The role of training in reducingpoverty the case of the ultra-poor

in Bangladesh

Mohammad Aktaruzzaman Khan andAnees Janee Ali

Although microcredit is considered the main vehicle forincreasing the income of the poor and alleviating poverty inBangladesh it is now well recognised that more than this isneeded to reach the ultra poor in rural areas Consequentlyalmost half of the Bangladesh population is in some waylinked to non-governmental organizationsrsquo development pro-grammes at the centre of which is poverty alleviation Thestudy reported here developed a comprehensive cross-sectionalintervention to examine whether the income of those who par-ticipated in the training programmes of non-governmentalorganizations was related to that participation The study wascarried out in three leading organizations in three districts ofBangladesh using a quantitative associational research designThree hundred responses were analysed using multiple regres-sion analysis to elicit information from ultra poor clients whohad received training The results suggest that the post-trainingincome level of the trainees was negatively rather than posi-tively related to the fact of their participation in training theopposite of what human capital theory would lead us to expect

IntroductionIncome is the key component of millennium development goals and plays a critical rolein economic development as one of the most important indicators of socio-economicdevelopment in low-income countries Developed nations have been contributing theiraid to poor nations but the recent Human Development Report stated that for the past15 years the quantity of development aid has been low and has had a reduced relevance

Mohammad Aktaruzzaman Khan Associate Professor International Islamic University ChittagongBangladesh Email rajarkul2002yahoocom Anees Janee Ali Associate Professor Universiti SainsMalaysia Malaysia Email aneesali15yahoocom

bs_bs_banner

International Journal of Training and Development bullbullbullbullISSN 1360-3736doi 101111ijtd12041

copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 1

to targeted development Moe (2008) found that foreign development assistance istargeted to support socio-economic development and has significant positive associa-tion with human development So readdressing the aid mechanism through extensivesocio-economic programmes by foreign development organisations especially non-governmental (NGOs) is an urgent priority for the recipient countries The quality andeffectiveness of development organisations themselves will have a direct impact on thesuccess of those development programmes particularly on income generating capacityin order to alleviate poverty

Bangladesh is an important case in which to study the economic impact of NGOsrsquoprogrammes on the income and spending power of their beneficiaries Almost all of theNGOsrsquo clients depend primarily on income from self-employment and most of theseclients are women Few studies have been conducted on economic development at thelevel of the individual Most studies focus on the NGOsrsquo own targets and the NGOsrsquoown efficacy in meeting their donorsrsquo expectations Beneficiariesrsquo demands tend to beneglected and NGOsrsquo aid is only rarely allocated for the purpose of alleviating povertyand developing individualsrsquo economic development (Dreher et al 2010) Nor is itmostly initiated for social development purposes such as health or education (Alesinaamp Dollar 2000 Katayama 2007) Consequently NGOsrsquo programmes have broughtabout insignificant development in Bangladesh (Fruttero amp Gauri 2005)

There has been a lack of empirical enquiry into the effectiveness of development aidprovided through NGOs in Bangladesh and little is known about its impact on bene-ficiariesrsquo income Training is an intermediary in the operationalising of NGO interven-tions The present study reports an empirical investigation into the relationshipbetween the training provided as part of NGO programmes and the income level of theNGOsrsquo clients It uses a cross-sectional perspective The findings should benefit keystakeholders in the development process including donors and NGO decision-makersin recipient countries including Bangladesh

Socio-economic development

There is considerable disagreement about how to measure socio-economic develop-ment The underlying concept is that beneficiaries should experience developmentBeneficiaries are the clients who benefit from the socio-economic and training pro-grammes of NGOs Davies (1998) defined development as outside intervention or lsquoaidedrsquodevelopment and the definition of socio-economic development is given by Jaffee as thelsquoability to produce an adequate and growing supply of goods and services productivelyand efficiently to accumulate capital and to distribute the fruits of production in arelatively equitable mannerrsquo (Jaffee 1998) International bodies have been set up topromote different components of socio-economic development the World HealthOrganisation promotes health the Food and Agriculture Organization ndash agriculturethe United Nations Industrial Development Organization ndash industry the UnitedNations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ndash education and the UnitedNations Conference on Trade and Development ndash trade Consequently a number ofindicators have been taken into account by studies in common for socio-economicdevelopment such as income nutrition health education and housing (FAO 1988Rao 1976)

Income as a means of socio-economic development

In developing countries about 60 per cent of workers are self-employed (InternationalLabour Organization and World Trade Organization 2009) and NGOs always haveincome-generating activities (IGA) as their main focus for creating employment SoIGA is most pronounced programme in the development discourse as income is theprincipal determinant of the economic condition of NGO households (Ullah amp Routray2007)

Household expenditure depends on the size of the household income Employmentprovides income and NGOs provide income-generating training programmes to create

2 International Journal of Training and Developmentcopy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

employment opportunities particularly for the rural poor These should ensure thatbasic needs are met Thus training provided by NGOs is an instrument for alleviationof poverty It is also the case that education has indirect effects on income for exampleif higher education increases the labour force participation of women this will increasethe income of households (Pieters 2011) Moreover Psacharopoulos (1994) empha-sised that womenrsquos education tended to have bigger income effects than that for menSchultz (1963) and Becker (1964) in their human capital theory conceptualised invest-ment in training and education as benefiting economic growth

NGOsrsquo training programmes

A Chinese proverb says lsquoTo plan one year sow seed to plan ten years plant trees andto plan 100 years develop human resourcesrsquo So development of human capitalthrough training is not a short-term strategy Rather it should be addressed from thelong-term perspective (Dhakal amp Nawaz 2009) Noe (2008) defined training as plannedeffort by a company to facilitate employeesrsquo learning of job competencies These com-petencies include knowledge skills and attitude (behaviour) that are critical for organi-sational success

Arend examining one of the biggest South African NGOs thought that the organi-sation had focused predominantly on meeting the demands of its donors and subse-quently has had limited capacity to meet its growing needs in regard to humanresources and organisational development (Arend 2008) In a study of twenty devel-opment NGOs in Bangladesh Huda et al (2007) found NGOs were facing shortages ofqualified candidates inadequately qualified female candidates and applicants withpoor academic backgrounds and that this was true in both urban and rural areas Moresignificantly there was a lack of training infrastructure and insufficient analysis of thetraining needs associated with the socio-economic and human resource developmentof their beneficiaries

Human resource development is still an emerging area of research in third worldcountries and has not received proper attention in Bangladesh (Mahmood 2004) Aninadequate number of studies have been conducted in this area so far (Absar ampMahmood 2011 Mahmood 2004) and even less attention has been given to trainingand development This still remains an under-researched area Moreover some of theempirical research in Bangladesh has lacked theoretical underpinning (Khan amp Jahur2007)

Theoretical framework of the present studyKirkpatrickrsquos four-level taxonomy

Kirkpatrickrsquos four-level training evaluation model has been widely examined (Alliger ampJanak 1989 Holton 2005 McLean 2005) Kirkpatrickrsquos (1998) four levels are Level I ndashreaction this measures how learners feel about their learningtraining Level II ndashlearning this evaluates what was learned and retained from the learning experienceLevel III ndash behaviourapplication this evaluates the degree to which learners apply totheir work what was learned from training and Level IV ndash results this level evaluatesthe impact that transfer of learning has on the business Krein and Weldon (1994)suggested that the four levels attempt to answer the following questions Level 1 howthe participants feel about the training Level 2 what the participants acquired from thetraining Level 3 how much the participants applied what they learnt and Level 4 howmuch the company benefited from this exercise

