visionaries focus on what isor might be technically possible. Total costs, re-source use, and environmental discharges arerarely considered but are critical issues.

An initial discussion of these general pointswas made by Matthews (2000), suggesting thatonline retail systems depend on traditional lo-gistics carriers in the U.S. (UPS and FedEx) forfulfillment. A primary concern of this paper wasthat the additional packaging and overnight airshipping present significant environmental chal-lenges. For example, shipments of books to tra-ditional retail stores typically are in bulk boxescontaining 10-30 books, while online shipmentsto customers typically contain only 1-3 booksper box. A subsequent paper by the authors(Hendrickson 2001) compared traditional versusonline retail shopping models and found sce-narios by which e-commerce systems could ac-tually cause 5-30% less environmental effectscompared to traditional systems.

As with any model, the comparisons betweendifferent retail and logistics models are sensitiveto the inputs used. For example, the distance froma consumer’s home to a traditional bookstore issignificant. The distance from the online retailerwarehouse to the consumer is also significant.

However, the most important input variableis the amount of unsold product. In the bookpublishing industry, unsold product is called ‘re-mainders’ and averages 35% for best seller hard-back books. This implies that 35% more productwas manufactured than was sold. In the publish-ing industry, wasted production leads to manytons of pollutant releases that could have beenavoided if manufacturing systems were opti-mized to demand (as is done for other products).

We are also considering the implications ofadvanced technologies such as on-demand manu-facturing, where a product is only manufacturedwhen it is demanded. For book publishing, thisis ‘print on demand’, which allows low-volumebooks to be printed at a local bookstore. This isaccomplished by digitally providing the elec-tronic contents of the book to a printer. One ofthe primary benefits of such a system is reduc-ing ‘unsold inventory’.

We are also analyzing the environmental andsustainability implications of the Internet infra-structure in the United States. Our research in-volves large system descriptions of the Internetin terms of computers, hubs, and tele-communciations links needed to direct Internettraffic throughout the country. Our work will leadto estimates of the ‘overhead’ of Internet use, e.g.the energy and environmental impacts of send-ing e-mail or web surfing. Once found, these ef-fects can be added to the logistics impacts citedabove for an overall assessment of thesustainability implications of e-commerce sys-tems.

In summary, we will present results summa-rizing our work to date on the comparative ef-fects of online retailing in the United States. Thisresearch uses life cycle assessment as a tool toorganize impacts during the manufacture anddelivery of products. The effects compared in-clude costs, energy use, releases of conventionalpollutants and greenhouse gases, and hazardouswaste. Finally, we will extend our research onbook publishing to other products, and note thedifferent results generated by sensitivity analy-sis of the inputs of our model.

References[Hendrickson 2001] Chris T. Hendrickson, H.

Scott Matthews, and Denise L. Soh, “Economicand Environmental Implications of E-com-merce: Case Study on Book Publishing,” Pro-ceedings of the 80th Annual Transportation Re-search Board Conference, January 7-11, 2001,Washington, DC.

[Matthews 2000] H. Scott Matthews, Chris T.Hendrickson, and Lester Lave, “Harry Potterand the Health of the Environment”, IEEESpectrum, November 2000.

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The Environmental Benefits and Costsof Telework

Erasmia Kitou, Arpad Horvath andEric Masanet


A substantial portion of the U.S. labor force,estimated at 30 percent, now works from homeat least part of the time. An estimated two mil-lion are full-time employees who otherwisewould commute daily to an office or other work-place. With traffic congestion bordering on un-bearable, and the reduction of air pollution con-tinuing to be one of the most important publicpolicy goals in many metropolitan areas, work-ing at home, commuting only to neighborhoodtelework centers, or cutting weekly commuteentirely or by at least a day or two may bringenvironmental benefits. Telecommuting is be-coming popular, and due to its scale and poten-tial, telework’s environmental impacts have cometo the forefront of interest of decision-makers.

We present a comprehensive systems frame-work that includes the multitude of direct andinduced effects of telecommuting in order thatthe environmental analysis accurately capturesall factors relative to the status quo, non-telecommuting. Both environmental and eco-nomic factors are included as economic infor-mation complements environmental assessment,while environmental emissions (through their fullsocial costs) have economic implications. Thisresearch quantifies the systemwide operatingeffects of telecommuting by assessing the energyconsumption and the resulting air emissions re-lated to transportation, office and home space,and electronic equipment use. Telework’s effectson these components include estimation of theemissions associated with rebound effects suchas latent demand, or increased demand for otheractivities such as increased number of shoppingtrips, pleasure travel, etc. The external costs ofair pollution are converted into dollar terms us-ing full cost accounting methods.

We have developed a comprehensive, web-based decision support tool that is available inthe public domain. The tool is designed to helpindividuals, company managers, regulators, aswell as other stakeholders (such as the generalpublic, environmental health and safety profes-

sionals, etc.) interested in the environmental im-plications of telecommuting to make more envi-ronmentally sound decisions while understand-ing the complexity of the system.

Are air emissions indeed reduced as a resultof telecommuting, or have the emissions andexposures simply shifted to other providers, prod-ucts or services in the supply chain? Using thetool, a decision-maker should be able to decidewhen telecommuting is a more environmentallybenign option.

Will Industrial Ecology Give Way toService Ecology? : A Critical Review ofIdeas and Research on “Sustainable(product) Service Systems”

Oksana Mont and Chris Ryan


As the long-term focus for change in produc-tion and product systems has moved from (eas-ily) achievable technical changes able to deliver“factor 4” reductions in environmental impact,to larger systems realignment for “factor 10”changes, the idea of a shift from “product ecolo-gies” to “service ecologies” has gown in policyand industry research. Although these ideas takea number of forms, they all propose that signifi-cant gains in environmental improvement can beachieved from an approach, which would seeeconomic and business activity move from prod-uct sales to selling services (including the ser-vices of the utilisation of a product). Such think-ing has been boosted by the recognition of vari-ous consumption effects, which severely limit theoverall societal gains from realised improvementin technology, materials and product design. Thiscan be illustrated by the situation where energysavings by improved car engines are frequently“eaten up” by bigger and an increased numbersof cars, faster cars or longer distances driven.

Although the sustainable services approachcontinues to be an active focus for research inthe EU and a new dimension for policy formula-tion (for instance in Integrated Product Policy)there is reason to be concerned that knowledge,concepts, terminology and practical developmentis not developing in a critical and coherent way.Yet already some core issues seem to be clear

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and the simplistic assumptions that have beencharacteristic of much of the writing and projectsto date can now be refute.

Software Renting – A Platform forSustainable IT Sector?

Andrius Plepys


The Information and Communication Tech-nology (ICT) sector does not only create haz-ardous waste problem, but it is also surprisinglyhighly resource-intensive. The data about theenvironmental impacts for electronics is gradu-ally being collected and analysed in a few lifecycle analysis (LCA) studies. Some life cyclestages such as material extraction and compo-nent manufacturing are highly material and en-ergy intensive and hazardous waste is being gen-erated along most of their life cycle stages.

Rapid technology development has tremen-dously increased functionality of electronic prod-ucts. Unfortunately, the development has causedfaster product rotation and growing consumptiondue to increased affordability. Therefore, theenvironmental gains are often reduced or negatedby the rebound effect of consumption.

In this light improving resource efficiency ofICT sector is a vital goal, which could be reachedthrough product dematerialisation. The sector hasenormous potential for substituting a physicalproduct by its functionality or servicizing. Suc-cessful combination of ICT products and servicesinto new competitive systems reduces resourceconsumption, offers a larger variety of betterquality services for consumers and generate moreadded-value for less resources. Unfortunately,today such potential of the ICT sector is eitherunder-utilised or has led to rebound effects inconsumption.

The article analyzes a business model of Ap-plication Service Provider (ASP) as an exampleof ICT product dematerialisation - a less mate-rial intensive alternative to traditional comput-ing. The paper describes the benefits of ASP vs.traditional computing looking from environmen-tal, economic and consumer perspectives anddrivers and barriers for ASP business are analysedhere. The conclusions show that there are sev-

eral groups of barriers that hinder a broader useof ASPs: technical, cultural, knowledge, eco-nomic and legal barriers that can be addressedby different actors. Companies can overcomesome of those barriers, but the issues of propertyand privacy right protection, anti-trust legisla-tion, standardisation and infrastructure develop-ment have to be addressed by government.

Industrial Symbiosis II

Fulfilling Taiwan’s Aspiration of Be-coming a “Green Silicon Island”through Industrial Ecology

Allen H. Hu and K. Y. Chong


Several scholars had pessimistically predictedthat humanity had just fifty years left. While thosepredictions may be exaggerated and unrealistic,given that one-quarter of the world’s populationremains in severe poverty and more than 100million people survive on less than US$ 1 perday, as well as the irreversible environmentaldamage being caused by human activities, in-cluding global warming, ozone layer depletion,the proliferation of toxic and hazardous wastes,desertification, deforestation and the loss ofbiodiversity, the above scenario seems at leastplausible. To overcome the devastating problemsmentioned above, the international communityhas developed some solutions, and proposed theso-called “Agenda 21” during the 1992 EarthSummit. Although there appears to have beenlittle progress since the Earth Summit, peopleare gradually realizing that we need to examineour way of life and seek a solution from MotherNature, that is to close the loop, maximize theuse of materials and energy, and utilize naturalmaterials. These actions are the essence of in-dustrial ecology (IE).

Although enjoying unprecedented wealth andprosperity in recent decades, Taiwan has alsosuffered unprecedented costs from environmen-tal damage. The government was quick to real-ize this problem, and initiated various environ-mental protection programs from the late 80’,including pollution control, waste minimization,

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environmental management, pollution preven-tion, cleaner production, and more recently, pro-moting eco-industrial parks. These measureshave significantly improved Taiwan’s environ-mental situation. Last spring, the opposition DPPparty finally broke the KMT’s long hold onpower and pledged to establish Taiwan as a GreenSilicon Island (GSI), emphasizing that environ-mental protection policies had joined the pursuitof economic growth in the political mainstream.

This study aims to discuss how to apply IE toTaiwan and thus realize the above vision. Usingexisting infrastructure and the theory of indus-trial ecology as a foundation, a system has beendeveloped. This system has a hierarchical andinterrelated framework, comprising the lowestwaste exchange information system to resourcerecovery system, corporate waste minimizationsynergy system, eco-industrial parks (EIPs), andvirtual EIPs. Five IE scenarios, namely thebaseline of waste exchange, waste minimizationand pollution prevention, pollution preventionplus industrial symbiosis, physical EIPs and thevirtual EIPs, were analyzed regarding their po-tential economic and environmental benefits.Furthermore, the economic, environmental, regu-latory and technological infrastructures were alsoreviewed.

Results in this study demonstrate that the casestudy of the National Waste Exchange Informa-tion Center can be used to expand into a physi-cal EIP or even a virtual EIP by providing regu-latory incentives. The Corporate Synergy Sys-tems positively contributes to small and mediumenterprises in efforts to enhance their competi-tiveness by developing waste minimization pro-grams. Changes to current regulatory and incen-tive mechanisms that are necessary for Taiwanto become a Green Silicon Island are also sug-gested herein.

Construction of Cycle-oriented Indus-trial Complex Systems: Strategies forPlanning and Estimation

Tohru Morioka, Noboru Yoshida, andHiroyuki Fujimura


The author describes the concept and prac-

tices of recycle-oriented industrial complexwhich utilizes by-products or wastes from dif-ferent industrial sectors as inputs to productionactivities. First three types of societal demon-stration sites of recycle-oriented complex areinvestigated and their management plans from astandpoints of material and product chain man-agement as well as spatial metabolism manage-ment. Three demonstration sites include indus-trial collaboration complex, recycle consciousfood supply and retail chain, and sustainable ur-ban renewal projects. Secondly, integrated plan-ning and estimation models are presented basedon implementational analysis on three demon-stration sites. Estimation indicators for eco-effi-ciency and environmental soundness are pro-posed. Thirdly, network type eco-industrial parkprojects are planned and their environmentalimpacts and effects are estimated as a case studyin Osaka Metropolitan Region, Japan.

Industrial Symbiosis as EconomicDevelopment

Marian R. Chertow

Traditionally, economic development hasbeen done on the basis of exploiting key geo-graphic, economic, or institutional conditions ofa region as a means of attracting and sustainingdevelopment. Industrial ecologists have theo-rized about a different type of locational advan-tage, known in the literature as “industrial sym-biosis.” This part of industrial ecology consid-ers material and energy flows among groups ofbusinesses and industrial operations. This paperargues both theoretically and through a case studythat industrial symbiosis should be considered anovel, environmentally conscious tool for eco-nomic development.

Industrial symbiosis has been previously de-fined as engaging “traditionally separate indus-tries in a collective approach to competitive ad-vantage involving physical exchange of materi-als, energy, water, and by-products” (Chertow,2001). The keys to industrial symbiosis are col-laboration and the synergistic possibilities offeredby geographic proximity. The industrial districtat Kalundborg, Denmark has become an arche-type of industrial ecology illustrating high lev-els of environmental and economic efficiency.

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The primary partners in Kalundborg, an oil re-finery, power station, gypsum board facility,pharmaceutical plant, and the City ofKalundborg, share water, steam, and electricity,and also exchange a variety of wastes that be-come feedstocks in other processes.

In a project conducted in the winter and springof 2001, Yale researchers were invited to offerenvironmental and technical advice for the de-velopment of New Haven Harbor based on thelessons of industrial ecology and experience inresearching industrial symbiosis. The resultingstudies, examined here, revealed industrial sym-biosis to be a powerful analytic tool both for sug-gested revitalization of existing businesses aswell as for identifying new development thatcould be brought in to exploit synergistic oppor-tunities

Evaluation and Monitoring ofEcoefficiency in Ecoparks: A CaseStudy from the Ora Ecopark in Norway

Johan Thoresen


The monitoring and evaluation of aggregateand individual environmental performance ofcompanies in Ecoparks will become extremelyimportant in the next few years. One reason isthe requirements which have been put forwardby national and cross-national governments, e.g.to decrease the rate climate gas emissions (theKyoto Protocol) and future focus on the improve-ment of energy efficiency in industry. Anotherreason is the need for an “eye-opener” to showthe considerable environmental improvementpotential from systematic Ecopark co-operationto authorities, to the public and to industry itself.

Ecoefficiency indicators may be used in a setof different planning and decision situationswithin companies, within ecoparks or betweenexternal stakeholders and industrial companies.The required format of the relevant ecoefficiencyinformation will differ strongly between the dif-ferent external stakeholders and company inter-nal decision makers at various organisation lev-els. However, irrespective of the different for-mats for any one type of impact, such indicatorsmust all provide the relevant decision makers

with ecoefficiency information as decision sup-port adjusted to each person’s decision needs.This information may represent the aggregateperformance of all companies within an Ecoparkor the performance of an individual companywithin the park. Based on empiric informationgathered from the Ora Ecopark in Norway, it hasbeen established that a time series of the usualecoefficiency indicators (expressed as valueadded in some form : relevant environmentalimpact) may not be valid indicators to representcompany performance. The reason being thatchanges to a product mix with different environ-mental impact lifecycle characteristics may havebeen introduced or the rate of process capacityutilisation may have been radically changed. Inaddition, if the ecoefficiency indicator is ex-pressed in monetary terms, radical and periodicchanges in market prices may upset the repre-sentativeness of such an indicator. A series ofcase-examples from the Ora Ecopark will begiven in the paper to show and explain this situ-ation. Furthermore, different principles and con-cepts for establishing functional ecoefficiencyindicators have been developed and will be ad-dressed in the paper. Adjusted time series repre-senting aggregate and individual climate gasemissions rates and development of energy effi-ciency of the Ora companies will also be shown.

Substance Flow Analysis Cases

Toxic Accumulation in Efficient Recy-cling – Societal Cadmium Dynamics andRecycling of Phosphorus

Fredrik Fredrikson, Sten Karlsson, andJohn Holmberg


Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for all lifeand it is one of the major nutrient inputs to foodproduction. Since the reserves of phosphorus arelimited there is a need to use these resources care-fully. A more resource efficient management ofphosphorus is therefore a key question in orderto secure the increasing and long-term demandfor food, bio-energy and other materials basedon biomass.

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Transfer of phosphorus from agriculture tosociety will be an increasingly important loss ofphosphorus and it is therefore important to re-cycle the phosphorus back to agriculture. Oneproblem with this is that the flows of phospho-rus in society are contaminated due to societaluse of different toxic substances. Contaminationof sewage sludge with cadmium is one such ex-ample that is getting a lot of attention.

Cadmium is also transferred to agriculturalsoils as a contaminant in phosphorus fertilizer.Since a growing part of the population lives incities it is important to evaluate in what way theuse of cadmium could be consistent with re-cir-culation of phosphorus. Is the societal use of cad-mium restricting a long term resource efficientrecycling of phosphorus or not?

In this study we have evaluated different pos-sible long-term scenarios for cadmium transferto agricultural soils in Sweden. One importantfeature of the study is that we focus on the dy-namics in the societal metabolism of cadmiumand its possible constraints on an efficient recy-cling of phosphorus. One important dynamics isthe limited resources of cadmium. Together withthe scenarios we also look on different indica-tors for the system. We also makes a historicalscenario about what would the situation look likeif we had used sewage sludge in the agriculturesince the introduction of sewage plants.

The study shows that the dynamics in the so-cietal use of cadmium (intentionally and unin-tentionally use) is very important and that it mustbe taken into account for policy makers in orderto avoid future large-scale lock-ins that may re-strict a resource efficient use of phosphorus.

Grand Technological Nutrient Cycles: ASurvey and Status Report

T.E. Graedel and R.J. Klee


The modern technological society uses a verylarge number of materials. These substances arederived from rocks, sediments, and other natu-ral repositories, and most undergo transforma-tion prior to use. A large fraction of the materialsis eventually returned to the environment. Thenatural world also mobilizes and uses materials

in its processes. The derived quantitative cyclesof four crucial natural materials, carbon, nitro-gen, sulfur, and phosphorus, are termed the“grand nutrient cycles”, and have been well char-acterized.

Historically, there has been minimal overlapbetween the cycles dominated by natural pro-cesses (sulfur, for example) and those dominatedby technological processes (tin, for example). Inthe case of elements widely used by our techno-logical society, we might term their cycles the“grand technological nutrient cycles”. The tech-nological cycles are poorly quantified, however,and it is not very clear how important technol-ogy may be to many of the global cycles. Whereextensive studies have been made (for nitrogen,for example), it is apparent that strong anthro-pogenic influences exist for at least some of theelements whose cycles were once wholly con-trolled by natural processes.

For purposes of industrial development andpotential environmental impact, it is importantto know, at least approximately, what quantifiedcycle information is available and to what ex-tent natural, technological, or mixed dominanceoccurs. In this connection, we have reviewed theavailable information on the cycles of the entireperiodic table of the elements. Many elementshave not yet been studied from this perspective,and a number of cycles remain to be derived.Where information is extant, however, it appearsthat human activities dominate the cycles of mostof the Group IIIa-VIII and Ib-Vb elements andthat natural activities dominate the cycles of mostof the Groups Ia, IIa, VIb, VIIb, and 0 elements,dominance being measured by the ratio betweenanthropogenic and natural flows. In several in-stances, neither anthropogenic nor natural pro-cesses dominate. We will present several ex-amples, and discuss explanations for the patternsthat emerge.

The Contemporary European CopperCycle: One Year Stocks and Flows

Sabrina Spatari, Thomas E. Graedel,Marlen Bertram andHelmut Rechberger


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Substance flow budgets can provide a pictureof resource uses and losses through a geographicregion. By tracking specific substances, such ascopper, through its various life cycle transfor-mations, we can assess our approach to regionalresource management and estimate gross envi-ronmental impacts associated with the coppercycle. This paper traces the flow of copper as itenters and leaves the European economy overone year. We examine the major flows of cop-per from ore, as it is extracted from the earth,transformed through intermediate forms – toproduct, as it is manufactured and used – to pos-sible resource, as copper products are retired thenrecovered from waste management. A regionalmaterial flow model was developed to estimatepatterns of copper use in the early 1990s in se-lect western European countries. Successivemass balance calculations were used to determinecopper flows, including the amount of metal thatenters stocks in waste reservoirs and products,within the system boundary. A database, whichemphasizes temporal and spatial boundary issuesand data quality, was developed for continentalsubstance flow analysis. All data were collectedfrom statistical reports, periodicals, and publicdatabases made available by government agen-cies, industry trade associations, and industrycontacts.

The one-year European copper budget is char-acterized by a high import of processed and re-fined resources. A significant amount of copperis mined, smelted, and refined outside of Europe.A total of 1900 Gg/yr of copper is imported intoEurope. About 40% of cathode copper producedwithin the system is recovered from secondaryresources. Within fabrication and manufacturingprocesses, approximately 950 Gg/yr of new andold scrap are recycled and, together with primaryproduction plus import, roughly 3500 Gg/yr ofcopper is made into finished products. The ma-jority of copper in finished products is containedin pure form (77%), the remainder in alloy form.Post-consumer waste contains about 920 Gg/yrof copper. Waste management processes recoverabout 30 % of this copper from waste streams.Copper from post-consumer waste is roughly fivetimes higher than waste from copper production.This ratio would decrease if we consider pro-duction wastes generated outside of the Euro-pean system boundary. The fastest growing stock

in the system (2600 Gg/yr) is represented by thestorage of goods in the use phase— in infrastruc-ture, buildings, industry, private households, andother uses.

The presence of pure copper in product ap-plications suggests a strong potential for recy-cling of the metal. Alloys too, have a high re-covery potential. Unlike other metals like zincand cadmium, the pattern of copper use is lessdissipative. The different use categories identi-fied in this model show that most of the copperprocessed during the last decade is still in soci-ety

Sustainable Metals Flow Management –First Steps in the Region of Hamburg

Arnim von Gleich


Metals are not regenerative resources but theirchemo-physical properties would in principleallow long lasting circulation of these materialsin the technosphere. In reality however, we arefar from this goal. In every product life cycle weloose about 1/3 of the metals by corrosion, wasteand dissipation. Additionally we lower the qual-ity of recycled metals (e.g. iron & steel and alu-minium) by accumulating impurities like cop-per. Actually this problem is ‘solved’ by dilutingthe impurities in pure fresh material.

According to the first law of thermodynam-ics (energy and matter conservation within closedsystems) there is no sustainability problem. Theproblem appears in the form of materials and en-ergy availability and use (second law). We can(and we do) decrease and even ruin the useful-ness of energy and materials within the, at leastenergetically, open system earth. This seems tobe a central problem of sustainability. Regard-ing this aspect we can learn a lot from ecosys-tems. They show us how to build sustainablestructures and systems (far from thermodynamicequilibrium) with an even growing level of ‘or-der’ fed only by the exergy stream from the sun.

Using the method of entropy balancing (seeabstract Stefan Goessling), it is possible to mea-sure the thermodynamic expenditures of manu-facturing a certain amount of metal - for instancealuminium - or a certain product made out of

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this metal. Of course, this can be done more orless efficient. But the next step is still more in-teresting: How are we going to use this high pu-rity, light-weight metal? We can imagine a‘tendencial (thermodynamic or sustainable) am-ortization’ of the definitely high constructionphase inputs of aluminium products during theuse phase and the following recycling cycles. Ifever we would be able to handle the product andthe material in a sustainable way!

This is the general approach we follow at theUniversity of Applied Sciences Hamburg, Dep.of Mechanical Engineering and Production in aresearch project. The project is funded since 1999by the German Ministry of Research and is co-operating with the University of Hamburg, Dep.of Informatics, the Ökopol Institute of Hamburg,the consulting engineers from SumBi, the localEnvironmental Authority of Hamburg, the enter-prises Norddeutsche Affinerie (Europes biggestcopper smelter), Hamburger Stahlwerke (elec-tric steel), Jungheinrich AG (fork lifters) and sev-eral smaller machinery producers.

