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The possibilities for using time-space visualisation tools in urban design and planning

Conference ‘Urban Conditions and Life Chances’ University of Amsterdam , July 6th-8th, 2006

Jeroen van Schaick, MSc j.vanschaick@tudelft.nl

Delft Univeristy of Technology Faculty of Architecture Department Urbanism

Short abstract Urban design and planning construes and constructs interventions in urban systems, thus influencing the time-

space conditions for and constraints of time-space use. Visualisations of time in relation to space have been steadily developed since the 1960s, but has lagged behind in urban design and planning, especially with regard to time-space use. Differences in aims, viewpoints and problematisation give a threshold for knowledge exchange

between urban geography, focusing on time-space use, and urban design and planning, focusing on interventions. This paper reflects an exploration of the relation between time-space visualisation in urban

geography and its possibilities and limitations for use in urban design and planning. The paper concludes with proposals for relating different types of visual models for specific purposes and with an agenda for further

crossdisciplinary research.

Acknowledgements I’d like to thank Florian Boer (-scape, on the VVPR), Iris Dudok (dS+V Rotterdam, on the Atlas of Culural

Ecology), Joanne Heyink-Leestemakers (CityWorks, on the use of mobile tracking technologies in Sense of the City), Lidewij Tummers (TussenRuimte, on the project Ruimte voor Elke Dag), and Wilco Verhagen (dS+V

Rotterdam, on the VVPR), and Auke Touwslager (Informationlab.org) for their input during the period leading up to this paper. This paper has been developed within the context of the research program Network Cities as

part of the Delft Centre for Sustainable Urban Areas. 1. Introduction 1.1 Setting the scene: applied research into time-space visualisation Urban design and planning construes and constructs interventions in urban systems, thus influencing the time-space conditions for and constraints of time-space use. Urban designs and plans, which take time-space use into account, need to address both time and space in visualisations. However, urban design and planning generally use static maps of space in which time is ‘frozen’. When time is taken into account in visualisations, it generally addresses the transformation of urban areas on large time scales, excluding the smaller time scales through which human behaviour manifests itself as well. (Klaasen 2005) Specifically due to the recent development of advanced geographical information systems (GIS), the field of urban geography has made significant progress in the visualisation of both time-space behaviour and time-space use. On the one hand urban design and planning has not yet grasped the new potential of the current and coming generation (geo-)visualisation. On the other hand, visualisation and modeling research in urban geography often claims relevance for urban design and planning, but cannot always substantiate that claim. Klaasen (2004) has developed a theoretical framework for the development of process-oriented urbanism, i.e. urban design and planning in which time in relation to space is incorporated in designs and plans. She sketches some of the basic time-space visualisation options, which can be used in a relatively simple manner in urban designs and plans: (1) phasing of urban plans, (2) isochrones around public transport stops, (3) travel time within theoretical models of urban systems, (4) snapshots in urban transformation processes, (5) activity patterns, (6) changes in intensity of use, and (7) time-space-organisation principles for the location of collective functions. This paper focuses on those visualisations and visualisation techniques, which incorporate directly time-space use, rather than focusing on transformation processes.

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1.2 Basis for the paper The literature study, which forms the basis for this paper, consisted of both bibliographical research and web searches and was complemented by interviews with a limited selection - due to time restrictions - of researchers, urban designers and urban planners. Four publications, by Stabilini and Bonfiglioli (not dated), Vasiliev (1997), by Cauvin and Gwiazdzinski1 (2002) and Andrienko, Andrienko et al (2003) have been relatively important, because of their inventorising nature. However, these inventories lack an analysis of the role visual models might play in urban design and planning. For the purpose of readability of the paper, regular references to the visual appendix occur, to give a visual impression of the examples used. This paper does not pretend to give insight in the mathematical or technical foundations of visual models. Neither does it review time-space geovisualisation models from the viewpoint of analytical and ‘behaviour-modelling’-possibilities (compare e.g. Andrienko, Andrienko and Gatalsky 2003). The paper primarily focuses on the applicability and relevance of visualisations from urban geography for urban design and planning. Criteria for selection and analysis have been

(1) the expected threshold of use in (relation to) urban design and planning, as to both technique and legibility of the visualisations (2) the expected ability to answer research questions relevant for urban design and planning, (3) the potential role in an urban design and planning process.

Concluding the paper, the line of reasoning is turned. Criteria for analysis are here

(1) in what way can different models be related for the purpose of concrete planning issues, (2) which combination of models could have informed the sketched planning situations, and (3) in what way might these models influence design decisions and the communicative nature of designs.

2. The need for time-space visualisation in an urban design and planning context Visualisation in urban design and planning is never a goal in itself. Visualisations - or more specific visual models - serve different purposes in urban design and planning. Visual models are crucial within the context of urban design and planning as information carriers, communication tools and research tools. Models are simplifications of reality and can be descriptive, explanatory, explorative, or predictive, regarding existing or probable situations. In urban design and planning (visual) models are also used to explore, plan and project future situations that may be realised through interventions (Klaasen 2002). The variety of problem definitions in planning situations, as shown below, requires the development and application of different types of visual models in urban design and plans. 2.1 Planning situations A. Multidisciplinary planning and urban networks The example of the development of the Traffic and Transport Plan Rotterdam (Vervoers- en VerkeersPlan Rotterdam (dS+V 2003); VVPR) shows that to translate ideas from one sectoral approach (traffic and transport) to the other (spatial planning and design) visualisation can be very helpful. Time-maps, (see fig. 3a and b), based on travel time models, offer the possibility to underpin a range of planning decisions on individual locations and to relate these decisions on other scales and themes. B. Zeit-Raumplanung Urban and regional governments in the Netherlands, Germany, Italy and France show an increasing interest in the relations between daily routines of people and the spatial development and restructuring of urban areas. Zeit-Raumplanung, time-oriented urbanism or process-oriented urbanism seem to be gaining ground as actor-oriented or user-oriented approaches of urban design and planning (see e.g. the Project SURE (http://www.sure-project.com), The Project Bremen 2030 (http://www.bremen2030.de), the program Daily Routines by the Ministry of Social Affairs in the Netherlands (http://www.dagindeling.nl). However, data and knowledge on time-space use is difficult to access and assess for stakeholders primarily concerned with spatial issues, while a gap exists between knowledge on time-phenomena and on spatial phenomena. A number of prototypes of visualisations has been developed within this context.