Although there is a three-dimensional criticism existing in the literature (Alligeret al 1997 McLean 2005) Kirkpatrickrsquos model of training evaluation has had wide-spread and enduring popularity because of its simplicity and its ability to help peoplethink about training evaluation criteria (Alliger amp Janak 1989) Training evaluation hasbeen an important subject in management studies and research as it is related to issuesof efficiency effectiveness and impact (Giangreco et al 2010 Kirkpatrick 2005)

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 3copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Based on the literature review the authors propose a conceptual framework forstudying beneficiariesrsquo income level based on Kirkpatrickrsquos four dimensions of trainingevaluation The aim is to investigate the relationship between income and training ateach level of evaluation with income increases treated as evidence of an impact on thealleviation of poverty This analysis has not been carried out by existing research andthe framework emphasises the underlying research question about trainingrsquos relation-ship with income as a basis for socio-economic capacity building (Figure 1) The studyexamined the following hypotheses

H1 The NGOsrsquo training programmes (reaction learning behaviour and result) aresignificantly related to the beneficiariesrsquo income

H1a The NGOsrsquo training-reaction is positively related to the beneficiariesrsquo income

H1b The NGOsrsquo training-learning is positively related to the beneficiariesrsquo income

H1c The NGOsrsquo training-behaviour is positively related to the beneficiariesrsquo income

H1d The NGOsrsquo training-result is positively related to the beneficiariesrsquo income

Theoretical and conceptual framework

This study uses two well-grounded theories to measure the relationship betweentraining programmes and beneficiariesrsquo income Beckerrsquos (1964) human capital theoryand Kirkpatrickrsquos (1998) four-level taxonomy of training evaluation Figure 1 depictsthe conceptual framework used The framework focuses on understanding the rela-tionship between NGOsrsquo training programmes and beneficiariesrsquo income

MethodologyA quantitative approach was adopted utilising survey methodology with associationalcorrelational field-based and cross-sectional analysis The data collection exerciseswere aimed at gathering information about the impact of training on income-focusedinterventions of NGOs In the main the training impact was conducted by investigat-ing the pre-and-post situation of NGO beneficiaries (Ullah amp Routray 2007) Howeverself-reporting was also used since the respondents know best what they have learntapplied and contributed (Kirkpatrick 2005)

Study variables

This study examines the relationship between beneficiariesrsquo income and the fact ofbeneficiariesrsquo participation in training programmes with beneficiariesrsquo income as the

Reaction

Learning

Behaviour

Education

Result

NGOsrsquo Training Programmes

Beneficiariesrsquo Development

NGOsrsquo Beneficiariesrsquo Training Programmes Development

Reaction

Learning Income

Behaviour

Result

Figure 1 Theoretical framework

4 International Journal of Training and Developmentcopy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

dependent variable The three NGOsrsquo training programmes defined by Beckerrsquoshuman capital theory and Kirkpatrickrsquos four-level taxonomy ndash reaction learningbehaviour and results ndash were considered as possible predictors that is independentvariables

Sample

The target population for this study was the population of beneficiaries of the threeleading NGOs in Bangladesh which were providing training and socio-economic pro-grammes The study excluded beneficiaries from two large development organisationsGrameen Bank and The Association of Social Advancement Grameen Bank is neitheran NGO nor a traditional bank (Nabi et al 1997 p 5) The Association of SocialAdvancement is similar operating only microcredit facilities and having no trainingprogrammes The study also excluded beneficiaries who received training less thantwo months before the survey or more than two years earlier Restricted probabilitymulti-stage stratified sampling (Sekaran 2003) was chosen as the sampling designbecause the NGO beneficiaries had to fulfil certain criteria in order to qualify asrespondents

The three development NGOs studied were established in the years 19721976 and 1958 and operated in 64 64 and 36 of the countryrsquos 68 administrativedistricts respectively NGO lsquoArsquo employed 46674 staff at the time of the survey andNGO lsquoCrsquo 4240 NGO lsquoBrsquo has activities in most of the countryrsquos districts and in 24213villages and 2110 slums These NGOs were selected for study because of theircoverage capacity maturity of programmes and the huge number of clientsinvolved

Procedure

Self-report survey questionnaires were distributed among selected NGO beneficiariesthrough field workers This was done by means of a randomly selected sample ofvillage organisations The field workers were a team consisting of 20ndash30 femalemembers of the village organisation The study was conducted in three of Bangl-adeshrsquos administrative districts and employed a multi-stage stratified samplingmethod Babbie and Rahman report that this is a suitable method to use to carry outan investigation into a large population such as the NGO sector in Bangladesh It isthe most frequently used method for surveys among NGO beneficiaries (Babbie1995 Rahman 2005) Four hundred questionnaires were distributed in the sampleareas and a total of 318 completed questionnaires were returned After removing theones with missing data 300 usable questionnaires resulted ndash a 75 per cent responserate

Instruments

The data used for this study were structured by means of Kirkpatrickrsquos (1998) fourdimensional model of training evaluation and Beckerrsquos (1964) human capital theoryDemographic information items were also included in order to describe the sampleThe survey consists of the following measures

bull The four dimensions of training evaluation is represented by 28 items derived fromBarker (1997) Barcala et al (2000) Wilson (2000) Pau (2001) Price (2001) Tai (2006)and Al-Eisa et al (2009) consisting of three adopted 20 adapted and five con-structed to measure NGOsrsquo training programmes 11 items assess training-reaction seven items assess training-learning five items assess training-behaviourand five items assess training-results

bull Beneficiariesrsquo income is represented by a two-item scale adapted and derivedfrom Rao (1976) and FAO (1988) that measures the NGO-beneficiariesrsquo incomestatus

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 5copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

bull Seven demographic items ndash gender age marital status number of children edu-cation occupation and experience of NGO activities ndash were included in the surveyto facilitate the interpretation of the results

Unit of analysis

Nardi (2003 p 98) defines unit of analysis as lsquothe element about which you areobserving and collecting data such as a person responding to a questionnaire a schoolan editorial or a local businessrsquo The study variables were measured at the individuallevel as this unit of analysis was the one integral to the research design Each individualand each subject investigated were treated as an individual source (Sekaran amp Bougie2010)

Statistical analysis

Three types of statistical analysis were conducted for this study using SPSS 190 Firstfactor analysis was conducted to determine construct validity fit and appropriatenessof the instrument (Fraenkel amp Wallen 2000) Second for three instruments internalreliability analysis using Cronbachrsquos alpha was used to determine the reliability of allscales (Cronbach amp Furby 1970) Third and finally multiple regression analysis wasconducted to examine the relationship between predictor and criterion variables ashighlighted in the research framework in order to test the research hypotheses

ResultsDemographic profile of the beneficiaries

Of the studyrsquos 300 completed questionnaires 99 per cent are female and married 407per cent of respondents were aged between 26 and 35 years old and 683 per cent hadthree or more children Most ndash 59 per cent ndash of the respondents were uneducated and343 per cent of the respondents were below secondary school level Overall 463 percent of the respondents had been involved in NGO activities for less than five years and47 per cent for 11 to 15 years In terms of occupation 507 per cent were in smallbusinesses 32 per cent were from the agricultural sector Only 93 per cent were selfemployed