We work on three levels with different timescales: On the first level, with short time range,we are realising efficiency gains in high levelrecycling of grinding sludges and metal beadsfrom surface blasting (transformation into metalfoams) and by introduction of the use of mini-mum cooling lubricants in metal processing withseveral partners (efficiency gains by more thanfactor 1000!). On the second level, with mediumtime range, we are trying to optimise metal flowsalong the different phases of the product lifecycle. We are modelling and managing materialflows with focus on the avoidance of the accu-mulation of copper in the iron&steel flows andwith focus on the collection and treatment of elec-tric and electronic wastes by organizing commu-nication between different actors. Another im-portant issue on this level is product design andproduct use with focus on modularisation andplatform strategy, leasing and rebuild of usedparts and machinery.On the third level, with long time range, we are

developing strategies and scenarios using the

approach of backcasting from the year 2050,

assuming the metal flows of the economy then

consist of 90% recycling materials, that means

only 10% of additional fresh material per

circle.

Issues in Academics —Plenary

Formal Education in Industrial Ecology

Helge Brattebo

Abstract unavailable

Utrecht University’s New EducationProgram on Natural Sciences andInnovation Management

Marko Hekkert

At Utrecht University a new educational pro-gram is started on Natural Sciences and Innova-tion Management. In this program the studentsare offered courses in both natural and social sci-ences. Special attention is paid to the subject ofinnovation. Students learn on understand whynew technologies often have difficulties to getimplemented succesfully and they learn strate-gies to effectively manage a successful innova-tion process.

In their second year, the students may choosea study trajectory. One of the three themes thatis offered is the trajectory on Energy and Mate-rials. Here the students are trained in a wide va-riety of subjects in the energy and materials field.Subjects included are: energy analysis, environ-mental technology, materials efficiency, sustain-able energy, life cycle analysis, several other re-search methods, risk analysis, grand cycles andapplied thermodynamics / energy conversion.The total period that the students focus on en-ergy and material issues is two complete years.

The strong side of this study trajectory is thatthe students learn much specific insights in theproblem field of energy and material productionand use, combined with specific knowledge onhow to speed up (sustainable) innovation. Wethink that this gives them a very strong positionin the job market and will hopefully lead to moresustainable innovations in industry.

In this paper we will give more insight in theexperiences with this educational program. Wewould like to use this paper to exchange infor-mation on our program to other universities andcompanies to increase (international) coopera-tion in this area, for example by means of stu-dent exchange programs.

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Professional Identity andInterdisciplinarity at The IndustrialEcology Programme at NTNU: A FightBetween Disciplines and Perspectives

Margit Hermundsgård, Stig Larssæther,and Elin Mathiassen

The Industrial Ecology Programme (IndEcol)at the Norwegian University of Science and Tech-nology (NTNU) has since the start in 1998, de-veloped into a rather extensive institution. Withmore than 15 PhD students, 8 graduate studentsand approximately 40 undergraduates followinga multidisciplinary study programme, there is arather urgent need for developing and maintain-ing a common denominator and to some extent,a common professional identity.

The interdisciplinary character of the IndEcolProgramme is reflecting an adaptation to thecomplex, systematic nature of environmentalchallenges confronting industry today, while si-multaneously being one of the first arenas wherethe multidisciplinary ambitions of NTNU is putinto practice. This mandate gives us opportuni-ties to have a wider perspective than within thetraditional discipline borders, but also createschallenges connected to a larger diversity of pro-fessional backgrounds and ambitions on behalfof the IndEcol Programme. The development ofa certain degree of a common identity has thusbecome important because of theinterdisciplinarity. We need to set some borders.But how wide should the borders be? Who shoulddecide which disciplines are allowed to makecontributions to the field? How common mustthe common identity be?

In this paper we want to focus on how PhDand undergraduate students experience theinterdisciplinarity at IndEcol and how it relatesto the forming of their own professional iden-tity. Based on interviews with both groups wewant to focus on the balance between the indus-trial ecology perspective and the different disci-plines that constitute their formal backgroundswhen they enter the IndEcol programme at dif-ferent stages in their professional careers. Is therea fight or a symbiotic relationship between them?Which level of discipline specialisation com-pared to industrial ecology perspectives is per-ceived to be appropriate, and how is this ex-pressed in student projects at different levels?

Sustain This?: Environmental Manage-ment Program at the Stuart School ofBusiness

George P. Nassos and John Paul Kusz

The Environmental Management Programcontains traditional courses that reflect a modelof compliance with a “command and control”regulatory framework. These courses includeEnvironmental Law and Compliance, Air andWater Pollution Control, and Hazardous WasteManagement. The authors have engaged in aneffort to shift the curricula from one that solelypresents these traditional courses to a curriculathat includes the creative and proactive integra-tion of environmental consciousness into thebusiness model. The initial focus of this efforthas been the development and refinement of twocourses, “Industrial Ecology” and “The Sustain-able Enterprise”.

Projects and exercises in both courses centeron the often overlooked question, “Why sustainthis?” By exploring both the systems and thenetworks that support a product, students developan understanding of the elements that influenceproduct choices from the perspective of multiplestakeholders. They are asked to employ the learn-ing and philosophy from the course work in“product-centered” exercises and projects. Thestudent experience includes examination of theproduct as the as a means to meeting a “need”;understanding what needs, and whose needs, arebeing met; exploring the many forces that shapethe product, including systems and networks; andfinally, proposing viable alternatives that aredesigned to reduce or eliminate negative envi-ronmental consequences.

“Product-centered” exercises and projects willbe presented with discussion of the results. Ex-amples of student team projects will be includedin the paper and presentation.

The paper will discuss how these two courseswere developed and how they work together tohelp the students develop an appreciation of theeconomic, environmental and societal conse-quences related to the development and deploy-ment of a product.

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Poster Abstracts

Process Integration in Industry forCost-effective Greenhouse GasReduction

Anders Å[email protected]

Simon HarveyThore Berntsson

Dept of Heat and Power Technology, ChalmersUniversity of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg,Sweden.Tel: +46 31 7728533Fax: +46 31 821928

Combustion of fuel for heat and/or power pro-duction is often the largest contributor of green-house gas (GHG) emissions from a process in-dustry. To reduce these emissions, improvementsin the plant’s energy system and fuel switchingare the only economically feasible options to-day. With process integration methods and tools,attractive measures for energy cost savings inprocess industries can be identified. Possibleoptions for accomplishing such savings in anexisting plant include the following:• Reduction of hot and cold utility usage by

increased heat recovery;• Integration of combined heat and power

(CHP) systems;• Heat pumping;• Process modifications.

The complex interplay between above-men-tioned options calls for an systematic method forevaluating combinations of measures. Previousand ongoing work at the author’s department hasresulted in a methodology for identifying themost cost-effective mixtures of these measuresfor achieving a targeted reduction of GHG emis-sions from a process plant. Combinations ofmeasures are mostly more attractive than singlemeasures. In our studies we consider LCA GHG-emission values for fuels used.

The predominant factor which influences thechoice of measures is the existing plant layout,which determines the feasibility and cost of in-creasing heat recovery. If heat pumping and/orCHP are possible options, the measures to be

considered are particularly sensitive to the elec-tricity-to-fuel price ratio and the CO

2 emissions

from the electricity grid (since Net CO2 emissions

are considered). An important issue is the choiceof system boundary, and how the choice affectsthe results.

Dynamic Life-Cycle Assessment forProduct Comparison

Robert P. [email protected]

100 East Boyd St.,Room 510Norman, OK73019-0628, USA


This paper develops a method for comparingthe life-cycle environmental impacts of systemsthat have time-dependent emission profiles. LCAstudies are beset by several sources of uncertaintyand variability, such as parameter uncertainty,model uncertainty, spatial variability and tem-poral variability. A different situation occurswhen the system under study is known to varyover time. Although practically all systems havedynamic components, not all dynamics have sig-nificance from an environmental life-cycle per-spective. Important dynamic behavior can arisedue to changes in the product itself, the way aproduct is used, or natural processes that modifyemissions over time.

Examples of dynamic behavior that may besignificant include the increase in emissions frominternal combustion engines over time andchemical chain reactions that remain active inthe environment for long periods producing a se-quence of chemicals with varying environmen-tal impacts. Such dynamics become importantwhen one desires to conduct an LCA study com-paring different products. This paper applies dy-namic programming techniques to address theissues in one type of dynamic LCA problem, thatof optimal product replacement. Dynamic pro-gramming is applied in a life-cycle comparisonof walk-behind lawn mower designs. The resultsare used to show the policy-relevant life-cycleenvironmental trade-offs associated with volun-

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tary accelerated retirement programs that havebeen implemented in regions with severe air qual-ity problems.

Application of Input-Output NetworkAnalysis to Assess Material Cycling inIndustrial and Natural Systems

Mark [email protected]

Department of Mechanical and AerospaceEngineeringUniversity of DaytonDayton, OH 45469 USA

Reid [email protected]

Department of Aerospace and MechanicalEngineeringUniversity of ArizonaTucson, AZ 85721-0119 USA


A cornerstone of industrial ecology is the anal-ogy between natural and industrial systems.From a quantitative perspective, however, theprecise meaning of the analogy remains ambigu-ous. Hence, it is difficult to identify the goals ofthe field. For example, the final goal of indus-trial ecology may be to enable industry to cyclematerials as well as natural systems or it may beto enable industry to cycle at 100%. Although itis generally accepted that a goal of industrialecology is to increase material cycling, the con-cept remains unclear given that natural systemsare often portrayed as the ideal.

This paper describes a tool capable of explor-ing the analogy between industrial and naturalsystems based on the fact that both are definedby conservative flows of material and energy.That is, both natural ecosystems and industrialsystems are part of a more general type of sys-tem – systems of conservative flows of materi-als and energy. Given this similarity, ecosystemsand industries can be directly compared on aquantitative basis. A method for such compari-sons is presented in this paper to better describethe relative behavior of industries and naturalsystems.

To assess the method presented in this paper,the U.S. lead industry and five different ecosys-tems were chosen. Each system has a definedboundary and the applicable material flowswithin this boundary are identified. Next, amodel of each system of flows is constructedusing a common model structure. A commonstructure for the models is used to increase thevalidity of comparisons across the different sys-tems. Once the systems were modeled and thedata collected from public sources, input/outputnetwork analysis tools from ecology were uti-lized to characterize the direct and indirect rela-tionships in the systems. Of particular interestis a metric titled “cycling index,” which repre-sents the proportion of material or energy in asystem due to cycled flows. We assert that thiscycling index is an effective measure of mate-rial and energy cycling which incorporates boththe direct and indirect interactions in a system.

This methodology may be applied to identifyindustry goals, track progress, strengthen theanalogy between industries and ecology, conducta gap analysis between industry and ecosystems,potentially learn design and manufacturing tech-niques from nature and use all of the informa-tion to improve decision making processes inorder to reduce human environmental impact. Inthe lead case, it is demonstrated that the lead in-dustry outperformed some ecosystems, such asa stream, and was surpassed in efficiency by moretightly looped natural systems, such as a tropi-cal forest. More importantly, these results quali-tatively indicate that it may not be appropriate toconsider the goal of industrial ecology to bematching the material cycling of natural systems.Ecosystems are shown to be diverse in their de-gree of material cycling. However, the resultsdo indicate that this methodology may be usedto effectively model material cycling in complexindustrial material flow systems. The results didnot reveal any design or manufacturing tech-niques utilized by nature.

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Assessment of Non-Virgin CopperStocks in the Cape Metropolitan Area –South Africa

Dick van [email protected]

6 Chamonix, Blackheath roadKenilworth (Cape Town) 7708 South Africa

T.E. [email protected]

Yale UniversitySchool of Forestry and Environmental Studies285 Prospect streetNew Haven, CT 06511 USA


Historically, the material use by our techno-logical society has been largely based on virginstocks (ore bodies, mineral deposits, and the like).These stocks may in future become inadequateor unavailable at various times and locations inthe future. However, other reservoirs do exist,such as material contained in products in use,stored, or discarded over the years by corpora-tions and individuals. These reservoirs may be-come significantly important over the next fewdecades as a result of rapid population growthand resource use. As a case study material, wefocus on copper. Copper is of particular interestbecause it has long-term uses and is efficientlyrecycled. Additionally, copper has a depletiontime of less than a century.

The increasing occurrence of large urban ar-eas has lead to higher concentrations of in-useresources in constrained geographical areas. Asa result, it may prove desirable within the nextfew decades to recycle resources within thoseareas. The Cape Metropolitan Area (CMA),within which the City of Cape Town falls, hasbeen selected as a geographical area for a de-tailed assessment of non-virgin stocks and flowsin Africa. The CMA is one of the three largestindustrialised areas in South Africa, and has char-acteristics consistent with both the developed anddeveloping world. The Cape Town case-studymay thus provide a valuable framework for proxydata for other parts of Africa.

The analytical approach is as follows:1. Determination of the major uses of copper

within the Cape Metropolitan Area2. Application of proxy indicators for material

use (buildings, automobiles, etc.), in order todetermine the quantities in-use of copperproducts on a spatial basis.

3. Estimation of lifetimes of the major copperuses and of available resource flows fromlandfilling, recycling, and dissipation withinthe CMA.Comparison of anticipated rates of use for

copper products with estimated copper supplythus provides evaluations of the magnitudes andspatial distributions of a common industrialmetal. The proxy data that are derived for thevarious use categories of copper products arepotentially useful as well for similar studies inother parts of Africa.

Recycling and Land-Filling of CopperWaste in Europe

Marlen [email protected]

Department of Industrial SustainabilityBrandenburg Technical University at Cottbus03050 Cottbus, Germany

Helmut [email protected]

Resource and Waste ManagementDepartment of Civil, Environmental, andGeomatic EngineeringSwiss Federal Institute of Technology ZurichETH Honggerberg HIF E21CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland


Waste represents the loss of both material andenergy resources. Producing copper from second-ary resources contributes to saving energy andprolonging existing reserves. Waste generationin Europe in the 90’s is characterized both bythe high quantity of goods produced and con-sumed and the efficient use of copper resourcesin production. For a complete assessment of sec-ondary copper resources it is necessary not onlyto analyze the use of secondary copper at the

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production stage, but also to investigate the wastesources and the consequential recycling possi-bility. The authors trace the flows of copper in-duced by post consumer and production wastesin Europe as a sub-project of the STAF-project(a NSF project, carried out at the Yale Center ofIndustrial Ecology). First generation rates on acountry level and the copper concentrations ofall relevant waste groups are defined, followedby a waste treatment balance and an assessmentof technical properties of landfills and incinera-tion plants.

The total post-consumer waste generation of770 Mio.t/y can be divided into seven groups:municipal solid waste (21%), construction anddemolition waste (24%), waste from electricaland electronic equipment (1%), end-of-life ve-hicles (3%), sewage sludge (1%), hazardouswaste (4%), and industrial waste (46%). Wastefrom electrical and electronic equipment(WEEE) is the fastest growing waste group; it isexpected to grow 5 to 10% annually in the next10 years. Little or no information exists on thereliability of published data on waste generation.Uncertainties are expected to be rather high andmay be +100% for construction and demolitionwaste and +/- 20% for municipal solid waste. Dataon the copper content in some waste groups arescarce and incomplete. The assessment of cop-per flows reveals that eighty percent of the totalturnover (ca. 1.1 Mio.t/y) results from WEEE(49%), end of life vehicles (22%) and construc-tion and demolition waste (12%), while sewagesludge and hazardous waste are negligible small.These findings emphasize the growing need forcomprehensive recycling activities, particularlyfor WEEE.

Today almost 100% of the valuable copperproduction waste in Europe are recycled. Onlygalvanic sludge, chemical and electrolysis resi-dues, whose recycling is not yet economical, aredisposed of as part of hazardous waste. The re-cycling rate of post consumer copper waste var-ies between ten and sixty percent in Europe. Asa result, the high secondary production rate (54%)in European is mainly based on the large manu-facturing base from which new scrap is gener-ated, as well as on high scrap imports. Domesticold scrap, on the other hand, contributes only26% to the total scrap used in the European cop-per production. If all countries were to achieve

an 80% recycling rate, the contribution of oldscrap would rise to 47%.

This analysis represents the first comprehen-sive examination of copper in waste manage-ment. When embedded within the complete Eu-ropean copper budget this analysis shows therelative importance of waste management in thecopper life cycle.

Pollution Prevention, Industrial Ecologyand the New York/New Jersey Harbor

Susan E. [email protected]

Allison L. C. de [email protected]

Marta [email protected]

New York Academy of Sciences2 East 63rd StreetNew York, New York 10021 USA


This is a dynamic time for the entire HudsonValley watershed, and the New York/New Jer-sey Harbor in particular. Currently, decisions arebeing made regarding a number of key environ-mental topics, including the impact of land-usepractices on the quality and quantity of drinkingwater, and the implications of dredging the ship-ping channels in order to increase capacity ofport facilities. These and other decisions willhave far-reaching consequences for the economicfuture of this region.

Industrial pollution of the NY/NJ Harborlooms as one of this region’s most pressing en-vironmental problems. If pollution concerns arenot resolved in an acceptable way for the broadbase of stakeholders, they will compromise hu-man and environmental health, and impede theregion’s economic expansion. The New YorkAcademy of Sciences has initiated a five-yearproject to define and promote pollution preven-tion strategies for a number of toxicants in theHarbor using an industrial ecology approach.Traditional methods of pollution assessment areburdened with having to sample intensively overspace and time which can be prohibitively ex-

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pensive, time consuming and inapplicable toentire watersheds. Industrial ecology uses al-ready available economic statistics to quantifykey points in the toxicant cycle, thus making itquicker and more cost-effective than traditionalmethods.

The Academy’s approach to developing pol-lution prevention (P2) is two pronged: a thor-ough uncovering of the scientific research anddata, and an outreach and communication com-ponent to assure that the public is able to speaktheir mind. At the center of the project is a Con-sortium of stakeholder institutions (broad-basedand includes big and small business, local, stateand federal government, university, labor andconservation sectors) from the entire HudsonRiver watershed. The NY Academy of Sciencesis in the final stages of gathering the pertinentscientific, legislative, economic and regulatoryinformation on Mercury and Methylmercury, thefirst toxicant to be addressed. With this informa-tion, and taking into consideration the concernsfrom communities within the watershed, theConsortium will produce, publish, and promotespecific P2 plans for mercury using analyticalproducts derived from industrial ecology.

The mandate of the Consortium is to imple-ment the following four project goals:1) to identify the locations in five selected toxi-

cant cycles where pollution prevention wouldmost efficiently contribute to long-term re-ductions in loadings of toxicants;

2) to develop the most practical strategies to re-duce toxicant emissions by working with allConsortium members and the community atlarge;

3) to encourage implementation of the recom-mended actions by working with environmen-tal groups, industries, trade associations, la-bor, and governments; and

4) to evaluate quantitatively the success of thesestrategies in achieving environmental out-comes.This presentation will focus on the successes

and progress of this approach to address Mer-cury pollution in the New York/New Jersey Har-bor Watershed.

Industrial Ecology of Sulfur withinAustralia

David [email protected]

Department of Chemical EngineeringMonash UniversityClayton, Victoria 3800 Australia


The main source of sulfur in Australia is fromnaturally occurring deposits of mineral sulfides.These deposits are substantial and include thoseof lead, zinc, copper and nickel, giving rise tolarge scale extraction and export of metals. Whilehydro-metallurgical extraction routes for mineralsulfides producing sulfur and sulfates are avail-able and adopted worldwide, the predominanttechnology adopted thus far in Australia is pyro-metallurgy. No signs are currently apparent ofany shift from pyro-metallurgy to hydro-metal-lurgy in Australia for either existing or futureextraction processes for mineral sulfides.

Sulfur dioxide produced from the pyro-met-allurgical route is potentially an environmentalhazard and must be treated. Regulatory pressureson sulfur dioxide emissions are becoming in-creasingly stringent. The most widely acceptedtreatment approach is sulfuric acid manufacture.This option has been shown in earlier work bythe author to be the most satisfactory, both fromenvironmental and cost viewpoints. Howeverproceeding beyond the boundary of the SO

2 treat-

ment, questions arise regarding markets for sul-furic acid – the applications, tonnages, and pointsof use. Transport of acid is expensive in relationto its value, and involves a degree of hazard.Sulfur is more easily transportable and can bestockpiled, but current technology for sulfur pro-duction from sulfur dioxide has limitations.

The main bulk markets for sulfuric acid arefor phosphate fertilisers and for leaching min-eral ores in hydro-metallurgical processes. Thereare smaller volume markets in diverse industries,for example lead acid batteries, gas drying, re-finery alkylation, and alkali neutralisation. Someof these applications will come under increasingpressure to recycle spent acid, as environmentalstandards tighten, impinging on the total marketdemand for acid.

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A key challenge for smelter acid producers isto ensure access to markets which are locatedclose to the point of acid production. This chal-lenge impacts on decisions for locating both newsmelters and industries which consume acid.There are issues of supply-demand balance, sinceacid production is a by-product of the much morevaluable metal production.

A quantitative picture of the sulfur-sulfuricacid supply-demand situation in Australia and itsdynamics is presented. Examples are given ofcooperative and stand-alone industrial ap-proaches in Australia, with their relative advan-tages and disadvantages.

There are implications for improved indus-trial ecology with regard to:• Location

Factors governing smelter location at minesite, coastal town, or point of use are complexdepending on transport costs, access to markets,and environmental impacts. The proximity ofparticular acid markets to acid recycling facili-ties is also an important consideration.• Technology

There is potential for a hybrid approach tometal extraction, using both hydro and pyro met-allurgical approaches. Improvements in existingtechnology for sulfur production from smeltergases are needed. Acid recycling technology pre-sents particular challenges; closer considerationof acid concentration at points of disposal andre-use could be fruitful.• Industry Cooperation

More highly integrated operations offer bothpotential benefits and risks. Increased industryand government co-operation are essential toachieving better planning and investment deci-sions.

Dynamic Systems Analysis and LifeCycle Assessment Applied to Implemen-tation of Extended Producer Responsi-bility in Australia

Achara [email protected]

Stephen [email protected]

The University of New South Wales.School of Civil & Environmental EngineeringThe University of New South WalesSydney, NSW 2052 Australia


The concept of extended producer responsi-bility has taken hold in Australia and was usedas a basis for the introduction of the NationalPackaging Covenant and accompanying NationalEnvironmental Protection Measure (legislation).Consistent with international concerns surround-ing environmental protection, the disposal ofpackaging waste (a potential resource) was iden-tified to be a significant part of the municipalwaste stream. The benefits of packaging, lies inthe pre-consumption stage by ensuring an effi-cient and effective delivery of goods to the con-sumer, but its disposal is a problem as it is asso-ciated with throwing away a valuable resource.The Australian model of extended producer re-sponsibility is based on sharing responsibility forthe product (packaging material) across the prod-uct supply chain, from the raw material suppli-ers to its ultimate disposal. The model calls fora voluntary agreement between industries andgovernments (signatories), where a regulatorysafety net would apply to non-signatories, en-suring that the signatories are not disadvantagedby “free riders”. The Covenant requires indus-tries to commit towards the improvement ofpackaging waste recovery, reprocessing and re-use; and to support the collection and recoverysystem. The governments would contributethrough the facilitation of supporting legislation,market development, community education andkerbside collection services. The signatories arealso required to produce action plans to state theircommitments to specific measures and activities.This paper aims to demonstrate how system dy-namics combined with life cycle assessment

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(LCA) could be used as a tool to analyse thesustainability and environmental impact of com-mitments given by a signatory as stated in theaction plan.

System dynamics has been shown to be a ben-eficial tool for policy formulation and analysis.Numerous “yardsticks”, for example, monetarybenefit / cost, and unemployment figures, areused to measure the expected economic and so-cial impact that may arise during the implemen-tation of a policy. However, when it comes toenvironmental impact the “yardsticks” used areoften too specific in nature, reflecting a particu-lar aim of the policy framework. This may leadto the formulation of policies and commitmentsthat have an overall adverse effect on the envi-ronment, whist addressing a particular environ-mental issue of concern.

Combining LCA with system dynamics canovercome this problem. The synergies arisingfrom integrating LCA and system dynamics arethat LCA provides quantitative environmentalindicators and system dynamics brings to LCAthe dynamic characteristics missing in its frame-work. In addition, the holistic nature of LCAbroadens the scope of system dynamics model-ling to examine all “cradle to grave” processes.Consequently, the integration of LCA with sys-tem dynamics provides an analytical tool, thatconsiders the economic, social and environmen-tal impact, which could be used by covenant sig-natories to analyse and formulate sustainableaction and commitment.