1 Compare the ongoing work of the Laboratoire Image et Ville, Université Louis Pasteur - CNRS

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C. Shifting scales As large technical systems, such as the High Speed Train or Internet are introduced, the spatial scale and scope of urban processes is changing as they have with previous introductions of new technologies (see Harvey 1990, Boelens 2005, Dupuy 1991). Visualisations of time-space can have a communicative, if not propagandistic function, such as the visualisation of a shrinking Europe as developed by Wegener and Spiekermann (ESPON 2004) On the other hand, visualisations of multi-scalar effects and of time-space characteristics of the exclusion of groups and regions because of shifts in scales are hardly available. D. Informal and ‘invisible’ processes Already for a long time in urban research, an awareness about people and their social and other networks, is present. However, research on time-space use and on urban form has drifted steadily apart during the last decades. Renewed attention for (actor-)networks and the hype of the creative class in philosophy, urban theory and urban research seem to have prompted new interest into informal use and the criss-cross nature of daily life paths in the context of urban design and planning. Mapping and tracking seem to add to this new awareness. 2.5 Urban trends as categorisation tool The apparent need for time-space visualisations in concrete urban design and planning processes seems to be increasing. Visualisations are becoming more easily available due to new computer-based techniques. Although thematic cartography, using labels, pictograms or colours to represent the occurrence of time-space phenomena on traditional looking maps can be helpful (Vasiliev 1997), single thematic maps often do not do right to the complexity and richness of time-space phenomena. The quest to represent complex time-space phenomena reflects contemporary changes in the temporal and spatial structure of urban society. These changes can be characterised by acceleration, expansion and flexibilisation (Drewe 2004) or by the buzz-words time-space convergence, time-space compression, human extensibility and trackability (Janelle and Gillespie 2004). However, without a rich visualisation these processes remain hollow phrases, difficult to react on in policy development and design and planning processes. The remainder of this paper analyses specific types of time-space visualisations using these societal processes as guidance for categorisation. First, time space cubes and action spaces are examined as a reflection of questions related to time-space compression. Time–space compression has to do with the seemingly increasing pressure of activities in the daily lives of urban households (compare Planbureau 2003). The critical note here is addressed towards the simultaneous diversification of the organisation and choice of activities, as well as the vulnerability and with that the chance of deprivation for urban households. Second, visualisations of travel time, mobility and accessibility are examined as a reflection of questions regarding time-space convergence. Time–space convergence has to do with the speeding up of our means of transport and communication. While the temporal scale seems to collapse by diminishing travel times, the spatial scale of urban systems thus seems to be enlarging. A critical note has to be that this time-space convergence works selectively for groups, but also for spaces, such that the examination of and attempt to prevent exclusion is an integral part of this notion. Third, the phenomenon of time-space attractors or new types of pacemakers (compare Parkes and Thrift 1980) is examined in relation to chronotopic cartography and dynamic and animated maps. Both the flexibilisation of urban times and of spaces potentially has a large impact on urban life. Lastly, the trend of increasing individual and collective trackability through mobile technolgies and location based services (LBS) is examined in relation to dynamic, script-based and game-like visualisations. Mobile technologies are expected to have significant impact on the use of urban space (see e.g. the Senseable City Project at MIT – http://senseable.mit.edu) and on the way time-space use is researched. However, (the use of) visualisation in urban design and planning from this angle is new and in a pioneering stage. These four trends do not exist as autonomous processes. They are strongly intertwined and therefore models examining these processes often address more than one effect. However, for the purpose of this paper these processes are used as tool to differentiate between the usefulness of visual models in urban design and planning.

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3. Visualising time-space compression effects

Time-space compression is related to spatial expansion (Drewe 2004), i.e. enlargement of the scale and scope of activity patterns. The question for urban design and planning is how to deal with these shifts in scale and scope. One can grasp the variables relevant for time-space compression through (1) maps of combination possibilities and influence areas, (2) visualisation of activity patterns of maps and (3) visualisation of multiple time-space paths in time-space-cubes. 3.1 Maps: combination possibilities and influence areas Maps are used in a large variety of ways to visualise time-space use aspects. Two specific types can be identified here, although other types are available. The first type of maps is used to show the radial coverage of walking, cycling or other transport distances to, for example, public transport stops. The second type of maps show the potential for combining activities for specific groups, such as so-called ‘task combiners’ in a specific place or from a base (see Heyink Leestemaker 2005). Radial coverage is for example used in the study for the Stedenbaan/ReUrba project (Boelens, Sanders et al. 2005) to indicate the influence area of a new transport system and to search for development potential of these areas (see figure 1c). Another use of this approach, on a theoretical level, can be found in (Jacobs 2000) examining the interference between influence areas, to see where potential exists for synergy and collective functions (see figure 1a). The second type of maps can be found in the study Duizend Dingen op een Dag (A thousand things in a day – (Galle, Dam et al. 2004). The developed cartography for this study shows the potential space in which different activity categories (‘have to do a lot’, ‘want to experience a lot’ and ‘want to relax’) can be found. The combination map (‘snijvlakkenkaart’, see visual appendix 1.) shows the optimal housing locations for task-combining households, based on a combination of accessibility-indicators of different modes of transport and availability of amenities. The same kind of approach has been recommended by and for the Province of South-Holland (A2Stadsadviseur, Heyink-Leestemaker et al. 2004). They propose to combine an index for functional mix, with an index for accessibility and one of flexibility to determine the combination score for areas. “The idea is that, with the help of the combination-chances-map, one can look for additional functions [i.e. increased multiple space use] in the future development of high-potential areas, while additional functions might be banned for places with limited potential”, to create a differentiated urban field (Heyink Leestemaker 2005). 3.2 Visualisation of activity patterns and action spaces on maps With this last approach in mind, one can imagine a further elaboration of visualisations of activity spaces. An important aspect of time-space visualisations in this respect is the limitations of time-space budgets (e.g. a day) in which activities take place, determined for a large part by the duration, deadlines and location of obligatory activities and by the speed with which one can move between activity locations. Time-space compression shows

Figure 1a The intereference of influence areas based on potential travel time from urban centres. Source: Jacobs 2000

Figure 1b Topological visualisation of activity patterns. Source: Klaasen 2004, Vidakovic 1988

Figure 1c Map of potential development areas around stations, based on maximum accessibility time by foot and bike. Source: Boelens, Sanders et al (2005)

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itself in an increased pressure on the time-space budget of households. These time-space budgets can be visualised in different ways as potential activity patterns or action spaces and can be brought in relation to actual activity patterns. The visualisation of action spaces2, i.e. the space in or through which individuals or households organise their daily activities, can show a topological scheme of locations of activities and the time-space paths between these activities (Droogleever-Fortuijn, Hietbrink et al. 1987, Vidakovic 1988, Klaasen 2004, see fig. 1b and visual appendix 5.). These schematic approaches can also be translated to actual spaces on maps, although these visualisations are often merely indicative, due to problems of scaling (of both time and space) and the multiplicity of potential routes taken (see for a further problematisation Schaick 2005). In the case of the action-space model (Dijst 1995, see visual appendix 4.) linear, circular and elliptical envelops are visualised which represent the potential action space in a homogenic field. 3.3 Visualisation of multiple time-space paths in a GIS-based time-space aquarium Time-space cubes, based on the model developed by Hagerstrand (1970) and later Lenntorp (1978), go a step further in the time-space visualisation of activities. Three conceptual elements can be distinguished: (a) the collapse of three dimensional space on a 2-D surface, using the third dimension for time. (b) individual time-space paths or trajectories, distinguishing between activities or bases (vertical sections, a person remains in one place) and mobility spaces (diagonal sections, a person moves from one place to another) and (c) time-space prisms, showing the potential action space expressed in a 3-D visual model (see fig. 2).The time-space-cube-model is generally only used to visualise individual time-space paths or action spaces.