Factor analyses of study variables

Principal component factor analyses using the Varimax rotation option were employedto conduct factor analysis to determine the basic structure (Hair et al 2010) as well asdimensionality (Sekaran amp Bougie 2010) of the study variables

The factor of independent variables (reaction learning behaviour and results) ispresented in Table 1 A four-factor solution emerged dropping seven items (out of 28)explaining 7218 per cent of the total variance in four training dimensions The KMOmeasure of sampling adequacy was 0808 indicating sufficient inter-correlations whilethe Bartlettrsquos Test of Sphericity was significant (Chi square = 4702560 p lt 001)

The result of the analysis of the dependent variable (beneficiariesrsquo income) is shownin Table 2 All items loaded on to one factor where the total variance explainedwas 71294 per cent The KMO measure of sampling adequacy was 0627 indicatingsufficient inter-correlations while the Bartlettrsquos Test of Sphericity was significant(Chi square = 2424815 p lt 001)

Reliability analysis

After factor analysis reliability is the second criterion that ensures goodness of meas-ures Reliability analysis using Cronbachrsquos alpha was conducted to determine the

6 International Journal of Training and Developmentcopy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

reliability of all scales as presented in Table 3 The reliability coefficients for NGOsrsquotraining programme variables ndash reaction 092 learning 082 behaviour 082 result088 and beneficiariesrsquo income 075 respectively exceed Nunnallyrsquos (1978) recom-mended threshold of 070 Hence the contention that the instruments used in thissurvey were both reliable as well as valid (as demonstrated by the factor analysesresults)

Table 1 Rotated factor and factor loadings for four training dimensions

Items Factor

1 2 3 4

reaction1 0786 0168 0149 0072reaction2 0905 0117 minus0014 0087reaction3 0862 0101 0014 0059reaction5 0710 0081 minus0007 0035reaction6 0714 0053 minus0006 0034reaction7 0859 0169 0105 0070reaction11 0752 0133 0016 0088result1 0171 0840 minus0002 0015result2 0063 0874 minus0029 minus0102result3 0108 0696 minus0084 minus0021result4 0185 0887 minus0031 minus0026result5 0171 0724 0153 0040behaviour1 0242 0096 0609 0085behaviour2 minus0041 0050 0844 minus0029behaviour3 minus0006 minus0036 0828 minus0081behaviour4 0125 minus0011 0564 0134behaviour5 minus0010 minus0029 0930 0005learning1 0064 0023 0065 0849learning3 0159 minus0083 0079 0797learning4 0008 minus0050 0010 0904learning7 0074 0016 minus0056 0664Percentage of variance 720179KMO 0808Approximate χ2 4702056

p lt 001

Table 2 Factor loadings for beneficiariesrsquo income

Items FactorBeneficiariesrsquo income

Income 1 0838Income 2 0909Percentage of variance 71294KMO 0627Approximate χ2 2424815

p lt 001

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 7copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Regression analysis

The results of the regression analysis as presented in Table 4 showed that there isa significant negative relationship between beneficiariesrsquo income and trainingdimensions reaction (β = minus0226 p lt 001) learning (β = minus0110 p lt 005) and result(β = minus0104 p lt 010) Training-behaviour is also negatively associated with NGOsrsquoincome (β = minus0053)

The regression results indicate that the largest β coefficient is reaction (β = minus0226p lt 001) as the best predictors for beneficiariesrsquo income (dependent variable) Furtheralthough the predictors are negatively significant together they explain 192 per cent ofthe variance in beneficiariesrsquo income Hence no hypothesis is accepted

Discussion and conclusionThe results of the present study suggest that NGOsrsquo training that is part of incomegenerating programmes brings insignificant results in terms of increased income thevery opposite from what human capital theory would lead us to expect The theorysuggests that expenditure on education and training in order to impart knowledge anddevelop skills increases the individualrsquos lifetime earnings (Khan amp Jahur 2007) andproductivity with a view to achieving socio-economic capacity building in widersociety (Becker 1964 Schultz 1963)

In fact the relationship in the present study between training dimensions reactionlearning and result and beneficiariesrsquo income implied that the NGO beneficiariesexperienced negative income effects This means that the NGOsrsquo training failed to leadto income-generation and lacked the ability to contribute to individual economic devel-opment This result is similar to that found in previous studies that showed the NGOsfacing a shortage of qualified candidates lack of training infrastructure and pro-

Table 3 Reliability coefficient for model variables

Variables Number of items Items dropped Chronbachrsquos alpha

Training Programmes 28 7Reaction 11 4 092Learning 7 3 082Behaviour 5 ndash 082Result 5 ndash 088Beneficiariesrsquo Income 2 ndash 075

Table 4 Regression for beneficiariesrsquo income

Independent Variables Beneficiariesrsquo income

Training-Reaction minus0226Training-Learning minus0110Training-Behaviour minus0053Training-Result minus0104F-Value 9553R2 0192Adjusted R2 0172

p lt 010 p lt 005 p lt 001

8 International Journal of Training and Developmentcopy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

grammes and more significantly an absence of any needs analysis directly concernedwith the socio-economic and human resource development of their beneficiaries(Ahmad 2002 Huda et al 2007)

The negative impact is consistent with beneficiariesrsquo perceptions expressed duringthe survey It appears that in most of the cases participants are chosen for differenttraining programmes without assessing what is relevant to them Often a key factor isthe donorrsquos expectation that their money should be used within a stipulated period oftime This pressure to spend quickly may be due to NGOsrsquo ineffectiveness in retainingfield workers which slows down the whole process

It is clear that beneficiaries are dissatisfied with their income and consumption levelsand it is evident that households had earned significantly less from NGO-relatedactivities than from other sources Data also show that food expenditure has notincreased significantly in post-NGO period (Ullah amp Routray 2007) NGOsrsquo ineffectiveworkforce development programmes are part of the reason why the capacity andpotential of NGO clients has not been realised (Hassin 2009 Speculand 2007)

There is still a dearth of research carried out on income-generation for povertyalleviation especially on the NGOsrsquo development philosophy Future research mightusefully be done in two main areas First research is needed into how training needsanalysis can be undertaken to ensure a proper match between trainees and theirtraining Secondly it would be beneficial to conduct a longitudinal study in differentgeographical locations and cultures with a larger number of NGOs As argued byOrsquoDriscoll et al (2004) the use of a longitudinal approach would essentially be able todetermine whether the effects of the predictor variables persist over time Research onindividual level income therefore needs to be complemented by further analysis togain deeper insight into the dynamics of NGOsrsquo socio-economic programmes of whichtraining is only a part In particular the role of womenrsquos education and the empower-ment of women in household decision-making may be equally important in predictingNGO beneficiariesrsquo income level

ReferencesAbsar M M N and Mahmood M (2011) lsquoNew HRM practices in the public and private sector

industrial enterprises of Bangladesh a comparative assessmentrsquo International Review of BusinessResearch Papers 7 2 118ndash36

Ahmad M M (2002) lsquoWho cares The personal and professional problems of NGO fieldworkersin Bangladeshrsquo Development in Practice 12 2 177ndash91

Al-Eisa A Furayyan M and Alhemoud A (2009) lsquoAn empirical examination of the effects ofself-efficacy supervisor support and motivation to learn on transfer intentionrsquo ManagementDecision 47 8 1221ndash44

Alesina A and Dollar D (2000) lsquoWho gives foreign aid to whom and whyrsquo Journal of EconomicGrowth 5 33ndash63