Towards a Sustainable Development ofProduction

Fiammetta [email protected]

DI.Tec, Politecnico di Milano,via Durando 38/A20158 Milano Italy


Industrial ecology is an emerging concept todecline sustainable development aims in the pro-duction sector. This article explores the capacityof environmental design tools (evaluation meth-odologies and policy strategies) to transform

material and energy flow system. To this pur-pose the different strategies used to influenceenvironmental quality, ranging from regulationsand economic instruments to evaluation meth-odologies (i.e. Environmental Impact Assessmentand Life Cycle Assessment) are analyzed andcompared. The argumentation reaches the con-clusion that there isn’t a specific tool to apply inorder to achieve sustainable development of in-dustry, but a set of different instruments that canhelp on that way if they are correctly used. Thisstatement determinates two consequences. Thefirst consequence is the urgency to develop ex-isting tools in order to integrate their lacks ofaccuracy. The attempt carried out to integrate sitedependent evaluation in LCA shows an effort inthis direction. The second, more radical, conse-quence is that it is necessary to train new profes-sional figures managing all the environmentaldesign tools system and able to evaluate in eachsituation which set of tools should be applied.

The issue of sustainable changing of productscan be placed between different disciplines (i.e.industrial design and environmental design). Soalso the instruments that can help in this direc-tion are emerging from different disciplinarycontexts like planning as the Environmental Im-pact Assessment (EIA), management asEcoaudit. These tools operate in different waysand are applied in different moments of the de-cision making and design process and in differ-ent ways: as a support to drive the design pro-cess of new products towards sustainability, as asupport to choose between existing products.

The necessity of this set of tools is also due tothe complexity of environmental problems andto the fact that often it is not sufficient to facethem from a unique point of view.

Having to deal with a topic crossing the es-tablished disciplines, an effort should be done toreorganize knowledge around actual problems.In other words, what is maybe missing and con-stitutes the typical feature of this text, is the com-parison and integration of the most importantassessment and certification tools (Life CycleAssessment, Ecolabel, Ecoaudit, ISO 14000,Environmental Impact Assessment) applicable toimprove environmental quality of products andproduction processes.

Having to deal with a topic crossing the es-tablished disciplines, an effort should be done to

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reorganize knowledge around actual problems.In other words, what is maybe missing and con-stitutes the typical feature of this text, is coordi-nation between knowledge and disciplines aim-ing at solving the real environmental problems.

Beyond RCRA: Prospects for Waste andMaterials Management in the Year 2020

Elizabeth [email protected]

Director, Office of Solid WasteUS EPA Office of Solid Waste (5301W)1200 Pennsylvania Ave, NWWashington, DC 20460 USA


This paper outlines a new public policy “vi-sion” of a more sustainable system for manag-ing wastes and materials in the United States twodecades from now. The current system for man-agement of industrial and post-consumer wastesin the US has been directed since 1976 by thefederal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act(RCRA)—while the past few decades have seengreat improvements generally in waste manage-ment practices in the US, the current system isnot without its flaws. In any case, the US Envi-ronmental Protection Agency, along with part-ner state environmental agencies, have commis-sioned a working group to begin exploring howthe country’s current waste management systemcould and should evolve to meet the challengesand opportunities of the new century. This pa-per is the initial product of that effort, and is thusintended to creatively engage and stimulate adialogue on the future of the nation’s waste man-agement system, unconstrained by the currentlegal and institutional structure of the RCRA pro-gram.

The paper first makes certain general projec-tions and assumptions as to the economic, tech-nological and societal “landscape” that wouldshape a future waste and materials managementsystem in the US. Much of the conceptualgroundwork for this discussion was generatedfrom the 1999 EPA-sponsored “Future of Waste”roundtable meeting in Washington, DC, whichincluded a number of experts in the field of in-

dustrial ecology and related disciplines. Thisdiscussion in the paper is organized around sixgeneral themes: Resources, Health and Risk,Industry, Information, Globalization, and Soci-ety and Governance.

Several major conclusions are reached, in-cluding:• The need to broaden the scope of the current

system from its current “waste only” focus,to place much greater emphasis on more sus-tainable, more efficient, and less wasteful useof resources (i.e., a materials managementsystem)

• The need for a future materials managementsystem to more effectively control potentialrisks from hazardous chemicals throughouttheir life-cycles under a more integrated sys-tem, rather than the patchwork of regulations,incentives and other measures that serve thisfunction today.

• The need in future for a simpler, more perfor-mance-based system to control the proper dis-posal of hazardous industrial wastes (whosevolumes would presumably be greatly re-duced under a more effective materials man-agement system).The paper further discusses a number of tools

and strategies that would likely be needed forsuch a broader materials management system tobe achieved. These would likely involve com-bining traditional regulatory controls with a num-ber of non-traditional (at least for the UnitedStates) approaches, including certain types ofeconomic incentives, voluntary programs, pub-lic education initiatives, and other measures.

Sustainability Performance ofNeighbourhoods: Decision SupportInstrument for MunicipalPolicy Makers

Harry A.L. van [email protected]

IVAM Environmental ResearchP.O. Box 18180NL-1001 ZB, Amsterdam The Netherlands.


To determine the sustainability performance

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of a neighbourhood a prototype tool is developedand tested in three case studies by IVAM Envi-ronmental Research, TNO Building and Con-struction and TNO Environment, Energy andProcess Innovation.

Based on ‘people’ and ‘planet’ from the triplebottom line, indicators are developed for 25 as-pects leading to theme scores for global envi-ronment (based on LCA), local environment,health, nuisance, safety and facilities. Aggregatedthey lead to –at this time ten– quantitative scoresfor Environment and Quality of life: the Sustain-ability Performance Indicator of aNeighbourhood (SPIN).

The power of the instrument is that insight isgiven into sustainability of alternatives for aneighbourhood in the planning phase.

The instrument consists of the following com-ponents:• SPIN scheme (divert from Sustainability to

Environment and Quality of life themes andconvert to indicators and finally SPIN) to putaspects of sustainability in order;

• SPIN questionnaire to gather input data froma neighbourhood;

• SPIN matrix to calculate sustainability scoresfor the different indicators, based on the in-put data; and

• SPIN profile that indicates the sustainabilityof a neighbourhood, now consisting of ten fig-ures.The preliminary conclusions of the project

are:• The instrument enables calculating a SPIN

profile of a neighbourhood. Municipalities areable to supply about 75% of the requested in-formation.

• Comparison of three case studies shows thatthe instrument is able to distinguish levels ofsustainability.

• Determination of the perception of the envi-ronment is most difficult. Further research isnecessary to forecast perception out of thephysic properties of a plan.

Digital vs. Traditional Libraries: AComparative LCA of Their RelativePerformance

David L. [email protected]

Gregory A. [email protected]

Center for Sustainable SystemsUniversity of MichiganDana Bldg. 430 E. UniversityAnn Arbor, MI 48109-1115 USA


Internet technology is enabling profoundchanges. It is important to understand the unin-tended consequences associated with a varietyof networked systems. One such system is thedigital library, a managed collection of digitally-stored information accessible over a network. Aninterdisciplinary team with expertise in Indus-trial Ecology and Information Science conducteda life cycle assessment of a digital library at theUniversity of Michigan, a major center for digi-tal library research. Particular attention was paidto the Shapiro Science Library’s journal collec-tion, nearly half of which is already available indigital format.Objectives:

Conduct a systems-based, first-order analysisof the environmental aspects of digital librar-ies.Identify any unintended consequences that mayexist with regard to the environment.Disseminate research results to a wide audienceof decision-makers, including digital librariansand public policy-makers.Suggest appropriate areas for further researchinto the environmental performance of com-puter networks and related information systems.

Methods:A comparative life cycle approach was

adopted for this study. Two different systemswere considered: a digital library and a tradi-tional, print-based library. The digital systemboundary included all major activities and infra-structure required to produce, maintain, access,and archive information contained in electronicjournal articles. Similarly, the traditional system

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boundary included processes and facilities re-quired to produce, deliver, manage, and storepaper-based journal articles. Both systems weremodeled to determine relative environmentalperformance. Individual modules were devel-oped for the following components:

Digital Library System - data storage andserver computer; routers, switches, and hubs;client computer; library facility; collection main-tenance; personal transportation; laser printing

Traditional Library System - journal paperproduction; journal printing, binding, and deliv-ery; library facility; collection maintenance; per-sonal transportation; photocopying

Modules were then used to construct variouslife cycle scenarios for both systems. As part ofthe analysis, sensitivity of results to selected vari-ables was tested.Preliminary Results:

This study focused mainly on energy con-sumption as a key indicator of environmentalburden. While findings are still preliminary, theysuggest several key points:

Energy embodied in a paper journal article issubstantially greater than energy used to accessonline articles using a computer workstation.However, a paper article’s per use burden fallsdramatically as the number of readings per ar-ticle increases.

Energy used for indirect activities such as la-ser printing and photocopying can be more sig-nificant than the direct effects associated withjournal production and online viewing.

Energy consumed in transportation to andfrom the library has the potential to dwarf ef-fects of all other model elements.

Networking technology continues to evolve.This LCA does not attempt to provide more thana first-order analysis of such a dynamic phenom-enon. It does, however, yield valuable insightsfor planning the developmental pathway of digi-tal library systems. Environmental aspects cannow be considered along with other design fac-tors such as performance, cost, and social im-pact. This study also highlights modeling chal-lenges, and contributes to the ongoing develop-ment of LCA methodology for digital networksin general. Final results of this study will be pre-sented during the ISIE Conference poster ses-sion, and will be available in an upcomingmaster’s thesis publication.

Personal vs. Socio-TechnologicalChange: Experimenting with EnhancedHousehold Energy Accounting Softwarefor Swiss End-users

David [email protected]

CEPEETH Zentrum, WECCH-8092 Zurich Switzerland


A household energy accounting software ap-plication was enhanced and tested in a pilot studywith Swiss subjects in order to examine ways ofimproving conventional energy/environmentalinformation approaches for laypeople. Conven-tional consumer and household energy analysisfocuses on direct, discretionary choices of indi-viduals that influence energy demand. But insti-tutional, socio-technological, and historical con-straints are at least as important as personal onesin explaining individuals’ patterns and levels ofenergy consumption. This research seeks to testthe practicability and utility of illuminating therole of some of these less-discretionary factors—especially technological levels and social anddemographic forces influencing activity utiliza-tion rates — for lay end-users, alongside the usualanalysis of the impact of personal behavioralchoices. Their appreciation of the wider factorsmay be crucial to their role in shaping societaland environmental outcomes as well as in mak-ing their own personal, discretionary consump-tion choices.

Developed on the theoretical basis of ecologi-cal modernization thought and consumption re-search — involving the notion of a range in end-users’ “discretion” and applying a “social-reveal-ing” approach to energy analysis — the programbuilds on a pre-existing, individual-oriented en-ergy accounting module. This generates anindividual’s profile of primary direct and embod-ied energy use for daily activities like heating,housing, transport, and diet. The newer moduleallows the user to manipulate larger- and longer-scale variables and see their effects on his indi-vidual energy profile and Switzerland’s aggre-gate energy balance. These ‘less discretionary’factors include technological variables (e.g. in-

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dustrial efficiencies and power- generating fuelmixes) as well as demographic (e.g. percentageof single-person households) and sociologicalvariables (average car and plane travel, dwell-ing size). Other important factors like institu-tional and economic rules and incentives are notmodeled but suggest themselves in interactionwith the program and discussions in interviews.There are separate displays for individual/aver-age and Swiss national energy consumption, cur-rently, under future trend, or tailor-made sce-narios; and - as an explicit link between the mi-cro and macro levels - any of the personal pro-files can be scaled up to national levels for hy-pothetical simulations.

Preliminary results suggest this type of mod-eling and indicator presentation is a potentiallypromising way to show the interaction and rela-tive importance of individual, industrial, and so-cietal interventions for energy consumption, atleast for subjects already interested in energyconservation. The combination of positive (whatcan I change?) and normative (what am I willingto change?) elements in the guided use of thepersonal module makes for highly individualoutcomes as to what makes more difference inenergy reduction for one’s profile: personal ef-forts in one’s daily life or advances in techno-logical development (e.g. higher efficiencies orimprovements in fuel mix). Interactions and con-nections between the social and the technical aremade apparent in the Swiss average and aggre-gate displays. This sort of information tool maypoint the way towards both direct individual be-havioral change and enhanced consumer-citizeninvolvement.

Eco-Parks for Eco-Development

Marsha [email protected]

TRTG, 2 Chauncy Street (#2)Cambridge, MA 02138 USA


“Industrial ecosystems have the potential ofchanging today’s industrial development para-digm” [Côté, R. 1997. Industrial EcosystemsEvolving and Maturing. The Journal of Indus-

trial Ecology (JIE) 1(3): 9-11.] Since these pre-scient words appeared, we’ve been able to chartthese changes in following issues of JIE, otherscientific publications and the Cornell Univer-sity Eco-Industrial Development Program Clear-inghouse.

The first man-made ecosystems appeared incomplex resource-sharing production sites as di-verse as Kalundborg, Denmark and the TexasGulf Coast, USA. Based on by-product ex-changes and cascading energy and water systems,they were early examples of industries’ abilityto identify and implement unique cost-savingsolutions for limited natural and energy re-sources. Now we find new parks across the USand Canada based on a shared infrastructure in-cluding a commitment to sustainable develop-ment. These parks “balance ecological integrity,economic efficiency, and social equity” leadingto “an opportunity for employment and a rea-sonable quality of life for all in the community”[Côté, R. 1998. Thinking Like an Ecosystem. JIE2(2): 9-11.]

As economic development agencies and com-munity action groups investigate both inner cityand rural employment, this new definition foreco-efficiency looks attractive. But where isthe model for this new eco-industrial concept? Isuggest the Burnside Industrial Park in NovaScotia, Canada where 12% of the more than 1300businesses provide services to “reuse, refinish,refurbish, repair, rent, remanufacture and re-cycle” the region’s discards and byproducts[Côté, R. 1999. Exploring the Analog Further.JIE 3(2-3) 11-12.] This is the model to supporta region’s recycling needs, whether based onlandfill regulations or business expediency.

Presently, several cities and towns in the Com-monwealth of Massachusetts, USA are examin-ing these concepts as they plan for new economicdevelopment. Faced with a new statewide SolidWaste Management Plan (SWMP) calling for a70% reduction in waste generation by 2010, thesecommunities are searching for new solutions. Therecycling related manufacturing sector presentlyemploys more than 12,000 people in the Com-monwealth and it is estimated that the SWMPwill make close to nine million tons of materialsavailable for new products. With the assistanceof the Chelsea Center for Recycling and Eco-nomic Development (University of Massachu-

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setts), grants for analyzing by-product and wasteflows are available to communities and non-profit groups.

The recipients generally complete these ma-terial flow analyses in a virtual eco-industrialpark framework where they evaluate qualitiesand quantities by source and location. They es-tablish potential processing and manufacturingfacilities to meet anticipated markets for a vari-ety of new products. I will report on several ofthe current Massachusetts Recycling-BasedCommunity Economic Development Projectsincluding those in Boston, the north-central area,and the old industrialized coastal southeasternarea. This last project with the regional Cham-ber of Commerce as the lead agency will includetwo communities and a common landfill withsignificant fish and rubber processingbyproducts. Reuse opportunities include bothhigh value fertilizer and mixed compost from fishprocessing and food wastes, and new manufac-tured products from rubber processing wastes andused tires.

Efficient Material Use and CO2 Emis-sion Reduction

Marko P. [email protected]

Department of Innovation StudiesUtrecht UniversityHeidelberglaan 8, 3584 CS UtrechtThe Netherlands


The life cycle of materials and products re-quires large amounts of energy. Therefore, theproduction and use of materials and productsleads to large greenhouse gas emissions. In thisresearch project we have studied which possi-bilities exist to produce and use materials andproducts more efficiently and we calculated theimpacts on greenhouse gas emission reductions.By means of several case studies we show thatmore efficient material management can be astrong tool in reducing greenhouse gas emissions:the potential is large and the costs are very low.

Will ICT enhance IE?

Paul W. [email protected]

Slikkerveerstraat 1151107 VM Amsterdam The Netherlands


Kalundborg(D)is a shining example of an in-dustrial ecology (IE) for over four decades. Itstarted as a greenfield operation quite compa-rable to mainframe computers. It´s architecturehas a unique time and space frame which offer itexcellent stand alone operation capabilities. Intodays world of network computers (client/serv-ers) many time and space impediments of mainframe computers have been overcome. Can weapply this metaphore to IE? In this paper, basedupon an information exchange model among IEpartners, the following topics will be dealt withKalundborg: stand alone for ever or client/serverin the future? Co-operation and information ex-change among IE partners; What we can learnfrom Supply Chain Management (SCM); FromSCM to Reverse Logistics; Window of opportu-nities.

Material Flow Quality Management –the Example of Aluminium Recycling

John [email protected]

Sten KarlssonJessica Johansson

Department of Physical Resource TheoryChalmers and Göteborg UniversityS-412 96 Göteborg Sweden


Recycling of materials is one important wayto potentially decrease processing costs includ-ing environmental and resource costs. One im-portant cost factor that should be considered isthat recycled and remelted materials can be oflower materials quality, lower value, than pri-mary materials. In this study we discuss andanalyse concepts and mechanisms for the qual-ity of secondary materials. For metals, such a

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lowered material quality can be caused by a mix-ing of various alloying elements into the metals,a deliberate mixing of different alloys in the pro-duction of the secondary materials, or be due todifferent impurities coming into the scrapstreams. When these mechanisms lead to a de-creased flexibility of the metal there is a pos-sible loss in the value of the secondary materi-als. The flexibility is often uni-directional andcan be seen as a down-cycling. Accordingly, toefficiently utilise the potential benefits of recy-cling, it is important to consider not only thepossible quantities recoverable for recycling, butalso qualitative aspects. The prerequisites to getuseful secondary materials are influenced alongthe whole materials chain from materials pro-duction, over use to recovery and recycling. Tohandle these qualitative aspects of recycling, thematerial flow-quality, there is need for what wecan call a proper Material Flow Quality Man-agement. The down-cycling will lead to adop-tion in flow and values along the materials chain.In a model we analyse these changes. Ultimatelysome of the recovered scrap can be dumped. Thestudy also suggest some direct physical measuresof flexibility, or rather the lack of flexibility ofaluminium alloys, in the form of necessary dilu-tion with primary aluminium. These measuresare quantified and analysed for aluminium al-loys used in Sweden. Finally, different strategiesfor materials flow quality management for thealuminium system are identified and analysedregarding their ability to give flexibility to therecycled aluminium

CO2 Reduction Potential for LaundryDetergents Using Life Cycle Assessment

Gert Van [email protected]

Procter & Gamble EurocorTemselaan 100B-1853 Strombeek-Bever Belgium

Erwan [email protected]

Procter & Gamble47 Route St GeorgesCH-1213 Petit Lancy Switzerland

Diederik [email protected]

Dionisis [email protected]

Procter & Gamble EurocorTemselaan 100B-1853Strombeek-Bever Belgium


A Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and Analysis(LCA) database for P&G laundry detergents wasconstructed using SimaPro software. The inputdata needed to conduct a product LCI came fromdifferent supporting databases to cover supplier(extraction and manufacturing of raw materials),detergent product manufacturing, transportation,packaging, use and disposal phases. Manufac-turing, packaging and transportation phases areusually representative of European conditionswhile the use and disposal phases are countryspecific and represent how consumers are usinga specific product and how wastes are disposedof. The database was constructed to analyse de-tergent products from a system-wide, functionalunit point of view in a consistent, transparent andreproducible manner. LCA can clearly be usedto identify improvement areas. Firstly, the LCIof a laundry detergent is presented. Secondly,LCI information is combined with actual mar-ket data to calculate P&G’s contribution to keyemissions from laundering. The presentation willdemonstrate changes in CO

2 emission resulting

from 1) a change in wash habit practices, 2) fromdifferent market composition (e.g. powders vs.liquids) and 3) from reformulating laundry de-tergents (renewable vs. fossil based surfactants).This information is used to guide R&D depart-ment in priority setting for further product im-provements.

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Sustainable Development andNoosphere Function of Economics:Trajectory of Possibilities andRestrictions.

Lidia [email protected] or [email protected]

Lviv National UniversityTuretska str. 2\7, Lviv 79011 Ukraine


Natural changes that have enveloped the mod-ern world continue to remain one of the globalproblems of the humankind.

Under such circumstances, there is a need totalk about the modern system definitions of thenatural changes as endogenous factor for the re-lated economical changes.

Sustainable development can be presented asan optimal trajectory of the humankind move-ment with its possibilities and restrictions. In thiscontext, the attention has to be paid to the theo-retical and practical matters of this development.

Firstly, the functioning of economy within theboundaries of the global ecological system char-acterized by the limited possibilities of pure wa-ter production and production of the surface pho-tosynthesis requires the review of the structureof the macroeconomic models that should bebased upon the spatial laws of the natural pro-cess. For that purpose the ecological supply ofthe natural capital should be defined on the basisof the modeling its biophysical function.

Secondly, the theory of the macroeconomicbalance does not provide the self-organizationof the ecologically sustainable economics. Forthat reason the market mechanisms in the use ofnature have to be supplemented by the mecha-nisms of provision the sustainable functioningposition for the ecological-economical systemsthat are the non-equilibrium systems as a opento environment. The major criterion should bethe preservation of the of the biological produc-tivity of the natural capital based on the law ofthe biological mass preservation.

Thirdly, the theoretical economics cannot bejust limited to the modeling of merely produc-tive function. The necessity to model the sus-tainable natural used function arises, which canbe named as the noosphere function. We propose

the model of the noosphere function as a quali-tatively new one of the sustainable development,and it consists of the following three functions:negentropy function; biophysical function of theecological-economical systems; the function ofthe natural capital consumption. This enables usto have a different approach to a definition ofthe sustainable development indicators. The re-alization of the sustainable development concep-tion of the world has to be adequate to its diver-sity.

A very negative phenomenon that does notfavor the realization of the sustainable develop-ment of the world is the practice of the poor coun-tries in rent seeking in the sphere of the use ofnature. This has been accompanied by the fur-ther transformation of the price formation mecha-nism that does not reflect the level of the limitscarcity of the natural capital resources, but alsoleads to the ever more ineffective use of naturewith the purpose of increase in shadow exporttransactions, this practice worsens the globalecological situation.

Hence, the modern stage of the sustainabledevelopment has to draw the world economy tothe needs of the harmonious coexistence of thenature and society as close as possible throughthe formation of the new geological cover of theplanet, that is noosphere. This, in its turn, requiresthe application of the new methodological andpractical technologies.

Application of Information Manage-ment to Improve Environmental Mate-rial Accounting Techniques

Ju-Pin HungStephen [email protected]

School of Civil & Environmental EngineeringUniversity of New South WalesSydney 2052 Australia


There are a number tools or techniques thathave been developed to assess and provide in-formation to manage material flows in the lasttwo decades, including; life cycle assessment,material flux analysis, material input per service

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unit, sustainable process index, ecological foot-print, and total material requirements of nations.These techniques are based on the same prin-ciple – tracing materials and energy flowsthrough the human economy, but at differentscales. Currently each technique is undertakenseparately, requiring significant amounts of dataand hundreds of processes to be balanced in sepa-rate methodologies.

There has been little cross-linking of the ex-isting databases between techniques. With littleuniformity in database structure, it makes thesharing of data difficult. To overcome this prob-lem, a database model is starting to be devel-oped by utilizing a Relational Database Manage-ment System (RDMS) to integrate the wide va-riety of data collected in the established data-bases within different material accounting tech-niques. This model may provide better informa-tion to the different techniques. It may enablesome integration among the techniques.

This paper outlines the proposed study methodand presents the current, still developing, struc-ture of the relational database model for some ofthe material accounting techniques.