However, more interesting from the perspective of urban design and planning are the accumulation of time-space paths, the coherence between places (both mobility spaces and bases), the effects of collective phenomena, and interaction of time-space paths. Especially with regard to time-space compression, changing coupling3 constraints, and changing service levels of amenities. Three visual models are interesting in this respect: (a) multiple and dynamic views on time-space cubes (b) multiple time-space paths, and (c) time-space masks. A. Multiple and dynamic views on time-space cubes The development of computer-based GIS has enlarged the possibilities for time-space analysis significantly (Kraak 2003, Vasiliev 1997, Andrienko, Andrienko et al. 2003). As to visualisation, GIS-environments offer the possibility to show different conceptual elements of time-space cubes simultaneously and/or linked in real-time, linking relatively easy to the underlying datasets (see visual appendix 8.). Some of these environments offer dynamic views as well. B. Multiple time-space paths The combination of GPS (more on GPS in the section on tracking) and GIS has enabled the visualisation of aggregate effects of time-space paths. This makes it, for example, easier to address the time-space relevant for specific groups such as labour force, consumer groups, women, children, ethnic groups, etc. (see e.g. Kwan 2000, see visual appendix 6.). Thus, research can, for example, uncover bottlenecks and potential for collective functions in time and space for specific groups. Visualisation of multiple time-space paths without the use of tracking technologies is virtually non-existent, but might be interesting for urban design and planning. Currently, the focus in research is mostly on more detailed (in both time and space) and more extensive data-collection in the light of transport modelling.

2 An alternative term is activity patterns 3 Hagerstrand (1970) distinguishes three major types of constraints: besides coupling, i.e. related to the interaction with other people or services, also capability and authority

Figure 2 The three conceptual elements of time-space cubes: (a) using the third dimension for time, (b) individual time-space paths, (c) time-space prisms

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C. Time-space masks Another aggregate effect, which can be visualised in a GIS-based time-space cube environment are potential spaces and times for interactions between people, or rather between the potential action spaces of people. Huisman and Forer (2005, see visual appendix 7.) for example have developed a model, which they call “masks, for management, analysis and visualisation”, which “are made up of a volume of cells referred to as taxels. In order to turn this model into a useful tool, five key functions have been developed for the analysis of masks”: TimeSlice, Intersect, PeopleSum, DurationSum, DurationQuery. 3.4 Conclusion Time-space compression is a phenomenon which manifests itself primarily on an individual level. This means that research on time-space compression differs in problem orientation from urban design and planning problems, which focus on collective issues and aggregate effects on different urban scales. The high threshold, for non-experts, of using GIS-applications and understanding their visual output adds to this problem. Recent developments with GIS-based time-space cube-models are promising, but a gap still remains. Relevant research questions in urban design and planning in this category could address:

- the support (in terms of potential numbers of customers) of urban functions, centres and transport stops - the dispersion and combination of urban functions with regard to the possibilities for individuals to

combine activities and have a choice of activities within a limited time and space - the physical constraints for the chance of interaction between (groups of) people or companies, i.e. the

chance for collectivity or for commercial exchange - the vulnerability of certain groups with regard to their possibilities to use the full potential of their

action space With regard to the potential role in urban planning processes (Multidisciplinary planning and urban networks, Zeit-Raumplanung, Shifting scales, Informal and invisible processes), the visualisations in this category mainly inform planning issues of the first and fourth type. 4. Visualising time-space convergence effects in tempographic cartography Time–space convergence has been an inspiration for map-makers, even established in a specific field in cartography. Three types of visualisations can be grouped under the name of tempographic cartography, addressing time-space convergence and its effects: (1) isochronic maps, (2) distortion of maps, and (3) flow maps.

4.1 Tempographic cartography: isochrones Isochronic maps are maps in which places that can be reached within the same amount of travel time from a specific place are connected by isolines. Thus, isochrones are an indicator of accessibility. Three types of isochronic visualisations show the problems and opportunities in visualisation and research: (a) the centre of the world or the accessibility of a place, (b) difference between modalities and scale, (c) accumulation of isochrones and ‘holes’ in networks.

Figure 3a Isochronic map based on multiple semi-transparent layers on which individual isochrones from different nodes in the urban network have been calculated and visualised. Source: Boer 2003

Figure 3b Time-map: map distortion of geographical space based on travel times on the High Speed Rail Network. Source: developed by Klaus Spiekermann and Michael Wegener, ESPON 2004

Figure 3c Map of commuterflows in the Randstad, Netherlands. Source: Groenemeijer 2001

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A. The centre of the world or the accessibility of a place The first type of isochronic maps are so-called centre of the world maps. This type of maps has a long history (Vasiliev 1997) and often seem to serve rather a political, almost propagandistic purpose than the purpose of researching the unidimensional accessibility of a place with the purpose of application in planning processes. This type of maps is often used to show the increasing ‘shrinking of the world’ due to the new technologies, seemingly affirming the centrality of a certain city or the collapse of the world onto that city. More on this subject in the section about distorted maps. B. Difference between modalities and scale A more technical use (e.g. in transport geography or traffic modelling) of isochronic maps makes explicit use of visualisations based on different modes of transport and on different speeds. The long tradition of these maps has shown different modes of transport, or rather transport networks delivering different forms of isochrones (e.g. circle, web or bubble-like, see visual appendix 9.-11.). Confrontation and comparison of isochronic maps with eachother and with maps of geographical configurations can be a helpful tool in spatial analysis and planning (see e.g. Bertolini, le Clercq et al. 2005). However, visualisation problems of relations between different spatial and temporal scales, have received little attention. C. Accumulation of isochrones and ‘holes’ in the networks The combination of isochrones, developed from different geographical points, in a single map could be an important missing link between time-space analysis and time-space planning (fig. 3a). The combination of different themes in thematic accessibility maps do not show the isochrones, but rather the accessibility of, for example jobs, wihtin a specified time-frame, such as 1 hour. An intersting elaboration of this type of maps is the inversed analysis: the inaccessibility of places (see visual appendix 14.). 4.2 Tempographic cartography: distortions Distorting geographical space is an interesting ‘niche’ in cartography (fig.3b), often used to depict the difference between experienced space (espace fonctionnel, i.e. functional space) and physical space. One can distinguish shape-distortions, grid-distortions, place-vector-distortions, network-line-distortions. The techniques of distortion play an important role in the communication with non-experts or experts from different sectors in planning processes. To explore the relevance of map distortions for urban design and planning four angles are distinguished: (a) Functional space and regional form, (b) interventions in transport systems, (c) network performance and (d) multimodal distortions. A. Functional space, speed and regional form The basic idea is to show regional form in relation to different speeds of transport. Often based on isochronic analyses, these maps show the same problems as isochronic maps. Distorted maps of this kind, can uncover (de)clustering effects of functions or places and the inclusion or exclusion of urban spaces within urban systems. In relation to urban design and planning, most research has been developed in France (Cauvin and Gwiazdzinski 2002, see visual appendix 12.), while in relation to transport planning research in Germany (e.g. in the form of mobility pacts in the Bremen 2030 project (Bremen2030, 2003) and the United States (e.g. see Janelle and Hodge 1998) play a key role. B. Interventions in transport systems Specifically addressing and evaluating interventions in transport systems are before-after maps or series of maps showing the size and shape of functional space based on a specifc transport network, most often public transport of different speeds. Especially visualisations of the impact of high speed rail networks, are popular and mediagenic (see fig 3b). More detailed and applicable visualisations can be developed based on travel time models on an urban scale (see visual appendix 16. and 18.). C. Network performance: asymmetry, bottlenecks, etc. A different type of time-space distortion is the distortion of graph-networks. Network distortions can be developed through multi-dimensional scaling, a distortion technique which can also be applied to grid-distortions, and through network-based distortions, which may deliver morphologically more consistent distortions (Shimizu and Inoue 2003). Distorting the network of an urban system based on travel times can be useful to show a network-based view of time-space convergence effects, the asymmetry of travel times and if specific streets or junctions are bottlenecks within an urban fabric (see Ahmed and Miller 2006, see visual appendix 17.) or a national transport system (see Shimizu and Inoue 2003, see visual appendix 20.).