Alliger G M and Janak E A (1989) lsquoKirkpatrickrsquos levels of training criteria thirty years laterrsquoPersonnel Psychology 42 331ndash42

Alliger G M Tannenbaum S I Bennett W Jr Traver H and Shotland A (1997) lsquoAmetaanalysis of the relations among training criteriarsquo Personnel Psychology 50 341ndash58

Arend E (2008) lsquoWellness programme and health policy development at a large faith-basedorganisation in Khayelitsha South Africarsquo African Journal of AIDS Research 7 3 259ndash70

Babbie E R (1995) The Practice of Social Research 7th edn (London Wadsworth Publishing)Barcala M F Martin A D and Gutierrez F T (2000) lsquoTraining in retailing a guide for

improving the supply of coursesrsquo International Journal of Retail amp Distribution Management 286 243ndash60

Barker A T (1997) lsquoDeterminants of salesforce effectiveness perceptions of field managersversus senior sales executivesrsquo Marketing Intelligence amp Planning 15 6 258ndash64

Becker G S (1964) Human Capital A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference toEducation (New York Columbia University Press)

Cronbach L J and Furby L (1970) lsquoHow should we measure change ndash or should wersquo Psycho-logical Bulletin 74 68ndash80

Davies R (1998) Order and diversity representing and assisting organisational learning in non gov-ernment aid organisations PhD Thesis University of Wales (Bangor)

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 9copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Dhakal T N and Nawaz F (2009) lsquoStrategy for Improving Human Capital in Bangladesh andNepal does it help for women empowermentrsquo Paper presented at the Network of Asia-PacificSchools and Institutes of Public Administration and Governance (NAPSIPAG) Annual Con-ference Malaysia December 11ndash13

Dreher A Moumllders F and Nunnenkamp P (2010) lsquoAid delivery through non-governmentalorganisations does the aid channel matter for the targeting of Swedish aidrsquo The WorldEconomy 33 2 147ndash76

FAO (1988) Guidelines on Socio-economic Indicators for Monitoring and Evaluating Agrarian Reform andRural Development (Rome FAO)

Fraenkel J R and Wallen N E (2000) How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education (New YorkMcGraw-Hill)

Fruttero A and Gauri V (2005) lsquoThe strategic choices of NGOs location decisions in ruralBangladeshrsquo The Journal of Development Studies 41 5 759ndash87

Giangreco A Carugati A and Sebastiano A (2010) lsquoAre we doing the right thingFood for thought on training evaluation and its contextrsquo Personnel Review 39 2 162ndash77

Hair J F Black W C Babin B J and Anderson R E (2010) Multivariate Data Analysis A GlobalPerspective 7th edn (Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall)

Hassin A (2009) lsquoThe link between operations strategy and human resource management forNGOs working in unstable environmentsrsquo Journal of Business Systems Governance and Ethics 43 44ndash6

Holton E F (2005) lsquoHoltonrsquos evaluation model new evidence and construct elaborationsrsquoAdvances in Developing Human Resources 7 1 37ndash54

Huda K Karim M and Ahmed F (2007) lsquoHRM practices amp challenges of non-governmentdevelopment organizations an empirical study on Bangladeshrsquo Journal of Management 9 135ndash49

International Labour Organization and World Trade Organization (2009) Globalization and Infor-mal Jobs in Developing Countries (Geneva ILO and WTO)

Jaffee D (1998) Levels of Socio-Economic Development Theory 2nd edn (Westport CT PraegerPublishers)

Katayama H (2007) Education for all-fast track initiative the donorsrsquo perspectives PhD ThesisUniversity of Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania USA)

Khan M A and Jahur S (2007) lsquoHuman resource development practices in some selectedbusiness enterprises in Bangladesh an explanatory studyrsquo Indonesian Management and Account-ing Research 6 1 16ndash32

Kirkpatrick D (1998) Evaluating Training Programs ndash The Four Levels 2nd edn (San Francisco CABerrett-Koehler Publishers)

Kirkpatrick D (2005) Evaluating Training Programs The Four Levels 3rd edn (San Francisco CABerrett-Koehler Publishers)

Krein K J and Weldon K (1994) lsquoMaking a play for training evaluationrsquo Training amp Development48 4 62ndash7

Mahmood M (2004) The institutional context of human resource management case studies of multi-national subsidiaries in Bangladesh Doctoral Dissertation University of Manchester (UK)

McLean G N (2005) lsquoExamining approaches to HR evaluation the strengths and weaknesses ofpopular measurement methodsrsquo Strategic Human Resources 4 2 24ndash7

Moe T L (2008) lsquoAn empirical investigation of relationships between official developmentassistance (ODA) and human and educational developmentrsquo International Journal of SocialEconomics 35 3 202ndash21

Nabi K A Alam J Jahur M S and Quadir S M N (1997) Grameen Bank and Socio-EconomicChanges ndash A Study of Selected Loanees (Dhaka Bangladesh German Cultural Centre-Goethe-Institut)

Nardi P (2003) Doing Survey Research A Guide to Quantitative Research Methods (New York PearsonAllyn amp Bacon)

Noe A R (2008) Employee Training and Development 4th edn (New York McGraw-Hill)Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric Theory 2nd edn (New York McGraw-Hill)OrsquoDriscoll M P Brough P and Kalliath T J (2004) lsquoWorkfamily conflict psychological well-

being satisfaction and social support a longitudinal study in New Zealandrsquo Equal Opportu-nities International 23 12 36ndash56

Pau C K F (2001) lsquoFactors contributing training effectivenessrsquo MBA Research Report School ofManagement University Sains Malaysia Penang

Pieters J (2011) lsquoEducation and household inequality change a decomposition analysis in IndiarsquoThe Journal of Development Studies 47 12 1909ndash24

10 International Journal of Training and Developmentcopy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Price J L (2001) lsquoReflection on the determinants of voluntary turnoverrsquo International Journal ofManpower 22 7 600ndash24

Psacharopoulos G (1994) lsquoReturns to investment in education a global updatersquo World Develop-ment 22 8 1325ndash43

Rahman A F M A (2005) The transformation of spaces for home based income generation an approachtowards economic subsistence for the urban poor at Khulna slums MScUP Thesis University ofHong Kong (Hong Kong)

Rao M V S (1976) lsquoSocio-economic Indicators for Development Planningrsquo in UNESCO (ed)The Use of Socio-economic Indicators in Development Planning (Paris The UNESCO Press)pp 117ndash19

Schultz T W (1963) The Economic Value of Education (New York Columbia University Press)Sekaran U (2003) Research Methods for Business ndash A Skill Building Approach 4th edn (New York

John Wiley amp Sons)Sekaran U and Bougie R (2010) Research Methods for Business ndash A Skill Building Approach 5th edn

(London John Wiley amp Sons)Speculand R (2007) lsquoOne million pound investment and 90 percent chance of failure ndash would

you sign offrsquo Strategic Direction 23 2 3ndash5Tai W T (2006) lsquoEffects of training framing general self-efficacy and training motivation on

traineesrsquo training effectivenessrsquo Personnel Review 35 1 51ndash65Ullah A K M A and Routray J K (2007) lsquoRural poverty alleviation through NGO interventions

in Bangladesh how far is the achievementrsquo International Journal of Social Economics 34 4237ndash48

Wilson H C (2000) lsquoEmergency response preparedness small group training Part I ndash trainingand learning stylesrsquo Disaster Prevention and Management 9 2 105ndash16

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 11copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Regression analysis