Streamlined Life Cycle Analysis for theU.S. Powder Metallurgy Industry

Jacqueline A. [email protected]

Northeastern Univeristy334 Snell Engineering Center360 Huntington AvenueBoston, MA 02115 USAphone: +1 617 373-3989fax: +1 617 373-2921


Streamlined Life Cycle Analysis (SLCA) isused to track the environmental performance ofthe U.S. Powder Metallurgy (P/M) industry,where scope and goals, inventory analysis, im-pact analysis and improvement assessment aredefined for a gate-to gate approach of P/M manu-facturing operations. The P/M industry consistsof two sectors, powder producers and part pro-ducers, which primarily supply components tothe automotive industry. Data from the U.S. En-

vironmental Protection Agency Toxics ReleaseInventory (USEPA-TRI) are used for the inven-tory analysis of 72 production facilities to tracktrends in toxic emissions over a recent five-yearperiod for both sectors. Air emissions and solidwastes were the most significant waste streamsfor both sectors. To address impact analysis, tox-icity and production intensity indicators are com-puted. Energy usage and related carbon emissionstrends are also examined for fabrication of P/Mcomponents. Selected results are compared withsimilar indicators for related metal industries inthe U.S., e.g. primary and fabricated metal prod-ucts, and automotive parts and accessories.

Results from the inventory and impact analy-ses and consultation with P/M parts industrymanagers led to identification of opportunitiesfor pollution prevention in fabrication. Sourcereductions of air emissions and toxic solid wastesare explored as a first option. One of the casestudies focuses on cleaning operations for P/Mparts, where technology substitution is imposed;an aqueous solution coupled with ultrasoniccleaning is compared with current cleaning tech-nologies that use organic halogenated solventsin vapor degreasing units with solvent recycling.Explicit regulatory costs (tier 1), such as haul-ing and landfill disposal costs, are included. Pro-cess modeling tools were developed and wereused with financial tools to estimate fixed andvariable costs, as well as energy consumption andassociated wastes for each scenario. Financialmanagement indicators such as rate of return, netpresent value and payback period are computed,using a depreciation method, with taxes and in-flation rates that are representative of investmentconditions for U.S. decision makers in industry.

Results from this case study show lower vari-able costs, quick payback period and competi-tive rate of return for the technology substitu-tion investment in an aqueous based cleaningoperation. Other benefits include: reduced riskfor workers, lower liabilities, increased efficiencyin resource use, and minimized environmentalimpact through the reduction of air emissions andwaste streams. Financial and process modelingtools proved valuable for enhancing the resultsof the P/M SLCA. This modeling approachweighs economic and financial aspects with tech-nical factors, and identified relevant cost driversto offer a more comprehensive decision process.

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Environmental awareness, business strategiesand competitiveness for the P/M industry are alsoexplored in the context of Environmental Man-agement Systems and the adoption of ISO 14000standards. As tier one suppliers to the auto manu-facturing industry in the U.S., P/M companiesface the challenges of developing corporate strat-egies for ISO 14000 certification to demonstratecommitments to excellence in manufacturing,sustainability and environmental quality. LowISO 14000 adoption for P/M companies high-lights their need for increased integration of cor-porate policies that include progressive environ-mental management practices.

Using Recycled Highly Alloyed Alu-minium in Crude Steel Production as aWay of Maintaining Aluminium ScrapQuality – the Example of Sweden

Jessica [email protected]

Department of Physical Resource TheoryChalmers University of Technology andGöteborg UniversitySE–412 96, Göteborg Sweden


Aluminium could be an important metal in amore sustainable society but due to the energyintensive primary production it ought to be re-cycled to a high extent. A way to facilitate therecycling would be if the problematic aluminiumscrap, owing to a high content of different alloy-ing elements, could be used for valuable fieldsof application where the aluminium ends up in aform not suitable for recycling anyway. The useof aluminium in crude steel production is such afield of application and in this study it is analysedwhether aluminium with a high content of dif-ferent alloying elements could be used in crudesteel production to an extent of importance forthe aluminium recycling system. The study iscarried out mostly through interviews withpeople at steelworks in Sweden, covering almost97% of the crude steel production in Sweden to-day. It shows that about 9 thousand tonnes ofaluminium were used in crude steel productionin Sweden in 1999, which corresponds to about

10% of the estimated potentially availableamount of old aluminium scrap in Sweden in1995. It also shows that aluminium with a highcontent of iron or manganese is usually acceptedto be used in crude steel production today, butaluminium with a high content of copper, mag-nesium, silicon or zinc is usually not. However,there are some possibilities for changing thisacceptance today already, especially for silicon,if the economic incentive is large enough.

An Analysis of the Long-run Socio-cultural Changes in the Energy Sectorof the Wealthiest Industrialised Coun-tries: Comparison and Analysis of G7-Countries Energy and CO2 EfficiencyDynamics in the Years 1960-1997

Jyrki [email protected]

University of TampereDept. of Regional Studies and EnvironmentalPolicyFIN-33014 University of Tampere Finland

Jari [email protected]

Finland Futures Research CentreTurku School of Economics and BusinessAdministrationP.O. Box 110FIN-20521 Turku Finland


In the research field of industrial ecology thelong-run socio-cultural changes in the energyproduction and consumption have been an im-portant research topic. In the study, authors con-tinue this tradition. They analyse long-runchanges and trends in energy production of worldwealthiest nations, so called G-7-countries. Thisstudy is a comparative analysis of energy con-sumption and CO2 emission flows in the G7-countries in the years 1960-1997. The compara-tive analyses are based on the complete decom-position methodology. Authors provide the analy-sis of dynamic changes of energy consumptionand CO2 emission flows in the G7-economies.

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The comparative analyses reveal that1) Activity effects of the different G-7 countries

were quite similar. Biggest increase in theactivity effect has been in the US economydue to the large size of economy.

2) Structural effects varied considerably indicat-ing differences in economic activities in theanalysed countries.

3) Intensity effects on energy use and CO2emissions revealed large differencesbetween the G-7 countries. The energyintensity effects have decreased after 1970in all the G-7 countries except France. Allthe G-7 countries have showed a decreasingCO2 emission intensities after the year1970.

The Rebound Effect for VariousDematerialisation Strategies

Sten [email protected]

John [email protected]

Department of Physical Resource TheoryChalmers and Göteborg UniversityS-412 96 Göteborg Sweden


With the rebound effect is meant the effectthat an increase in the efficiency of a factor ofproduction or consumption, for instance, energy,will be partly or wholly counteracted by differ-ent economic mechanisms. These will, based onthe lowering of the factor price introduced bythe increased efficiency, increase the utilisationof the factor in question. The rebound effect hasempirically and theoretically been extensivelyinvestigated within the energy field, even thoughthe concept and its potential effects also havebeen extensively debated, partly due to differentbases for the theoretical and empirical analyses.

For materials there is considerable and grow-ing interest in achieving a dematerialisation ofthe societal turnover and the application of vari-ous strategies to this end. However, the potentialrebound effect in connection to the utilisation ofmaterials has not been investigated to any largeextent. In this paper we will discuss the applica-

tion of the rebound effect to the materials field.We make a short review of the theoretical basisof the rebound effect within the energy field anddiscuss various mechanisms contributing to therebound effect at different levels in the economy.We then translate these theoretical considerationsto materials. The turnover in society as well asthe principles and potential mechanisms for in-creased efficiency differs considerably betweenthe usage of energy and materials. We analysethese difference and their implications for therebound effect when applied to various strate-gies for dematerialisation. We conclude that insome important cases the rebound effect for ef-ficiency increases in the utilisation of materialscan be considerable.

Research and Education of IndustrialEcology in the Study Programmes forProcess and Environmental

Riitta L. [email protected]

J. HeinoT. KoskenkariH. Makkonen

University of Oulu,Department of Process andEnvironmental EngineeringP.O.Box 4300FIN-90014 Finlandphone: +1 358-8-553 2348fax: +1 358-8-553 2304

Process Metallurgy and Industrial Environ-mental Engineering at the University of Oulu areboth new educational orientations. Thus, betweenthese two young orientations it was consideredimportant to have a good co-operation both inresearch and education. Industrial Ecology andRecycling, which is a study course given in theIndustrial Environmental Engineering orientationand an important research area in the Labora-tory of Process Metallurgy, is one of the fieldswhere the two units have quite a lot mutual ben-efits and goals.

Industrial ecology (IE) is a new approach tothe industrial design of products and processesand the implementation of sustainable manufac-

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turing strategies. It is a concept in which an in-dustrial system is viewed in concert with the sur-rounding systems. IE seeks to optimise the totalmaterials cycle from the virgin materials to fin-ished materials, to components, to products, towaste products, and to the ultimate disposal.

IE is a combination of several fields, like in-dustrial metabolism, design for the environment,life-cycle analysis, green chemistry, pollutionprevention, environmentally conscious manufac-turing, and sustainable development. Decision-making is needed to understand the effects ofproduct-design, process-design, and materialschoices on the material outputs of the manufac-turing system, including the fates of the prod-ucts when finally discarded by its owners.

Because of the great importance and volumeof the metallurgical industry, it is a very interest-ing application area for the industrial ecologyapproach. The total load of the nature has led toa more strict use of raw materials through recy-cling the main and by-products. Besides the prob-lems involved in the energy production, a bigproblem both in pyrometallurgical and especiallyin hydrometallurgical production is the solidwaste and the complex utilisation and elimina-tion of harmful impurities. Further processing ofthe waste material demands great efforts, thecosts of which are at least partly directed to theprimary process forming an essential boundarycondition for the process selection.

None of the goals related to environmentalissues will be accomplished without extensiveand creative application of innovative technolo-gies. The combined dimensions of the techno-logical basis of modern civilization and the re-maining unmet human needs for current and fu-ture generations dictate the use of the sustain-able, more efficient, and less resource-intensivetechnologies to replace or modify existing prac-tices across a wide spectrum of activity. The maintarget is in long run the sustainable developmentwithout any harmful side effects of the indus-trial activity.

During the course for Industrial Ecology andRecycling, the relationship of humanity and en-vironment is explicated, and the need for sus-tainable development highlighted. The conceptof IE is explained, the systems and the life-cycleapproaches as well as the economic and legalbackgrounds are outlined. IE considers environ-

mentally appropriate technology as a criticalcomponent of transition to sustainability. Designfor Environment is introduced as a tool ofinternalising environmental considerations intoeconomic activities. Considerable attention isalso paid to waste management, particularly towaste minimisation in industry.

An Object-based Tradeoff ModelingFramework for Household WasteProcessing

Steven Krainesstevenprosys.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Komiyama Laboratory, Department of Chemi-cal System EngineeringUniversity of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku,Tokyo 113-8656 Japan


With the approval of the container recyclinglaw in April 2000 and the food recycling law inApril 2001, Japan has shown firm conviction tothe promotion of recycling. Waste can be re-cycled, i.e. resource value of waste material canbe recovered, in many ways. These include vari-ous material recycling and energy recycling op-tions. Alternatively, waste can be reduced or justdisposed. Each technology has a different set ofrequired inputs such as equipment costs, elec-tricity requirements, heating, water, and so on.They also have different sets of outputs both asvalued products such as recycled bottles or elec-tricity, and as pollution emissions. Furthermore,each option has different requirements for thepurity of the material to be processed. For ex-ample, plastic material recycling often requiresthat the input plastic be of a single type such aspolystyrene. If the consumer separates the gar-bage, then multiple vehicles may be necessaryto collect the different types of garbage, increas-ing collection cost. In fact, this cost reflects afundamental reason why using household wasteas a valuable resource is difficult: it is thinly dis-tributed spatially and temporally and highly het-erogeneous in composition.

Object-based model integration using theInternet combines aspects of traditional central-ized and network technology approaches to ad-

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dress large-scale, complex, multi-disciplinarysystem problems. As a prototype application ofthis approach to holistic system analysis deci-sion support tool for environmental sustainabilityissues, an object-based modeling framework isdeveloped for examining the various tradeoffsbetween costs, pollution emissions, resource con-sumption, and land fill use for the different re-cycling and disposal options. The framework isapplied to household plastic waste processing.The overall process is divided into three stages:generation of plastic waste from households,collection using different kinds of garbage col-lection vehicles, and plant processing for recy-cling or disposal.

Six types of plastic waste processing technolo-gies were examined: production of plastic pel-lets, production of RDF (refuse derived fuel),production of oil, waste incineration to produceelectricity, use of waste plastic as a coke substi-tute steel making, and simple incineration. Thedefault scenario assumes all waste plastic is landfilled. Models based on data from actual plants,laboratory experiments, and theoretical consid-erations of scale effects and mass balances aredeveloped to calculate the cost, energy consump-tion, CO2 emission, and land fill occupancy foreach technology. The models also calculate theresource produced by each technology, i.e. plas-tic pellets, electricity (from incineration and fromuse of RDF in thermal power plants), oil, andcoke. Each resource production rate is convertedinto cost, energy, CO2, and landfill use using LCIdata. These values are subtracted from the out-puts of the waste processing models to obtainoverall performances for each technology. Themodels are used to compare the advantages anddisadvantages of each of the technologies forprocessing the waste plastic generated in Tokyo,Japan. The overall tradeoff system model is thenapplied to several scenarios for combinations ofthe plastic recycling and disposal technologiesin Tokyo based on currently considered wastedisposal strategies.

Application of Industrial Ecology toHuman Settlements for SustainableDevelopment

Kanduri [email protected]

J.A. [email protected]

Centre for Integrated Environmental ProtectionSchool for Environmental EngineeringGriffith UniversityNathan, QLD 4111 Australia


In the process of evolving economically andsocially, human settlements have inputs of en-ergy and resources and outputs of waste similarto ecosystems. However, a major difference isthat whilst the natural ecosystem is ‘closed’ withwaste being internalised, in many cases humansettlements operate with linear resource flows.The well recognized environmental conse-quences of linear systems is that human settle-ments will not be able to manage sustainably thegrowth in demand for inputs and their subsequentoutputs.

Despite Australia being an industrialised so-ciety with a strong commitment to promotingsustainable communities, industrial ecology (IE)as a model for helping promote sustainable de-velopment has made little or no inroads into sys-tematic planning of industrial activity, let alonehuman settlements (Christesen et al., 1999). Amajor obstacle being the lack of case studies inAustralia to convince government and commu-nity that the political, social, economic and natu-ral environments are all suitable for adopting andadapting the IE model (in particular, taking intoaccount large land tracts and relatively low popu-lation densities). This research attempts to fillthe need for a demonstration IE case study byinvestigating with a regional local governmentauthority, whether IE, mainly previously appliedto only industrial systems, could be applied tohuman settlements in Australia. The stated aimis to reduce consumption of resources and pro-duction of wastes by planing for, and develop-ing, long-term ‘synergies’ within a settlement.The research is, therefore, investigating whetherIE could be used as effective policy tool embed-

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ded into localised urban management and plan-ning.

Reference: Christesen Ian, J.Ashley Scott,Kanduri Krrishnamohan, Albert Gabric and SunilHeart. (1999). What Is Needed To EncourageAdoption Of Industrial Ecology? In Global Com-petitiveness through Cleaner Production. Editedby J.A. Scott and R.J. Pagan. Australian CleanerProduction Association Inc. Brisbane, Australia.pp681.

Use of Information from Material FluxAnalysis for Human Health Risk Assess-ment at Regional Scales

Suphaphat KwonpongsagoonStephen [email protected]

School of Civil and EnvironmentalEngineeringUniversity of New South WalesSydney 2052 Australia


This paper presents the study method that willbe used to attempt an integration of MaterialsFlux Analysis and human health risk assessmentat a variety of appropriate regional scales. Theproblem definition stage and plan for the workhas been completed, and this will be presentedin the paper.

A heavy metal, cadmium has been selected,and will be used as a case study in a systemboundary of Australia.

The Material Flux Analysis (MFA) techniqueprovides information on fluxes of cadmium into,through and out of the anthroposphere into theregional environment. Another tool, environ-mental and human health risk assessment, is gain-ing increasing attention as an important compo-nent of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA),and as a means for providing information forenvironmental decision-making in Australia. Asawareness of the impact of human activities onthe environment has greatly increased, the out-puts/emissions determined by MFA methodol-ogy could be a quantified link between economicprocess outputs, and environmental concentra-tions and subsequent human and ecosystem

health risks. This linking will require knowledgeof the pathways of material flows from the an-thropogenic processes to environmental media,where adverse effects to humans and ecosystemscan occur. Investigation of the environmentalfate, transformation processes, and potentialtransport of substances within the regional envi-ronment is also required here. These materialpathways are also crucial to effective risk assess-ment, because both bioaccessibility andbioavailability are controlled by these processes.The chemistry and distribution of the materialsof interest need to be thoroughly understood forthe overall environmental analysis.

If this integrative approach proves to be suc-cessful, holistic information for decision-mak-ers at all levels, from local to regional and possi-bly national scales will be provided on selectedmaterials.

Structure Efficiency: A New Tool inAchieving More Efficient Ways ofOrganic Matter Recycling

W.T. de [email protected]

Fruitstraat 10a9741 AN Groningen The Netherlands


Organic matter has several virtues that to-gether indicate its value. In our society, which isdominated by human beings, the main virtues oforganic matter are: food (for people and/or ani-mals), energy and “structure”.

The units in which the quantity of these vir-tues can be expressed are, respectively: “feed-ing value”, “energy value” and “structure value”.

Of these, only the second one is relatively easyto quantify by means of the “energy content” ofthe material, which is equal, under standard (oxi-dative) circumstances, to the heat of combustionof the material involved.

Quantification of both the feeding value andthe structure value of organic matter requiressome kind of arbitrary valuation, since no meth-ods are available to measure these virtues on anon-biased manner at present.

For food, a scale is imaginable in which sev-

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eral classes of compounds are distinguished:Essential compounds

Vitamins, hormones, etc.Structure compounds

Proteins/amino acids; minerals (Ca, etc.)Energy compounds

Carbohydrates, fats, etc.Toxins

Organic toxins; heavy metals, etc.The total “value” of some amount of food

could be expressed by some expression in whichseveral weight factors are applied to the distin-guished classes of compounds, though it remainscomparing apples with oranges, of course.

Likewise, the total “value” of some amountof organic matter could be expressed by someequation in which both the structure content andthe energy content are expressed. Of course,structure and energy are two virtues that arehardly comparable, so it will always involvesome arbitrary decisions.

The energy content of an organic compoundcan be viewed in several ways:1. the total chemical (bond) energy;2. the total heat of combustion (in theory, i.e.

without taking actual circumstances into ac-count);

3. the total heat of combustion (with taking ac-tual circumstances into account);

4. the total heat of combustion, minus the en-ergy that was needed to produce the com-pound in the most economic way.For theoretical studies on organic matter the

second method seems the most appropriate one.For efficiency studies on complex chemical re-actions, however, the third or fourth method seemmore appropriate.

The structure content of an organic compoundis not that easy to measure. That is why a newmethod was developed, based on a methodol-ogy that is widely used in disciplines like math-ematical chemistry and drug design. The back-bone of the method is the calculation ofParamosts for all organic compounds involved.The Paramost, which is an acronym forPARAmeter of MOlecular STructure, is a versa-tile, dimension-less parameter that can be usedin molecular based environmental studies.

The Paramost, which is based on topologicalindices, is a measure for the structure of an or-ganic compound. The only factors involved are

the atoms and the bonds inside the molecule. Theuser has a “toolbox” which he can use to find theappropriate Paramost needed for a special appli-cation.

The Paramost PP consists of a summation ofall bonds (paths) inside the molecule, to all ofwhich Weight factors (W) are attributed; the valueof W (and therefore of PP) is steered by the El-emental factors E and the Power factor f, whichcan be chosen by the user.

There are Paramosts of different order.PP(0) takes only atoms into account and no

bonds (in graph theory: only vertices, no edges).PP(1) takes only bonds (edges) into account.PP(2) takes only paths of length 2 into account.Etc.Combinations are also possible: PP(01) = PP

P(0) + PP(1), etc.Because of the way Paramosts of various or-

der are defined one might associate certain prop-erties or “virtues” with them.

PP(0) deals just with atoms, not with bonds;atoms are associated with mass, so P(0) mightbe associated likewise with mass or with matterin general.

PP(1) deals just with bonds, which are associ-ated with bond energy; so P(1) might be associ-ated likewise with the (internal chemical bond)energy of the compound.

PP(n) (where n > 1) deal with paths of lengthn and might be associated with the structure ofthe compound rather than with its mass or withits energy.

After calculating Paramosts of all the com-pounds involved structure analysis of compoundsor reactions is possible. By analysing the changein structure content of the compounds involvedin a reaction or a series of reactions one can evalu-ate the structure efficiency of the whole process;by comparing this structure efficiency with otherkinds of efficiency (as energy efficiency, atomefficiency, monetary efficiency) one can designprocesses which are optimised on different lev-els.

As far as industrial processes are concerned,care should be taken that they are designed assustainable and environmentally friendly as rea-sonably possible. Optimising processes on struc-ture efficiency will result in processes that arealso relatively sustainable.

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A Dynamic Systems Formulation for anExtended Life-cycle Assessment

Stephen H. [email protected]

Department of Civil and EnvironmentalEngineeringTufts UniversityMedford, MA 02155 USA

Thomas [email protected]

Industrial Ecology Consultants35 Bracebridge RoadNewton, MA 02159 USA


Environ analysis, developed by Patten andcolleagues, applied Koestler’s system theoreticconcept of the holon to ecosystems. Environanalysis is in an extension of traditional staticinput-output theory of Leontief, as introducedinto ecology by Hannon. It includes not only thedirect and indirect inputs required by an ecosys-tem component (or “object”), referred to as itsinput environment, but also the direct and indi-rect outputs generated by the organism, its out-put environment. Unlike the static input-outputmodel, capable only of examining steady-stateconditions, environ theory is intended (in theory)to provide a dynamic description. That is, theinputs and outputs can vary over time and theproduction or utilization at any time is deter-mined by the history of final output.

Environ analysis provides a potentially use-ful framework with which to develop an extendedLCA, one capable of considering the indirect aswell as direct environmental impacts of both theproduction and utilization of a product. Thus theair pollution generated in producing a unit ofelectricity is associated with the product utiliz-ing that unit of electricity in its production. Orwhen a control system is incorporated into a boatthat in turn generates water pollution, some ap-propriate share of that water pollution is attrib-uted to the control system.

Provided we supply a dynamic extension ofthe static Leontief input-output model, our analy-sis can be done in an explicitly dynamic manner.The Sequential Interindustry Model (SIM) is a

dynamic counterpart to the traditional static in-put-output model. It describes the time of occur-rence as well as the magnitude of economic ac-tivities directly or indirectly required in produc-ing a product. SIM was developed to investigatetemporal aspects of the economic impact of tran-sient economic events, such as major construc-tion projects or introduction of a major new pro-duction technology. Because it includes the tim-ing of production activities it incorporates engi-neering as well as accounting descriptions of theproduction process. This paper describes an en-hanced version of SIM that generates the outputas well as the input environment of products andit thus can provide a suitable basis for both dy-namic and extended LCA.

A Decision Making Tool for SustainableForestry: Harvest Patterns andBiodiversity Risk

Stephen H. [email protected]

Department of Civil and EnvironmentalEngineeringTufts UniversityMedford, MA 02155 USA

Michael [email protected]

Department of BiologyTufts UniversityMedford, MA 02155 USA


Wood constitutes nearly one-third of all rawmaterial humans use to make consumer goods.In the next 40 years, worldwide demand for pulp-wood is expected to increase by 50%, even tak-ing into account increased efficiency in recycling.North American forests, some of the most pro-ductive in the world, will contribute in a majorway to meeting this demand. Increasingly, how-ever, extractive uses of forests are in conflict withpublic environmental values such as biodiversityprotection and recreation. In many forested sec-tions of the world the public is struggling withhow to balance economic and environmentalgoals for forests.

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Much of the debate regarding sustainable re-source use derives from our poor understandingof how modern commercial forestry affects thepersistence of native plants and animals. We lackreliable, cost-effective, accurate tools for identi-fying species at risk of extinction due to harvest-ing practices. In addition, a variety of harvestpractices could be used to achieve a particulareconomic goal. For example, in temperate andnorthern forests, harvest can remove all trees, orselectively remove trees from a larger area tocreate the same yield. Harvest methods also varyin input, from allowing natural regeneration toplanting fast-growing exotic hybrids and treat-ing with herbicides. Market demand for high-quality paper has resulted in converting hard-wood forests to softwood. Each of these meth-ods can have complex and largely unknown im-pacts on native biodiversity. Here we focus onevaluating the impacts of harvest patterns onspecies with different survival, reproductive, anddispersal capacities.