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D. Multimodal distortions A unique type of time-space distortion is the ‘rippled’ map developed by Alain l’Hostis and Philip Mathis (ESPON 2004 and Mathis 2003, term derived from W. Tobler, see visual appendix 21.). The multimodality of this graph-based map gives insight in the interaction and disparity between different transport systems and the physical geography of an area. Thus, it can be used to critisise or add on to the usually unimodal analysis of other time-space distortions or to isochronic maps. 4.3 Connectivity and traffic and transport flows Besides types of visualisations looking at distances, with regard to time-space convergence, one can distinguish visualisation of flows. Flows can be visualised as schematic relations between places or within the geography of a network. The intensity of flows is the major subject of vissualisations. Two major categories show these visualisation possibilities: (a) commuting and regional coherence and (b) traffic flow models. A. Commuting and regional coherence The visualisation of commuterflows is primarily a data-visualisation method using maps as reference. A major application of this type of visualisation can be the coherence of urban regions. However, different studies of the region of Randstad Holland show that the statistical choices can determine the visual outcome substantially (e.g. compare Laan 1996 with Groenemeijer 2001, see fig. 3c and vsiual appendix 22.) B. Traffic flow models Visual models of flows with the actual infrastructural network as reference are widely used in traffic simulation models (see visual appendix 23.). These traffic models are primarily used for traffic management, e.g. in relation to congestion and capacity management and dynamic, real-time traffic management. The wide array of available models, ranging form activity-based models to agent-based models and attractivity-based models (see e.g. Stabilini and Bonfiglioli (not dated) for an overview), goes beyond the scope of this paper. Three aspects are interesting from the viewpoint of urban design and planning. First, this type of visualisations can be very helpful in showing the hierarchy of the urban system. Second, the dynamic types of traffic flow visualisations can uncover unknown rhythms of urban systems, relevant for the use of urban functions and programmes. Third, the visualisation of intensity and capacity can be translated directly to the three-dimensional physical profile of streets and other traffic corridors, which are subject to interventions by urban design and planning. 4.4 Conclusion The threshhold for use of visual models related to time-space convergence depends largely on two things. First, it depends on the labour intensity of translating calculated output in legible and comprehensive visual models with a direct relevance for urban design and planning. Second, the threshhold of use depends on the integration of and communication between transport policy and spatial policy within the specific planning context. Most knowledge regarding visual models in this category depends largely on a body of knowledge focused solely on traffic and transport. Although recently the attention for the relation between land use and infrastructure is increasing, infrastructure planning and spatial planning are different worlds. With regard to research questions of urban design and planning, most visual models in this category can be used to evaluate the effects of proposed interventions in infrastructural networks. However, the most legible visualisations lean more on their iconic quality than on its relevance for urban design and planning. Moreover, these visual models do not have an inherent quality which relates them to interventions in other urban subsystems such as the built environment. On the other hand, it seems an inherent quality of these models to be combined with other datasets. As such these visual models are able to deliver a visual framework in which other interventions and effects can be evaluated and even explored. With that in mind, we can conclude that the role visual models in this category can play in time-oriented urban design and planning is quite large. This is especially due to the fact that the physical space addressed is the same space as addressed in urban design and planning (compare the mismatch between time-space path and urban space). Of the four planning issues addressed in the first part of this paper - Multidisciplinary planning and urban networks, Zeit-Raumplanung, Shifting scales, Informal and invisible processes – these models primarily function within multidisciplinary contexts and in relation to shifting scales. Moreover, models in this category are a major tool to show shifts in scale. Although the potential for issues in Zeit-Raumplanung exists, because of the inherent dynamic approach, a gap lies between the social-oriented Zeit-Raumplanung and the technical-oriented visual models in this category.

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5. Visualisation of new urban pacemakers: miscellaneous attempts to grasp flexibility

5.1 Calendars, intensity and rhythms Society is said to be less synchronised, more flexible and open to more choices. (Boulin and Mückenberger 2002). Working hours, free time, opening hours, work place and much more traditional time-space pacemakers or markers4 are becoming more flexible and/or more diverse throughout western society (compare Planbureau 2003). Three types of visualisations incorporating this flexibility are shown below: (a) cartography of calendars and temporal regimes, (b) urban intensity surfaces, (c) visualisation of rhythms. A. Cartography of calendars and temporal regimes The cartography of calendars and temporal regimes knows a long history (Parkes and Thrift 1980). For the purpose of this paper we limit ourselves to one specific type of cartography, as developed wihtin the framework of chronotopic cartography (see more on chronotopes in the section on systems of representations). The prototype of this map has been developed within the context of the time plan for the municipality of Pesaro (Bonfiglioli and Zedda 1999, see visual appendix 24.). It shows the spatial configuration of time-space regimes, using an innovative legenda: 1. continuous duration of uses, 2. cyclic calendar, 3. time zero (zones without inhabitants or mobility), 4. events. With the combination of the calendar system, the mapping of temporary populations, activities and mobility behaviour, as well as a physical description of sites, the map is complex, but very rich. It establishes direct links between a design-oriented type of visualisation and a data-oriented type of visualisation. B. Urban intensity surfaces An indirect visualisation of major pacemakers is the visualisation of 3-D surfaces that show the intensity of use within urban fabrics (fig. 4b). This way, new urban centres and the mixed and/or temporary use of urban areas can be analysed. C. Rhythm visualisation An important attempt to get a grip on urban pacemakers is the direct visualisation of urban rhythms. We can distinguish intensity-surface visualisations, on/off maps and a 3-D block model of functionally differentiated use-intensities (Stabilini and Bonfiglioli not dated, see visual appendix 25.-27.). All can be animated. On/off maps show the availability in time of variety of urban functions, such as amenities, while the block model adds the actual function of these spaces and times. The interesting thing of on/off maps is that the time-configuration is directly linked to the spatial configuration. An important component of this type of visualisation is the explicit visualisation of the timeline, besides the map or directly projected onto specific locations in the map, combined with the ‘natural’ coloration of the map through time, i.e. dark for night, light for day. This technique can als be found in the Atlas of cultural Ecology for Rotterdam (see the section on systems of visualisation). 5.2 Conclusion Due to the ad-hoc character of the visual models in this category the expected threshold for use in urban design and planning processes is difficult to assess. The conceptual framework of the chronotope in relation to urban

4 see Parkes, D.N. and N. Thrift (1980). Times, Spaces and Places - A Chronogeographic Perspective. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons for the relevance of pacemakers for social time and space

Figure 4a Chronotopic map of the city of Pesaro. Source: Bonfiglioli and Zedda 1999

Figure 4b Intensity surface of an urban area. Source: Kwan 1998

Figure 4c Dynamic visualsiation of intensity of use visualised in blocks. Source: Bremen2030 (2003)

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situations (see Bonfiglioli and Mareggi 1997) may function as common factor, but remains illusive due to a number of different problems: on the one hand, although the threshold for use of individual models does not appear to be as high as the models in the previous two categories, the problem of unfamiliarity with the type of reasoning and the unfamiliarity of urban researchers with urban rhythms and their meaning for the urban system remains. On the other hand, for researchers in the social sciences the absence of applicable data sets on urban rhythms is a big problem (Guez 2002). Although emphasised in theoretical literature, the development of practical applications has not been widely developed. The fact that most research and planning practice has been developed in a local context in Italy, France and partly Germany and the Netherlands means that language barriers play a major role in the dissemination of knowledge about visual models related to urban rhythms. An additional factor, adding to the heigth of the threshold for use, is the relatively new technique of animation (dynamic maps and movies), which shows great potential, but is difficult to use for novices. Relevant research questions in urban design and planning in this category address: - the relation between density and intensity of use of urban areas - the relation between the rhythms of urban functions and the performance of transport and traffic systems - the relation between spatial dispersion and temporal dispersion of urban functions As to the potential role in urban design and planning processes, the communicational and potentially interactive quality of visual models in this category is high. With regard to the four planning issues addressed in the first part of this paper this category finds itself primarily in the domain of ZeitRaumplanung. With regard to multidisciplinary planning, i.e. social and spatial policy, the existing potential is not yet completely fulfilled. Design and planning issues regarding informal and invisible processes are the most likely primary field of the future for this category of visual models. 6. New developments: using trackability and game-development-software to visualise individualised time-space behaviour and use

The individualisation and diversification of time-space use has prompted the accelerated development of the use of digital technologies in urban research. Specifically the use of tracking technologies (both GPS and UMTS) has taken a flight in the last years. Tracking technologies are giving theoretical frameworks developed in the 1960 en 1970s (e.g. Hagerstrand 1970) a new lease on life. They are used to complement or even replace traditional data-collection techniques in social research and to strengthen research on mental mapping (see for a dutch example the project Sense of the City, Municipality of Eindhoven). Another new trend with respect to digital technologies is the development of script-based models and game-development software. The interesting thing about these visualisations is the use of scripts to describe operations, the interactivity between model and observer, the dynamic character of visualisations, the relatively simple use of multiple views and multiple media, and the potential for relations within the model between actor, activity and environments.

Figure 5a Accumulated patterns of pedestrian GPS-tracks in Delft (Netherlands). Source: Spatial Metro project (INTERREG IIIB, unpublished)

Figure 5b Web interface of the live-fed Sense of the City project in Eindhoven (Netherlands) shwoing a combination of GPS tracks of multiple users, photographic material and comments by the GPS-carriers. Source: http://www.senseofthecity.nl

Figure 5c Interactive web interface of the Wegzeit project (Offenhuber 2002, http://futurelab.aec.at/wegzeit) showing the 3-D distortion of a map based on asymmetrical travel times.

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6.1 Tracking and mapping The visualisations that can can be developed because of tracking techniques is very wide. Large investments have been proposed for future research in this direction in the United States from the perspective of application in transport planning (Goulias and Janelle 2005). Earlier we already described the use in time-space cube environments. Two other visualisation types are relevant for urban deisgn and planning: (a) the relation between different views on human interaction and (b) the relation between urban structure, functions and individual behaviour. A. Relating different views on human interaction: urban field, social networks, individual paths The research within the Senseable City programme at MIT stands at the fore of urban visualisation. Combining animated visualisations of mobile phone use intensities, with simultaneous animated visualisations of handovers between different phones and of individual time-space paths, they have developed a unique, coherent and comprehensive visual output (see visual appendix 28.). Another example of this approach is the Cabspotting project (http://cabspotting.org, see visual appendix 34.) in San Francisco by Exploratorium (http://www.exploratorium.edu). B. Relation between urban structure, functions and individual behaviour The INTERREG IIIB project Spatial Metro uses tracking for the purpose of evaluating the functional and physical structure of pedestrianised urban centres (see fig. 5a, visual appendix 29.). The primary difference with the Senseable City approach is the combination of time-space visualisations with spatial analyses such as Space Syntax and functional analysis of urban centres. The Sense of the City project (see fig. 5b) links to urban planning through the themes of identity and competiveness on the housing market. 6.2 Scripts and time-space visualisation Research using scripts is so new that only individual attempts have been made. Relevant work using these tools can for example be found for example in (Offenhuber 2002, see fig. 5c and visual appendix 30.-32.). Preliminary explorations show the applicability to multiple time-space phenomena such as time-space convergence and individual configurations of urban time-space. It should be noted that in the field of multimedia art and information design the development of this technique seems to go more rapidly than in urban research. 6.3 Conclusion As to the use of tracking technologies to study time-space behaviour the expectations for future research are high amongst the researchers themselves, especially in relation to transport planning. Bottlenecks are the high costs for the technology and the knowledge level needed to process data if the output is not directly visual. Still, research using tracking technology is at this stage pioneering work and the full potential has not yet been reached. This goes even more for using scripts for the development of visual models. At this stage, these models primarily build on existing types of time-space visualisation such as the distortion of geographical space. The threshhold for the current generation of urban researchers is still quite high, although this problem might subside with time with a rapidly increasing familiarity with computer-based tools. The different models in this paper show that tracking technologies are mainly a new data collection technique, not different with respect to the existing problems regarding the gap between data-oriented and a desgin-oriented approaches. Aggregating and relating the collected data, however, seems easier, such as the Graz example shows. This example, as well as the Spatial Metro project, reminds strongly of the viewpoints as proposed by Dupuy (Dupuy 1991) in an urbanism of networks (physical networks – functional (collective) networks – individual households, see figure 6). As such this data-approach seems to be able to match directly with a design-oriented approach. Primarily these tools can be used to address research questions in urban design and planning, addressed earlier in this paper. This category might open up areas of research related to - the development of an urbanism of networks - real-time interaction between designer and user - cognitive structures of urban systems - the application of principles from game theory in urban research, design and planning