The results of the regression analysis as presented in Table 4 showed that there isa significant negative relationship between beneficiariesrsquo income and trainingdimensions reaction (β = minus0226 p lt 001) learning (β = minus0110 p lt 005) and result(β = minus0104 p lt 010) Training-behaviour is also negatively associated with NGOsrsquoincome (β = minus0053)

The regression results indicate that the largest β coefficient is reaction (β = minus0226p lt 001) as the best predictors for beneficiariesrsquo income (dependent variable) Furtheralthough the predictors are negatively significant together they explain 192 per cent ofthe variance in beneficiariesrsquo income Hence no hypothesis is accepted

Discussion and conclusionThe results of the present study suggest that NGOsrsquo training that is part of incomegenerating programmes brings insignificant results in terms of increased income thevery opposite from what human capital theory would lead us to expect The theorysuggests that expenditure on education and training in order to impart knowledge anddevelop skills increases the individualrsquos lifetime earnings (Khan amp Jahur 2007) andproductivity with a view to achieving socio-economic capacity building in widersociety (Becker 1964 Schultz 1963)

In fact the relationship in the present study between training dimensions reactionlearning and result and beneficiariesrsquo income implied that the NGO beneficiariesexperienced negative income effects This means that the NGOsrsquo training failed to leadto income-generation and lacked the ability to contribute to individual economic devel-opment This result is similar to that found in previous studies that showed the NGOsfacing a shortage of qualified candidates lack of training infrastructure and pro-

Table 3 Reliability coefficient for model variables

Variables Number of items Items dropped Chronbachrsquos alpha

Training Programmes 28 7Reaction 11 4 092Learning 7 3 082Behaviour 5 ndash 082Result 5 ndash 088Beneficiariesrsquo Income 2 ndash 075

Table 4 Regression for beneficiariesrsquo income

Independent Variables Beneficiariesrsquo income

Training-Reaction minus0226Training-Learning minus0110Training-Behaviour minus0053Training-Result minus0104F-Value 9553R2 0192Adjusted R2 0172

p lt 010 p lt 005 p lt 001

8 International Journal of Training and Developmentcopy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

grammes and more significantly an absence of any needs analysis directly concernedwith the socio-economic and human resource development of their beneficiaries(Ahmad 2002 Huda et al 2007)

The negative impact is consistent with beneficiariesrsquo perceptions expressed duringthe survey It appears that in most of the cases participants are chosen for differenttraining programmes without assessing what is relevant to them Often a key factor isthe donorrsquos expectation that their money should be used within a stipulated period oftime This pressure to spend quickly may be due to NGOsrsquo ineffectiveness in retainingfield workers which slows down the whole process

It is clear that beneficiaries are dissatisfied with their income and consumption levelsand it is evident that households had earned significantly less from NGO-relatedactivities than from other sources Data also show that food expenditure has notincreased significantly in post-NGO period (Ullah amp Routray 2007) NGOsrsquo ineffectiveworkforce development programmes are part of the reason why the capacity andpotential of NGO clients has not been realised (Hassin 2009 Speculand 2007)

There is still a dearth of research carried out on income-generation for povertyalleviation especially on the NGOsrsquo development philosophy Future research mightusefully be done in two main areas First research is needed into how training needsanalysis can be undertaken to ensure a proper match between trainees and theirtraining Secondly it would be beneficial to conduct a longitudinal study in differentgeographical locations and cultures with a larger number of NGOs As argued byOrsquoDriscoll et al (2004) the use of a longitudinal approach would essentially be able todetermine whether the effects of the predictor variables persist over time Research onindividual level income therefore needs to be complemented by further analysis togain deeper insight into the dynamics of NGOsrsquo socio-economic programmes of whichtraining is only a part In particular the role of womenrsquos education and the empower-ment of women in household decision-making may be equally important in predictingNGO beneficiariesrsquo income level

ReferencesAbsar M M N and Mahmood M (2011) lsquoNew HRM practices in the public and private sector

industrial enterprises of Bangladesh a comparative assessmentrsquo International Review of BusinessResearch Papers 7 2 118ndash36

Ahmad M M (2002) lsquoWho cares The personal and professional problems of NGO fieldworkersin Bangladeshrsquo Development in Practice 12 2 177ndash91

Al-Eisa A Furayyan M and Alhemoud A (2009) lsquoAn empirical examination of the effects ofself-efficacy supervisor support and motivation to learn on transfer intentionrsquo ManagementDecision 47 8 1221ndash44

Alesina A and Dollar D (2000) lsquoWho gives foreign aid to whom and whyrsquo Journal of EconomicGrowth 5 33ndash63

Alliger G M and Janak E A (1989) lsquoKirkpatrickrsquos levels of training criteria thirty years laterrsquoPersonnel Psychology 42 331ndash42

Alliger G M Tannenbaum S I Bennett W Jr Traver H and Shotland A (1997) lsquoAmetaanalysis of the relations among training criteriarsquo Personnel Psychology 50 341ndash58

Arend E (2008) lsquoWellness programme and health policy development at a large faith-basedorganisation in Khayelitsha South Africarsquo African Journal of AIDS Research 7 3 259ndash70

Babbie E R (1995) The Practice of Social Research 7th edn (London Wadsworth Publishing)Barcala M F Martin A D and Gutierrez F T (2000) lsquoTraining in retailing a guide for

improving the supply of coursesrsquo International Journal of Retail amp Distribution Management 286 243ndash60

Barker A T (1997) lsquoDeterminants of salesforce effectiveness perceptions of field managersversus senior sales executivesrsquo Marketing Intelligence amp Planning 15 6 258ndash64

Becker G S (1964) Human Capital A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference toEducation (New York Columbia University Press)

Cronbach L J and Furby L (1970) lsquoHow should we measure change ndash or should wersquo Psycho-logical Bulletin 74 68ndash80

Davies R (1998) Order and diversity representing and assisting organisational learning in non gov-ernment aid organisations PhD Thesis University of Wales (Bangor)

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 9copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Dhakal T N and Nawaz F (2009) lsquoStrategy for Improving Human Capital in Bangladesh andNepal does it help for women empowermentrsquo Paper presented at the Network of Asia-PacificSchools and Institutes of Public Administration and Governance (NAPSIPAG) Annual Con-ference Malaysia December 11ndash13

Dreher A Moumllders F and Nunnenkamp P (2010) lsquoAid delivery through non-governmentalorganisations does the aid channel matter for the targeting of Swedish aidrsquo The WorldEconomy 33 2 147ndash76

FAO (1988) Guidelines on Socio-economic Indicators for Monitoring and Evaluating Agrarian Reform andRural Development (Rome FAO)

Fraenkel J R and Wallen N E (2000) How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education (New YorkMcGraw-Hill)

Fruttero A and Gauri V (2005) lsquoThe strategic choices of NGOs location decisions in ruralBangladeshrsquo The Journal of Development Studies 41 5 759ndash87

Giangreco A Carugati A and Sebastiano A (2010) lsquoAre we doing the right thingFood for thought on training evaluation and its contextrsquo Personnel Review 39 2 162ndash77

Hair J F Black W C Babin B J and Anderson R E (2010) Multivariate Data Analysis A GlobalPerspective 7th edn (Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall)

Hassin A (2009) lsquoThe link between operations strategy and human resource management forNGOs working in unstable environmentsrsquo Journal of Business Systems Governance and Ethics 43 44ndash6