It is impossible to do detailed research on thethousands of species present in every forest todetermine the specific reactions of each speciesto various harvest practices. Therefore, we de-veloped a spatially explicit simulation model (asa cellular automaton) for use in identifying com-binations of life-history traits that are vulnerableto different harvest patterns. With this tool, onecan propose and evaluate alternative harvest prac-tices to protect at-risk species on industrial for-est landscapes, and provide the information toevaluate the economic costs of the alternativesto timber companies. In addition, we can evalu-ate the efficacy of non-harvest alternatives, suchas creating reserves, in ameliorating risk of lo-cal extinction.

The specific forestry scenario we model isthat of a commercial forest in northern Maine(U.S.A.). The model is generalizable to any eco-system undergoing systematic alterations.

Balancing Uncertain Substance FlowData

Erik Lö[email protected]

Anders [email protected]

Department of MathematicsLinköping UniversitySE-58183 Linköping Sweden


All estimates of substance flows are more orless uncertain, implying that the collected datacan violate mass balance constraints that theo-retically should be valid. In this article, we in-troduce a general principle of automatic balanc-ing of substance flow data. Moreover, we presenta software prototype. In particular, we describea class of multi-stage balancing algorithms thatcan accommodate prior information about theuncertainty of the data under consideration. First,we specify a set of cells and all permissible con-nections between these cells by defining a so-called connectivity matrix. Then, we introducemass balance constraints by specifying a subsetof cells for which the total output equals the to-tal input. Finally, the balancing problem is for-mulated as an optimization problem. Since anyset of observed data can be balanced in an infi-nite number of ways we define objective func-tions and algorithms identifying the solutions thatare optimal, given the objective function underconsideration. If it is desirable to achieve bal-anced flows only by increasing observed flows,we can use an ordinary simplex method to iden-tify the solution minimizing the total increase ofall flows. Other numerical algorithms can beconstructed to handle non-linear objective func-tions. For example, we can minimize the sum ofsquares of all adjustments and identify the mini-mum number of flows that must be adjusted tosatisfy a given list of mass balance constraints.Prior information about the uncertainty of dif-ferent substance flows can be taken into accountby weighting different terms of the objectivefunction. In particular, we illustrate how we canutilize simple classifications of the uncertaintyof different substance flows. To facilitate thecomputations involved in the balancing we have

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developed a software prototype in which balanc-ing is integrated with a variety of tools for qual-ity assurance of collected data. A previously pub-lished study of nitrogen flows in Sweden is usedto illustrate the different steps involved in theproposed balancing algorithms.

The 10 (or 20) Million Dollar Question:Can Airlines Recycle Their AluminumBeverage Cans?

Julian [email protected]

Energy and Resources Group310 Barrows Hall #3050University of CaliforniaBerkeley, CA 94720 – 3050 USA

Toshio [email protected]

Chitsomanus [email protected]

Michael [email protected]

Arpad [email protected]

Civil and Environmental EngineeringDepartmentUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeley, CA 94720 USA


Life cycle assessments show that aluminumrecycling is economically profitable and envi-ronmentally beneficial. Domestic airplane flightsin the US generate approximately 1.2 billion usedaluminum beverage cans (UBCs) each year. Thisrepresents 18,000 tons of aluminum, which isworth $20 million at the current market price of$0.55 per pound. The potential profit from recy-cling UBCs represents approximately 1% of an-nual profits for the airline industry. Airlines couldeasily capture these lost profits, and reduce theenvironmental impacts of their businesses byimplementing recycling programs.

Implications of Industrial Ecology forEnvironmental Policymaking at theSub-National Level: A ConceptualFramework

William J. [email protected]

720 Valley Forge Ave.,Lawrenceville, NJ 08648-4626 USA

Clinton J. [email protected]

EJ Bloustein School of Planning andPublic PolicyRutgers University33 Livingston Ave #302New Brunswick, NJ 08901 USAphone: 1-732-932-3822 x721fax: 1-732-932-2253


There have been relatively few attempts tosystematically apply IE to actual problems facedby environmental policy-makers, especiallythose working at sub-national levels. Such ap-plications are hindered by the lack of a concep-tual framework to integrate IE’s characteristicmodel’s and tools into a coherent whole. Somehave argued that core IE concepts likesustainability are only meaningful at a globallevel.

This paper outlines a conceptual frameworkfor systematically considering the implicationsof IE for problems of environmental regulationfaced by a sub-national environmental agency,the New Jersey Department of EnvironmentalProtection (NJDEP). As a densely populated andheavily industrialized state in the Eastern US,New Jersey faces a wide range of environmentalproblems. New Jersey also has a reputation asone of the most environmentally innovative statesin the US, with its own Greenhouse Gas ActionPlan and a cooperative agreement with the Neth-erlands Ministry of the Environment to addressglobal climate change.

To be effective at the sub-national level, thepaper argues that IE must give increased atten-tion to regional geography and land-use planning.Even an area as small as New Jersey is too largefor some purposes, and watersheds shows prom-

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ise as a suitable scale for applying IE. IE shouldbroaden its focus on “firms and farms” to includehouseholds and communities. Improved meth-ods for comparative risk analysis and more caus-ally- and economically-oriented environmentalindicators are needed. Inter-agency cooperationis important for government to be an effective“player”.

The paper also points out that as a young field,IE presents many difficult and unanswered ques-tions. What is government’s proper role in “clos-ing loops”? In fostering life cycle assessment ordesign for environment? How can materials ac-counting information best be used? Is IE’s “sys-tems” approach always better than “commandand control” regulation? How can IE take ac-count of the growing demand for “environmen-tal justice”? How should the inherent tensionsbetween descriptive and normative approachesto IE be managed? IE offers great potential foraddressing environmental problems at the sub-national level, but the field must begin to tacklesome of these major unanswered questions forthat potential to be realized.Note

While NJDEP provided the author with sub-stantial assistance in the preparation of this pa-per, the conclusions reached and views expressedare solely the author’s and do not necessarilyrepresent official policy positions of NJDEP orthe State of New Jersey.

Can Economic Growth and ImprovingEnvironmental Conditions be Compat-ible? Environmental Kuznets Curve inLong Term Finnish Perspective

Timo [email protected]

Jan Kunnas

Dept. of Social Science HistoryPL 5400 014 Helsinki University Finland


Economic growth and improving environ-mental conditions are not necessarily incompat-ible, if appropriate actions are taken. It is pro-

posed that some pollution would follow an in-verted U-curve related to GNP, increasing at low-income levels and decreasing at high-income lev-els. Such a relation is called environmentalKuznets-curve.

We have estimated the historical develop-ments of Finland’s emissions of carbon dioxide,sulphur dioxide and nitrogen. These calculationsare based on Finland’s historical energy balancefrom 1800 to 1998 worked out by a researchproject headed by Timo Myllyntaus. In order totest the relevance of the theory in explaining thedevelopment of Finland’s air pollution emissions,we have related the emissions to the growth ofthe gross domestic product from the time beforeindustrialisation to present. The use of this longtime series gives a clear insight on the conse-quences of the industrialisation and provides use-ful instruments for policy recommendations.

Our research hypothesis is that the environ-mental Kuznets-curve primarily explains localenvironmental effects or regional environmen-tal effects, which are connected to cost effectivesolutions. In the case of those regional environ-mental effects resulted from emissions for whichthere have not been cost effective solutions (forexample nitrogen oxides) or that of global envi-ronmental effects (global warming), the explana-tory power of the environmental Kuznets-curveis much weaker.

In Finland industrialisation started with re-newable energy, and wood and water energy re-mained the foremost sources to the mid-20thcentury. Only in a mature phase ofindustrialisation became fossil fuels the majorenergy sources, and the 1960s and 1970s formeda turning point of Finnish industrial ecology.Owing to the energy-intensive structure of themanufacturing, industry has been the main sourceof air pollution. In Finland, moving to non-re-newable and more polluting energy sources, andthe improving the cleaning processes of emis-sions and energy efficiency have been two con-current but conflicting trends.

Since 1914 to 1994 the energy use in indus-try has grown 11-fold despite the growing effi-ciency in the use of energy. However, labour pro-ductivity has grown much faster than the energyefficiency. Correspondingly, wages has risenmore steeply than energy prices, which has ledto the replacement of work by energy whenever

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it has been cost effective. This fact has recentlybeen used as an argument for an ecological taxreform, i.e., a shift from the taxation of labour tothe taxation of natural resource use. In order tostay within the carrying capacity of the environ-ment, there might be necessarily to sacrifice thetargets for economical growth or to find newgrowth strategies (eco-efficiency, dematerializa-tion and decarbonisation). If these new growthstrategies could be linked with the needs to tacklewith the current unemployment it could be po-litically easier to justify.

A better understanding of the relations be-tween economic development and environmen-tal pressure in the developed countries might helpus to deal with environmental problems in coun-tries in the beginning of their industrialisationprocess. For emissions, which development pathfollows an inverted U-curve related to income,it could be possible by technological transfer andeconomic help to move straight to the decliningpart of the environmental Kuznets-curve.

Economic Considerations of SustainableForest Management in the Ukraine

Maria [email protected]

State UniversityLviv Ukraine

in collaboration with:Agricultural Economics andRural Policy GroupWageningen UniversityPostbus 81306700 EW Wageningen The Netherlands


Since the middle of the 19th century scien-tists have been dealing with the concept ofsustainability in forestry, and at that time it wasbased precisely on the idea of maximum sus-tained yield. However the idea has several weakpoints, and the most important are that prices andcosts are not incorporated in the concept, and thatdiscounting is not considered. Faustman (1849)gave first correct formulation of the harvestingproblem. Later the model was extended, for in-stance by incorporating of a flow of non-timber

benefits (Hartman, 1976) or forest’s ability toaccumulate carbon (Van Kooten, 1995). Generalconclusion is that to ensure sustainable forestry,it is wise to postpone harvesting as long as therate of return on investment exceeds the oppor-tunity cost rate.

The initial models were exercised for maincommercial species of the Ukraine, and the re-sults of the study have indicated that officiallyrecommended in the forestry rotation ages aresubstantially higher than optimal, and that theidea of maximum sustained yield remains popu-lar in the country. Further “ecologization” of thisidea has led to the fact that official forest har-vesting comprises less than 50% of MAI, whilein stable economic conditions, the Ukraine hasan acute deficit in timber and has to import woodfrom Russia.

Hence in-depth changes should be broughtinto the Ukraine’s forestry to economically andecologically address sustainability in its forestsector. From one hand, scientifically substanti-ated rotation of timber has to be introduced intothe forest management practice. It would de-crease in most cases the ages of harvesting andwould reduce a discrepancy between demand andsupply sides of the timber production. From an-other hand, the program of afforestation (about2 million ha) is proposed as a sustainable forestpolicy measure for the Ukraine.

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Agent Based Modeling of Gene Flow inCrops

Igor [email protected]

R. HueleE. van der Voet

Centre of Environmental Science LeidenSection Substances & Products (S&P)P.O. Box 95182300 RA Leiden The Netherlands

G. KorevaarG.J. Harmsen

Process Systems Engineering - DelftChemTechFaculty of Applied SciencesDelft University of TechnologyJulianalaan 1362628 BL Delft The Netherlands


If Genetic Modification is to be accepted as asustainable technological development its social,ecological and economical impacts must be un-derstood. One important tool in determining theenvironmental and human impacts of a techno-logical development is the Quantitative RiskAnalysis (QRA). QRA should quantify the risksof a new technology, so that the society can makea choice whether the benefits overweigh the risks.The current QRA for risk assessment oftransgenic plants is based on mass flow models.These do not consider the fact that law of con-servation of mass does not hold for genes, whichare essentially information. They also do not takethe imbedded open feedback loops present in lifeforms, i.e. the ability to self- amplify and repro-duce, into consideration. Because of these short-comings, the current QRA tools are probablyinadequate to answer the question whether Ge-netic Modification is a sustainable technology.Next to the lack of scientific knowledge, there isa lack of social acceptance for Genetic Modifi-cation. So far it is unclear whether this lack ofacceptance is a result of a principal disapprovalof the technology or a lack of understanding ofthe technology. This uncertainty would have beenless if a society-wide discussion on the benefitsand risks of the technology were held before

large-scale application was started. By defining evolutionary processes and plant

entities in Object Oriented terms an Agent BasedModel called GeneScape, has been developed.The model explicitly describes plants as an en-tity with states, a genome, and interactions, mat-ing. Plants populate an geometry, the Field,through which the environment, The World, en-forces the rules for pollen distribution and whichdetermines how the information content of theplant is to be translated into a fitness. The modelis not meant as a quantitative prediction tool forGene Flow, but as an explicit and graphical rep-resentation of the mental models of Darwinianselection, Gene Flow and plant ecology. Itsstrength lies in the fact that it allows the visual-ization of thought experiments on the behaviorof GMO crops and the neighbouring plant popu-lations. GeneScape can only be useful for an-swering questions about the sustainability ofGenetic Modification if it is socially acceptableitself. Therefore a Society Acceptance Forum willbe organized to evaluate the perception and ac-ceptance of GeneScape as a model of Plant Gene- Environment interaction.

In the case that GeneScape is found to be ac-ceptable found to be an acceptable representa-tion of the relevant processes it can serve as abasis for development of novel tools for RiskAnalysis of genetically engineered organisms andtheir environmental release. It may ultimatelyhelp in answering the questions whether GeneticEngineering has a place in a sustainable world.

The model is implemented in the Java 2 pro-gramming language, making use of the Ascapeclass library developed by the Brookings Insti-tute. It is available for online execution on http://www.dct.tudelft.nl/~nikolic

Green Purchasing Versus GreenLifestyles: Lessons from ImprovedBreadth and Depth In LCA

Gregory A. [email protected]


Breadth in LCA models refers to the set ofprocess categories considered to be part of thesystem. For example, traditional LCI ignores

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inputs of service inputs, capital equipment, an-cillary materials, and overhead/infrastructure.Depth refers to the upstream extent of the mod-eling – that is, the number of supply tiers whichare taken into account. Very recent research us-ing Input/Output methods of LCA has begun toquantify the impacts of limited system depth onestimated total embodied energy. Here we inves-tigate the joint effects of limits to system breadthas well as depth, including the very importantinteractions among them. We characterize andattempt to explain differences in impacts of bothdepth and breadth on estimated inventories fordifferent pollutant categories. We find that in-creases in system breadth lead to significant in-creases in the requisite system depth in order tocapture a given fraction of the total upstreamburden; in other words, the more complete wemake our LCA models (in terms of processclasses included), the more depth we need tomodel in order to achieve goals for maximumtruncation error. We apply eigenvector methodsto shed insights on the convergence propertiesof life cycle inventory systems, and we system-atically investigate the impacts of excluding in-put categories including service inputs, equip-ment, ancillary materials, and overhead/infra-structure.

Important findings for LCA and IndustrialEcology include: (1) total environmental burdensof products are routinely underestimated due topresent breadth and depth truncation; (2) differ-ences among alternative product environmentalperformance have been systematically overesti-mated using currently standard LCA modelingmethods; (3) “green purchasing” benefits are notas strong as they now estimated to be, while “vol-untary simplicity” or “downshifting” is morepowerful than conventional analyses are show-ing us. We conclude with recommendations forenhancements to traditional LCA practice anddirections for research in the Industrial Ecologyof consumption.

Applying the Sustainable SystemsAnalysis Algorithm to Promote Indus-trial Ecology Concepts: The EdistoRiver Basin Sustainable IndustrialDevelopment Research Project

Sonja Lynn [email protected]

Walter H. Peters, [email protected]

University of South CarolinaDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringLaboratory for Sustainable Solutions300 Main St.Columbia, SC 29208 USA

Full paper available: yes

“We act as consumers to get what we wantfor ourselves. We act as citizens to achieve whatwe think is right or best for the community”

– Mark SagoffThe two main conflicting views among the

champions of sustainability are the concepts ofcritical limits and competing objectives. TheSustainable Systems Analysis Algorithm (SSAA)is a decision-support and valuation methodologythat is grounded in the competing objectives viewof sustainability, yet it strives to incorporate thecritical limits view and non-anthropocentric is-sues via the metrics chosen for measurement. Itis intended to be germane to many sustainablesystems analysis applications ranging from prod-uct to process to industrial facility, from local toregional to global. Herein lies a perceived frame-work for discussing, specifying and analyzingthe inter-relationships across competing dimen-sions, time and space that could foster sustain-able decisions. It provides an opportunity to con-template and comprehend the potential for sus-tainable design and development strategies forthose attempting to view the system as a wholeand collaborate efforts toward implementingthose strategies.

In this continuous improvement process,sustainability performance indicators (SPIs) be-ing tracked for progress are first selected basedon discretionary screening of active stakehold-ers, assigned an importance weight value andmeasured using appropriate methods on the open

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system. The resulting calculation of thesustainability directive enables visualization ofhow current and scenario-derived activities areor are not contributing toward the sustainabilityof the system.

The SSAA methodology is being applied topromote sustainability and industrial ecologyconcepts within the wood products sector of theEdisto River Basin (ERB). It is a demonstrationof a collaborative effort by a stakeholder groupconsisting of representatives from government,industry, economic development agencies, NGOsand academia to investigate and guide industrialdevelopment decisions within the realm ofsustainability. This application has been dubbedthe Sustainable Economic Development Simu-lator (SEDS). It is the intent of this paper to pro-vide an overview of the steps taken to imple-ment the SSAA methodology via SEDS withinthe ERB and a progress report of the resultinganalysis.

Lessons to be Learnt from LCAs forBiodegradable Polymers

Martin [email protected]

Utrecht University, Department of Science,Technology and SocietyPadualaan 14NL-3584 CH Utrecht The Netherlands


In this paper thirteen LCA studies for biode-gradable polymers are reviewed. Six studies dealwith starch polymers, four withpolyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), two withpolylactides (PLA) and one with other biodegrad-able polymers. All of these polymers are manu-factured from renewable resources. Some of thestudies reviewed are rather limited in scope byassessing only energy use and CO

2 emissions but

they nevertheless contribute to a better under-standing of the environmental aspects by address-ing additional types of materials and by provid-ing an indication of the uncertainty of the results.Regarding the choice of the functional unit someof the studies only address the production andwaste management of materials in the form of

pellets while other studies do refer to a specifictype of end use. The end products studied areloose fill packaging materials and waste bags.

This review revealed a number of question-able assumptions and data uncertainties. Exampleare the large uncertainties regarding the carbonbalance of composting, different approaches toaccount for the co-production of electricity/steamin waste-to-energy facilities and the inclusion/exclusion of methane (CH

4) emissions from

landfilling. These uncertainties and inconsisten-cies should be addressed by future research andanalysis. Many of the environmental analyseschoose a cradle-to-factory gate perspective.While this approach provides valuable results,additional analyses taking a cradle-to-grave per-spective by inclusion of the waste managementstage should also be conducted. Due to the strongimpact on the final results several alternatives inthe waste management stage should be evalu-ated.

In spite of these uncertainties and differencesin assumptions it is safe to conclude that biode-gradable polymers offer important environmen-tal benefits today and for the future. This is par-ticularly obvious for starch polymers. Comparedto conventional plastics, the biodegradable poly-mers studied generally contribute clearly to thegoals of saving energy resources and mitigatingGHG emissions. At the same time, none of thebiodegradable materials studied performs betterthan its fossil fuel-based counterparts in all cat-egories. Polyhydroxyalkanoates are biodegrad-able polymers for which – under the current stateof the art - even the advantage in terms of en-ergy use is very small compared to conventionalpolymers.

For the time being, it is hence not possible tomake a general judgement whether biodegrad-able plastics should be preferred to petrochemi-cal polymers from an environmental point ofview. Such a conclusion could only be drawn ifthe environmental assessment showed clear ad-vantages for all the biodegradable polymers stud-ied and for (practically) all indicators analysed.If, however, the focus is on energy and CO

2 the

results are clearly more favourable for most bio-degradable polymers already today. Carefulmonitoring of all environmental impacts of bio-degradable polymers in parallel to technologicalprogress and changes in the infrastructure (power

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generation, waste management) continues to benecessary both at the company and at the policylevel.

To summarise, the existing LCAs and envi-ronmental assessments support the further devel-opment of biodegradable polymers. For somematerials the environmental benefits achieved aresubstantial already today and in most cases theprospects are very promising.

Primary Aluminium Supply in Ger-many — A Hybrid Approach to AnalyseEconomic and Ecological Effects

Andrea [email protected]

Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbHSystems Analysis and Technology EvaluationD-52425 Jülich Germany

Wilhelm [email protected]

Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbHSystems Analysis and Technology Evaluation52425 Juelich Germany


The primary aluminium industry is one of theimportant industries supplying non-ferrous met-als. Despite the fact that per capita consumptionof primary aluminium is declining in most de-veloped economies, a growing demand for pri-mary aluminium world wide is expected due toindustrialisation in developing countries.

The production of primary aluminium ishighly resource intensive, being responsible forthe extraction of bauxite. Additionally, it is highlyenergy intensive, as huge amounts of electricalenergy are necessary for electrolysis. With re-spect to both aspects, economic activity is ac-companied by ecological impacts. On the otherhand, the primary aluminium industry directlyand indirectly creates jobs, added value and in-come by its own production and by the interme-diate production from other industrial branches,all being fundamental components of any indus-trial system.

This paper sets a focus on Germany. Its pri-mary aluminium industry is one of Europe’s main

producers. Germany is world wide one of themain demanding countries and to a large extent,its consumption depends on imports, resultingin international trade of primary aluminium. Thepaper concentrates on the analysis of economicand ecological impacts of primary aluminiumproduction to meet Germany’s demand either bydomestic production or by imports. Specifically,the creation of jobs, the use of energy and result-ing GHG emissions expressed as global warm-ing potential are taken into account.

The analysis is based on a hybrid-model,which consists of an economic input-output-model and process-chain-model. The first modelillustrates the overall economic context of thedomestic primary aluminium production includ-ing its direct and indirect linkages with other in-dustrial sectors, factor markets, imports and ex-ports in monetary values. It also allows to analyseecological effects using additional physical bal-ances for energy or emissions. As the officialGerman input-output-tables do not separate alu-minium production, bauxite, alumina and pri-mary aluminium (including semi-manufacturing)have been extracted from the non-ferrous met-als sector in order to study the economic andecological effects induced by the activities of theGerman primary aluminium industry.

The second model is used to evaluate in eco-logical terms the imports coming from differentcountries. It will show energy use and emissionsof aluminium production of typical exportingcountries like Norway, Russia and others. Ac-cording to its primary energy resources this coun-tries use different primary energy carriers to pro-duce electricity for electrolysis, resulting in dif-ferent levels of emissions compared to Germany

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A Decision Support System for ProductTake-Back Based on Concepts ofIndustrial Ecology

Elizabeth [email protected]

2028 A Monument AvenueRichmond, VA 23220 USA

Sirine A. [email protected]@hotmail.com

2184 Lakeview Dr. Apt # 463 ,Ypsilanti, MI 48198 USA

Walter H. [email protected]

Laboratory for Sustainable SolutionsDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringCollege of EngineeringUniversity of South CarolinaColumbia, SC 29208 USA

Full paper available: Possibly

Sustainability is a term that has amassed nu-merous meanings and definitions due to the as-sortment of contexts and motivations driving itsapplication. Yet, common to most interpretationsis the notion of maintenance or continuation oflife on Earth in an undiminished state over timeinto perpetuity. Arriving at sustainability in thisrespect will require dramatic changes in the wayhumans and institutions currently operate undertoday’s industrial paradigm. Since the IndustrialRevolution, more of nature’s biological andphysical assets have been destroyed than in allof history. It is this stock of natural products andsystems and the services they provide that makehuman life and development possible. As presenttrends in industrial development continue andplace greater strain on our ecological base, lim-its to economic development and prosperity willno longer be determined by industrial expertise,but will instead be dictated by the availabilityand quality of natural assets.

This research explores some of the parametersinvolved in moving toward sustainable industrialdevelopment through analysis of a product take-back system for the Heating Ventilation and AirConditioning (HVAC) industry. Specifically, a

decision support system has been developed viageographic information systems (GIS) softwareand an Excel spreadsheet to model the reversedistribution logistics of the product take-backprocess and quantify the resulting effects (i.e.Emissions from vehicle miles traveled) respec-tively.