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Looking again at the planning processes from the first section of this paper (Multidisciplinary planning and urban networks, Zeit-Raumplanung, Shifting scales and Informal and invisible processes) this category of visual models does not directly fit with one of them, due to the general, instrumental character of this category. At the same time it might fit with all, due to its interactive (participative) planning possibilities and the possibility to visualises multiple views, scales and interests within a single framework. 7. Towards coherent visual languages of time and space in urban design and planning With the exploration and analysis of individual visual models of time-space one is able to answer very specific research questions within an urban design and planning process. However, the potential of these models may be larger within a framework, such as process-oriented planning (Klaasen 2004) or time-oriented planning (Boulin, Dommergues et al. 2002). Then, the use of combinatory systems of visual models of time-space – i.e. chronographic systems (Guez 2002) – is the next step towards a visual language of time and space relevant to urban design and planning. 7.1 Possible combinations of visual models The question at hand is what sytems of visualisations or combinations of visual models are possible. Four possible approaches can be found in the literature (a) an approach of layers and levels, (b) relating different time-space constraints, (c) the chronotopic approach of physical time-space configurations, (d) the atlas of cultural ecology.

Figure 7 A comparison of four stratified models of social-spatial systems: (a) Social Space (Henri Lefebvre), (b) Space of flows (Manuel Castells), Network City (Gabriel Dupuy) and the layers approach by Heeling derived from the urban ground plan as mediating layer between substratum/territory and use/land use (Heeling, Meyer and Westrik). The common theoretical framework offers seven lines of thought that can be regarded as a central set of building blocks for the socio-spatial system. Source: Schaick 2005

Figure 6 Three levels of operators who (re)organise urban space in physical networks (1st level), functional (collective) networks (2nd level) and networks of individual households (3rd level). Source: Dupuy 1991:119

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A. An approach of layers and levels: a theoretical framework Previous research (Schaick 2005) - the analysis and comparison of four theoretical frameworks for socio-spatial urban design and planning - gives a theoretical framework to decide on the required visualisations of time-space in a planning process. The combination of maps can relate the physical and social configuration of urban systems directly. The complete system of visualisation should consist of maps of physical networks, of places, of lived space (direct space), and of collective phenomena. Moreover, it should be combined with a coherent representation of the relations between these maps, be related to a (spatial) analysis of the power structures surrounding the planning process, and be projected onto the existing physical territory (see figure 7). B. Relating different types of time-space constraints: a data-based framework Social research offers another framework, less theoretical. Based on the combination of authority, coupling and capability constraints, coherent sets of data-visualisation can be obtained. As such, different objects of research questions can be approach within an integral, visual framework, which offers chances to evaluate urban interventions and the interaction between effects of urban interventions. Such a framework can be based on individual accessibility (see figure 8a) or potential interaction (see figure 8b). However, the translation of this type of framework to integral planning is hardly been taken on in urban research.

C. The chronotopic approach of physical time-space configurations: a conceptual framework Developed by the Politecnico di Milano, the chronotopic approach to urban planning is an integral time-space approach, based on the concept of the chronotope. A chronotope is (according to a combination of the definitions by Bonfiglioli 2004 and Guez 2002):

1. a place (or physical space), urbanised and transformed through history 2. inhabited by residential or temporary populations with characteristic, cyclical time-architectures or

structures 3. a mixed and layered presence of populations ditributed over specific amounts of time (such as 24hrs,

week, season) , determined by complex logics of time-structures reflected in time-tables, calendars and presence cycles

4. attracting populations to execute specific activities within hours when the facilities and other conditions for these activities are available

Figure 8a The description of this relational model of accessibility and time-space paths is derived from Kim and Kwan (2003): Accessibility can be measured (calculated) as the potential path area (PPA) for an individual. Projecting the volume on geographic space visualises this accessibility indicator in geographical space (1a). It can be differentiated as to probability (1b). GIS offers the possibility to regard the area of the number of activity opportunities within a PPA (1c). Throught his operation the PPA becomes an irregular shape, but is schematised as ellips in the models here. “This method considers the uneven distribution of opportunities, varying mobility due to the transportation configuration and speeds over space”. The spatial distribution and availability in time of opportunities differentiates the visual model further (1d and e). The last visual model (1f) considers also other activity constraints due to the mismatch of “possible activity participation and the opening hours of each opportunity”.

Figure 8b “The progression from planar entities to time-geographic concepts to space-time masks”. Compare the conceptual elements of time-space cubes in an earlier section of this paper. Source: Huisman and Forer 1998

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5. enclosing mobility-phenotypes (i.e. the combination of mobility style and mobility environment) of people and goods, e.g. the promenade, the transit, the traverse, the pause

6. embedded into new multi-scalar nets of person, goods and information mobility In relation to this concept, a chronographic system of visualisation tools has been developed, of which the following prototypes exist (the state of affairs as indicated by the consortium SURE5): 1) Chronographic Maps System developed at the Politecnico di Milano for Chronotope Maps, On/Off Maps, Calendar Maps and Attractor Maps 2) Time Diagnostic Maps developed at the Maison du Temps et de la Mobilité at Belfort 3) Chronographic GIS-instrumentation being developed at the Politecnico di Milano. 4) Mobilis in Mobile chronographic model of a-systematic mobility being developed at the Bologna University. D. Atlas of Cultural Ecology: a framework for communication The Atlas of Cultural Ecology (Dudok, Teeffelen et al. 2004) was developed for the High-Rise Team of the municipality Rotterdam in a cooperation between bureau NEXT Architects, Arnold Reijndorp and the department of Urban Plannig, Houing and Traffic (dS+V) of Rotterdam. The project aimed to develop a new method of surveying the city to grasp the impact of urban interventions on the ‘sense of place’ in Rotterdam and specifically its center. For this purpose it developed a new urban cartography in which other than traditional indicators were used to map the city. A specific application of the atlas is the development of policies with regard to the creative industry (see Teeffelen, Dudok et al. 2005). The system of visualisations is an atlas-like (also digital) collection of maps. Maps are categorised in basic maps, inventory maps and perspective maps (see fig. 9). The system of visualisation of dynamics combines (1) the shift of the degree of public and private character of spaces over 24 hours, (2) the geography of temporary functions on different scales of space and time, (3) movements of people, (4) flows of traffic, (5) activities of people in terms of production and consumption. In general it reflects the attention for “the pace of the city at various points in time” (Teeffelen, Dudok et al. 2005). The ‘Atlas’ is rather a communication tool then a data collection. The authors emphasise that, rather than giving a comprehensive and detailed accurate image of the situation, it is more important to use this type of series and combination of maps in negotiation and interactive planning circumstances.