Holton E F (2005) lsquoHoltonrsquos evaluation model new evidence and construct elaborationsrsquoAdvances in Developing Human Resources 7 1 37ndash54

Huda K Karim M and Ahmed F (2007) lsquoHRM practices amp challenges of non-governmentdevelopment organizations an empirical study on Bangladeshrsquo Journal of Management 9 135ndash49

International Labour Organization and World Trade Organization (2009) Globalization and Infor-mal Jobs in Developing Countries (Geneva ILO and WTO)

Jaffee D (1998) Levels of Socio-Economic Development Theory 2nd edn (Westport CT PraegerPublishers)

Katayama H (2007) Education for all-fast track initiative the donorsrsquo perspectives PhD ThesisUniversity of Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania USA)

Khan M A and Jahur S (2007) lsquoHuman resource development practices in some selectedbusiness enterprises in Bangladesh an explanatory studyrsquo Indonesian Management and Account-ing Research 6 1 16ndash32

Kirkpatrick D (1998) Evaluating Training Programs ndash The Four Levels 2nd edn (San Francisco CABerrett-Koehler Publishers)

Kirkpatrick D (2005) Evaluating Training Programs The Four Levels 3rd edn (San Francisco CABerrett-Koehler Publishers)

Krein K J and Weldon K (1994) lsquoMaking a play for training evaluationrsquo Training amp Development48 4 62ndash7

Mahmood M (2004) The institutional context of human resource management case studies of multi-national subsidiaries in Bangladesh Doctoral Dissertation University of Manchester (UK)

McLean G N (2005) lsquoExamining approaches to HR evaluation the strengths and weaknesses ofpopular measurement methodsrsquo Strategic Human Resources 4 2 24ndash7

Moe T L (2008) lsquoAn empirical investigation of relationships between official developmentassistance (ODA) and human and educational developmentrsquo International Journal of SocialEconomics 35 3 202ndash21

Nabi K A Alam J Jahur M S and Quadir S M N (1997) Grameen Bank and Socio-EconomicChanges ndash A Study of Selected Loanees (Dhaka Bangladesh German Cultural Centre-Goethe-Institut)

Nardi P (2003) Doing Survey Research A Guide to Quantitative Research Methods (New York PearsonAllyn amp Bacon)

Noe A R (2008) Employee Training and Development 4th edn (New York McGraw-Hill)Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric Theory 2nd edn (New York McGraw-Hill)OrsquoDriscoll M P Brough P and Kalliath T J (2004) lsquoWorkfamily conflict psychological well-

being satisfaction and social support a longitudinal study in New Zealandrsquo Equal Opportu-nities International 23 12 36ndash56

Pau C K F (2001) lsquoFactors contributing training effectivenessrsquo MBA Research Report School ofManagement University Sains Malaysia Penang

Pieters J (2011) lsquoEducation and household inequality change a decomposition analysis in IndiarsquoThe Journal of Development Studies 47 12 1909ndash24

10 International Journal of Training and Developmentcopy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Price J L (2001) lsquoReflection on the determinants of voluntary turnoverrsquo International Journal ofManpower 22 7 600ndash24

Psacharopoulos G (1994) lsquoReturns to investment in education a global updatersquo World Develop-ment 22 8 1325ndash43

Rahman A F M A (2005) The transformation of spaces for home based income generation an approachtowards economic subsistence for the urban poor at Khulna slums MScUP Thesis University ofHong Kong (Hong Kong)

Rao M V S (1976) lsquoSocio-economic Indicators for Development Planningrsquo in UNESCO (ed)The Use of Socio-economic Indicators in Development Planning (Paris The UNESCO Press)pp 117ndash19

Schultz T W (1963) The Economic Value of Education (New York Columbia University Press)Sekaran U (2003) Research Methods for Business ndash A Skill Building Approach 4th edn (New York

John Wiley amp Sons)Sekaran U and Bougie R (2010) Research Methods for Business ndash A Skill Building Approach 5th edn

(London John Wiley amp Sons)Speculand R (2007) lsquoOne million pound investment and 90 percent chance of failure ndash would

you sign offrsquo Strategic Direction 23 2 3ndash5Tai W T (2006) lsquoEffects of training framing general self-efficacy and training motivation on

traineesrsquo training effectivenessrsquo Personnel Review 35 1 51ndash65Ullah A K M A and Routray J K (2007) lsquoRural poverty alleviation through NGO interventions

in Bangladesh how far is the achievementrsquo International Journal of Social Economics 34 4237ndash48

Wilson H C (2000) lsquoEmergency response preparedness small group training Part I ndash trainingand learning stylesrsquo Disaster Prevention and Management 9 2 105ndash16

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 11copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

grammes and more significantly an absence of any needs analysis directly concernedwith the socio-economic and human resource development of their beneficiaries(Ahmad 2002 Huda et al 2007)

The negative impact is consistent with beneficiariesrsquo perceptions expressed duringthe survey It appears that in most of the cases participants are chosen for differenttraining programmes without assessing what is relevant to them Often a key factor isthe donorrsquos expectation that their money should be used within a stipulated period oftime This pressure to spend quickly may be due to NGOsrsquo ineffectiveness in retainingfield workers which slows down the whole process

It is clear that beneficiaries are dissatisfied with their income and consumption levelsand it is evident that households had earned significantly less from NGO-relatedactivities than from other sources Data also show that food expenditure has notincreased significantly in post-NGO period (Ullah amp Routray 2007) NGOsrsquo ineffectiveworkforce development programmes are part of the reason why the capacity andpotential of NGO clients has not been realised (Hassin 2009 Speculand 2007)

There is still a dearth of research carried out on income-generation for povertyalleviation especially on the NGOsrsquo development philosophy Future research mightusefully be done in two main areas First research is needed into how training needsanalysis can be undertaken to ensure a proper match between trainees and theirtraining Secondly it would be beneficial to conduct a longitudinal study in differentgeographical locations and cultures with a larger number of NGOs As argued byOrsquoDriscoll et al (2004) the use of a longitudinal approach would essentially be able todetermine whether the effects of the predictor variables persist over time Research onindividual level income therefore needs to be complemented by further analysis togain deeper insight into the dynamics of NGOsrsquo socio-economic programmes of whichtraining is only a part In particular the role of womenrsquos education and the empower-ment of women in household decision-making may be equally important in predictingNGO beneficiariesrsquo income level

ReferencesAbsar M M N and Mahmood M (2011) lsquoNew HRM practices in the public and private sector

industrial enterprises of Bangladesh a comparative assessmentrsquo International Review of BusinessResearch Papers 7 2 118ndash36

Ahmad M M (2002) lsquoWho cares The personal and professional problems of NGO fieldworkersin Bangladeshrsquo Development in Practice 12 2 177ndash91

Al-Eisa A Furayyan M and Alhemoud A (2009) lsquoAn empirical examination of the effects ofself-efficacy supervisor support and motivation to learn on transfer intentionrsquo ManagementDecision 47 8 1221ndash44

Alesina A and Dollar D (2000) lsquoWho gives foreign aid to whom and whyrsquo Journal of EconomicGrowth 5 33ndash63

Alliger G M and Janak E A (1989) lsquoKirkpatrickrsquos levels of training criteria thirty years laterrsquoPersonnel Psychology 42 331ndash42

Alliger G M Tannenbaum S I Bennett W Jr Traver H and Shotland A (1997) lsquoAmetaanalysis of the relations among training criteriarsquo Personnel Psychology 50 341ndash58