Moreover, a sustainable decision support sys-tem for the demanufacturing process of producttake-back based on concepts of industrial ecol-ogy has been developed.

In this system, three comparative scenariosare investigated, which are either already exist-ing or theoretically proposed. The first is thecurrent manufacturing process, using extractedraw materials (primary mining), the second issecondary mining (product shredding), and fi-nally the demanufacturing process (product dis-assembly). The environmental, economic andsocial dimensions of sustainability are studiedusing manufacturer or hypothetical data, or in-formation collected from literature. This workwas carried out in conjunction with a local HVACmanufacturer, thus all the generated data andconducted analysis is contributed from theirmanufacturing processes. At the end of this study,the most sustainable process that fulfills the re-quirements of industrial ecology is identified.

Evaluation of model output employs the prin-ciples of sustainability by investigating the vari-ous impacts that occur across ecological, eco-nomic and social dimensions.

A Comparative LCA of Olive HuskCombustion for Power Generation: anItalian Case-Study

Alberto [email protected]

Stefano LeoneAndrea [email protected]

University “G. D’Annunzio”Viale Pindaro 4265127 Pescara Italy


Within the new approach of Industrial Ecol-ogy the utilization of waste streams as alterna-

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tive sources of raw materials for a given func-tion is a major concept. In the field of energygeneration, this is even more interesting whenwaste streams utilization entails the substitutionof non-renewable resources.

This is the case of olive husks, agro-indus-trial wastes which may play a relevant role as abiomass energy source in several regions, suchas southern Italy. It is well known indeed thatthe Environment can benefit by the substitutionof biomass fuels for fossil ones, because of alesser global warming impact of the former. Onthe other hand, additional processing activitiesand transportation which may be needed by bio-mass fuels might originate further environmen-tal burdens.

An overall assessment can be carried outthrough the adoption of a life cycle approach.Within a broader project aiming at assessing theenvironmental impact of various technologies toexploit olive husks, this study deals with theimplementation of a comparative LCA betweenpower generation from olive husk combustionand from conventional technologies. In particu-lar, this work is based on data collected from anactual case-study concerning a plant using thistechnology, recently installed in southern Italy.Preliminary results are here presented.

Development of an Industrial EcologyFramework for Magnesium Products

S [email protected]

CSIRO Manufacturing Science and Technol-ogy,Locked Bag No. 9, Preston, Vic. 3072Australia

Full paper available: Possibly

Several business studies show that the world-wide demand for magnesium is predicted to growfrom ~330kT per annum in 1998 to ~ 550kT perannum in 2008. This strong growth is due mainlyto the increasing demand for diecast magnesiumcomponents for applications in automotive andelectronic products. The principal driver formagnesium in the automotive area is the reduc-tion in the emission of greenhouse gas by the

weight reduction achievable with the use of com-ponents, manufactured with lighter magnesiumalloys. The driving force for the use of magne-sium in electronic demand goods is weight re-duction, while maintaining the required electri-cal shielding.

In order to meet this growing demand, theconstruction of new magnesium productionplants are being planned in many places of theworld. Australia, with its large deposits of mag-nesite and cost-competitive supply of electricalenergy to meet the heavy energy demand formagnesium production, is poised to enter theworld market for magnesium and its alloys. TheAustralian Government has already given theMajor Facilities Status to a few magnesiumprojects (amongst many proposed Projects) tosupply annually ~ 230kT of magnesium to theworld market.

The production of magnesium is based on anenergy intensive electrolytic process, and hencehas a very important bearing on the sustainableuse of energy and resources. However, the prin-cipal eco-efficiency driver for magnesium usein manufactured products is to improve the ma-terial intensity of goods by weight reduction. Thepervasiveness throughout the society of manu-factured goods, which are currently using mag-nesium to achieve weight reduction, appears tobe quite extensive.

In the Australian context, magnesium indus-try is currently at an embryonic stage, but is ex-pected to grow significantly in the next decade.CSIRO has initiated a study on the industrialecology of magnesium products. In this paper,some issues relevant to the development of mag-nesium industry, and related technology and busi-ness requirements will be discussed from the in-dustrial ecology perspective.

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Development of Key Parameters in thePlastic Packaging Sector in Norway1990 – 2000

Kjetil Rø[email protected]

Helge Brattebø[email protected]

NTNU Industrial Ecology Programme,Gamle Fysikk - Gløshaugen,N - 7491 Trondheim Norway


This paper intends to study the developmentof some key environmental, economic and ma-terial parameters within the plastic packagingsector in Norway from 1990 to 2000. We will, inaddition, test the influence of extended producerresponsibility (EPR) on the observed develop-ment. This will provide new knowledge on theeffect of this environmental policy in the plasticpackaging sector in Norway.

Industrial metabolism is one important ele-ment within the concept of industrial ecology. Itis about the input, output and accumulation ofthe materials in question in a geographically de-fined system, i.e. the stocks and flows of materi-als. Tools such as material flow accounting(MFA), substance flow analysis (SFA) and en-vironmental input/output analysis (Env. IOA) arewidely used to expand the knowledge of this. InNorway, some limited studies on industrial me-tabolism have been carried out the last ten years,particularly due to the introduction of EPR inselected sectors.

As for the plastic packaging sector, since EPRwas implemented with certain recycling targetsstated in the covenant in 1995, there has been anon-going discussion throughout the 90s on thetotal generated amount of plastic packagingwaste. Equally important as the total generatedamount of waste, however, is the material flowswithin the system. Moreover, to every materialflow there is a flow of capital, and from an eco-efficiency perspective, it is crucial to combineselected economic and environmental key param-eters in one and the same study, which will bedone in this paper. The selected parameters areflow of plastic packaging in different phases ofthe life cycle [kg], net sales [NOK/kg], CO2-

emissions [kg/kg plastic], additives [kg/kg plas-tic] and energy consumption [MJ/kg]. One mainpurpose of this paper is thus to discuss the de-velopment of selected parameters in the plasticpackaging sector in Norway from 1990, via 1995to year 2000.

A process system based model of the entirelife cycle of plastic packaging will serve as thebasis for the analysis. The life cycle is dividedinto i) extraction of raw materials (fossil fuels),plastic production (HDPE, LDPE, PP; PET/PENand PS), plastic packaging production (Foils,cans, PP-bags, reuseables and EPS), plastic pack-aging in use (Filling and packing of end-userproducts, wholesaler/retailer/grocery trade, usein households/industry/others, filling and pack-ing of bulk products, receivers of agricultureproducts, aquaculture products and of industrialand bulk products) and the EoL-phase. Data willbe collected mainly through an empirical surveyamong the companies representing 80 % of thematerial flows. Statistical data from literature willbe employed to complement this empirical data.Estimates of the uncertainty of the provided datawill be conducted.

Implementation of Industrial Ecology inthe Swedish Building and TransportSector

Liselott [email protected]

Mats [email protected]

Environmental Technique and ManagementDepartment of Physics and MeasurementsLinköping UniversitySE-581 83 Linköping Sweden


There are similarities between the concept ofIndustrial Ecology (IE) and the Swedish concept‘kretsloppsanpassning’. The latter was intro-duced as a political concept by the GovernmentBill 1992/93:180. It aimed to change and developSwedish society in the direction towards ecologi-cally sustainable development. Furthermore, boththese concepts have (ecological) sustainable de-velopment as an ultimate goal and one central

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strategy is to close the material loops (c.f. [1,2]). However, the Swedish concept address thesociety as a whole and therefore we have foundit appropriate to term this Swedish concept So-cietal Industrial Ecology (SIE). The society thatthe Swedish government envisioned has a goodnatural resource economy; recycling all materi-als. This ideal materials management would, ac-cording to the Swedish government, lead to aminimized generation of wastes and a minimizedcontribution of emissions into the environment.We have studied the implementation process ofSIE in the Swedish building and transport sectorrespectively. These case studies indicate that themeasures emphasized and implemented, focusedon material outflows such as reuse of materials.Furthermore, it seems like, in the strive forachieving sustainable development and closingthe material loops, there is a lack of the knowl-edge about to what extent these measures con-tribute to reduced environmental impact. As anexample the quality aspects of reuse are seldomconsidered and it is often assumed that reuse inall forms contribute to improved environmentalperformance. To what extent different reuse ac-tivities in a broader system perspective reallyreduce the environmental impact depends on, forexample, the material itself and the reuse pro-cesses. This is, however, neither discussed norenvironmentally evaluated in the implementationprocess. Thus, it is very important to start toevaluate these measures from an environmentalpoint of view. his paper deals with the imple-mentation process of SIE. Using the transportand building sector as case studies we will de-scribe their goals and measures emphasized toachieve SIE and discuss the environmental rel-evance of these measures.References1] Swedish Government. Policies to develop the

society towards closed material loops (InSwedish). Governmental bill1992/93:180 ,Ministry of the environment and natural re-sources, Stockholm, 1993.

2] Erkman S. Industrial ecology: an historicalview. Journal of Cleaner Production 1997;5(1-2):1-10.

Life Cycle Engineering of Buildings

Arto [email protected]

Helsinki University of TechnologyLaboratory of Construction Economics andManagementP.O. Box 210002015 HUT Finland


In this abstract is presented the result of twostudies finished in 2000. The studies were car-ried out by the author together with Finnish con-struction industry.

The aim of the studies was to develop amethod for controlling building design thatwould allow managing both the life cycle costsand the environmental burdens from buildingsduring their life cycle. The control method pre-sented in the paper was tested in ongoing pilots:a laboratory building project and a residentialbuilding project.

The developed procedure for controlling theconstruction costs and the environmental burdenof buildings developed as part of the researchconsists of the following phases:Project programming:• Selection of time horizon• A budget is set for the construction costs• A limit is set for the annual energy consump-

tion of the building during use. The limit isbased on the users requirements of spaces

Building design phase:• The construction costs based on the building

designs is estimated• The energy consumption of the building dur-

ing use based on the building designs is cal-culated

• In case the construction costs or the energyneed based on the design solution exceeds thelimit, the designs are improved

• When necessary, ecological-economical valueanalyses are made on individual building ele-ments. The analyses are intended to shed lightespecially on potential design solutions thatdeviate from the prevailing building modewhich aim at reducing the life cycle costs orthe environmental burdens of the building.Value analyses are especially made on ele-

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ments whose impact on the building’s energyconsumption during use varies between alter-natives, or whose maintenance cycles varybetween solutions or which contain varyingamounts of non-renewable materials

Implementation of construction works:• In the implementation phase, the ecological-

economical values of potential alternativeproduction solutions that can reduce environ-mental impacts are determinedUse-phase energy consumption was chosen

as the key environmental indicator in the pre-sented method. The choice was based on the factthat in Nordic conditions the majority of abuilding’s climatic impacts (warming and acidi-fication) are a result of the energy consumed inthe building during its use. By controlling thatconsumption, the climatic effects of the build-ing can be controlled most effectively.

The procedure developed offers a simple wayof controlling the life cycle costs and environ-mental burdens generated by a building over itslife already at the building design phase. It is notenough just to estimate these things from theplanned building to be able to control design -there must also be a target level against whichthe estimated figures are compared. The methodoutlined in the study provides tools for control-ling building designs and bringing them to anacceptable level as regards life cycle costs andenvironmental loading.

A Conceptual Model of “KnowledgeStrategy” in the TelecommunicationsIndustry

Parminder Singh [email protected]

International Ecotechnology Research CentreCranfield UniversityUnited Kingdom17 Eldon AvenueHeston, Middlesex, TW5 0LX UK

Mark [email protected]

International Ecotechnology ResearchCranfield UniversityCranfieldBedfordshire MK43 0AL UK


Knowledge is increasingly being recognizedas a fundamental ‘resource’ within the modernindustrial economy. Considerable work has beenundertaken into what constitutes knowledge,where it is derived from and how it can be effec-tively nurtured, transferred and assimilated. Theinterpretation of knowledge as a resource raisesa number of other key issues that are central tothis paper. It is a renewable resource, and a fail-ure to consider it as such raises the threat of anon-sustainable future. However, unlike scarcenatural resources that cannot be replaced knowl-edge needs to be continually applied, updated,re-appraised and contextualised. Equally, if it isnot drawn upon it can become outdated, obso-lete and non productive. Organizations thereforemust efficiently and effectively create, capture,harvest, share, and apply their organization’sknowledge. They must have a dynamic abilityto bring that knowledge to bear rapidly on prob-lems and opportunities as they emerge.

Given this, it is imperative that today’s firmsexplicitly address a range of decisions regardingthe creation, deployment, and maintenance oftheir knowledge resources and capabilities.Much has been written about processes and in-frastructures for sharing and codifying knowl-edge especially by using information technolo-gies, communities of practice and workspacedesigns but little has been said about the strate-

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gic perspective regarding knowledge resourcedecisions. A “knowledge strategy” view and ap-proach is required to reflect this in the currentknowledge-intensive environment.

This paper will examine the key drivers andbarriers to the generation and assimilation ofknowledge within the RandD environment oftelecommunications. It will further explore theconcept of knowledge as a dynamic process thatis embedded in all aspects of the organizationand the environment within which it operates.Different types of knowledge will be identifiedand an understanding built of its varied charac-teristics. It will propose a need for a “Knowl-edge Strategy” to build and renew knowledge asa dynamic and interactive process.

The final phase of the discussion will presenta conceptual model of “Knowledge Strategy”by which a firm can balance its knowledge re-sources with its knowledge replenishing capa-bilities and activities to achieve superior com-petitive advantage in today’s knowledge- inten-sive environment.

Mass Flux Aspects: EnvironmentalRelevance and Regulatory Use ofSurfactant Anaerobic Biodegradability

Diederik [email protected]

Temselaan 100B-1853 Strombeek-Bever, Belgium

Nigel Battersby, Luciano Cavalli,Richard Fletcher, Andreas Guldner,Josef Steber and Jose Luis Berna.

This paper presents some key informationfrom the ERASM Report (1999), “Anaerobicbiodegradation of surfactants - Review of scien-tific information.” The anaerobic degradabilityof the major commercial surfactant types underlaboratory and field conditions was reviewed andcompared. Subsequently, a comparison of themass fluxes of these surfactants after use anddisposal in the environment was made. Mea-sured mass fluxes are in good agreement withtheoretical predictions. Aerobic degradation -alegal prerequisite in the EU- is in practice by farthe predominant elimination route for modern-

generation surfactants. The environmental rel-evance of anaerobic degradability as a propertyfor surfactants is driven by the amount that canaccumulate and potentially cause effects inanaerobic environmental compartments. Theanalysis indicates that for the aerobically onlydegradable surfactants less than ~10% of themass flux has a permanent anaerobic compart-ment as final sink, while this number is less than~3% for both aerobically/anaerobically degrad-able molecules. For the sum of permanent andtemporary anaerobic compartments this is ~20%versus ~10%. The report concludes that the en-vironmental relevance of anaerobic degradabilityfor surfactants, and chemicals at large, cannotbe separated from other key properties that af-fect environmental partitioning and mass fluxes.These factors include sorptive behaviour,logKow and aerobic biodegradation kinetics.Usage volumes, waste disposal practices andecotoxicological profile are another series of fac-tors that drive the risk assessment outcome.Therefore, it seems unjustified to use anaerobicbiodegradability in isolation as a regulatory pass/fail criterion for surfactants.

The Neglected Issue in IndustrialEcology, Management of Resources vs.Management of Material Cycles

Bastiaan A. [email protected]

Safety Science GroupFaculty of Technology, Policy and Manage-mentDelft University of TechnologyJaffalaan 5 Postbus 50152628 BX Delft 2600 GA Delft Netherlands


This article critically investigates some of thebasic assumptions underlying the IE paradigm.It makes use of the concept supply-sidesustainability1. It is argued that IE will likely bebeneficial to humanity, but it might fail in achiev-ing a sustainable society.

By making use of simple modeling and com-plex systems theory, this article argues that natu-ral systems are essentially type I systems2, thus

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using sources and sinks instead of closed mate-rial cycles. Though, these resources can also bedepleted. Nature deals with depletion by meansof a simple mechanism; the emergence of a cri-sis. Natural systems are often victim to suchevents. Individual species can easily deplete theirresources. Nature, however, overcomes such cri-ses by redundancy, either in the genes of a singlespecies, or by having another species take over.This causes the overall sustainability of nature,but only at the macro level, not at the micro level.

It is shown that industrial systems have in factalways been much like natural systems at a mi-cro level, because of a similar system structure.Thus, Industrial systems can also be victim ofcrises. Human history has proven that such cri-sis are often disrupting to society, causing pov-erty, poor health, reduced freedom, famine, waror even genocide. Like nature, humanity willlikely overcome such events, though, these aredisruptive and undesirable. Therefore a sustain-able society is defined as one that avoids crises.

This article further demonstrates that IE willnot help to achieve a sustainable society if it con-centrates at closing material cycles. In this way,it will only be a next step in increasing resourceexploitation efficiency. It will thus be part of along history of similar steps in technology, suchas agriculture, the industrial revolution, and com-munication technology.

To demonstrate this, a novel concept is intro-duced. This is resource load homeostasis. Be-cause resources have economical value, tryingto use less will likely be a failure. Due to a de-creasing price, it will become utilized for a pre-viously uneconomical purpose. The rate of re-source depletion will not change; it is entirelydetermined by the effort society is willing to in-vest in its exploitation, not by its subsequent uses.Approaches foundational to IE such as closingmaterial cycles, LCA, and integration of indus-trial systems, will enable society to do more withthe same, but not reduce the rate of resourcedepletion. Thus applying such approaches willat most delay a crisis.

In order to overcome this, IE should shift partof its attention to the explicit management of re-sources. IE should actively try to determine themaximum load a resource can sustain withoutbecoming depleted, and what practical mecha-nisms can be applied to limit it. Hence, the field

should not restrict its effort at closing materialcycles. Taking resources into account in this way,the IE approach becomes fundamentally differ-ent than natural systems because it will thus striveto prevent crises.

1 T. F. H. Allen, Joseph A. Tainter, and T. W.Hoekstra; Supply-Side Sustainability; SystemsResearch and Behavioral Science; 16, 403–427(1999); Elsevier Science Publishers

2 Type I systems as defined in Allenby, B.R.,Industrial Ecology: policy framework and imple-mentation, Prentice-Hall, 1999, p 43-47.

Economic Materials-Products ChainModel With Application to WindowFrames

Hans-Günter [email protected]

Institute of EconomicsUniversity of Erlangen-NürnbergKochstraße 491054 Erlangen Germany


Process (optimisation) models have a longtradition in project evaluation of base industriesand for modelling of the mining sector. Thesemodels usually concentrate on modelling of dif-ferent process stages necessary for productionof one base material (e. g. copper or primary alu-minium). The model of the global aluminiumindustry which was developed by the author ofthis paper is an actual application of processmodelling for environmental analysis. Thismodel permits the assessment of future energyconsumption and greenhouse gas emissions as-sociated with the worldwide flow of primary alu-minium. The economic and ecological effects ofpolicy measures (like eco taxes in the EuropeanUnion) on the primary aluminium flow can bestudied.

In contrast to process models, M-P chainmodels concentrate on modelling systems ofcompeting final products rendering the same eco-nomic service. They can be seen as the economiccounterpart to life cycle assessment. Because oftheir recent origin, existing economic M-P chainmodels make strong simplifying assumptions.

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Most (or all) prices, including those of the mainmaterial inputs and final products, are exogenous.Furthermore, foreign trade is not considered. Itis highly desirable for the analysis of real-worldmaterial flows to develop M-P chain modelswhich include foreign trade and which are basedon microeconomic foundations. This paper de-velops the first steps towards such an approach.Elements of process models are integrated in theM-P chain framework. The model is applied towindow frames made from different materials(aluminium, PVC, wood) and reflects Germanmaterial flows. Future developments of the modelwill permit an integrated economic-ecologicalanalysis. Policy scenarios can be calculated toevaluate the effects of different policy measures.

Comparative Analysis of LCA and CBA

Håvard [email protected]

Jon Olaf [email protected]

Dept. of EconomicsDragvollNTNUN-7491 Trondheim Norway

Full paper available Yes

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a frequentlyapplied analytical tool in case studies done withinthe Industrial Ecology paradigm. There exists astandardization of the method such as the ISO14000, but the method is nevertheless widelydiscussed among its practitioners and has alsobeen criticized by analysts from other disciplines,such as economy. The main problems pointedout by economists are related to determining thesystem boundaries, the valuation methods, andthe double counting of environmental effects inthe presence of green taxes, which becomes ofvital importance both in recommending andimplementing waste disposal policy. Among oth-ers, these factors contribute to the fact that themajority of LCA and Cost-Benefit Analysis(CBA) done on similar projects reach differentconclusions. In this paper we are using bothmethods in analyzing the plastic recycling sys-tem in Norway’s third largest city, Trondheim.

This enables us to analyze why application ofthe two methods in this specific system reachdifferent results, and hence to pinpoint thestrengths and weaknesses of the two approaches.

However, both methods are by nature staticand descriptive, meaning that they unveil onlyone point in time and space. Thus, contributionsto decision-makers concerned about what is thebest future policy for waste disposal are limiteddue to the methods lack of dynamic elements.Designing a method aimed at predicting the bestfuture policy is of course a major task leading toseveral methodological challenges. In our analy-sis we show that including a cost-curve analysisin the study of the system implies that the infor-mation offered by the investigation increasessubstantially. We estimate the costs of each pro-cess in the system and show that there exist somesystem-internal externalities, i.e. the optimal pro-duction level in one stage is not necessarily opti-mal for the up- and down-stream processes.Based on a system perspective we optimize theuse of resources for all stages in the value chainas a whole and are hence able to give a moreinformed policy recommendation on waste dis-posal policy.

Case Study: Design Student Teams UseIndustrial Waste Stream as Resourcefor New Products

Kenneth V. [email protected]

728 Carroll StreetBrooklyn, NY 11215 USA


Three teams of design students from the Inte-grated Design Curriculum at Parsons School ofDesign in New York City have addressed thechallenge of utilizing the waste stream from in-dustrial operations as resources for new productdevelopment. Working with West Harlem Envi-ronmental Action, Inc. (WE ACT) and NYWa$teMatch, the student teams have designedproducts from discarded materials. As a part ofits mission, WE ACT works to encourage themost efficient use of resources and to improvethe quality of life for the largely African-Ameri-

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can and Latino residents of Northern Manhat-tan. This includes the development of commu-nity-based green businesses that generate jobsin healthy and safe settings. The goal of NYWa$teMatch, funded by the NYC Departmentof Sanitation, is to reduce both the volume ofwaste and the cost of raw materials for manufac-turers. Wa$teMatch identifies waste generatorsand potential re-users and matches them together.

The student teams were required to identifymaterials from Manhattan industrial waste thatwere available in a reliable and predictable vol-ume and appropriate for re-use/re-manufactur-ing in a local production site employing com-munity residents. Concurrently, WE ACT isrenovating an abandoned building in Harlem toturn it into an Environmental Justice Center. Thisis being done in a way that provides a model ofenvironmentally responsible design in its re-con-struction and operation. It will be furnished withproducts that are consistent with the green phi-losophy affirmed by WE ACT in its educationaland advocacy programs. So, in addition to therequirements to use the materials from the wastestream for products, it was necessary that thesenew products be both usable in the new build-ing, and models of responsible design appropri-ate for the group’s educational mission.

Products developed by the student teams in-clude1) a family of desk accessories and small stor-

age/furniture products made of the paper tubecores from textile rolls used in the garmentindustry and paper chipboard from the print-ing industry;

2) a range of urban-site gardening accessoriesmade of waste from the sheet metal, plumb-ing and cabinet shops serving the city’s con-struction industry;

3) sets of illustrated learning kits using materialsamples of manufacturing waste for explor-atory, hands-on industrial ecology studies withstudents and community groups.The next steps are to complete the business

plans and launch the community-based, re-useenterprise.