+ + =

7.2 Informing planning situations We can conclude that to inform urban design and planning, combinations of visual models are deemed necessary. The four combinatory systems as sketched above provide a quick overview of the possibilities, but do these combinations answer to specific planning processes? As to multidisciplinary planning processes, the use of visual models that bring coherence to different logics or show conflicts between different logics, can be crucial. For this purpose an approach using levels or layers can be very helpful. As the set of layered models in the example shows, the next step is to relate relevant and connecting models within this chronographic system. However, relating the individual models of this paper to the seven levels that are distinguished within the proposed system, goes too far now. As to Zeit-Raumplanung, relating daily routines of urban citizens to the overall urban system, the chronotopic and the combinating-constraints approaches seem equally apt to inform planning processes of this kind. The

5 www.sure-project.com [accessed 26 April 2006]

Figure 9 Basic, inventory and perspective map, Sense of Place: Atlas of Cultural Ecology of Rotterdam Source: Teeffelen, Dudok, Beuken, 2005

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combinating-constraints-system can mainly inform the first stages of the planning process, coming to a definition of problems and opportunities with special attention to the individual users. The chronotopic system seems more applicable in the design and planning stage itself, informing and guiding decisions of programmatic nature, connectivity and morphology. As to the process of shifting scales the analysis of visual models does not seem to give any specific direction. Although attempts have been made in relation to the combinating-constraints-method (e.g. Kwan 2003) and both the layered approach and the chronotopic approach both address multiscalarity in one way or another, neither gives a firm grasp on the problems of shifting scales. As to the informal and invisible processes all three combinatory systems incorporate these, although in different ways. In the layered approch these processes are an integral part of the system, but run the risk of being overshadowed in urban design and planning processes by ‘tougher’, more visible logics, such as possession of land or the structure of physical networks. In the combinating-constraints system these processes are the object of research, while the chronotopic system combines the two, though often not addressing these processes directly. 8. Discussion and further research This paper has subsequently sketched planning situations in which time-space visualisations play a crucial role; explored and analysed individual time-space visualisations within these planning situations, categorised according to contemporary trends in urban systems; and indicated possibilities to develop a coherent visual language of time-space models for urban design and planning in chronographic systems. We can conclude that a wide range of visualisation possibilities is available, but that it is not always easy or possible to use them in a design and planning context. In what ways could this become easier? As to models that primarily function as data-collection models, the most important strategy is to develop research questions that are directly relevant for design and planning purposes and to develop coherent datasets relating different viewpoints and levels in urban systems. As to models that are more easy to relate to design and planning situations, the strategy would be to relate different ways of time-space modelling to facilitate mutlidisciplinary or cross-disciplinary approaches. The indicated systems of visualisations are a first step in this direction. The last criterium of analysis still stands: in what way might these visualisation models and systems influence the communicative nature of and design decisions in the cases? The most positive answer would be that urban design and planning will transform itself into a science and a profession in which every decision and intervention is lead by a process-oriented and user-oriented approach. The most likely answer is that the tools described in this paper facilitate the development of interactive planning processes in two, already eminent directions. First, spatial planning might be more influenced by and related to infrastructural planning. Time-space visualisations might help to incorporate the effects of new technologies into this. In this respect the increased attention to network-oriented planning is hopeful and should be further explored. Second, spatial planning might be related more strongly to the spatial aspects of social policy in which daily routines, the capability to use urban services and public space over/in time and an emancipatory (individualised) approach of time-space use play a major role. The use of computer- and webbased visualisations based on the systems of visualisations as described in this paper could prove very useful and should be further explored. For this, users and producers of time-space visualisations in urban design and planning do not need, moreover, should not have to know exactly how the production of these visual models works. Ideally, a certain level of ‘blackboxing’ is applied in which the ‘right’ questions can be asked within systems of visualisation and the output can be directly used in urban design and planning. Literature 1. A2Stadsadviseur, J. Heyink-Leestemaker, R. van Velzen and Y. Bottenberg (2004). Tijd & Ruimte in Bovenlokale

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Appendix: Overview of time-space visualisation examples (index of visual appendix) 1. Snijvlakkenkaart 2. Node development map 3. Interference 4. Action space model 5. Activity patterns 6. GIS-based time-space cube (multiple paths) 7. Time-space-masks 8. Multiple views on time-space cubes 9. Isochrones (basic forms) 10. Isochrones (multiple modalities and scales) 11. Isochrones (differences between transport modes) 12. Travel-time distortion 13. Layered isochronic map from multiple nodes 14. Visualising inaccessibility 15. Isotachs and isochrones 16. Series of distorted maps from a centre: shrinking world 17. Network distortion based on travel times 18. Timemap distortion from a central area 19. Time-map distortion based on High Speed Rail network 20. Time-distance mapping 21. Rippled map: multiple transport systems 22. Commuter flows 23. Traffic models: intensity and capacity 24. Chronotopic map 25. Rhythm visualisation: 3-D dynamic maps intensity and flows 26. Rhythm visualisation: Block-based 3-D dynamic visualisation of intensity and functional multiplicity 27. On/Off Maps 28. Visual output of mobile phone tracking 29. Visual ouput of pedestrian GPS Tracking 30. Dynamic and interactive time-space distortions 31. Interactive 3-D distortions of a-symmetric travel times 32. Combination of interactive distortion and photographic material 33. Live-feed GPS-tracking, including photographic material and comments 34. Visualisations based on GPS-tracking of taxis

i

Visual Appendix

1. Snijvlakkenkaart

Galle, M., F.van Dam, P. Peeters, L. Pols, J. Ritsema van Eck, A. Segeren, F. Verwest (2004) Duizend Dingen op een Dag - Een Tijdsbeeld uitgedrukt in Ruimte. Ruimtelijk Planbureau. Rotterdam/Den Haag, NAi Uitgevers.

2. Node development map

individual geographic pattern based on node development map

Boelens, L., W. Sanders, T. Schwanen, M. Dijst and T. Verburg (2005) Milieudifferentiatie langs de Stedenbaan - Mobiliteitsstijlen en Ketenprogramma’s voor Milieu’s die Sporen. Rotterdam/Utrecht, Urban Unlimited/Universiteit Utrecht, in opdracht van Provincie Zuid Holland - Afdeling Ruimtelijke Ontwikkeling.

3.Interference

Jacobs, M. (2000). Multinodal urban structures. Delft, Delft University Press.

4. Action space model

Dijst, M. (1995). Het elliptisch leven: actieruimte als integrale maat voor bereik en mobiliteit: modelontwikkeling met als voorbeeld tweeverdieners met kinderen in Houten en Utrecht. Utrecht/Delft, KNAG/Delft University of Technology. Boelens, L., W. Sanders, T. Schwanen, M. Dijst and T. Verburg (2005) Milieudifferentiatie langs de Stedenbaan - Mobiliteitsstijlen en Ketenprogramma’s voor Milieu’s die Sporen. Rotterdam/Utrecht, Urban Unlimited/Universiteit Utrecht, in opdracht van Provincie Zuid Holland - Afdeling Ruimtelijke Ontwikkeling. 5. Activity patterns

Droogleever-Fortuijn, J., S. Hietbrink, L. Karsten and M. Rijkes (1987). Van Hot Naar Her: Het Combineren van Taken in Tijd en Ruimte. Haarlem, PPD Noord-Holland

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6. GIS-based time-space cube (multiple paths)

a: Mei-Po Kwan and Jiyeong Lee (2004) Geovisualization of Human Activity Patterns Using 3D GIS: A Time-Geographic Approach. In Michael Goodchild and Donald Janelle, eds., Spatially Integrated Social Science, 48-66. New York: Oxford University Press. > Space-time paths based on GPS data collected in Lexington, Kentucky. b and c: Mei-Po Kwan (1999) Gender, the Home-work Link, and Space-time Patterns of Non-employment Activities. Economic Geography (1999) 75(4), 370-394. Resp. Space-time aquarium for women employed full time. & Standardized space-time paths for women employed full time.

7. Time-space-masks

a, b and c: Huisman, O. and P. Forer (1998). Towards a Geometric Framework for Modelling Space-time Opportunities and Interaction Potential. International Geographical Union - Commission on Modelling Geographical Systems Meeting (IGU-CMGS) Lisbon, Portugal.

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8. Multiple views on time-space cubes

Andrienko, N., G. Andrienko and P. Gatalsky (2003). "Exploratory spatio-temporal visualization: an analytical review." Journal of Visual Languages & Computing 14(6): 503.

See also Kraak, M. (2003). The space-time cube revisited from a geovisualization perspective. 21st International Cartographic Conference (ICC) ‘Cartographic Renaissance’, Durban.

9. Isochrones (basic forms)

Offenhuber, D. (2002). Wegzeit - die Geometrie der Relativen Distanz. Fakultät für Architektur und Raumplanung, Institut für Raumgestaltung und Entwerfen. Vienna, Technische Universität Wien. MSc.

10. Isochrones (multiple modalities and scales)

http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/irpud/pro/berlin/berlin.htm

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11. Isochrones (differences between transport modes)

http://www.maisondutemps.asso.fr/ 12. Travel-time distortion

http://www.maisondutemps.asso.fr/ 13. Layered isochronic map from multiple nodes

Boer, F. (2003). The tempo of the city. In Transit - Mobility, City Culture and Urban Development in Rotterdam Paul Meurs and Marc Verheijen. Rotterdam, NAi Publishers: 105-112.

14. Visualising inaccessibility

Source unknown, used by Dupuy http://xxi.ac-reims.fr/fig-st-die/actes/actes_2005/ 15. Isotachs and isochrones

Developed by Bunge (Bunge, W.W. 1966 Theoretical Geography, Second Edition, Lund Studies in Geography, Series C, General and Mathematical Geography I (Lund: Gleerup), source Offenhuber 2002.

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16. Series of distorted maps from a centre: shrinking world

http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/irpud/pro/expo/expo.htm

17. Network distortion based on travel times

Ahmed, N. and H.J. Miller (2006). "Time-space transformations of geographic space for exploring, analyzing and visualizing transportation systems." Journal of Transport Geography In Press, Corrected Proof.

18. Timemap distortion from a central area

Based on an intervention programme by the municipality of Rotterdam, dS+V (2003) Boer, F. (2003). The tempo of the city. In Transit - Mobility, City Culture and Urban Development in Rotterdam Paul Meurs and Marc Verheijen. Rotterdam, NAi Publishers: 105-112.

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19. Time-map distortion based on High Speed Rail network

http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/irpud/pro/time/time_e.htm ESPON, Project group1.2.1 (2004). Transport services and networks: territorial trends and basic supply of infrastructure for territorial cohesion, European Union.

20. Time-distance mapping

Shimizu, E. and R. Inoue (2003). Time-Distance Mapping: Visualization of Transportation Level of Service. Proceedings of Symposium on Environmental Issues Related to Infrastructure Development, JSPS Core University Program on Environmental Engineering, Manila, Philippines.

21. Rippled map: multiple transport systems

Mathis, P. (2003). Graphes et réseaux, modélisation multiniveau. Lavoisier, Hermès Sciences.

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22. Commuter flows

Groenemeijer, L. (2001). Deltametropool: metropolitaan netwerk in wording. Delft, Vereniging Deltametropool.

Laan, L. van der (1996). "Changing Urban Systems: An Empirical Analysis at Two Spatial Levels." Regional Studies 32(3): 235-247.

23. Traffic models: intensity and capacity

Stabilini, S. and S. Bonfiglioli (not dated). Innovation in the cartography of urban time - Politecnico di Milano chronomaps system. Milaan, Politecnico di Milano.

24. Chronotopic map

Bonfiglioli, S. and R. Zedda (1999). Comune di Pesaro. Il Piano dei tempi e degli orari della Citta di Pesaro.

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25. Rhythm visualisation: 3-D dynamic maps intensity and flows

Faller (TUWien) http://www.projectspace.at http://www.iemar.tuwien.ac.at 26. Rhythm visualisation: Block-based 3-D dynamic visualisation of intensity and functional multiplicity

Stablini (“TOOL”) developed within the context of SURE (http://www.sure-project.com) and applie dto the Bremen2030 project (www.bremen2030.de) Bremen2030, Projektteam (2003). Bremen 2030 - Eine zeitgerichte Stadt, Bremen2030.de

27. On/Off Maps

Research by Alain Guez (within the context of Politecnico di Milano) on Les Halles

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28. Visual output of mobile phone tracking

The Senseable Cit Project at MIT http://senseable.mit.edu

29. Visual ouput of pedestrian GPS Tracking

Spatial Metro Project - Delft Univeristy of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Frank v.d. Hoeven and Stefan v.d. Spek (INTERREG IIIB project)

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30. Dynamic and interactive time-space distortions

31. Interactive 3-D distortions of a-symmetric travel times

32. Combination of interactive distortion and photographic material

a (serie), b and c (serie): Offenhuber, D. (2002). Wegzeit - die Geometrie der Relativen Distanz. Fakultät für Architektur und Raumplanung, Institut für Raumgestaltung und Entwerfen. Vienna, Technische Universität Wien. MSc. 33. Live-feed GPS-tracking, including photographic material and comments

http://www.senseofthecity.nl

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34. Visualisations based on GPS-tracking of taxis

The project Cabspotting registers GPS tracks made by taxis in San Francisco, exampes are the visualisation of (a) functional patterns, (b) and (c) movement and speed accumulated over time. Source: http://cabspotting.org