Arend E (2008) lsquoWellness programme and health policy development at a large faith-basedorganisation in Khayelitsha South Africarsquo African Journal of AIDS Research 7 3 259ndash70

Babbie E R (1995) The Practice of Social Research 7th edn (London Wadsworth Publishing)Barcala M F Martin A D and Gutierrez F T (2000) lsquoTraining in retailing a guide for

improving the supply of coursesrsquo International Journal of Retail amp Distribution Management 286 243ndash60

Barker A T (1997) lsquoDeterminants of salesforce effectiveness perceptions of field managersversus senior sales executivesrsquo Marketing Intelligence amp Planning 15 6 258ndash64

Becker G S (1964) Human Capital A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference toEducation (New York Columbia University Press)

Cronbach L J and Furby L (1970) lsquoHow should we measure change ndash or should wersquo Psycho-logical Bulletin 74 68ndash80

Davies R (1998) Order and diversity representing and assisting organisational learning in non gov-ernment aid organisations PhD Thesis University of Wales (Bangor)

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 9copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Dhakal T N and Nawaz F (2009) lsquoStrategy for Improving Human Capital in Bangladesh andNepal does it help for women empowermentrsquo Paper presented at the Network of Asia-PacificSchools and Institutes of Public Administration and Governance (NAPSIPAG) Annual Con-ference Malaysia December 11ndash13

Dreher A Moumllders F and Nunnenkamp P (2010) lsquoAid delivery through non-governmentalorganisations does the aid channel matter for the targeting of Swedish aidrsquo The WorldEconomy 33 2 147ndash76

FAO (1988) Guidelines on Socio-economic Indicators for Monitoring and Evaluating Agrarian Reform andRural Development (Rome FAO)

Fraenkel J R and Wallen N E (2000) How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education (New YorkMcGraw-Hill)

Fruttero A and Gauri V (2005) lsquoThe strategic choices of NGOs location decisions in ruralBangladeshrsquo The Journal of Development Studies 41 5 759ndash87

Giangreco A Carugati A and Sebastiano A (2010) lsquoAre we doing the right thingFood for thought on training evaluation and its contextrsquo Personnel Review 39 2 162ndash77

Hair J F Black W C Babin B J and Anderson R E (2010) Multivariate Data Analysis A GlobalPerspective 7th edn (Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall)

Hassin A (2009) lsquoThe link between operations strategy and human resource management forNGOs working in unstable environmentsrsquo Journal of Business Systems Governance and Ethics 43 44ndash6

Holton E F (2005) lsquoHoltonrsquos evaluation model new evidence and construct elaborationsrsquoAdvances in Developing Human Resources 7 1 37ndash54

Huda K Karim M and Ahmed F (2007) lsquoHRM practices amp challenges of non-governmentdevelopment organizations an empirical study on Bangladeshrsquo Journal of Management 9 135ndash49

International Labour Organization and World Trade Organization (2009) Globalization and Infor-mal Jobs in Developing Countries (Geneva ILO and WTO)

Jaffee D (1998) Levels of Socio-Economic Development Theory 2nd edn (Westport CT PraegerPublishers)

Katayama H (2007) Education for all-fast track initiative the donorsrsquo perspectives PhD ThesisUniversity of Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania USA)

Khan M A and Jahur S (2007) lsquoHuman resource development practices in some selectedbusiness enterprises in Bangladesh an explanatory studyrsquo Indonesian Management and Account-ing Research 6 1 16ndash32

Kirkpatrick D (1998) Evaluating Training Programs ndash The Four Levels 2nd edn (San Francisco CABerrett-Koehler Publishers)

Kirkpatrick D (2005) Evaluating Training Programs The Four Levels 3rd edn (San Francisco CABerrett-Koehler Publishers)

Krein K J and Weldon K (1994) lsquoMaking a play for training evaluationrsquo Training amp Development48 4 62ndash7

Mahmood M (2004) The institutional context of human resource management case studies of multi-national subsidiaries in Bangladesh Doctoral Dissertation University of Manchester (UK)

McLean G N (2005) lsquoExamining approaches to HR evaluation the strengths and weaknesses ofpopular measurement methodsrsquo Strategic Human Resources 4 2 24ndash7

Moe T L (2008) lsquoAn empirical investigation of relationships between official developmentassistance (ODA) and human and educational developmentrsquo International Journal of SocialEconomics 35 3 202ndash21

Nabi K A Alam J Jahur M S and Quadir S M N (1997) Grameen Bank and Socio-EconomicChanges ndash A Study of Selected Loanees (Dhaka Bangladesh German Cultural Centre-Goethe-Institut)

Nardi P (2003) Doing Survey Research A Guide to Quantitative Research Methods (New York PearsonAllyn amp Bacon)

Noe A R (2008) Employee Training and Development 4th edn (New York McGraw-Hill)Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric Theory 2nd edn (New York McGraw-Hill)OrsquoDriscoll M P Brough P and Kalliath T J (2004) lsquoWorkfamily conflict psychological well-

being satisfaction and social support a longitudinal study in New Zealandrsquo Equal Opportu-nities International 23 12 36ndash56

Pau C K F (2001) lsquoFactors contributing training effectivenessrsquo MBA Research Report School ofManagement University Sains Malaysia Penang

Pieters J (2011) lsquoEducation and household inequality change a decomposition analysis in IndiarsquoThe Journal of Development Studies 47 12 1909ndash24

10 International Journal of Training and Developmentcopy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Price J L (2001) lsquoReflection on the determinants of voluntary turnoverrsquo International Journal ofManpower 22 7 600ndash24

Psacharopoulos G (1994) lsquoReturns to investment in education a global updatersquo World Develop-ment 22 8 1325ndash43

Rahman A F M A (2005) The transformation of spaces for home based income generation an approachtowards economic subsistence for the urban poor at Khulna slums MScUP Thesis University ofHong Kong (Hong Kong)

Rao M V S (1976) lsquoSocio-economic Indicators for Development Planningrsquo in UNESCO (ed)The Use of Socio-economic Indicators in Development Planning (Paris The UNESCO Press)pp 117ndash19

Schultz T W (1963) The Economic Value of Education (New York Columbia University Press)Sekaran U (2003) Research Methods for Business ndash A Skill Building Approach 4th edn (New York

John Wiley amp Sons)Sekaran U and Bougie R (2010) Research Methods for Business ndash A Skill Building Approach 5th edn

(London John Wiley amp Sons)Speculand R (2007) lsquoOne million pound investment and 90 percent chance of failure ndash would

you sign offrsquo Strategic Direction 23 2 3ndash5Tai W T (2006) lsquoEffects of training framing general self-efficacy and training motivation on

traineesrsquo training effectivenessrsquo Personnel Review 35 1 51ndash65Ullah A K M A and Routray J K (2007) lsquoRural poverty alleviation through NGO interventions

in Bangladesh how far is the achievementrsquo International Journal of Social Economics 34 4237ndash48

Wilson H C (2000) lsquoEmergency response preparedness small group training Part I ndash trainingand learning stylesrsquo Disaster Prevention and Management 9 2 105ndash16

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 11copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Dhakal T N and Nawaz F (2009) lsquoStrategy for Improving Human Capital in Bangladesh andNepal does it help for women empowermentrsquo Paper presented at the Network of Asia-PacificSchools and Institutes of Public Administration and Governance (NAPSIPAG) Annual Con-ference Malaysia December 11ndash13