LCA of Hydrogen Production from aSteam Methane Reforming Plant withCO2 Sequestration and Deposition

Anders Hammer [email protected]

Dept. of Thermal Energy and HydropowerProgram for industrial EcologyN-7491 Trondheim Norway


Hydrogen is seen by many as the most prom-ising future energy carrier, continuing a histori-cal trend towards cleaner, less carbon-rich fuels.In combination with fuel cells, which convertchemical energy to electrical and mechanicalenergy more efficiently and have no direct emis-sions other than water, hydrogen has a very posi-tive reputation among the public. In fact, it seemsto be the common perception that this technol-ogy will solve most of the health and environ-mental problems related to transportation.

In Norway, hydrogen has received a lot ofattention as a future energy carrier, both inacademia and in the oil and gas industry. A com-prehensive report on the existing hydrogen tech-nologies available and the ongoing research inthe respective fields was published last year ascollaboration between the largest research andeducational institutions in Norway. However, noenvironmental assessment of these technologieswas performed. The application of LCA meth-odology to this technology is important to allowfor a better understanding of the environmentalimpacts that will be imposed if, or when, thistechnology is introduced.

From our study of the literature we found, notsurprisingly, the environmental impact of fuelcell vehicles (FCV) is very sensitive to the envi-ronmental burdens related to the production ofthe fuel hydrogen. Another interesting findingwas that CO2 free hydrogen is required for FCVto substantially contribute to climate change miti-gation. As the published data on H2 productionand CO2 sequestration is both insufficient andconflicting, we found it necessary to investigatethis in more detail.

The largest challenge in this work was to per-form an life-cycle inventory of a non-existingprocess plant. Working together with experts

108

from both academia and industry, we where ableto perform a detailed study of a steam methanereforming plant with CO2 sequestration anddeposition.

The design of the plant was performed usingPro II, a chemical process optimisation software.With this design as basis material choices whereperformed, and models of each of the processcomponents were made allowing for inventorydata to be constructed. This combined processdesign — inventory construction methodologyshould be of general applicability to analysis ofother process plants. State-of-the-art impact as-sessment methods are applied to compare dif-ferent environmental impacts, using both theenvironmental themes approach and the damagefunction approach. The flexible design of theproject allows for the results to be used to de-velop and evaluate different scenarios and ap-plications.

Promoting Environmental Quality inItalian Micro Enterprises: The CaseStudy of Wood Windows

Patrizia [email protected]

Egidio [email protected]

Domenico [email protected]

Mario [email protected]

ENEAVia Martiri di Monte Sole 440129 Bologna Italy

Stefano [email protected]

Consorzio LegnoLegnoVia Caduti delle Reggiane 1942100 Reggio Emilia Italy


A research project (SCILLA) for promotingenvironmental quality in Italian micro enterpriseshas been recently completed. The entire activity

has been carried out with the financial supportof the European Regional Development Fund forObjective 2 areas, managed by Emilia Romagnaregion and in strict cooperation with LegnoLegnoConsortium, that associates about 150 enterprisesin the region. The industrial sector has been se-lected because of the economic relevance ofwood working enterprises in Objective 2 areas.Moreover, the environmental relevance of woodwindow in assuring good thermal performancesof buildings is well known and, as no agreementon size standardisation has been reached, about90% of Italian windows are custom-made bymicro enterprises.

The main objectives of the project SCILLAwere:• to identify the environmental critical stages

of the product’s life cycle;• to provide the company management with

guidelines for minimizing the environmentalimpacts in each stage of the product’s lifecycle;

• to propose the adoption of cleaner technolo-gies that also micro enterprises can acquireand manage;

• to carry out an experimental program for test-ing and optimizing different construction op-tions;

• to verify the economic feasibility of a recy-cling center runned by a SMEs consortium tomaximize components reuse and materials re-cycling.To reach these objectives a complete Life

Cycle Assessment of a “reference” wood win-dow and of selected alternatives has been car-ried out. In this paper the methodological ap-proach and the final results of the study will bediscussed. The project showed that remarkableenvironmental improvements can be obtainedalso in micro-enterprises working in traditionalsectors without introducing radical changes inthe production processes. The highest improve-ment potential is achieved when environmentalperformances are taken into account in the earlystages of product development and with the co-operation of all decision makers which influencethe product’s life cycle.

109

Combining LCA, Input-Output andLinear Programming in the Assessmentof Waste Management Policies: AnIntegrated Approach

Klaus-Ole [email protected]

Dept of Electrical Engineering, NTNU -SEFASSem Sælandsvei 11N-7465 Trondheim Norway

Anders Strø[email protected]

Dept of Thermal Energy and HydropowerITEV - NTNUN-7491 Trondheim Norway

Håvard [email protected]

Dept of Social Economics, NTNUDept of Social Economics, DragvollN-7491 Trondheim Norway

Edgar [email protected]

Dept. of Product Design, NTNUN-7491 Trondheim Norway


Life cycle assessment and environmental in-put-output analysis are well-established evalua-tion methods in environmental science. LCAtakes a bottom-up approach for a specific prod-uct or system, whereas input-output analysistakes a top-down approach focusing on theeconomy-environment interactions of sectors.The current debate in Norway concerning wasteincineration versus recycling of waste materialsshows that these different evaluation methodsresult in different policy recommendations forwaste management.

LCA suffers from subjective boundary defi-nitions, are data intensive, and less flexible foranalysis. Input-output models, however, haveconsistent boundary definitions and are moreflexible in use, but the aggregated level of dataignores important characteristics when appliedon site-specific systems. This is demonstrated in

our case study of waste treatment in Trondheim,Norway’s third largest city. We also show thatsite-specific characteristics are better representedin LCA models.

We approach this problem by applying a LP(linear programming) framework, where thematerial flows of household waste fractions arerepresented in a network flow model. Each pro-cess of this model, from material extraction, toproduction, use, transport and recycling/incin-eration – is associated with an environmentalindex based on LCA studies. The objective func-tion is to minimize the environmental impact ofthe material flow network, where a disaggregatedinput-output table represents economic-environ-ment interactions in our model. Finally, the LPformulation provides a flexible method for evalu-ating optimal policies for waste management.

Waste management, whether recycling orwaste incineration - require large investments ininfrastructure – and it is therefore of importanceto sort out the methodological controversies tosupport efficient policies for waste management.Efficient solutions of recycling/incineration andtheir sensitivity to technology changes are stud-ied. Experience from integrating both LCA andinput-output models in a LP framework is alsoevaluated.

New Master Programme - ChemicalEngineering with Industrial Ecology

Ronald [email protected]

Department of Industrial EcologyRoyal Institutet of TechnologyS-100 44 Stockholm, SwedenPhone +46 8 790 6347Fax +46 8 7556644

A new master programme will start at theRoyal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Swe-den in fall 2001. The name of the programme isChemical Engineering with Industrial ecology.The curriculum will mainly follow the existingone for Chemical Engineering, but severalcourses have been and will be developed spe-cially with focus on Industrial Ecology.

Example of new courses are:• Introduction to Industrial ecology

110

• Environmental system analysis• Environmental and Safety management• Waste managementThe new courses will contain several projects

with case studies from the process industry.In the paper the curriculum as well as ex-

amples of case studies will be presented.

Energy Analysis of E-Commerce andConventional Retail Distribution ofBooks in Japan

Eric [email protected]

United Nations UniversityInstitute of Advanced Studies53-67 Jingumae 5-chomeShibuya-ku, Tokyo 150-8304 Japan

Takashi [email protected]


Energy use associated with distribution viae-commerce and conventional retail is comparedfor book sales in Japan. The simulation of en-ergy consumption includes the following factors:fossil fuel used by trucks in distribution fromdistributor to bookstore or e-commerce firm,transport fuel used by the consumer or courierservice production of packaging, and energy forappliances and climate control at the point of sale(home or bookstore). Results indicate a cross-over in environmental performance according topopulation density. Conventional retail uses lessenergy than e-commerce in dense urban areas,mainly due to avoided packaging, but can con-sume more in suburban and rural areas due tothe inefficiency of personal automobile transport.

Evaluation of Eco-Industrial Park asSocietal Experimental Site in Japan

Tohru [email protected]

Department of EngineeringOsaka UniversitySuitaOsaka 565-0871 Japan

Noboru [email protected]

Department of Environmental SystemsWakayama University930 SakaedaniWakayama-shiWakayama 640-8510 Japan

Masao [email protected]

Ebara Corporation1-6-27 KohnanMinato-ku, Tokyo 108-8480 Japan


In the present research, an inverse manufac-turing system for industrial pumps and a strate-gically combined input/output system are exam-ined in an eco-industrial park in Japan whereassociated societal experiments for recycle-ori-ented complex had been carried out under theauthors’ contributions.

The eco-industrial park model describes col-laborative actions of recycling among factories,logistics and consumers sectors, which will es-tablish mutual system to utilize by-products de-rived from their partner sector as their own re-sources in the regional community. In addition,this is expected to couple with the introductionof design for disassembly and maintenance sys-tem of industrial pumps.

Ebara corporation has made an attempt to takeback post-consumed industrial pumps atFujisawa factory in Kanagawa. An experimentwas carried out in 1999, and about 250 post-con-sumed pumps were taken back to the inversemanufacturing experiment line in the factory. Theeffect of design for disassembly is examined forindustrial pumps based on collected data by the

111

take back experiment. The study indicates thatjoint and sealing parts are dominant for disas-sembly time, and “parts reuse-scenario” givesgreat cost reduction in life cycle cost and carbondioxide emission compared with “waste disposal-scenario”. Further more, the effect of reuse andpositive maintenance is examined for mass ofindustrial pumps in a certain urban building fa-cility. In the case of reuse and positive mainte-nance-oriented facility management, life cyclemanufacturing costs can be reduced to 14% ofusual operation in spite of additional capital costfor inverse manufacturing.

In the eco-industrial park, annually wastes of280 tons and 5000 tons are generated in a resi-dence flat and a factory, respectively. When con-sidering utilization of waste converted resourcesbetween residence and factory in the eco-indus-trial park, the conversion technology is deter-mined depending on the type and quality of ma-terial and energy needed between. Each conver-sion method has its optimal scale and merit. Inthe eco-industrial park, a gasification plant wasinstalled for technological certification.

Therefore simulation analyses are attemptedto couple each conversion technology with thegasification technology for improvement eco-efficiency in the eco-industrial park. The resultsindicate that the eco-industrial park with conver-sion technologies give reduction of 26% in pri-mary energy consumption compared with a con-ventional industrial park, and particularly, thecombination of gasification and fuel cell withaerobic digestion gives great reduction of energyconsumption.

Finally, incentives and barriers are discussedto the development of eco-industrial parks inJapan. One of important features in industrial sitepolicy in Japan is that major government poli-cies are implemented particularly for industrialstructure change. Therefore a government tendedto give incentives such as subsidiary rather to aset of specific industrial accumulation, not toindustrial site. In considering enhancement ofeco-industrial park development, governmentindustrial policy should be rather push type, forexample de-regulation for industrial land use, inorder to stimulate flexible individual arrangementand alliance.

112

Speaking Program Author Index

Ahmadi, [email protected] Riverside DrivePotsdam, NY 13676

Eco-Design I ..................................................... 49

Amann, [email protected] for Interdisciplinary Studies of AustrianUniversitiesDepartment of Social EcologySchottenfeldgasse 29A-1070 Vienna

MFA in National Economies II ......................... 35

Anastas, PaulOffice of Science and Technology PolicyExecutive Office of the PresidentWashington, DC 20502

Eco-Design I ..................................................... 49

Anderberg, [email protected] of GeographyUniversity of CopenhagenO.Voldgade 10DK-1351 Copenhagen K Denmark

Spatial Economics ............................................ 13

Andrews, [email protected] University/Bloustein School33 Livingston Ave #302,New Brunswick, NJ 08901 USA

Social Framework III ........................................ 52

Anex, [email protected] East Boyd St., Room 510Norman, OK 73019-0628 USA


Aoyagi-Usui, [email protected] and Environmental Systems DivisionNational Institute for Environmental StudiesOnogawa 16-2,Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan

Theory in Corporate Integration ....................... 10

Aragao, Maria [email protected]. Antonio Prior do Crato, 53030-388 Coimbra, Portugal

Closing the Loop: Soft Barriers ........................ 50

Ayres, Robert

Structural Change and Economics.................... 46

Azapagic, AdisaDepartment of Chemical and Process EngineeringUniversity of SurreyGuildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK

Closing the Loop .............................................. 23

Baccini, [email protected] Federal Institute ofTechnology (ETH)Postfach 171CH-8093 Zürich Switzerland

Theory in Substance Flow Analysis ................... 5

Bakshi, [email protected] of Chemical EngineeringThe Ohio State University140 West 19th AvenueColumbus, OH 43210, USA

Thermodynamics ................................................ 7

Barnes, [email protected] of the EnvironmentUniversity of South CarolinaColumbia, SC 29208T=+1 803-777-1373F=+1 803-777-6437

Industrial Symbiosis I ....................................... 22

113

Bartelings, [email protected]

Spatial Economics ............................................13

Bastiloi, [email protected], Via G. Fauser 8-1I-28100 Novara Italy

Policy Cases in Industrial Ecology ................... 44

Bengtsson, [email protected] Systems Analysis (ESA)Chalmers University of TechnologySE-412 96 Göteborg SwedenPhone: +46 (0)31 772 2174Fax: +46 (0)31 772 2172

Theory in Life Cycle Assessment ..................... 11

Bergh, Jeroen van [email protected] of Spatial EconomicsVrije Universiteit AmsterdamDe Boelelaan 11051081 HV Amsterdam

Structural Change and Economic Dynamics .... 47

Bergman , KatieUniversity of California, BerkeleyDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering215B McLaughlin HallBerkeley, CA 94709-1712

Sustainable Cities / Tourism ............................. 29

Bertram, [email protected] for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry &Environmental Studies, Yale University, New HavenCT06511, USA

Substance Flow Analysis Cases ....................... 65

Beukering, Pieter [email protected] for Environmental Studies (IVM)Vrije UniversiteitBoelelaan 11151081 HV AmsterdamThe Netherlandstel: +31 20 4449555 (secr.)tel: +31 20 4449524 (direct)fax: +31 20 4449553


Billett, Eric H.

Life Cycle Assessment Cases ........................... 31

Binder, [email protected] and Social Science InterfaceHaldenbachstrasse 44, ETH ZENTRUM, 8092Zurich, Switzerland

Indicators .......................................................... 33

Boons, [email protected] Centre for Environmental StudiesErasmus UniversityP.O. Box 17383000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands


Brattebo , [email protected] for industriell økologi (IndEcol), NTNUGløshaugen, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway

Indicators .......................................................... 34

Bringezu, [email protected] InstitutHead of Research in Material Flows and ResourceManagementDep. for Material Flows and Structural ChangeP.F. 100480D-42004 WuppertalGermanyTel. +49-(0)202-2492-131 (Sekr. -139)Fax. +49-(0)202-2492-138

MFA in National Economies I .......................... 21

114

Burström, [email protected] Institute of Technology, Division of IndustrialEcology;Osquars backe 7; SE-100 44 Stockholm Sweden

Regional MFA .................................................. 56

Canas, Ângela Pereira de [email protected] Superior TécnicoAv. Rovisco Pais1049-001 LISBOAPortugal

MFA in National Economies II ......................... 36MFA in National Economies III ....................... 42

Chertow, [email protected]

Industrial Symbiosis II ..................................... 63

Chong, K.Y.Graduate Institute of Environmental ManagementNanhua University32 Chung Keng Li, Dalin622Chiayi Taiwan, R.O.C.


Clift, [email protected] CliftCentre for Environmental StrategyUniversity of SurreyGuildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, U.K.Telephone: +44-1483-879271Fax: +44-1483-876671

Closing the Loop .............................................. 23

Cohen, [email protected] in Environmental Policy StudiesNew Jersey Institute of TechnologyUnivesity HeightsNewark, NJ 07102 USA

Social Framework II ......................................... 14

Conceição, Pedro Filipe Teixeira [email protected] Superior TécnicoAv. Rovisco Pais1049-001 Lisboa Portugal


Dahl, [email protected] Industrial ManagementInstitute of Social Research in IndustryN-7465 Trondheim, Norway


Danius, [email protected] Institute of Technology, Division of IndustrialEcology;Osquars backe 7; SE-100 44 Stockholm Sweden

Regional MFA .................................................. 56

Dellink, [email protected]


Delmas, [email protected] Bren School of Environmental Science andManagement4670 Physical NorthUniversity of CaliforniaSanta Barbara CA 93101Phone: +1 805 893-7185Fax: +1 805 893-7612


Dijkema, [email protected] University of TechnologyDept. of Technology, Policy and ManagementEnergy and IndustryJaffalaan 5, 2628 BX Delft, The Netherlandsphone + 31 15 278 4839fax + 31 15 278 3422

Modeling .......................................................... 19

115

Douglas, IanSchool of Geography,University of Manchester,Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.Telephone (+44) (0)161275 3633Fax(+44) (0)1612757878


Doutlik, [email protected] Commission, Rue de la Loi 200, B-1049 Brussels, Belgium,


Dril, Ton [email protected] - Energy Research FoundationECN - BeleidsstudiesP.O. box 1 1755 ZG Petten The NetherlandsTelephone: (+31) 224 564424Fax: (+31) 224 563338

General Policy Issues ....................................... 31

Duchin, [email protected] Polytechnic Institute110 8th St.Troy, NY 12180 USA


Durany, Xavier [email protected] d’Enginyeria Química. Edifici Cn.CampusBellaterra. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.E-08193 Cerdanyola. Catalunya


Ehrenberg , [email protected] Commission, DG ENTR/E.1,200, Rue de la Loi 200, B-1049 Brussels, Belgium


Ehrenfeld, [email protected] Percy RoadLexington, MA 02421Voice: +1 781 861-0363Fax: +1 781 861-9531

Modeling .......................................................... 19

Eik, [email protected] for Industrial Ecology - NTNUSem Sælandsvei 5N-7491 Trondheim Norway

Indicators .......................................................... 34Closing the Loop: Soft Barriers ........................ 51

Eklund, [email protected] Technique and ManagementIFM, Linköping University,SE 581 83 Linköping Sweden

Social Framework I ............................................ 4

Faist , [email protected] Federal Insitute ofTechnology (ETH)Postfach 171CH-8093 Zürich Switzerland


Farber, RodolfoUniversity of California, BerkeleyDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering215B McLaughlin HallBerkeley, CA 94709-1712


Feijtel, Tom [email protected]&G ETC,Temselaan 100, B-1853,Strombeek-Bever, Belgium


116

Fenchel, [email protected] and Social Science InterfaceHaldenbachstrasse 44, ETH Zentrum8092 Zurich Switzerland

Indicators .......................................................... 33

Ferrão, Paulo Manuel [email protected] Superior TécnicoAv. Rovisco Pais1049-001 LISBOAPortugal


Fischer-Kowalski, [email protected] - Institute for Interdisciplinary Studiesof Austrian UniversitiesDept. of Social EcologySchottenfeldgasse 29A 1070 ViennaTel: +43-1-5224000-416Fax: +43-1-5224000-477

MFA in National Economies I .......................... 20

Fredrikson, [email protected] of physical resource theoryChalmers and Göteborg UniversityS-412 96 Göteborg


Freire, [email protected] Eng. Dept. - Polo IIFaculty of Sciences and TechnologyUniversity of Coimbra3030 Coimbra Portugal


Frey, [email protected] University, Cleaner ElectronicsResearch GroupRunnymede CampusEnglefield GreenEgham, Surrey TW20 0JZ UK


Fritsche, Uwe [email protected], Energy & Climate DivisionOeko-Institut (Institute for applied ecology)Elisabethenstr. 55-57,D-64283 Darmstadt Germanyph +49-6151-8191-24fax +49-6151-8191-33

Regional MFA .................................................. 57

Fujie, [email protected] of Ecological Engineering, ToyohashiUniversity of Technology, Tempaku-cho, Toyohashi,441-8580, Japan

Regional MFA .................................................. 57

Fujimura, HiroyukiEbara Corporation, Kohnan 1-6-27, Minato,Tokyo108-8480.


Fujita, [email protected] Yamadaoka Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan


Gielen, [email protected] and Environmental Systems Division16-2 Onogawa TsukubaIbaraki 305-0053 Japan


117

Gleich, Arnim [email protected] HamburgFB Maschinenbau und ProduktionBerliner Tor 2120099 HamburgTEL: 040/42859-4345Fax: 040/42859-2658


Gloria, [email protected] Ecology Consultants35 Bracebridge Rd.Newton, MA 02459

Life Cycle Assessment Cases ........................... 32Structural Change and Economic Dynamics .... 46

Goessling, [email protected] of HamburgInstitute for Experimental PhysicsLuruper Chaussee 14922761 Hamburg

Thermodynamics ................................................ 8

Goto, [email protected] of Ecological Engineering, ToyohashiUniversity of Technology, Tempaku-cho, Toyohashi,441-8580, Japan

Regional MFA .................................................. 57

Graedel, [email protected] of Forestry and Environmental StudiesYale University205 Prospect StreetNew Haven, CT 06511ph: +1 203-432-9733fax: +1 203-432-5556


Graham-Brown, CarolineUniversity of California, BerkeleyDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering215B McLaughlin HallBerkeley, CA 94709-1712 USA


Grimvall , [email protected] of Mathematics,Linköping University,SE-58183 Linköping, Sweden

Modeling .......................................................... 18

Hagen, [email protected] Industrial ManagementInstitute of Social Research in IndustryN-7465 Trondheim, Norway

Theory in Corporate Integration ....................... 10Indicators .......................................................... 35

Hämäläinen, [email protected] of Jyväskylä, School of Business andEconomics, P.O. Box 35, FIN-40351 Jyväskylä,Finland.

Regional MFA .................................................. 58

Harmsen , G. [email protected]

Eco-Design I ..................................................... 48

Harrison , David J.


Hau, Jorge [email protected] of Chemical EngineeringThe Ohio State University140 West 19th AvenueColumbus, OH 43210, USA

Thermodynamics ................................................ 7

Hekkert, [email protected] Utrecht, dept. of Innovation Studies,Heidelberglaan 8, 3584 CS UtrechtThe Netherlands

General Policy Issues ....................................... 30Issues in Academics – Plenary ......................... 67

118

Hendrickson, [email protected] Hall 119Carnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburgh, PA 15213 USA

Corporate Integration-ICT ................................ 59

Hermundsgård, [email protected] LinguisticsNTNU Industrial Ecology Programme (IndEcol)Sem Sælandsv 5N-7491 TrondheimNorwayPhone: + 47 73 59 89 63Fax: + 47 73 59 89 43

Issues in Academics – Plenary ......................... 68

Hertwich, [email protected] for Thermal Energy and HydropowerNorwegian University of Science and Techology(NTNU)K Hejes vei 1a7941 Trondheim Norway


Hirs, [email protected] of TwenteGerard Doulaan 343723GX Bilthoven, Nederland

Thermodynamics ................................................ 9

Hoekstra, [email protected] of Spatial EconomicsVrije Universiteit AmsterdamDe Boelelaan 11051081 HV Amsterdam


Hoffman, [email protected] Advanced Technology CenterMotorola1301 E. Algonquin Rd., Rm 1014Schaumburg, IL, 60196 US

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Hofstetter, [email protected] Research Fellow at U.S. EPA (MS 466)26W., Martin Luther King Dr.Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 USAPhone: +1 513-569-7326Fax: +1 513-569-7111


Holmberg, [email protected] of physical resource theoryChalmers and Göteborg UniversityS-412 96 Göteborg


Horvath, [email protected] of California, BerkeleyDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering215B McLaughlin HallBerkeley, CA 94709-1712

Sustainable Cities / Tourism ............................. 29Corporate Integration-ICT ................................ 61

Hotta, [email protected] Argyle Road BrightonBN1 4QB The United Kingdom


Howard, [email protected] of Science and Technology StudiesSage Laboratory, 5th FloorRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteTroy, NY 12180-3590 USA

Social Framework I ........................................... 3

119

Hsiao, Teng [email protected] Institute of Environmental Engineering,National Taiwan University1, Roosevelt Road, Sec. 4 Taipei 10617, Taiwan


Hu , [email protected] UniversityGraduate Institute of Environmental Management32 Chung Keng Li, DalinChiayi 622, TaiwanTel: 886-5-2721001~5307Fax: 886-5-2427113


Huele, [email protected] 9518NL- 2300 RA Leiden The Netherlandstel +31-71-5275648fax +31-71-5277434

Modeling .......................................................... 19Industrial Ecology: The Metaphor .................... 40

Huguet, Teresa [email protected] d’Enginyeria Química. Edifici Cn.CampusBellaterra. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. E-08193 Cerdanyola. Catalunya


Hwa Yu, [email protected] Institute of Environmental Engineering,National Taiwan University1, Roosevelt Road, Sec. 4 Taipei 10617, Taiwan


Ierland , Ekko [email protected]


Imura, [email protected] of Urban Environmental StudiesGraduate School of Environmental StudiesNagoya UniversityFuro-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya464-8603 Japan


Isaacs, Jacqueline [email protected] of Mech, Indstr & Mfg EngNortheastern University334 Snell Engineering CenterBoston MA 02115 USAPhone: +1 617 373-3989Fax: +1 617 373-2921

Education .......................................................... 26

Isenmann, [email protected] KaiserslauternDepartment of Business Information Systems andOperations Research (BiOR)P.O. Box 304967653 Kaiserslautern, Germay,Phone: +49 631 205 2936Fax: +49 631 205 3381

Industrial Ecology: The Metaphor .................... 38

Jacobsen, Noel [email protected] of Geography and InternationalDevelopment StudiesRoskilde UniversityP.O.Box 260DK-4000 Roskilde Denmark


Janssen, [email protected] of Spatial EconomicsVrije UniversiteitDe Boelelaan 11051081 HV Amsterdam The Netherlands


120

Johansson , [email protected], Bd de l’Impératrice 66, B-1000Brussels, Belgium


Jonsson, [email protected]örsäkringsverketUtvärderingsavdelningenEnheten för statistisk analysPostadress: 103 51 Stockholmph.: 08 - 786 92 42


Käb, [email protected], Kastanienallee 21, D-10435Berlin, Germany,


Karlsson , [email protected] of physical resource theoryChalmers and Göteborg UniversityS-412 96 Göteborg


Keitsch, Martina [email protected] University for Science and TechnologyIndustrial Ecology Programme (IndEcol)Sem Sælandsv. 5Gamle Fysikk, NTNU Gløshaugen, N-7491Trondheim, NorwayPhone: + 47 73 59 89 72Fax: + 47 73 59 89 43

Social Framework I ............................................ 3Education .......................................................... 26

Keller, ArturoDonald Bren School of Environmental Science andManagement4670 Physical NorthUniversity of CaliforniaSanta Barbara CA 93101Phone: +1 805 893-7185Fax: +1 805 893-7612


Keoleian, Gregory [email protected] for Sustainable SystemsUniversity of MichiganDana Bldg. 430 E. UniversityAnn Arbor, Michigan 48109-1115 USA


Kitou, [email protected] of Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of California, Berkeley215B McLaughlin HallBerkeley, California 94720-1712 USAphone: +1 510-664-2703fax: +1 510-643-8919


Klee, [email protected] for Industrial EcologySchool of Forestry and Environmental Studies205 Prospect StreetNew Haven, CT 06511 USAPhone: +1 203-469-7234Fax: +1 203-432-5556

MFA in National Economies II ......................... 37Substance Flow Analysis Cases ....................... 65

Kleijn, ReneCML, Leiden UniversityP.O. Box 95182300 RALeiden, ZH The Netherlandsphone: +31 71 5277477fax: +31 71 5277434

Modeling .......................................................... 19

121

Klumpers, [email protected] Commission, DG RTD/B.12,Rue de la Loi 200, B-1049 Brussels


Knight, [email protected] of Industrial and ManufacturingEngineering,University of Rhode IslandKingston, RI 02881 USA

Eco-Design I ..................................................... 47

Koikalainen, [email protected]

MFA in National Economies III ....................... 41

Kondo, [email protected] of economics,Toyama university,Toyama 930-8555, Japan

Closing the Loop .............................................. 24

Korevaar, [email protected] ‘Sustainable Chemical Technol-ogy’, Section Process Systems Engineering,Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University ofTechnology,Julianalaan 136, 2628 BL Delft,The Netherlands

Education .......................................................... 25Eco-Design I ..................................................... 48

Korhonen, [email protected] of JoensuuDepartment of Economics, FinlandP.O. Box 11180101, Joensuu Finland


Kusz, John [email protected] University, NetherlandsEnvironmental Management ProgramStuart Graduate School of BusinessIllinois Institute of Technology565 West Adams StreetChicago, Illinois 60661-3691 USATelephone: +1 312 906 6543Fax: +1 312 906 6549


Kytzia, [email protected] Federal Insitute ofTechnology (ETH)Postfach 171CH-8093 Zürich


Lameris, Geert H.Faculty of Applied SciencesFaculty of Technical Policy and ManagementDelft University of TechnologyJulianalaan 1362628 BL Delft, The Netherlands

Education .......................................................... 25

Lankey, [email protected]/EPA Postdoctoral Fellow1321 Queen St.Alexandria, VA 22314 USA

Eco-Design I ..................................................... 49

Larssaether, [email protected] Ecology Programme, NTNUN-7491 Trondheim, Norway

Theory in Corporate Integration ....................... 10Issues in Academics – Plenary ......................... 68

Lawson, [email protected] of GeographyUniversity of ManchesterOxford RoadManchester M13 9PL UK


122

Lemkowitz, Saul [email protected] of Chemical EngineeringDelft University of TechnologyJulianalaan 1362628 BLDelft, The Netherlandsphone: 31 15 278 4394fax: 31 15 278 44 52

Education .......................................................... 25Eco-Design I ..................................................... 48

Lente, Harro vanUniversiteit Utrecht, dept. of Innovation Studies,Heidelberglaan 8, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Nether-lands


Levine, [email protected] of Civil and Environmental EngineeringTufts UniversityMedford, MA 02155Ph: 617.627.3211


Levy, Jonathan [email protected] School of Public HealthDepartment of Environmental HealthEnvironmental Science & Engineering ProgramDept. of Environmental Health665 Huntington Ave. Rm 1310ABoston, MA 02115 USAPhone: +1 617-432-0827Fax: +1 617-432-4122


Ligon, [email protected] OR [email protected] InstituteTuck School of Business312 Byrne HallDartmouth CollegeHanover, NH 03755-9000 USA

Corporate Integration in Practice ...................... 16

Lindqvist, [email protected] Technique and ManagementIFM, Linköping University,SE 581 83 Linköping Sweden


Loorbach, [email protected] 6166200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlandstel: 043-3883070


Lovfing, [email protected] of Mathematics,Linköping University,SE-58183 Linköping, Sweden

Modeling .......................................................... 18

Mäenpää, [email protected]


Masanet, [email protected] on Green Design and ManufacturingUniversity of California at Berkeley134 Hesse Hall,Berkeley, CA, 94720 USA


Mathiassen, Elin


Matsumoto, [email protected] u.ac.jpDepartment of Environmental Space DesignFaculty of Environmental EngineeringThe University of Kitakyushu1-1, Hibikino, Wakamatsu-ku,Kitakyushu, Fukuoka, 808-0135, Japan


123

Matthews, H. [email protected] Hall 254BCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburgh, PA 15213 USA


Melaina, [email protected] for Sustainable SystemsUniversity of MichiganDana Bldg. 430 E. UniversityAnn Arbor, Michigan 48109-1115 U.S.A.


Mellor , WarrenCentre for Environmental StrategyUniversity of SurreyGuildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, U.K.

Closing the Loop .............................................. 23

Mercuri, [email protected]. Scienze- viale Pindaro, 42 - 65127 PescaraItaly

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Mont, [email protected] Institute for IndustrialEnvironmental EconomicsLund UniversityP. O. Box 196 Tegnersplatsen 4SE- 221 00 Lund SwedenPhone: +46 46 222 0250Mobile: +46 73 960 5462Fax: +46 46 222 0230


Moriguchi, YuichiSocial and Environmental Systems DivisionandResearch Center for Material Cycles and WasteManagementNational Institute for Environmental Studies16-2 Onogawa Tsukuba Ibaraki 305-8506 JapanTel:+81-298-50-2540Fax:+81-298-50-2572

MFA in National Economies I .......................... 21Policy Cases in Industrial Ecology ................... 44

Morioka, [email protected] School of Osaka Univ., Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan,

Sustainable Cities / Tourism ............................. 28Industrial Symbiosis II ..................................... 63

Mueller, [email protected] Advanced Technology CenterMotorola GMBHHagenauerstrasse 44 2nd Floor65203 Wiesbaden Germany

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Mueller, [email protected] DelftFaculty of Technology, Policy and ManagementJaffalaan 5, P.O. Box 50152600 GA Delft, Netherlands


Nagel, [email protected] Technologies, Bell Labs InnovationsLarenseweg 50Room BF1111221 CN Hilversum The Netherlands


Nakamura, [email protected] of politics and economics,Waseda university,169-8050 Tokyo, Japan

Closing the Loop .............................................. 24

124

Nassos, George P. [email protected] Management ProgramStuart Graduate School of Business565 West Adams StreetChicago, Illinois 60661-3691 USATelephone: +1 312 906 6543Fax: +1 312 906 6549

Issues in Academics - Plenary .......................... 68

Ng, [email protected] of California, BerkeleyDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering215B McLaughlin HallBerkeley, CA 94709-1712 USA


Nicolaescu , [email protected] Advanced Technology CenterMotorola1301 E. Algonquin Rd., Rm 1014Schaumburg, IL, 60196 USA

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Nishioka, [email protected] School of Public HealthDepartment of Environmental HealthEnvironmental Science & Engineering ProgramDept. of Environmental Health665 Huntington Ave. Rm 1310ABoston, MA 02115 USAPhone:617-432-0827Fax:617-432-4122


Norris, [email protected], Inc.147 Bauneg Hill RoadSuite 200 North Berwick ME 03906 USAPhone: +1 207-676-7640Fax: +1 207-676-7647

Theory in Life Cycle Assessment ..................... 12Life Cycle Assessment Cases ........................... 32

Opoku, Hilde Nø[email protected] for Industrial EcologyNTNUSem Sælandsvei 5N-7491 Trondheim, Norway


Orssatto, [email protected] Institute for Industrial EnvironmentalEconomics (IIIEE)Lund UniversityPO Box 19622100 Lund SwedenPhone: + 46 46 2220252Fax: + 46 46 222 0230


Palen, Leon van der


Palm, [email protected]östatistik/environmental accountsSCB/ Statistics SwedenS-104 51 StockholmTel + 46 8 50 69 42 19Fax + 46 8 50 69 47 63


Patel, [email protected]


Pelletiere, [email protected] of Public PolicyGeorge Mason University3401 N. Fairfax Dr.Arlington, Virginia 22201 USAphone: +703-993-3564fax: +703-993-8215

Closing the Loop .............................................. 24

125

Peters, Walter


Petti, [email protected]. Scienze- viale Pindaro, 42 - 65127 PescaraItaly

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Pfahl, [email protected] Advanced Technology CenterMotorola1301 E. Algonquin Rd., Rm 1014Schaumburg, IL, 60196 USA

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Plepys, [email protected] International Institute for Industrial Environ-mental Economics/ Lund UniversityBox 198, Tegnersplatsen 4, S-221 00 Lund, SwedenT: +46-46-222 02 00 (202 26 direct),F: +46-46-222 02 30


Pongratz , [email protected] Advanced Technology CenterMotorola GMBHHagenauer Strasse 44 2nd Floor65203 Wiesbaden Germany

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Posch, [email protected] Joanneum GmbHIndustrial ManagementWerk-VI-Str. 468605 Kapfenberg Austria


Powell, [email protected] (Centre for Social and EconomicResearch on the Global EnvironmentSchool of Environmental SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwich NR4 7TJ UKTel: +44 (0) 1603 592822Fax: +44 (0) 1603 593739


Powers, Susan E.Dept. Civil & Environmental EngineeringClarkson University

Eco-Design I ..................................................... 49

Raggi, [email protected]. Scienze- viale Pindaro, 42 - 65127 PescaraItaly

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Rechberger, [email protected] for Industrial EcologySchool of Forestry & Environmental StudiesYale University205 Prospect StNew Haven, CT 06511 USAT: +1 203 432 5675F: +1 203 432 5556

Thermodynamics ................................................ 9Substance Flow Analysis Cases ....................... 65

Reiss, [email protected] Advanced Technology Center Motorola GMBHHagenauer Strasse 44 2nd Floor65203 Wiesbaden Germany

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Reuter, [email protected]. of Earth SciencesMijnbouwstraat 120, 2628 RX Delft,The Netherlands

Modeling .......................................................... 19

126

Rikkonen, [email protected]


Risku-Norja, [email protected]


Rogich, [email protected] Washington RoadAlexandria, VA 22308 USA


Røine , [email protected] Industrial Ecology ProgrammeGamle Fysikk – GløshaugenN - 7491 Trondheim Norway


Rotmans, [email protected] 6166200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands


Russell, [email protected] of South Carolinac/o Department of Mechanical Engineering300 Main Street Columbia SC 29208 USA


Ruth, [email protected] of MarylandSchool of Public Affairs3139 Van Munching HallCollege Park, MD 20742 USA


Ryan, [email protected] Institute for IndustrialEnvironmental Economics, Lund University,Sweden.Ph: +46 46 222 02 32 (02 00 reception)Mobile: +46 709 726901Fax: + 46 46 222 02 20

Social Framework II ......................................... 15Corporate Integration-ICT ................................ 61

Saugen , BerntTomra Systems ASA, Postboks 278, 1372 Asker,Norway

Indicators .......................................................... 34

Scannell, [email protected]


Scheifers, [email protected] Advanced Technology CenterMotorola1301 E. Algonquin Rd., Rm 1014Schaumburg, IL, 60196 USA

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Schnecke, [email protected] Advanced Technology CenterMotorola GMBHHaganauer Strasse 44 2nd Floor65203 Wiesbaden Germany

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Schowanek, [email protected]&G ETC,Temselaan 100, B-1853, Strombeek-Bever, BelgiumTel 32 (0)2 456 29 00 - mobile 32 (0)497 82 96 27Fax 32 (0)2 568 32 43


127

Schwendner, [email protected] Science AdvisorWorld Bank ProjectHouse No. 22/142Defense Officer’s ColonyHyderabad Pakistantel: +92 - 221 - 784100 or 784803fax: +92 - 221 - 781884


Siikavirta, [email protected] University of TechnologyDepartment of Industrial Engineering and Manage-mentPOB 9500, FIN-02015 TKK, Finland

Regional Material Flow Analysis ..................... 58

Smits, RuudUniversiteit Utrecht, dept. of Innovation Studies,Heidelberglaan 8, 3584 CS Utrecht,The Netherlands


Sodhi, [email protected] of Industrial and ManufacturingEngineering,University of Rhode IslandKingston, RI 02881 USA

Eco-Design I ..................................................... 47

Solem, HavardProgram for industriell økologi (IndEcol), NTNUGløshaugen, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway

Indicators .......................................................... 34

Spatari, [email protected] for Industrial EcologyYale University285 Prospect St.,New Haven CT 06511 USAt: +1 203.432.5694f: +1 203.432.5556


Spengler, [email protected] School of Public HealthDepartment of Environmental HealthEnvironmental Science & Engineering Program665 Huntington Ave. Rm 1310ABoston, MA 02115 USAPhone: +1 617-432-0827Fax: +1 617-432-4122


Steinmo, SolveigTomra Systems ASA, Postboks 278, 1372 Asker,Norway

Indicators .......................................................... 34

Steurer, [email protected]

MFA in National Economies I .......................... 20(Abstract unavailable)

Stevens, GaryPolymer Research CentreUniversity of SurreyGuildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, U.K.

Closing the Loop .............................................. 23

Stevers, [email protected] of Traffic and WaterwaysP.O.Box 20906NL-2500 EX Den HaagThe Netherlandstel +31-70-3518570fax +31-70-3519364


Stromman, [email protected] for Thermal Energy and HydropowerNorwegian University of Science and Techology(NTNU)K Hejes vei 1a7941 Trondheim Norway


128

Stutz , [email protected] Advanced Technology CenterMotorola GMBHHagenauer Strasst 44 2nd Floor65203 Wiesbaden Germany

Eco-Design II ................................................... 55

Swearengen, [email protected] EngineeringWashington State University14204 NE Salmon Creek AvenueVancouver, WA 98686-9600 USA


Theis, Thomas L.Center for Environmental ManagementDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineer-ing, Clarkson University

Eco-Design I ..................................................... 49

Thore, [email protected] IC2 Institute.University of Texas at AustinAustin, TX 78705-3596 USA


Thoresen, [email protected] 276, 1601 Fredrikstad. Norway


Thorpe, [email protected] Insitute, Faculty of Design,Falkner Rd.Farnham, SurreyGU9 7DS UK

Education .......................................................... 27

Tukker , [email protected] 60302600 JA Delft, the Netherlandstel. + 31 15 269 5450mobile + 31 6 519 80 344fax + 31 15 269 5460

Policy Cases in Industrial Ecology ................... 45Social Framework III ........................................ 54

Ukidue, Nandan [email protected] of Chemical Engineering The Ohio State University140 West 19th AvenueColumbus, OH 43210, USA

Thermodynamics ................................................ 7

Unruh, [email protected] of Environmental SustainabilityProfessor of Information Technology ManagementInstituto de EmpresaMaria de Molina 1228006 Madrid Spain


Usui, [email protected] Science and Technology Foundation,Hitotsugi-cho, Kariya, 448-0003, Japan

Regional MFA .................................................. 57

Vanhala , [email protected]


Verhoef, [email protected],DIOC Design and Management of Infrastructures,Rotterdamseweg 145, 2628 AL DelftThe Netherlands

Modeling .......................................................... 19

129

Voet, Ester van [email protected] of Environmental Science, Leiden UniversityP.O.Box 9518NL- 2300 RA Leidenthe Netherlandstel +31-71-5277480fax +31-71-5277434

Modeling .......................................................... 19Industrial Ecology: The Metaphor .................... 40

Votta, [email protected] Scientist, Tellus Institute11 Arlington StreetBoston, MA 02116 USA


Wernick, [email protected] Earth Institute, Columbia University405 Low Memorial Library, 535 West 116th Street,NY 10027, USA


Wiek , [email protected] and Social InterfaceHaldenbachstrasse 44, ETH Zentrum8092 Zurich, Switzerland

Indicators .......................................................... 33

Williams, ElizabethCentre for Environmental StrategyUniversity of SurreyGuildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, U.K.

Closing the Loop .............................................. 23

Williamson, [email protected] Riverside DrivePotsdam, NY 13676 USA

Eco-Design I ..................................................... 49

Wilson, [email protected] School of Public HealthDepartment of Environmental HealthEnvironmental Science & Engineering ProgramDept. of Environmental Health665 Huntington Ave. Rm 1310ABoston, MA 02115 USAPhone: +1 617-432-0827Fax: +1 617-432-4122


Woodhouse, [email protected] of Science and Technology StudiesSage Laboratory, 5th FloorRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteTroy, NY 12180-3590 USA


Yoshida , [email protected]. of Environmental Systems, WakayamaUniv.,Sakaetani 930 Wakayama, 640-8510, Japan


130

Poster Author Index

Adahl, Anders ................................................... 69

Andrews, Clinton J. .......................................... 92

Anex, Robert P. ................................................. 69

Bailey, Reid ...................................................... 70

Battersby, Nigel .............................................. 104

Beers, Dick van ................................................ 71

Berna, Jose Luis ............................................. 104

Berntsson, Thore ............................................... 69

Bertram, Marlen ............................................... 71

Boehme, Susan E. ............................................. 72

Brattebø , Helge .............................................. 100

Brennan, David ................................................. 73

Buttol, Patrizia ................................................ 108

Cavalli, Luciano ............................................. 104

Cerreno, Allison L. C. de .................................. 72

Changsirivathanathamrong, Achara ................. 74

Costa, Fiammetta .............................................. 75

Cotsworth, Elizabeth ........................................ 76

Eklund, Mats .................................................. 101

Ewijk, Harry A.L. van ...................................... 76

Filippini, Egidio .............................................. 108

Fletcher, Richard ............................................ 104

Gard, David L. .................................................. 77

Gloria, Thomas ................................................. 90

Goldblatt, David ............................................... 78

Gorden, Marsha ................................................ 79

Graedel, T.E. ..................................................... 71

Grimvall , Anders ............................................. 91

Guldner, Andreas ............................................ 104

Harmsen, G.J. ................................................... 95

Harvey, Simon .................................................. 69

Heino, J ............................................................. 85

Hekkert, Marko P. ............................................. 80

Hertwich, Edgar .............................................. 109

Holle, Paul W. ................................................... 80

Holmberg, John ................................................ 80

Holmberg, John ................................................ 85

Hoof , Gert Van ................................................. 81

Horvath, Arpad ................................................. 92

Hryniv, Lidia ..................................................... 82

Huele, R. ........................................................... 95

Hung, Ju-Pin ..................................................... 82

Isaacs, Jacqueline A. ......................................... 83

Johansson, Jessica ............................................ 80

Johansson, Jessica ............................................ 84

Kaivo-oja, Jari .................................................. 84

Kane, Michael .................................................. 92

Karlsson, Sten ................................................... 80

Karlsson, Sten ................................................... 85

Keiski, Riitta L. ................................................ 85

Keitsch , Martina ............................................ 100

Keoleian, Gregory A. ........................................ 77

Kolokotsas, Dionisis ......................................... 81

Koskenkari, T. ................................................... 85

Korevaar , G. .................................................... 95

Kraines, Steven ................................................. 86

Krrishnamohan, Kanduri .................................. 87

Kuckshinrichs , Wilhelm .................................. 98

Kunnas , Jan ..................................................... 93

Kwonpongsagoon, Suphaphat .......................... 88

Kyosai, Toshio .................................................. 92

Lange, W.T. de .................................................. 88

Lemon, Mark .................................................. 103

Leone , Stefano ................................................. 99

Levine , Stephen H. .......................................... 90

Levine, Stephen H. ........................................... 90

131

Locklear, Elizabeth ........................................... 99

Löfving, Erik .................................................... 91

Luukkanen, Jyrki .............................................. 84

Makkonen, H. ................................................... 85

Mansueti, Alberto ............................................. 99

Marshall, Julian ................................................ 92

Mates, William J. .............................................. 92

Moore, Stephen ................................................ 74

Moore, Stephen ................................................ 82

Moore, Stephen ................................................ 88

Mora , Stefano ................................................ 108

Morioka, Tohru ............................................... 110

Myllyntaus , Timo ............................................ 93

Nijnik, Maria .................................................... 94

Nikolic, Igor ..................................................... 95

Norris, Gregory A. ............................................ 95

Odom, Sonja Lynn ............................................ 96

Olaussen, Jon Olaf .......................................... 106

Paine, Mark ...................................................... 70

Panero, Marta ................................................... 72

Patel , Martin .................................................... 97

Paulus, Andrea .................................................. 98

Peters, Walter H. ............................................... 96

Peters, Walter H. ............................................... 99

Poomontree, Chitsomanus ................................ 92

Raggi , Andrea .................................................. 99

Ramakrishnan, S ............................................. 100

Rechberger, Helmut .......................................... 71

Reed, Michael ................................................... 90

Røine , Kjetil .................................................. 101

Roth , Liselott ................................................. 101

Saari, Arto ....................................................... 102

Sahota, Parminder Singh ................................ 103

Saleem, Sirine A. .............................................. 99

Saouter, Erwan .................................................. 81

Scartozzi, Domenico....................................... 108

Schowanek , Diederik ....................................... 81

Schowanek, Diederik ...................................... 104

Schupp, Bastiaan A. ........................................ 104

Schwarz, Hans-Günter .................................... 105

Scott, J.A. ......................................................... 87

Solem, Håvard ................................................ 106

Solem, Håvard ................................................ 109

Steber, Josef .................................................... 104

Stevens, Kenneth V. ........................................ 106

Stroemman, Anders Hammer ......................... 107

Strømman, Anders .......................................... 109

Tagami, Takashi .............................................. 110

Takebayashi, Masao ....................................... 110

Tarantini, Mario .............................................. 108

Voet, E. van der ................................................ 95

Vogstad, Klaus-Ole ......................................... 109

Wennersten, Ronald ........................................ 109

Williams, Eric ................................................. 110

Yoshida, Noboru ............................................. 110

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