Dreher A Moumllders F and Nunnenkamp P (2010) lsquoAid delivery through non-governmentalorganisations does the aid channel matter for the targeting of Swedish aidrsquo The WorldEconomy 33 2 147ndash76

FAO (1988) Guidelines on Socio-economic Indicators for Monitoring and Evaluating Agrarian Reform andRural Development (Rome FAO)

Fraenkel J R and Wallen N E (2000) How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education (New YorkMcGraw-Hill)

Fruttero A and Gauri V (2005) lsquoThe strategic choices of NGOs location decisions in ruralBangladeshrsquo The Journal of Development Studies 41 5 759ndash87

Giangreco A Carugati A and Sebastiano A (2010) lsquoAre we doing the right thingFood for thought on training evaluation and its contextrsquo Personnel Review 39 2 162ndash77

Hair J F Black W C Babin B J and Anderson R E (2010) Multivariate Data Analysis A GlobalPerspective 7th edn (Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall)

Hassin A (2009) lsquoThe link between operations strategy and human resource management forNGOs working in unstable environmentsrsquo Journal of Business Systems Governance and Ethics 43 44ndash6

Holton E F (2005) lsquoHoltonrsquos evaluation model new evidence and construct elaborationsrsquoAdvances in Developing Human Resources 7 1 37ndash54

Huda K Karim M and Ahmed F (2007) lsquoHRM practices amp challenges of non-governmentdevelopment organizations an empirical study on Bangladeshrsquo Journal of Management 9 135ndash49

International Labour Organization and World Trade Organization (2009) Globalization and Infor-mal Jobs in Developing Countries (Geneva ILO and WTO)

Jaffee D (1998) Levels of Socio-Economic Development Theory 2nd edn (Westport CT PraegerPublishers)

Katayama H (2007) Education for all-fast track initiative the donorsrsquo perspectives PhD ThesisUniversity of Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania USA)

Khan M A and Jahur S (2007) lsquoHuman resource development practices in some selectedbusiness enterprises in Bangladesh an explanatory studyrsquo Indonesian Management and Account-ing Research 6 1 16ndash32

Kirkpatrick D (1998) Evaluating Training Programs ndash The Four Levels 2nd edn (San Francisco CABerrett-Koehler Publishers)

Kirkpatrick D (2005) Evaluating Training Programs The Four Levels 3rd edn (San Francisco CABerrett-Koehler Publishers)

Krein K J and Weldon K (1994) lsquoMaking a play for training evaluationrsquo Training amp Development48 4 62ndash7

Mahmood M (2004) The institutional context of human resource management case studies of multi-national subsidiaries in Bangladesh Doctoral Dissertation University of Manchester (UK)

McLean G N (2005) lsquoExamining approaches to HR evaluation the strengths and weaknesses ofpopular measurement methodsrsquo Strategic Human Resources 4 2 24ndash7

Moe T L (2008) lsquoAn empirical investigation of relationships between official developmentassistance (ODA) and human and educational developmentrsquo International Journal of SocialEconomics 35 3 202ndash21

Nabi K A Alam J Jahur M S and Quadir S M N (1997) Grameen Bank and Socio-EconomicChanges ndash A Study of Selected Loanees (Dhaka Bangladesh German Cultural Centre-Goethe-Institut)

Nardi P (2003) Doing Survey Research A Guide to Quantitative Research Methods (New York PearsonAllyn amp Bacon)

Noe A R (2008) Employee Training and Development 4th edn (New York McGraw-Hill)Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric Theory 2nd edn (New York McGraw-Hill)OrsquoDriscoll M P Brough P and Kalliath T J (2004) lsquoWorkfamily conflict psychological well-

being satisfaction and social support a longitudinal study in New Zealandrsquo Equal Opportu-nities International 23 12 36ndash56

Pau C K F (2001) lsquoFactors contributing training effectivenessrsquo MBA Research Report School ofManagement University Sains Malaysia Penang

Pieters J (2011) lsquoEducation and household inequality change a decomposition analysis in IndiarsquoThe Journal of Development Studies 47 12 1909ndash24

10 International Journal of Training and Developmentcopy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Price J L (2001) lsquoReflection on the determinants of voluntary turnoverrsquo International Journal ofManpower 22 7 600ndash24

Psacharopoulos G (1994) lsquoReturns to investment in education a global updatersquo World Develop-ment 22 8 1325ndash43

Rahman A F M A (2005) The transformation of spaces for home based income generation an approachtowards economic subsistence for the urban poor at Khulna slums MScUP Thesis University ofHong Kong (Hong Kong)

Rao M V S (1976) lsquoSocio-economic Indicators for Development Planningrsquo in UNESCO (ed)The Use of Socio-economic Indicators in Development Planning (Paris The UNESCO Press)pp 117ndash19

Schultz T W (1963) The Economic Value of Education (New York Columbia University Press)Sekaran U (2003) Research Methods for Business ndash A Skill Building Approach 4th edn (New York

John Wiley amp Sons)Sekaran U and Bougie R (2010) Research Methods for Business ndash A Skill Building Approach 5th edn

(London John Wiley amp Sons)Speculand R (2007) lsquoOne million pound investment and 90 percent chance of failure ndash would

you sign offrsquo Strategic Direction 23 2 3ndash5Tai W T (2006) lsquoEffects of training framing general self-efficacy and training motivation on

traineesrsquo training effectivenessrsquo Personnel Review 35 1 51ndash65Ullah A K M A and Routray J K (2007) lsquoRural poverty alleviation through NGO interventions

in Bangladesh how far is the achievementrsquo International Journal of Social Economics 34 4237ndash48

Wilson H C (2000) lsquoEmergency response preparedness small group training Part I ndash trainingand learning stylesrsquo Disaster Prevention and Management 9 2 105ndash16

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 11copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Price J L (2001) lsquoReflection on the determinants of voluntary turnoverrsquo International Journal ofManpower 22 7 600ndash24

Psacharopoulos G (1994) lsquoReturns to investment in education a global updatersquo World Develop-ment 22 8 1325ndash43

Rahman A F M A (2005) The transformation of spaces for home based income generation an approachtowards economic subsistence for the urban poor at Khulna slums MScUP Thesis University ofHong Kong (Hong Kong)

Rao M V S (1976) lsquoSocio-economic Indicators for Development Planningrsquo in UNESCO (ed)The Use of Socio-economic Indicators in Development Planning (Paris The UNESCO Press)pp 117ndash19

Schultz T W (1963) The Economic Value of Education (New York Columbia University Press)Sekaran U (2003) Research Methods for Business ndash A Skill Building Approach 4th edn (New York

John Wiley amp Sons)Sekaran U and Bougie R (2010) Research Methods for Business ndash A Skill Building Approach 5th edn

(London John Wiley amp Sons)Speculand R (2007) lsquoOne million pound investment and 90 percent chance of failure ndash would

you sign offrsquo Strategic Direction 23 2 3ndash5Tai W T (2006) lsquoEffects of training framing general self-efficacy and training motivation on

traineesrsquo training effectivenessrsquo Personnel Review 35 1 51ndash65Ullah A K M A and Routray J K (2007) lsquoRural poverty alleviation through NGO interventions

in Bangladesh how far is the achievementrsquo International Journal of Social Economics 34 4237ndash48

Wilson H C (2000) lsquoEmergency response preparedness small group training Part I ndash trainingand learning stylesrsquo Disaster Prevention and Management 9 2 105ndash16

Role of training in reducing poverty in Bangladesh 11copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd