THE INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONS OF FOURTH YEAR FOUNDATION PHASE STUDENTS AT A HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION

by

FIONA HEATHER OLDACRE

DISSERTATION

submitted in fulfilment

of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS

in

PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

in the

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: Dr M.P. van der Merwe

December 2012

i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To my husband, Cary – thank you for your patience and understanding. You have helped me in

so many ways and I am so grateful to have married my best friend!

Always and forever …

To my beautiful children, Jess and Nic – thank you for your unconditional love. You are my pride and joy, and my greatest achievement!

To my Mom, Pinkie – thank for your unwavering support and your willingness to help out in any way possible. I appreciate it more than you know.

To my brother, Adrian – thank you for your interesting and challenging conversations. You always make me feel like my opinions are valuable.

To my friends – thank you for your loyalty and for accepting my distraction with such understanding.

To my supervisor, Dr M. – thank you for the guidance you have given me. I have so enjoyed our conversations, and I really appreciate your support.

To the students involved in this study – thank you for your willingness to participate, and for giving me the opportunity to see you so many times. I hope that you continue to grow from strength to

strength in your teaching careers.

In loving memory of my Dad, Austin King, who would have been so proud.

ii

ABSTRACT

“Education is fundamentally an imaginative act of hope” (Purkey and Novak, 1996, p.1) and this

hope is dependent on one’s ability to care enough to develop each child to his or her full potential.

The intention of this study is to determine the dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase

students at a local higher education institute, and to establish how these dispositions influence

their practice during their scheduled teaching practicals. The findings from this study will be used

to propose a strategy for Initial Professional Education and Training (IPET) programmes in order

to explicitly develop invitational dispositions in Foundation Phase teachers in training.

The study is supported by a theoretical framework which investigates the notion of dispositions

and the development of these through the lenses of structuration theory, social cognitive theory

and attribution-based theory of motivation, and leading to the application of the Invitational

Education approach. Self concept theory and perceptual theory are encompassed within this

approach, and form an integral part of the study. From this theoretical framework, an invitational

dispositional framework is developed to represent the inter-connected nature of the five

invitational dispositions of care, intentionality, trust, respect and optimism. The research design

and methodology of the study is located in the interpretivist paradigm, using a case study design

within a qualitative approach. A survey is used to collect data relating to fourth year Foundation

Phase students’ opinions regarding the essential dispositions required by Foundation Phase

teachers in order to establish positive teaching and learning environments. Further data is

gathered from two nested cases of fourth year Foundation Phase students during both their first

and second teaching practicals, through the means of observations, interviews and document

analysis. Each data source is analysed through content analysis in an attempt to identify the

common patterns that emerge, followed by the coding of the data according to the invitational

dispositions of care, intentionality, trust, respect and optimism. The opinions of the students, as

determined from the analysis of the survey, are then compared to their actions as demonstrated

through their practice, with a final consideration of the developmental trajectory of these

dispositions.

From this study, it was found that the dispositional ability to care is of paramount importance in

Foundation Phase teaching and that this dispositional ability is determined in three inter-

iii

connected areas. A reduced ability to care in one of the interactional areas of self, others and the

profession results in a decreased ability to care in the other areas as well. Upon analysis of the

data, it was discovered that low levels of self confidence and limited care for the learning taking

place in classrooms results in inconsistent invitational interactions between the student and the

children. Lower levels of care further impacts upon the students’ ability to act with intentionality in

each of the three interactional areas. Students would greatly benefit from explicit development in

their reflective practice and in their self confidence, as “caring is an ethic that guides action”

(Purkey and Novak, 1996, p.9). In this way students would be able to be Intentionally Inviting

more consistently, and purposefully engage with children in the teaching and learning process.

KEY WORDS

1. Invitational Education 2. Foundation Phase teaching 3. Dispositions 4. Attitudes 5. Agency 6. Care

iv

LIST OF ACRONYMS

HEI – Higher Education Institution

IPET – Initial Professional Education and Training

NCATE – National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education

InTASC – Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. i

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. ii

LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................. iv

CHAPTER 1

CONTEXTUALISATION OF THE STUDY

1.1. FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT ...................... 1

1.2. TEACHERS’ DISPOSITIONS AND QUALITY FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING ......... 3

1.3.THE PROBLEM STATEMENT .......................................................................................... 5

1.4. AIM OF THE STUDY .......................................................................................................... 6

1.5. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD ................................................................................ 6

1.6. CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 2

INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONS IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE

2.1. ILLUMINATING AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF DISPOSITIONS 10

2.1.1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 10

2.1.2. QUALITY TEACHING IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE .............................................. 11

2.1.3. AGENCY TO EFFECT CHANGE ............................................................................... 15

2.1.4. PERCEPTIONS ......................................................................................................... 18

2.1.5. PERCEPTUAL ORIENTATION .................................................................................. 19

2.1.6. DISPOSITIONS ......................................................................................................... 20

2.1.7. DEVELOPMENT OF DISPOSITIONS ....................................................................... 22

2.1.8. IMPACT OF DISPOSITIONS ON THE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS ..... 26

2.2. EXTENSION: THE INVITATIONAL EDUCATION APPROACH ...................................... 27

2.2.1. PERCEPTIONS IN INVITATIONAL EDUCATION ..................................................... 27

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2.2.2. DISPOSITIONS IN INVITATIONAL EDUCATION ..................................................... 29

2.2.3. THE FOUR DIMENSIONS OF INVITATIONAL EDUCATION .................................... 31

2.2.4.IMPACT OF INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL ABILITIES ON INTERACTIONS ...... 32

2.3. PROPOSED INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR FOUNDATION

PHASE TEACHERS ................................................................................................................ 34

2.4. PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL FRAMEWORK 38

2.5. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 39

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 40

3.2. RESEARCH PARADIGM ................................................................................................. 40

3.3. RESEARCH DESIGN ....................................................................................................... 41

3.4. CASE SELECTION ........................................................................................................... 42

3.5. DATA COLLECTION METHODS ..................................................................................... 43

3.5.1. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ............................................................................................ 45

3.5.2. INTERVIEWS............................................................................................................. 46

3.5.3.OBSERVATIONS ........................................................................................................ 47

3.6. DATA ANALYSIS AND PROCESSING ........................................................................... 49

3.6.1. INTERVIEWS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ............................................................ 49

3.6.2.OBSERVATION SCHEDULES ................................................................................... 50

3.7. TRUSTWORTHINESS ...................................................................................................... 51

3.7.1. CREDIBILITY ............................................................................................................. 51

3.7.2. DEPENDABILITY ....................................................................................................... 51

3.7.3. TRANSFERABILITY .................................................................................................. 52

3.7.4. CONFIRMABILITY ..................................................................................................... 52

3.8. COMPLIANCE WITH ETHICAL STANDARDS ................................................................ 53

3.9. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 53

vii

CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS

4.1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 54

4.1.2. ELCITING VIEWS FROM ALL FOUNDATION PHASE STUDENTS ......................... 54

4.1.3. HIGHEST AND LOWEST RATINGS ......................................................................... 56

4.1.4. CODING OF THE SURVEY ITEMS ACCORDING TO THE INVITATIONAL

DISPOSITIONAL ABILITIES ................................................................................................ 57

4.1.4.1. CARE ................................................................................................................. 58

4.1.4.2. INTENTIONALITY .............................................................................................. 61

4.1.4.3. TRUST ............................................................................................................... 63

4.1.4.4. RESPECT .......................................................................................................... 66

4.1.4.5. OPTIMISM ......................................................................................................... 68

4.1.5. IN SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 70

4.2. FIRST TEACHING PRACTICAL DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................ 71

4.2.1. OBSERVATION SCHEDULE ..................................................................................... 72

4.2.1.1. CARE ................................................................................................................. 75

4.2.1.2. INTENTIONALITY .............................................................................................. 76

4.2.1.3. TRUST ............................................................................................................... 77

4.2.1.4. RESPECT .......................................................................................................... 77

4.2.1.5. OPTIMISM ......................................................................................................... 79

4.2.2. REFLECTIVE JOURNALS ......................................................................................... 80

4.2.2.1. CARE ................................................................................................................. 82

4.2.2.2. INTENTIONALITY .............................................................................................. 83

4.2.2.3. TRUST ............................................................................................................... 84

4.2.2.4. RESPECT .......................................................................................................... 85

4.2.2.5. OPTIMISM ......................................................................................................... 87

4.2.3. STUDENT INTERVIEWS ........................................................................................... 88

viii

4.2.3.1. CARE ................................................................................................................. 90

4.2.3.2. INTENTIONALITY .............................................................................................. 91

4.2.3.3. TRUST ............................................................................................................... 92

4.2.3.4. RESPECT .......................................................................................................... 92

4.2.3.4. OPTIMISM ......................................................................................................... 94

4.2.4. TEACHER INTERVIEWS .......................................................................................... 95

4.2.4.1. CARE ................................................................................................................. 96

4.2.4.2. INTENTIONALITY .............................................................................................. 96

4.2.4.3. TRUST ............................................................................................................... 97

4.2.4.4. RESPECT .......................................................................................................... 97

4.2.4.5. OPTIMISM ......................................................................................................... 98

4.2.5. IN SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 99

4.3. SECOND TEACHING PRACTICAL DATA ANALYSIS ................................................. 101

4.3.1. OBSERVATION SCHEDULES ................................................................................ 102

4.3.1.1. SELF ..................................................................................................................... 103

4.3.1.2. OTHERS ............................................................................................................... 105

4.3.1.3. PROFESSION ...................................................................................................... 106

4.3.2. FINAL FOCUS GROUP STUDENT INTERVIEW .................................................... 108

4.3.3. TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ REFLECTIVE REPORTS ...................................... 110

4.3.4. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 113

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 115

5.2. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS ..................................................................................... 115

5.2. CONCLUSIONS EMANATING FROM THE FINDINGS ................................................. 115

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5.3. RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................. 120

5.3. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ................................................... 120

5.4. CRITICAL REFLECTION ............................................................................................... 123

5.5. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 124

REFERENCE LIST .................................................................................................................... 126

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1 – ETHICAL CLEARANCE ............................................................................... 132

APPENDIX 2 – PERMISSION FORM .................................................................................... 133

APPENDIX 3 – SURVEY ....................................................................................................... 134

APPENDIX 4 – FIRST TEACHING PRACTICAL OBSERVATION SCHEDULE .................. 140

APPENDIX 5 – SECOND TEACHING PRACTICAL OBSERVATION SCHEDULE ............. 142

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LIST OF FIGURES

1.1. DIAGRAM REPRESENTING THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE

STUDY ....................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1. DIAGRAM REPRESENTING THE ILLUMINATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF AN INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL FRAMEWORK .......................... 10

2.2.THE DIMENSIONS OF INTERACTIONS .......................................................................... 31

2.3. INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL FRAMEWORK .......................................................... 36

4.1.1 AVERAGE SCORES OF DISPOSITIONAL RATING BY FOUNDATION PHASE

STUDENTS .............................................................................................................................. 55

4.1.2 AVERAGE SCORES OF THE SURVEY ITEMS BY THE FOUNDATION PHASE

STUDENTS FOR EACH OF THE INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONS ........................................ 57

4.1.3 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE SCORES FOR ALL ITEMS ON EACH

INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL ABILITY ............................................................................ 58

4.2.1. LEGEND DEPICTING THE ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR EACH DATA SOURCE IN

THE FIRST TEACHING PRACTICAL ..................................................................................... 72

4.3.1. LEGEND DEPICTING THE ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR EACH DATA SOURCE IN

THE SECOND TECHING PRACTICAL ................................................................................. 102

xi

LIST OF TABLES

3.1. TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS ........................... 44

4.1.1 THE SIX HIGHEST AND LOWEST RATED ITEMS ON THE SURVEY ......................... 56

4.1.2. SURVEY ITEMS CODED ACCORDING TO THE INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL

ABILITY TO CARE .................................................................................................................. 59

4.1.3. SURVEY ITEMS CODED ACCORDING TO THE INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL

ABILITY OF INTENTIONALITY ............................................................................................. 62

4.1.4. SURVEY ITEMS CODED ACCORDING TO THE INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL

ABILITY OF TRUST ................................................................................................................ 64

4.1.5. SURVEY ITEMS CODED ACCORDING TO THE INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL

ABILITY OF RESPECT ........................................................................................................... 67

4.1.6 SURVEY ITEMS CODED ACCORDING TO THE INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL

ABILITY OF OPTIMISM .......................................................................................................... 69

1

CHAPTER ONE

CONTEXTUALISATION OF THE STUDY

1.1. FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

Quality Foundation Phase teaching is fundamental in light of the transformation in South Africa.

In order to rise above current situations of poverty, crime and violence, we need to show the

children of the country another way to learn, to behave and to interact with others. A Foundation

Phase teacher plays a crucial part in this, as she1 acts as a role model for the children in her

class. It is from her that they learn, not only new knowledge, but also important skills and values

which will enable them to function as effective citizens of the country (Department of Education,

2002). It can therefore be understood that effective teaching and learning practices are

necessary for the development of a democratic society, built on respect for others and on justice

for all, in order to ensure the improved economic and social standing of our country (Futrell,

2001).

In order for teachers to make a difference in the lives of the children they teach, they need a

strong sense of agency that will enable them to make the changes necessary to improve

education in this country. “Agency refers to doing” (Giddens, 1984, p.10) and is necessary for

change to occur. Giddens (1984, p.14) describes action as dependent upon “the capabilities of

the individual to ‘make a difference’ to a pre-existing state of affairs or course of events”. Agency

can include a number of different aspects necessary to accommodate a comfortable fit with the

practice of teaching. The first of these would be the knowledge needed by teachers in order to

become specialists in their field. This knowledge is multi-faceted in that it incorporates subject

knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, as well as knowledge of children and how they learn

(Darling-Hammond, 2006). Together with this knowledge, teachers need well developed skills

that will enable them to break down the required content into manageable chunks, so that

children are able to construct their own understanding and to learn in a meaningful way

(Loewenberg Ball & Forzani, 2010/2011). In conjunction with the necessary knowledge and skills

required by teachers, appropriate attitudes are another essential aspect for quality teaching.

1 For simplicity and ease of reading, the pronouns “she” or “her” will be used throughout this study to refer to

teachers. No discrimination or disrespect is meant to the male gender.

2

Attitudes can be defined as positive or negative tendencies, or valences, that occur in reaction to

people, places, or occurrences. A teacher’s attitudinal valences will influence the behaviour of

both the teacher and the children, with the emotional component ensuring an increase in intensity

and impact (Mill, 1960, p.214). In order to make positive changes in the learning opportunities

presented to children in South Africa, and to truly participate in the transformation process,

teachers need to ensure their attitudes reflect a dedication to the teaching profession, regardless

of learners’ backgrounds or contexts (Futrell, 2001).

The South African Minimum Standards for Teacher Education Qualifications 2011 (Department of

Higher Education and Training, 2011, p.7) emphasizes the necessity for teachers to be confident

and competent in the use of “integrated and applied knowledge” in their classrooms. In order to

achieve this, higher education institutions need to enable their students to develop five inter-

related learning types, namely disciplinary, pedagogical, practical, fundamental and situational.

Disciplinary learning focuses on the specific subject matter knowledge, whilst pedagogical

learning incorporates knowledge of children and how they learn. These two learning types would

be further developed through practical learning, where students need to learn from the study of

practice, as well as from engaging in the practice themselves. Fundamental learning requires

knowledge and competence in a second official language and the use of technology and

academic literacy. The final learning type is situational learning which requires students to gain

knowledge about the contexts in which they may find themselves. These five learning types are

important as they address the knowledge and skills needed to develop agency in South African

teachers. However, the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (2011)

does not specifically address the attitudes which form an essential part of agency. A list of ten

Basic Competencies for a Beginner Teacher (Department of Higher Education and Training, p.53)

is provided in which it is stated that “newly qualified teachers must have a positive work ethic,

display appropriate values and conduct themselves in a manner that befits, enhances and

develops the teaching profession”. This statement indicates the general attitudes required for

effective teaching, but no mention is made of how these should be incorporated into the five

learning types upon which the undergraduate education degree is based. With regards to the

Bachelor of Education undergraduate degree, with a specialisation in Foundation Phase, the

Department of Higher Education and Training highlights the need for teachers to be competent in

identifying and addressing barriers to learning. The implication of this is that a variety of

3

strategies, skills and knowledge types would be needed to cope with the broad spectrum of

abilities presented in Grades R – 3. In my opinion, it is insufficient to focus solely on knowledge

and skills development, as these lack purpose without the development of a sense of willingness

to put them into action.

1.2. TEACHERS’ DISPOSITIONS AND QUALITY FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING

Teacher training programmes should be used to create a sense of professional identity in student

teachers, through the development of their theories, their attitudes and their beliefs about

themselves. The attitudes within teachers’ professional identities will influence their views on the

teaching profession, in turn affecting their interactions with children and parents, and directing the

course of their teaching and learning opportunities (McCormick & Pressley, 1997; Knowles, 1992

as cited in Chong & Low, 2009, p.60). Chong and Low (2009, p.60) assert that there is a link

between teachers’ professional identities and their classroom efficacy, ultimately influencing their

ability to affect change. Research has shown that teaching practices are related to personal

characteristics, and that these characteristics, together with attitudes, can be positively developed

through a focused teacher training programme (Adalsteinsdóttir, 2004). This is an important

finding as Adalsteinsdóttir’s (2004, p.107) review of the literature determines that “attitude change

can have a considerable influence on pupils’ learning”. It can therefore be inferred that

professional identities are not fixed, and can be moulded and developed through specifically

designed teacher training programmes, in order to encourage positive teaching and learning

environments in South African classrooms (Chong & Low, 2009, p.61).

When attempting to develop a student’s professional identity, it is necessary to have a clear

understanding of what is being developed. Traditionally, attitudes have been addressed in

education through the inclusion of them as learning goals (Katz, 1993, p.1). Teacher training

programmes tend to focus on the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes, with the

understanding that an attitude is “a settled way of thinking or feeling about something (Oxford

Dictionaries, 2011). However later research determined that “attitude is not a reliable predictor of

behaviour” (Freeman, 2007 as cited in Schussler, Stooksberry & Bercaw, 2010, p.350), as it

became apparent that a person could possess a certain attitude without demonstrating any

behaviour as a direct consequence of this attitude.

4

Researchers began to investigate the construct of a disposition, in an attempt to define it and to

determine its ability to bridge the gap between attitudes and behaviour (Ritchhart, 2001, as cited

in Thornton, 2006, p.54; Schussler et al, 2010). A disposition can be described as “a pattern of

behaviour exhibited frequently and in the absence of coercion, and constituting a habit of mind

under some conscious and voluntary control, and that is intentional and orientated to broad goals”

(Katz, 1993, p.16). The key distinction between an attitude and a disposition is a disposition’s

inclusion of an accompanying action (Katz, 1993; Thornton, 2006). The construct of dispositions

enabled researchers to examine patterns of thought, as guided by attitudes, values and beliefs,

and the behaviours associated with these as exhibited in classroom practice.

In the United States of America, the Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium

(InTASC) realised the value of incorporating dispositions into their efforts to reform the

preparation, licensing and development of teachers. They “recognized the problem of having the

knowledge and skills required to be an effective teacher and yet not using them for good in the

classroom” (Diez, 2007, as cited in Schussler et al, 2010, p.350) and, in 1992, drafted a set of

model standards for the licensing of new teachers, which included the “knowledge, dispositions

and performances deemed essential for all teachers regardless of their specialty area” (InTASC,

1992, p.3). While they did not formally define dispositions, the National Council for Accreditation

of Teacher Education (NCATE) (2000) described dispositions as the “values and commitments”

central to teacher performance (Thornton, 2006, p.54). In 2001, the United States of America

introduced the No Child Left Behind Act in an attempt to improve teacher quality, by focusing on

providing all children with equal opportunities for high quality education in order to decrease the

gap between high and low achieving schools. This Act, together with the standards set out by

InTASC and NCATE, sparked much research into teachers’ dispositions, as well as the

development and assessment of these in teacher training programmes.

It is my belief that such consideration should be put into the South African teacher training

programmes, so as to improve the quality of newly qualified teachers. In a country such as South

Africa, where every classroom holds great diversity, teachers need appropriate dispositions in

order to rise to the challenges they experience. Teacher training programmes at Higher

Education Institutions (HEI) need to move beyond developing skills and attitudes as separate

entities, focusing instead on dispositions as “professional attitudes, values, and beliefs

5

demonstrated through both verbal and non-verbal behaviors as educators interact with students,

families, colleagues, and communities” (NCATE, 2011).

1.3. THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

It is necessary to investigate the problem of teachers’ dispositions as we strive to improve the

quality of education in South Africa. “Education is fundamentally an imaginative act of hope”

(Purkey & Novak, 1996, p.1) and one can only hope if one truly cares enough to develop each

child to his or her full potential. Foundation Phase education is of paramount importance as it

forms the basis for all other learning. In the Foundation Phase, young children become

accustomed to a formal education setting, and learn to interact with others in both work and play

situations. It is at this level that children learn to learn, with the teacher’s primary focus being to

encourage participation in a variety of learning opportunities (Bany Yasseen, 2010). Bany

Yasseen (2010) argues that a teacher’s behaviour is the primary determinant of children’s

behaviour, and therefore the development of a set of invitational dispositions will enable teachers

to positively influence how children see themselves and to improve their learning potential

(Purkey & Novak, 1996, p.40). In my opinion, it is necessary to train students within the

framework of knowing that being invitational means that we believe in people’s relatively

untapped potential and that we treat them accordingly. Thus, taking the Developmental approach

of the Foundation Phase child as the point of departure, I argue that the need for dispositions

focusing on the positive beliefs, expectations and values, as embedded in the Invitational

Education approach, is crucial.

The problem this study intends to investigate, by employing the main research question, is:

What are the invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase teacher training students?

The following sub-research questions are posed:

1) What are the invitational dispositions that fourth year Foundation Phase students at a HEI

portray?

2) How do invitational dispositions influence the practice of fourth year Foundation Phase

students during their teaching experience period?

6

3) How can invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase students at a HEI be

developed to enhance invitational practice?

1.4. AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to identify and describe the invitational dispositions of fourth year

Foundation Phase teacher education students at a local university.

As part of the investigation, the study will work towards achieving the following objectives:-

1) To elicit fourth year Foundation Phase students’ views on their own behaviour and

dispositions;

2) To observe and describe fourth year Foundation Phase students’ behaviour in class

during the school experience component of their training from an invitational disposition

perspective; and

3) To propose a strategy for IPET (Initial Professional Education and Training) programs to

develop invitational dispositions in Foundation Phase teachers in training.

1.5. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD

Figure 1.1 depicts a cursory explanation of the research design and method, which will be further

expanded upon in Chapter Three. As can be seen in the figure, this study uses a qualitative

research approach within an interpretivist paradigm. The case study design allows for the in-

depth study of the data collected from a macro-case survey and from the two separate teaching

practicals. A variety of data collection methods are used in order to obtain data from the two

nested cases, and a qualitative content analysis technique is used to analyse the data. The

triangulation of information allows for the consideration of credibility, dependability, transferability

and confirmability in order to ensure trustworthiness. In addition to this, the problematic stance of

the researcher investigating participants from her own HEI is addressed through member

checking and the use of an external coder.

7

INTERPRETIVIST PARADIGM

CASE STUDY DESIGN

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Survey completed

by the macro case

First teaching practical (P1)

Individual lesson

observation during P1

Reflective focus group

interviews with each

nested case after

P1

Reflective focus group

interviews with the

supervising teachers after P1

Reflective journals

written by the

students during P1

Second teaching practical (P2)

Whole day observation

during P2

Focus group

interview with both

nested cases

together after P2

Reflective comments written by

the students

and teachers after P2

DATA ANALYSIS

TECHNIQUE

Qualitative Content Analysis

technique

CASE SELECTION

The macro case is the fourth year Foundation

Phase student

group at a local HEI

Two nested cases of three

voluntary participants each. Each

nested case is situated at a

local government

primary school

ENSURING TRUSTWORTHINESS by

considering creditability,

dependability, transferability,

confirmability and the role of the researcher

Compliance with ethical

standards by ensuring: consent, voluntary

participation, confidentiality,

member checking,

feedback and information

Figure 1.1 - Diagram representing the Research Design and Methodology of the study

8

1.6. CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Chapter One: Contextualisation of the study

This chapter has provided the context for this study, and has outlined the problem and motivation

for the research. The aim of the study has been provided, as has a brief diagrammatic

description of the research design and method. This qualitative study will be divided into six

chapters, with the following five chapters structured as follows:

Chapter Two: Invitational dispositions in the Foundation Phase

The second chapter will provide the theoretical framework for the study based on a review of the

literature. The concept of dispositions will be unpacked, and examined through the selected lens

of structuration theory, social cognitive theory, attribution theory, perceptual psychology and

invitational education. This chapter will then further examine aspects of Invitational Education, in

order to establish an invitational framework for teacher dispositions. The literature reviewed will

be used to extend the premises of Invitational Education to actively consider a correlation

between perceptions (or dispositions as discussed in this study) and teacher behaviour in the

classroom.

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

The third chapter will describe in detail the research design and methods used for data collection

and analysis. A variety of data, sources and analysis techniques are used within an interpretivist

paradigm and using a qualitative research approach. The triangulation of the information will

achieve a higher level of trustworthiness, and enable the researcher to identify the invitational

dispositions of two nested cases of fourth year Foundation Phase students.

Chapter Four: Data Analysis

In the fourth chapter, findings from the data will be carefully examined in order to identify patterns

and themes. Themes in the data will be analysed and presented in a descriptive format, and

related to current literature.

9

Chapter Five: Summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations

The fifth chapter will provide a conclusion to the study, based on the findings and analysis.

Recommendations will be provided, as well as a critical reflection from both a research and a

personal perspective.

10

CHAPTER TWO

INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONS IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE

2.1. ILLUMINATING AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF DISPOSITIONS

2.1.1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study is to determine the invitational dispositions of Foundation Phase fourth

year teacher training students, and in order to achieve this, it is necessary to establish a

theoretical framework in which to situate this investigation. In the first part of this chapter, a

series of connected notions will be discussed in an attempt to create an understanding of the

progressive nature of disposition development. It will be proposed that the effectiveness of the

teaching and learning process in a Foundation Phase classroom is influenced by a teacher’s

agency. The factors comprising agency in turn impact upon the deep-seated perceptions held by

the teacher, and her particular perceptual orientation. This impact then has an effect on her

dispositions, with evidence of this indicated in her displays of overt behaviour. In the second part

of the chapter, the understanding of this dispositional development will be integrated with the

Invitational Education approach in order to develop an invitational dispositional framework.

Figure 2.1 – Diagram representing the illumination of understanding in the development of an

invitational dispositional framework

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2.1.2. QUALITY TEACHING IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE

Education is an essential part of every child’s life, and it is intended to enable them to acquire and

use knowledge, skills and understanding. Foundation Phase education is of particular

importance as this is where the groundwork of their physical, social, emotional, intellectual, and

mental development begins (Bany Yasseen, 2010, p.48). It is at this stage of their schooling

where children learn certain fundamental basics, which include academic skills such as learning

to read, to write and to do simple mathematics problems. These skills are important as they will

impact greatly on the children’s adult lives, as they are generally held in high regard, earning

respect and allowing for an increased number of employment opportunities. However, skills

acquired in the Foundation Phase are not purely academic. Social skills are also developed at

this level, and are equally as important for effective functioning in society. Young children are

taught how to function as part of a group, recognising norms of behaviour and responding to

expectations. They learn to recognise right from wrong, how to behave in different situations, as

well as the consequences of their actions (Bartlett, Burton & Peim, 2005, p.3; Bany Yasseen,

2010, p.48). Some of this learning may stem from the home environment. In addition, South

African classrooms generally provide a place for children to develop tolerance and understanding

of different races, languages, genders, personalities and abilities. The knowledge, skills,

tolerance and understanding developed at school are intended to prepare children for future

work, and to enable them to contribute effectively to society. School is intended to develop

children’s minds and to provide them with skills, whether these skills are academic or social. As

adults it is necessary to alternate between individual freedom and self-control, between

questioning and obedience. It is at school that children are given the opportunities to experience

all of these and recognise when certain behaviours or skills are required (Bartlett, Burton & Peim,

2005, p.6)

Nieto (2005, p.9) provides insight into the characteristics required to be an effective teacher to all

students. The main characteristics are “strong subject-matter knowledge and pedagogical

effectiveness, as well as excellent communication skills” (Nieto, 2005, p.9). In addition to this,

she states that there are a number of other general characteristics demonstrated by effective

teachers. These include:

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Making learning relevant to students’ contexts

Having high expectations of students

Showing perseverance

Respecting students as individuals, and recognising how this impacts on the teaching and

learning process

Including parents and other stakeholders as part of the process

Creating a safe learning environment

Being willing to challenge people or policies when necessary

Being resilient

Being willing to experiment and using a variety of active learning strategies

Seeing themselves as lifelong learners

Caring about, respecting and loving each of their students

(Nieto, 2005, p.9)

Gordon and Browne (2008) agree with Nieto’s description of an effective teacher, despite their

focus being on early childhood education specifically. It appears that many of the same

characteristics are needed for successful teaching in early childhood, primary and secondary

education. One aspect that, whilst not being excluded from secondary education, is more of a

focus in the early years of education, is the social, emotional and physical development of the

child, in conjunction with their cognitive development. In my opinion, the desire to reach and

develop all aspects of the child is a key element of being a Foundation Phase teacher. A

Foundation Phase teacher’s primary goal is not only to impart content or subject knowledge, but

rather to “mold ... students into young people who can become assets to their communities”

(Green, 2009, p.26). Green (2009, p.29) provides a list, compiled by veteran teachers, of the

characteristics required by Foundation Phase teachers. These characteristics include

organisation skills, flexibility and the ability to work hard, dedication and being dynamic in both

preparation and leadership. Although a definitive list of the characteristics describing effective

teachers does not exist, the variations (Browne & Haylock, 2004; Gestwicki, 1999; Hasset & Reis

as cited by Green, 2009) maintain a similar train of thought to the suggestions made by Nieto

(2005), Gordon and Browne (2008) and Green (2009). The overriding characteristic is that of

genuine care for children, as this translates into the teacher’s willingness to persevere, overcome

obstacles, and vary teaching strategies in order to accommodate the differing needs of children.

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Gordon and Browne (2008, p.209) describe the “whole” teacher, explaining that good teachers

reach a point where their experience, life, knowledge and training merge into a unified whole. It is

at this time, that such a teacher’s beliefs and practices as a teacher become inextricably linked

with who they are as a person; “what teachers do and what teachers are become woven

together” (Gordon & Browne, 2008, p.209). Therefore, if one accepts that one’s beliefs and

practices are an integral part of the make-up of a teacher, then it can be understood that it is the

teacher as a person who ultimately influences the quality of the teaching and learning process.

It is with this in mind, that the Foundation Phase teacher training programme2 at the local HEI has

been developed. The undergraduate degree is taken over four years, throughout which there is a

mix of theory and practice. The students are required to take academic majors or sub-majors

each year as well as methodology courses designed to fully prepare students for every aspect of

a Foundation Phase classroom. In the first year of study, the students take a general

methodology course intended to introduce them to the basics of teaching, such as classroom

management, discipline and lesson planning. In the second year, there are two methodology

courses focusing specifically on Numeracy and Literacy (First Additional Language). Literacy

(Home Language) is taken in the third year, and consolidated in the fourth year. An Integrated

Foundation Phase Programmes methodology course is also taken in the fourth year, dealing with

the Life Skills component of Foundation Phase teaching. The methodology courses focus

primarily on the pedagogical content knowledge required for student to effectively teach the three

Learning Programmes: Numeracy, Literacy and Life Skills. The more subtle aspects of being a

teacher, such as attitudes, values, communication skills and others are addressed in an implicit

manner through the methodology courses, without specific emphasis being placed on these at

any time. The students are required to participate in two practical teaching sessions each year,

with each being three weeks in duration. The practical sessions take place in the second and

third quarters of the year, and students are observed twice (as a minimum) by academic staff of

the university. In each year of study the students are required to take on more responsibility

during their teaching practices, with the students being expected to act as qualified teachers

during their final teaching practical. Every effort is made to blend theory with practice; therefore

assignments are set for the students to complete during their teaching practicals in order to

encourage students to apply what is being taught in the university lectures.

2 This study applied to a group of fourth year Foundation Phase students who are completing

their undergraduate degree which is based on the National Curriculum Statement (2002).

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Darling-Hammond (2006, p.1) describes the success of individuals, as well as nations, as being

dependent on the education received, and emphasises in particular that the abilities of the

teachers influence the students’ learning. O’leary and O’leary (1977, as cited in Bany Yasseen,

2010, p.48) suggest that “the way teachers attend to their pupils determines in large measures,

what the children will do”. They believe that the positive interactions fostered by teachers greatly

influences social and academic behaviour of children, and that systematic teacher attention

should be the starting point for any required change in behaviour. Therefore, based on the

importance of the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes needing to be developed in the

Foundation Phase, it is clear that quality teachers are required to provide the necessary learning

opportunities in order to prepare children to become effective members of society. The call for

quality teachers “is more than just addressing the need for equal opportunity. It is about ensuring

maximum development of the potential of each person and expanding opportunities” (Futrell,

2001, p.2). Typically, it is understood that teachers need to be able to manage their classes

through effective communication and appropriate activities. However, a primary function of a

teacher is to be able to understand the very essence of each child in her care, and to endeavour

to further develop the spirit of every child (Darling-Hammond, 2006, p.1). Combs, Blume,

Newman & Wass (1974) believe that “whether an individual will be an effective teacher depends

fundamentally on the nature of his private world of perceptions”, a view which has been reiterated

more recently by Stronge and Hindman (2006, p.9) who describe a pre-requisite of quality

teaching as being “the teacher as a person”. Students will generally learn better if they believe

that they are valued, and if there is a trusting and respectful relationship between them and their

teacher. The effectiveness of a teacher is increased if they possess a “deep sense of caring”

(Stronge & Hindman, 2006, p.9) towards the individuals they teach, because “we cannot teach

students well if we do not know them well” (Sizer, 1999, p.6 as cited in Strong and Hindman,

2006, p.9).

In my opinion, this is the most crucial aspect of being a teacher, particularly at a Foundation

Phase level. I believe that it is only possible to create learning opportunities intended to extend

the potential of each child, if one truly knows the individual children with whom one is interacting.

If you understand the context from which a child comes, if you understand their personality, their

beliefs and their fears, then it becomes possible to guide them to take what they need from every

opportunity presented to them. A teacher cannot create a personalised activity for every child in

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the class; however, with an in-depth knowledge of each child, she can enable children to develop

their individual potential from the range of activities provided. This ability to gain insight into the

spirit of each child comes from a teacher’s innate care for her pupils. Stronge and Hindman

(2006, p.9) and Helm (2006, p. 237) suggest that quality teachers possess particular dispositions

which distinguish them from those teachers who may be good managers, but who are not able to

develop the personal relationships required for effective teaching and learning. “Effective

teachers have been described as caring, enthusiastic, motivated, fair, respectful, reflective and

dedicated individuals with a sense of humour who interact well with students and colleagues”

(Black & Howard-Jones, 2000; Delaney, 1954; National Association of Secondary School

Principals [NASSP], 1997; Peart & Campbell, 1999 as cited in Stronge and Hindman, 2006, p.9),

highlighting again that it is the teacher as a person who determines the success of the education

process.

2.1.3. AGENCY TO EFFECT CHANGE

Giddens views each person as a “purposive agent” (Giddens, 1984, p.3), who is fully aware of his

behaviour, and the reasons for this behaviour, at all times. He uses the term agency to refer to

the actions of people, which he sees as being recursive, and which can therefore become

routinised (Callahan, 2004). He identifies structures of society, which are made up of rules and

resources, and which guide the interactions of people, or the systems (Callahan, 2004).

However, he clarifies that agency and structure are in a dynamic relationship which is constantly

evolving to a greater or lesser extent, based on people’s reactions to the existing structures

(Gauntlett, 2001). Giddens refers to this as the duality of structure with the understanding that

the rules and resources of a structure are used to organise behaviours, which in turn either

reproduce or transform the original rules and resources (Turner, 1991 as cited in Callahan, 2004).

This theory of structuration suggests that we, as human beings, purposefully select each of our

actions with full awareness of the reasons for this behaviour. If this were the case, could one not

then assume that each and every teaching and learning opportunity would be successful? If

every teacher and learner purposively directs their behaviour in the classroom, then surely every

interaction would be to the full benefit of the learning potential of the child? I believe that there is

another aspect to this theory which has not been dealt with in enough detail, and that is the notion

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of perceptions. Giddens does acknowledge perceptions, but dismisses them as being “actively

organised as such by the perceiver” (Giddens, 1984, p.47), with the implication being that people

are aware of their perceptions and, despite this, select to either carry out or not carry out an

action. I would like to argue that perceptions play a far greater role in the determination of

behaviour than suggested by Giddens. I believe that perceptions are often deep-seated, and that

many people are not self-aware enough to be able to identify their own perceptions, nor how

these influence their daily interactions.

Bandura’s social cognitive theory goes beyond that of Giddens’ structuration theory, as it

considers more specifically the role each individual plays in their choice of behaviour. Bandura

refutes Giddens’ notion of the duality of structure, arguing that “people are contributors to their life

circumstances, not just products of them” (Bandura, 2006, p.164). He describes four distinct

components of human agency, namely intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness and self-

reflectiveness. Intentionality involves an individual’s purposive choice of actions by which to

achieve their intentions or goals. Forethought refers to an individual’s realisation that anticipated

results and consequences of one’s behaviour dictates one’s current choices of actions. When

one’s intentionality and forethought have resulted in a plan of action, one’s self-reactiveness

engages to ensure that the plan is effectively motivated and regulated. The fourth component

addresses what I see as lacking in Giddens’ theory, and that is the notion of self-reflectiveness. It

is this component that refers to people’s ability to reflect upon their thoughts and actions, and to

question them, and to make adjustments to their behaviour if they see fit (Bandura, 2006, p.165).

In my opinion, this is where Bandura expands upon the idea of perceptions and how they

influence our behaviour. If one is able to critically reflect upon one’s own behaviour, then one is

more able to identify the perceptions which direct our actions. If time is taken to consider the

degree of success a course of action produces, then it can be followed that one is more likely to

consider the role of the other person or people in the scenario. Once a person begins to consider

another person’s point of view, then the influence of perceptions begins to become more

apparent, leading to increased critical reflection on behaviour.

Weiner’s (2010, p.30) attribution-based theory of motivation suggests that achievement is

influenced by four causal factors. Ability and effort are two internally based factors, whilst task

difficulty and luck are two externally based factors. These factors impact on a person’s

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motivation by causing expectancy shifts in terms of success or failure. Weiner (2010, p.31)

referred to this as causal stability, and explained that if a cause of failure is seen to be stable, or

unchanging, then there is a decrease in motivation as the person expects future failure in this

area. However, if a cause for failure has the potential for change, then motivation is increased as

the person recognises that success is possible. If a person experiences failure as a result of an

unstable internal cause, such as a lack of effort, or an unstable external cause, such as bad luck,

then there will be no decrease in the expectancy for future success, as the person will recognise

the potential for change. On the other hand, if a person experiences failure as a result of a stable

internal cause, such as ability, or a stable external cause, such as task difficulty, they will expect

to fail in the future based on their inability to effect change on the cause, thereby resulting in a

decrease in motivation. I believe that, with the inclusion of Bandura’s notion of self-

reflectiveness, this theory can contribute significantly to the development and modification of

behaviour patterns. In my opinion, much processing of the causal factors and causal stability of

Weiner’s theory would be done subconsciously. This would impact upon future actions, but not in

a considered manner. I believe that if one was able to develop Bandura’s notion of self-

reflectiveness, then it would be possible to move to more conscious actions through critical

reflection of the causes of success and failure. This reflectiveness would then result in greater

self-awareness and in the potential for creative thinking in which to enable future success.

This move from the sub-conscious to the conscious necessitates a consideration of the

Invitational Education approach. This approach is based on the perceptual tradition which views

people as conscious agents, who are responsible for their own actions. People act and respond

to others according to their perceptions of themselves, others, and their situations. The situation

in which a person finds himself at any particular moment is therefore a key determinant of his

behaviour, as he will respond according to his perception of the situation. Perceptions are learnt,

and serve to organise our understanding of the world around us. Perceptions therefore influence

our understanding of past, present and future actions, interactions and events (Purkey & Novak,

1996).

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2.1.4. PERCEPTIONS

Invitational Education as an approach correlates well with the theory of structuration. According

to Callahan (2004), “there is a reciprocal relationship between systems and structures”, which

means that agency is closely related to the context in which the actor finds himself. If one

considers the Invitational Education views on perception, it is clear that a person’s actions could

be influenced by their perception of the structure, which may be different to another person’s

perception of the same structure. In the theory of structuration, the rule of signification is a prime

example of how perceptions would influence interactions. Rules of signification refer to various

forms of communication, which could include body language and messages sent out by dress

code. A Foundation Phase teacher’s choice of clothing could either inspire confidence or

promote doubts in her abilities, which would affect her relationships with the parents of the

children in her class. Legitimative rules, on the other hand, indicate how things should be in a

classroom, which may or may not meet with a parent’s expectations (based on their own

experiences or perceptions) which would influence the effectiveness of the interactions between

teacher, parent and child. Domination would also impact on this relationship, and is also affected

by perceptions. A teacher may think she has authority in a classroom, based on her training,

whereas this may be the same reason a parent thinks she does not have authority. A parent may

have the perception that the status of a teacher is not as high as that of another profession which

is seen as being more challenging. Therefore, within this structure the authoritative resource is

perceived differently by the actors in the system (Giddens, 1984).

The four components influencing agency in the social cognitive theory also correlate well with an

Invitational Education approach. Invitational Education emphasises the notion of intentionality, in

which a person purposefully chooses their behaviour. Invitational intentionality includes

consideration of a plan of action, possible opportunities and results, as well as an evaluation of

consequences (Purkey & Novak, 1996, 54). The links between this and Bandura’s intentionality,

forethought, self-reactiveness and self-reflectiveness are clearly apparent. There is a distinct

focus on the selection of behaviour, which indicates that teachers have the ability to select

actions for more effective teaching. Invitational Education takes this notion a bit further than

Bandura, in that, in order to be inviting in a teaching and learning situation, a teacher’s choice of

behaviour needs to primarily benefit the recipient of the behaviour (Purkey & Novak, 1996, p.53).

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Once again, it is a teacher’s perceptions that will greatly influence this intentionality. A key

similarity between Invitational Education and social cognitive theory is the idea of reflection.

Invitational Education states that perceptions can be reflected upon, and that it is this reflection

which allows for hope. Inevitability has no place in the eyes of agency and inviting behaviours, as

the ability to hope creates opportunities for past and present events to be perceived differently,

which enables an increased number of possibilities (Purkey & Novak, 1996; Bandura, 2006).

2.1.5. PERCEPTUAL ORIENTATION

Humanist perceptual psychologists see any behaviour as dependent on a person’s beliefs, or

perceptions, and recognise that these beliefs are not simple, but are enmeshed within a complex

structure known as the perceptual field. Combs takes a humanistic view of a good teacher,

stating that he “is no carbon copy but possesses something intensely and personally his own”

(1974, p.8). It is from this idea that the notion of the “self-as-instrument” is developed, whereby

learning to how to teach is dependent on a process of self-discovery of one’s perceptual field, so

that each teacher discovers how to make the most of his own potential.

A perceptual field is the sum total of all a person’s beliefs, including those about himself, which

influence his behaviour. This perceptual field is so deep-seated that, to each individual, it

becomes their reality. A person’s perception of the world is so entrenched that they are unlikely

to ever question it. When considering a view which conflicts with one’s own, one is likely to

assume that the other person is simply experiencing a distortion of reality. We are so convinced

that our own views, or perceptions, are accurate that it becomes reasonable to assume that the

other person is mistaken (Combs, Richards & Richards, 1976). Therefore, it could be suggested

that our behaviour is less about a purposive choice of actions than about the solitary course of

action available as dependent on our current perception of reality.

Combs, Blume, Newman & Wass (1977, p.20) describe teaching as one of the helping

professions, and included it in a study to identify a good helping relationship. It was found that

the effectiveness of individual teachers did not actually impact on their recognition of what a good

helping relationship entails. It appeared, from this study, that knowledge of how best to interact

with children in teaching and learning situations did not necessarily reproduce itself into actions in

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the classroom. However, it was discovered that there was a distinct difference in the perceptual

organisation of effective teachers versus ineffective teachers. This finding is significant when

considering that the premise of perceptual psychology is that our beliefs, or perceptions, direct

our behaviour. Combs conducted much research in the field of perceptual psychology as he

investigated which dispositions tended to result in effective teaching, and five key perceptual

characteristics were identified which Combs et al (1977, p.22) believed were an essential part of

the perceptual orientation of a teacher. These are:

1) Perceptions about others

2) Perceptions about self

3) Perceptions about subject matter

4) Perceptions about the teaching and learning process

5) Perceptions about how to teach effectively (which later broadened to a more general frame

of reference) (Combs et al, 1976; Wasicsko, n.d)

Wasicsko (1977, p.5) identifies effective teachers as those people who are able to effect positive

change in their students or in their context. He further explains that effective teachers can be

distinguished by their perceptual orientation. A person’s perceptual orientation will influence their

daily interactions with children, parents and colleagues, and may be described as being that

which makes up “the teacher as a person” (Stronge & Hindman, 2006, p.9).

2.1.6. DISPOSITIONS

If one considers that the “teacher as a person” (Stronge & Hindman, 2006, p.9), with her

influencing perceptions of the world, forms the basis of quality teaching, it becomes necessary to

clarify what constitutes a “teacher as a person”. Combs et al (1974, p.6) identifies a “teacher as a

person” as being a unique personality. Although effective teachers do have numerous

competencies, it is not these that distinguish them from other teachers. If we recall our own

teachers, the good teachers stand out for the people they were. Combs et al (1974, p.6)

describes teaching as an extremely personal exercise, which is emphasised by Wasicsko’s

(1977, p.5) definition of the perceptual orientation of a person as being “the way in which they

view themselves and others, and their attitudes and beliefs about the nature of the helping

situation. It is clear from this explanation that a person’s beliefs and values determine “the

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teacher as a person” (Stronge & Hindman, 2006, p.9), and, in my opinion, it is these attitudes,

values and beliefs which make up one’s dispositions. In addition to this, I believe that it is these

dispositions which determine the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process.

Therefore, for the purposes of this study, I shall focus on the notion of dispositions. Thornton

(2006, p.54) acknowledges that terms such as “tendencies, values, habits of mind, attitudes, and

behaviours” are often used synonymously with the term “dispositions”, making it difficult to

establish a simple definition. However, the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher

Education (2006, p. 53 as cited in Da Ros-Voseles & Moss, 2007, p.90) describes dispositions as

being “the values, commitments, and professional ethics” which influence a teacher’s behaviour,

which are “guided by beliefs and attitudes related to values such as caring, fairness, honesty,

responsibility, and social justice”.

For greater clarity, a distinction needs to be made between an attitude and a disposition. An

attitude can be defined as “a relatively enduring organisation of beliefs around an object or

situation predisposing one to respond in a preferential manner” (Rokeach, 1968, p.112 as cited in

Katz, 1993, p.9). Katz also refers to Eagly’s (1992, p.693 as cited in Katz, 1993, p.10) evaluative

definition of an attitude. In this view, an attitude is a result of evaluative thinking and can be

described as a pre-disposition to react positively or negatively to objects or situations. Mill (1960,

p.214) describes attitudes as positive or negative tendencies, or valences, that occur in reaction

to people, places, or occurrences. Teacher’s attitudinal valences will invariably influence their

specialist subject, pedagogical and developmental knowledge, their skilfulness in appropriating

this knowledge into learning opportunities for both the teacher and the children, and the creation

of emotionally safe learning environments (Mill, 1960, p.214).

Claxton (2007, p.119) describes a disposition as an ability that one is inclined to use, and

Ritchhart (2001, p.5 as cited in Thornton, 2006, p.56) reiterates this view by stating that

dispositions are “accompanied by behaviour and thus assume the requisite ability to carry out that

behaviour”. Buss and Craik (1983 as cited in Katz, 1993, p.10) defines dispositions as “frequently

exhibited trends in actions”. It can therefore be seen that there is a clear distinction between an

attitude and a disposition, in that an attitude is an evaluative thought process whereas a

disposition is always accompanied by an action. It is possible to have a biased attitude towards a

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person or situation, but to not demonstrate any action in this regard. It could therefore be said

that the person does not display a biased disposition. It is for this reason that Freeman (2007 as

cited in Schussler et al, 2010, p.350) argues that it would be unreliable to use attitudes to predict

behaviour, as the action one intends to implement is not necessarily the action actually displayed.

Ritchhart, (2001, p.3 as cited in Thornton, 2006, p.54) believes that “dispositions address the

often noticed gap between our abilities and our actions”, and it is for this reason that I will focus

on dispositions in this study.

2.1.7. DEVELOPMENT OF DISPOSITIONS

Much of the research on dispositions implies that these are stable and relatively static (Ajzen,

2005; Combs et al, 1974; Helm, 2006; Katz, 1992; Wasicsko, n.d.), as dispositions are generally

defined as frequently displayed actions based on underlying beliefs and attitudes. Dispositional

research has been focused, to a large extent, on the assessment of dispositions to inform the

selection, or exclusion, of candidates from teacher training programmes or schools. In this view,

it follows that the fundamental belief is that dispositions are deep-seated and resistant to change.

Katz and Raths, (1985, as cited in Katz, 1992, p.5) describe a disposition as an action which is

almost an automatic response, and which is not preceded by reflective thought, nor conscious

decision-making. They assert that if extensive premeditation occurs before a generous act, then

the action does not denote a generous disposition but rather a cautious or deliberate one.

However, Sockett (2009, p.294) provides a slight variation to the dispositional definition given

above. He states that a disposition is an action produced with both awareness and intentionality.

He argues that this is an important distinction when considering the dispositions of teachers and

student teachers. Teachers need an awareness of their dispositions, and their resulting actions,

in order to determine their contextual appropriateness. Intentionality indicates that the teacher

has considered the situation in which she finds herself, and has specifically selected the most

suitable course of action. Sockett emphasises the role of self-reflection in this process, indicating

that greater reflection will lead to increased awareness and intentionality. Claxton’s (2007) view

of dispositions as synonymous with abilities adds further weight to Sockett’s premise that

dispositions can be moulded and developed. An ability can be taught or trained, which then leads

us to understand that, according to Claxton (2007) and Ritchhart (2001), dispositions can also be

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learnt and developed. The view of dispositions as being malleable, as suggested by Sockett

(2009), Claxton (2007) and Ritchhart (2001), would be in line with the notion of these being

developed at teacher training institutions, and would suggest the possibility of a positive outcome

of this action.

Rike and Sharp (2008, p.152) suggest steps for remediation when an unsuitable disposition is

identified through the Early Childhood Education Behaviours and Dispositions Checklist. After

identification, the student must provide “a plan for changing the behaviour” (Rike & Sharp, 2008,

p.152) and if this is unsuccessful the student is either given an “instructor-designed plan for

remediation” (Rike & Sharp, 2008, p.152) or counselled to withdraw from the course. Although

Sockett would agree with self-reflection being used to increase intentionality and awareness, my

concern with this so called development of dispositions is that it leads to a change in behaviour,

but not necessarily a change in disposition. A student can adapt behaviour, particularly when

observed by a supervising teacher or tutor, but how likely is it that this changed behaviour will be

maintained once the student graduates to her own classroom? In my opinion the underlying

dispositions of an effective teacher, the very essence of what makes a good teacher, needs to be

consistently addressed rather than the symptomatic actions presented.

Obara (2009, p.103) describes the development of dispositions from a Vygotskian perspective,

considering the influence of mediators. In her research, she identified three key categories of

mediators which together play a dynamic role in the development of student teachers’

dispositions. Reflection forms part of the intrapersonal mediators, impacting on students’

awareness and intentionality of their actions. Interpersonal mediators refer to the role played by

supervising teachers and tutors to model and mediate appropriate dispositional development.

The third category describes extra-personal mediators such as institutional resources and support

which facilitate opportunities for growth. With these categories in mind, Obara asserts that

dispositions could be developed through the explicit instruction of “micro-skills” (2009, p.106).

Eye contact, attention and posture form some of the micro-skills associated with listening, which

can then be extended to enhance the development of dispositions of empathy and respect.

Claxton (2007, p.119) believes that dispositions can be developed by learning how to be both

ready and willing, and by then mastering the required skill. Learning to be ready involves

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recognising when it is appropriate to use the ability, and learning to be willing requires a

development of the inclination to use the ability, regardless of whether or not one receives

positive support for the use of this ability. Claxton uses the example of a questioning disposition

to demonstrate the necessity for the notions of readiness and willingness. In a learning context, it

is readily accepted that questions are an essential aspect of learning. It is possible to teach a

person to ask good questions, but if that person lacks the inclination to ask the questions, the skill

becomes redundant (Claxton, 2007, p.119). In my opinion, a teacher needs to be ready to ask a

variety of questions to monitor the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process. In one

such example of this, a successful teacher should recognise opportunities to question her

teaching methods, to question her tasks and to question her results in order to better understand

her learners. If the teacher is unwilling to question and challenge her own part in the learning

process, then her ability to ask good questions loses its value, and the dynamic relationship

between the teacher and the learners suffers. Readiness and willingness are largely dependent

on one’s belief system. If a child has the attitude, or the “pre-disposition” (Katz, 1993, p.9), that

they are entitled to ask questions, that they “have a right to be curious” (Claxton, 2007, p.120),

then they will be more ready and willing to develop their questioning disposition. In the same

way, if a teacher has the “pre-disposition” (Katz, 1993, p.9) that she is responsible for the

children’s learning, and if she has the optimism that she can reach every child through making

modifications to her own teaching styles and strategies, then she too can further develop her

questioning disposition.

Purkey and Novak use the Invitational Education approach to develop a “craft of inviting” (1996,

p.61). They provide suggestions on how teachers can use, and improve, certain skills in order to

invite others into a positive teaching and learning situation. In my opinion, these suggestions are

reminiscent of Rike and Sharp’s (2008) and Obara’s (2009) methods of dispositional

development. In these methods, the focus remains on the modification of behaviour, which is

symptomatic of one’s dispositions. I believe that, while these methods have value and can

certainly enhance teacher training programmes, greater emphasis needs to be placed on the root

of the dispositions. The majority of dispositional research defines dispositions as being guided by

values, attitudes and beliefs (Katz, 1983; Combs et al, 1974; NCATE, 2002; Sockett, 2009;

Thornton, 2006; Wasicsko, 2002), and it is upon this that I feel teacher training programmes

should strive to make a bigger impact.

25

Bandura (2006, p.164) suggests that reflectiveness is one of the major components of agency,

which then leads to an understanding that this reflectiveness would influence one’s perceptions

(as can be seen in Figure 2.1). Following on from this, Figure 2.1 shows that perceptions affect

dispositions, which in turn influence overt behaviour. Therefore, if students are encouraged to

engage in reflective practice, critically considering their own perceptions, then dispositional

development is likely to occur, resulting in actions intended to invite children into the learning

situation. Englehart, Batchelder, Jennings, Wilkerson, Lang and Quinn (2012, p.28) used a

picture of a girl “lost in thought” to expose teachers’ differing perceptions of the girl’s ability to

focus and comprehend. It was clear from this exercise that teachers saw the girl as either a

daydreamer, or as a good thinker, and that their actions towards the girl would be significantly

impacted by this perception. To use an exercise such as this in a teacher training programme

would enable students to clearly see how the different perceptions people have would influence

their dispositions, and the resulting impact these perceptions would make on the actions involved

in the teaching and learning process.

In addition to this, Purkey and Novak (1996, p.31) emphasise the importance of a positive self

regard, suggesting that one’s actions are dependent upon one’s perceptions of one’s abilities and

characteristics. A person’s self-concept will influence their perceptions of people, places and

events, which in turn influences their own actions. If one considers Combs et al’s view that our

perceptions are our dispositions (Wasicsko, 2002, p.6), then this would suggest that dispositions

can be developed through the development of one’s self-concept, or one’s self-perception. As

one’s self-concept is ultimately the perception of oneself, and it is accepted that perceptions can

be learnt, it stands to reason that a person can develop or adapt their self concept. Purkey and

Novak (1996, p.32) discuss the notion of internal consistency, whereby people are fairly resistant

to change. Our self-perceptions are created through innumerable interactions over time, resulting

in a mostly stable view of ourselves as individuals. This stable view is necessary in order to allow

people to experience an internal balance and a sense of purpose. When we receive new

information that contradicts our existing self-concept, we become unbalanced as we struggle to

make sense of this new information. It would only be through repeated exposure to the

conflicting information that we would begin to make changes to our existing perceptions in order

to accommodate the new ideas. Therefore, as said by Purkey and Novak (1996, p.32), “self-

perceptions do change, but not immediately or automatically”.

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2.1.8. IMPACT OF DISPOSITIONS ON THE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS

In order for a teacher to become effective in the teaching and learning process, it is necessary for

her to establish an understanding of how children learn. This understanding will develop her

ability to act with forethought and intentionality, thereby increasing her agency in the classroom.

This agency would lead to a development in her perceptions of children’s abilities, which as a

result would impact on her dispositions.

Pritchard (2005, p.4) suggests that learning theory can, at its most basic level, be divided into two

branches. The first of these is the Behaviourist branch, and the second is the Constructivist

branch. Behaviourism defines learning as “the acquisition of new behaviour” (Pritchard, 2005,

p.7), and suggests that children learn through reinforcement of these behaviours. This learning

theory does not delve into the mental processes of children, leaving us to acknowledge that,

although a child may demonstrate an appropriate behaviour or skill, this is a product of repetitive

reinforcement and does not necessarily imply any level of understanding associated with the

action. Constructivism, on the other hand, focuses primarily on the fact that knowledge and

understanding are constructed by the children themselves (Pritchard, 2005, p.4). In this theory of

learning, it is believed that children continually add new information onto their existing knowledge

through a process of assimilation and accommodation. In an effort to reach equilibrium,

assimilation occurs when new information is in line with existing information, and is therefore

simply added to expand the knowledge base. Accommodation, however, occurs when the new

information is in conflict with the existing information, and adjustments need to be made to the

established knowledge base in order to successfully integrate the new information (Pritchard,

2005, p.25). It is therefore clear that previous knowledge and experience create an important

foundation on which all new learning is based.

A Foundation Phase teacher should be aware of the Behaviourist and Constructivist theories of

learning, recognising the significance of these in her interactions with the children. For example,

a teacher’s perceptions of, and resulting dispositions towards, the learners in her class can have

an enormous impact on the teaching and learning process. Children instinctively know what their

teachers think of them, and then tend to react according to these perceptions. For example, if a

child believes his teacher sees him as a naughty child, who constantly misbehaves, then he is

27

more likely to misbehave in the presence of his teacher, thereby reaffirming her perceptions and

dispositions. Her persistent reaction to him reinforces his behaviour, as dictated by the

Behaviourist theory of learning. From the Constructivist viewpoint, the child is also then likely to

establish a knowledge base in which he sees himself as naughty, and all further information

regarding his behaviour becomes assimilated or accommodated through this existing standpoint.

Studies have shown that effective teachers are more likely to see their learners in a positive light,

believing them to be ‘dependable, able and worthy” (Wasicsko, n.d. p.10).

2.2. EXTENSION: THE INVITATIONAL EDUCATION APPROACH

2.2.1. PERCEPTIONS IN INVITATIONAL EDUCATION

Invitational Education also emphasises the importance of a teacher’s perceptions in her

interactions with the children in her class (Purkey & Novak, 1996, p.39). Therefore, together with

an understanding of how children learn, the teacher needs strong perceptions on the value and

capabilities of each child in order to invite positive learning situations. It is only possible to

develop a child to the best of his or her potential when one whole-heartedly believes that the child

is valuable, able and responsible. If a teacher is confident that a child is able to successfully

complete a difficult task, and if she is able to communicate this confidence effectively, then the

child is more likely to respond positively and achieve the set requirements. In addition to this, a

teacher needs to have a positive view of her own abilities; otherwise the child will sense her lack

of confidence, and respond with his own anxiety. The teacher’s confidence must also extend to

her view of the teaching and learning process itself. If the teacher has no faith in the education

system in which she operates, she is unlikely to be able to instil a sense of hope in the children

she teaches. Invitational Education has therefore highlighted these three key categories of

perceptions as those which are necessary for effective teaching: perception of self, perception of

others and perception of education. However, as previously discussed, these perceptions would

form part of the attitudes, beliefs and values of the teachers, but do not necessarily result in

effective teaching on their own. Teaching is an active process, and attitudes, beliefs, values and

perceptions are not consistently associated with an action. A person may have a firm belief in

something, but at no point demonstrate any behaviour to display this belief. Therefore, an

examination of dispositions is needed as a disposition can be defined as “values, commitments,

28

or ethics that are internally held and externally exhibited” (Schulte et al, 2004, p.2). Sockett’s

(2009, p.294) view of dispositions as actions produced with both awareness and intentionality

links closely to what, I believe, could be described as invitational dispositions. In my opinion, an

invitational disposition would be associated with an ability to behave in a manner that invites

children to learn and to grow.

Another important perception which influences the teaching and learning process is the

perception of oneself. Invitational Education emphasises the role of the self concept in the

implementation of inviting behaviour. A person’s self concept begins to develop at a very young

age as the child experiences the world around him. Through interactions with people and

situations, he begins to develop an understanding of how other people see him. It is upon this

notion that he builds his own image of himself. It is important to realise that it is not simply verbal

messages which are interpreted, but also more subtle message which stem from body language,

facial expressions and gestures (Purkey and Novak, 1996, p.27). Studies have shown that there

is a correlation between self concept and academic performance (Combs et al, 1977; Purkey &

Novak, 1996) and this has a significant impact on the teaching and learning process in

Foundation Phase classrooms. A teacher may say something positive and encouraging to a

child, but if she does not truly believe in the worth of the child, then her body language may not

correlate with her words. As previously discussed, a person can have an attitude that is not

accompanied by the representative behaviour, but her disposition is always demonstrated

through actions. Therefore teachers need to have more than an appropriate attitude towards

themselves and children, but rather a disposition of caring and respect. In this way, according to

the Invitational Education approach, it will be easier to invite children to engage positively in the

learning process.

In conjunction with a caring and respectful disposition towards children, teachers also need a

positive disposition towards the teaching and learning process. Purkey and Novak (1996, p.49)

state that teachers who are knowledgeable and enthusiastic are more likely to promote an

interest in learning in their learners. If teachers are able to see the value and purpose in their

teaching content, then their own passion for the subject creates an invitation for the children to

identify this meaning as well. Schmidt (2008, p.10) believes that all humans learn in the same

process, a learning cycle, which begins with awareness. If teachers are unable to capture

29

children’s interest, then they are unlikely to succeed in getting them to learn new information,

skills or content. However, a teacher who is passionate and enthusiastic invites children into the

learning process by making them believe that there is something interesting, relevant and

worthwhile to be learnt. Once children are intrigued and aware, the teacher uses her knowledge

of the subject to then maintain their interest, moving into the next phase of the process:

exploration and inquiry. The final phase of the process is action, and can be closely linked to the

teacher’s perception of the children she teachers. A teacher who sees the learners as able,

valuable and responsible will be able to challenge the children to use the information and skills

learnt through exploration and inquiry to produce work that leads them back into the learning

cycle. In this way, children find themselves continually wanting to know more, and working as

active participants in the teaching and learning process. In contrast to this, teachers who do not

view their learners as able, are more likely to under-estimate children’s abilities, providing work

that is not sufficiently challenging, and leaving children feeling bored and under-valued. Combs

et al (1974, p.103) suggest that a teacher’s tendency to under-estimate children’s abilities could

stem from their perception of the purpose of teaching. If a teacher were to believe that education

was intended to simply enable people to get employment after leaving school, then that teacher’s

expectations of the children in her class would be vastly different to those of a teacher whose

goal was to develop problem solvers and critical thinkers.

2.2.2. DISPOSITIONS IN INVITATIONAL EDUCATION

Purkey and Novak (1996, p.50) use the notion of a teacher’s stance to describe “the general

position from which one operates and one’s typical pattern of action”. This stance is more than

the teacher’s underlying perceptions, as it is associated with the actions which embody the

attitudes, beliefs and values of the teacher. An action is defined as “the bringing about of an

alteration by force or through a natural agency” and “the accomplishment of a thing” (Merriam-

Webster, 2012), which suggests that an ability is a necessary requirement for an action to take

place. The definitions of an ability are given as “the quality or state of being able”, “competence

in doing” and a “natural aptitude or acquired proficiency” (Merriam-Webster, 2012). Therefore an

invitational stance can be described as a dispositional ability, which can be used to invite children

into successful learning opportunities.

30

In order for a teacher to engage in positive invitations and interactions with children, Purkey and

Novak (1996, p.50) indicated that a teacher’s stance should be based on four main assumptions,

or, as can now been seen, dispositional abilities. These assumptions included trust, respect,

optimism and intentionality. Later Purkey and Novak (2008, p.13) extended this to include a fifth

assumption: care. If one considers the three categories of perceptions outlined by Purkey and

Novak (1996, p.32) as being necessary for effective teaching, it can easily been seen that the five

assumptions of the stance stem from those perceptions of others, of oneself and of the education

system itself. The five assumptions can clearly be identified as perceptions translated into

actions. If a teacher has a positive perception of herself and her abilities, she can then

demonstrate this perception through her ability to develop a trusting relationship with the children

in her class. A person with a dispositional ability to be trustworthy is dependable and reliable,

and is likely to be seen as competent by the children and their parents. A teacher who views

children as valuable, able and responsible is able to exhibit an optimistic and respectful

disposition, which children will then respond to by rising to her expectations. A key element of

any relationship is respect, as it is impossible to work collaboratively or cooperatively without

respect for the thoughts, actions and abilities of each person. Optimism is also extremely

important, as people “who believe they are able will try ... [and those] ... who do not think they are

able will avoid responsibilities” (Combs et al, 1974, p24). A teacher’s perceptions of the

education system, and the teaching and learning process, will influence her ability to act in an

intentional manner. In order to extend positive invitations, a teacher needs a dispositional ability

to act intentionally, as she needs to be aware of how her invitation will purposively benefit the

child. Finally, care is the fifth assumption, and for me, the most important disposition. Purkey

and Novak (2008, p.14) describe care as the “ongoing desire to link significant personal means

with worthwhile societal ends”, emphasising the necessary coherence between the process and

the product. When a teacher has the dispositional ability to care, she cares about the children

and their total development; she cares about the teaching and learning process and how best to

invite children; and she also cares about herself and the way that she presents herself to others.

A dispositional ability to care reflects the three categories of perceptions necessary for effective

teaching, and can be demonstrated in the time, consideration and effort put into a teacher’s

practice.

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2.2.3. THE FOUR DIMENSIONS OF INVITATIONAL EDUCATION

The primary purpose of education is to cordially invite children into the learning process, and to

realise their maximum potential. In order to achieve this, it is necessary for teachers to develop

their dispositional abilities in the four corners of their lives (Cain, 2008). Purkey and Novak (2008,

p.25) describe the need for “balance, harmony and vibrancy” between the four dimensions, whilst

acknowledging that at times one dimension may feature more starkly than others.

In my opinion, the dimensions can be represented as in Figure 2.2 below. The figure shows two

primary areas of interactions, with each having the two sub-dimensions of self and others

specifically.

Figure 2.2 – The dimensions of interactions

The first of dimension is that of being personally inviting with oneself. To facilitate this, a teacher

needs to develop the ability to change any negative interpretations of events into positive

interpretations. This can be a challenging exercise for many people, and therefore it is necessary

to consciously use one’s inner voice to direct one’s thinking into an acceptance of self. Perfection

should be recognised as an unrealistic goal, and so teachers should personally invite themselves

to accept their own flaws, and to celebrate the positive direction in which they are moving (Cain,

2008; Purkey & Novak, 1996).

The second dimension addresses the need for teachers to personally invite others, as education

exists predominantly in a state of interdependence. Relationships with children, colleagues and

parents form an integral part of a teacher’s professional life, with stakeholders depending on each

Personal

Personally inviting with

self

Personally inviting with

others

Professional

Professionally inviting with

self

Professionally inviting with

others

32

other for guidance, feedback, and growth opportunities. Therefore, in order for successful

teaching and learning opportunities to arise, it is necessary for teachers to develop, and maintain,

their dispositional abilities to care, to trust, to be optimistic, to respect and to act with intentionality

(as discussed in 2.2.2). These abilities enable teachers to relate to others within the context of

their situations, and to carefully consider their feelings, interests and perspectives (Cain, 2008;

Purkey & Novak, 1996).

In addition to this, invitational dispositional abilities need to be developed on a professional level.

As active members of learning communities, teachers would be able to achieve this both with

themselves and with others. As part of the third dimension of professionally inviting themselves,

teachers should strive to develop the knowledge and skills needed to meet the varying needs of

children, recognising that their own learning and growth is never complete. This willingness to

further their own knowledge through research and interactions with people will also develop

teachers’ abilities to professionally invite others (the fourth dimension). Their involvement with

the school and wider community enables them to appreciate examples of best practice, and so to

set their own teaching to these standards. The abilities to outline clear expectations and to

celebrate mistakes made as pathways to new learning opportunities are further examples of how

teachers can professionally invite others into a successful educative process (Cain, 2008; Purkey

& Novak, 1996).

2.2.4. IMPACT OF INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL ABILITIES ON INTERACTIONS

Purkey and Stanley (1994, p.7) provide a metaphor of orange and blue cards to explain the

impact of every interaction on people’s perceptions of themselves, others and events. If one

views the human brain as a filing system, then it can be seen that every message we receive, be

it spoken or unspoken, would be a card to be placed in the filing system. Every message would

be written on either a blue or an orange card, regardless of the content of the message. A blue

card is an inviting message, which tells the person that they are valuable, able and responsible.

An orange card would be the opposite, telling people that they are worthless, unable and

irresponsible. It is important to note that the message on an orange card may appear to affirm a

person’s worth, but that the way in which the message was delivered contradicted the “blue”

content of the message, transforming it into an orange card. A hurtful or harmful orange card has

33

such an impact on a person’s perceptions that it requires twelve blue cards to neutralise its effect.

When one considers this metaphor, it becomes clear that a teacher needs to be aware of every

message that she sends out, as a message can be disinviting whether she intended it to be or

not.

In light of this, Invitational Education focuses on the interactions between people. Four levels of

interactions have been identified, and are based on the messages sent out by people, such as

teachers. On examination of these, it is clear that a teacher’s ability to care, to act with

intentionality, to trust, to respect and to be optimistic (as discussed in 2.2.2) would be a causal

factor in the determination of the level in which she operates. The first of these categories, Level

One, is Intentionally Disinviting, where a teacher aims to demean a child through her comments

or actions (Purkey & Novak, 1996, p. 56). In many cases, teachers revert to Level One

functioning when angry or frustrated, and in this situation it is obvious how attitudes or

perceptions influence actions. When a teacher intentionally disinvites a child, her invitational

dispositional abilities of trust, respect and optimism are evidently low functioning, as she would be

likely to make comments such as ‘You’ll never get this through your thick skull’, which will

negatively impact on the child’s current and future learning opportunities. Levels Two and Three

occur when a teacher is unaware of the impact of the messages she sends out, resulting in her

being either Unintentionally Disinviting or Unintentionally Inviting with the children. In order to

reach the fourth level of functioning, where one is Intentionally Inviting, a teacher needs to

consistently apply her invitational dispositional abilities in her interactions with the children in her

class. With well-developed abilities to care, to act with intentionality, to trust, to respect, and to be

optimistic, a teacher is more able to develop and maintain a sense of agency in both herself and

in the children she teaches.

In order to aid teachers in the achievement of this fourth level of functioning, Purkey and Novak

describe “the craft of inviting” (1996, p.61). This craft includes a variety of skills which are

“principled strategies for developing doing-with relationships” (Purkey & Novak, 1996, p.62), and

which are intended to guide teachers in their ability to persuade children to enter into the teaching

and learning process. The skills are not intended as manipulation tools, but rather to encourage

inter-personal dialogue and intentional invitations. The skills can be divided into three categories,

namely being ready, doing with and following through. In being ready, the teacher needs to

34

prepare both the environment and herself in an intentionally inviting manner. This initiates

positive doing-with relationships, which need to be maintained through the development of trust

and the reaching of each child. The teacher needs to correctly read situations, and to make her

invitations appealing in order to ensure appropriate delivery of her inviting messages. She also

needs to accept the collaborative nature of education, and so be willing and able to negotiate and

accept rejection. The final category refers to following through and involves the teacher taking

responsibility for the continuance of the cycle of interaction. She must determine her course of

action regarding the children’s acceptance or rejection of her invitations, and she needs to

orientate herself towards being ready for the new set of invitations to be sent out (Purkey &

Novak, 1996).

2.3. PROPOSED INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR FOUNDATION PHASE

TEACHERS

In examining the literature on dispositions, and the impact of dispositions on the teaching and

learning process, it became apparent that it was necessary to develop a dispositional framework.

Whilst it is readily acknowledged that effective teachers possess similar characteristics (Browne &

Haylock, 2004; Gestwicki, 1999; Gordon and Browne, 2008; Green, 2009; Hasset & Reis as cited

by Green, 2009; Nieto, 2005), there has been limited research on how to develop these abilities

in teachers. In my opinion, a dispositional framework could be used to assess the dispositional

abilities of teachers, or student teachers, and to enable further development of these abilities. I

believe that, in the local HEI, any development of dispositional abilities occurs implicitly through

conversation and modelling. With the use of a framework, such as the one indicated in Figure

2.3, academic staff could more explicitly plan to include dispositional development into their

lectures and tutorials, thereby creating overt links between theory, methodology and

performance. This framework could also be used as part of the assessment procedure

implemented during periods of teaching practice. It is highly probable that, with a more explicit

focus on dispositional abilities, students would become more aware of their internal dialogue, and

consequently use this in a positive manner to adapt their behaviours for more effective teaching

and learning opportunities.

35

The framework represented in Figure 2.3 indicates a hierarchy of invitational dispositional

abilities. The first dispositional ability is that of the ability to care, and this is the most important of

the five abilities. Students enter into an undergraduate teaching degree for a variety of reasons,

some of which include bursaries, perceptions about working hours once qualified, and a love for

children. However, it is my belief that, in order to be an effective teacher, it is necessary to have

a well-developed ability to care for oneself, for others, and for the teaching profession. Without

this ability to care, the other four dispositional abilities lack the necessary cohesion and impact to

effect change. The ability to act with intentionality is the second ability represented on the

framework, as conscious thought regarding perceptions, words and actions is imperative for any

teacher wanting to send out inviting messages. The ability to act with intentionality stems from

one’s ability to care, and is a necessary requirement for the development and maintenance of the

abilities to trust, to respect and to be optimistic within the Intentionally Inviting level. The final

three dispositional abilities form the third level of the framework, indicating that they are all of

equal importance as each other. A teacher’s abilities to trust, to respect and to be optimistic are

highly influential in her interactions with children, parents and colleagues, and so need explicit

development. It is my opinion that, without sufficiently developed abilities to care and to act with

intentionality, the abilities to trust, to respect and to be optimistic become only diluted versions of

their potential, resulting in predominantly Level 2 (Unintentionally Disinviting) or Level 3

(Unintentionally Inviting) behaviours (as discussed in 2.2.4).

36

The dispositional ability to CARE

The dispositional ability to act

INTENTIONALLY

For oneself

Professionally Teacher is passionate about teaching

The dispositional ability to TRUST

The dispositional ability to RESPECT

The dispositional ability to be

OPTIMISTIC

For oneself

Professionally Teacher selects teaching strategies thoughtfully

Oneself

Others

Professionally

Oneself

Others

Professionally

About oneself

About others

Professionally

Teacher gets to know each individual child and his/her specific needs

For others

Teacher is willing to rise up to the challenges and changes

associated with teaching

Teacher’s comments and actions are intended to benefit children

For others

Teacher is well prepared in advance

Teacher is consistent with her discipline

strategies

Teacher follows through with her promises and

assurances

Teacher’s moods and interactions with children are dependable

Teacher is on time and prepared for lessons

Teacher sees children as valuable, able and

responsible

Teacher adjusts tasks and lessons to suit the needs of the children

Teacher believes she can make a difference in the lives of children

Teacher believes each child can achieve his

potential

Teacher displays hope for the education of

children in South Africa

Figure 2.3 – Invitational dispositional framework

Dispositional ability

Area in which ability should be Developed

Example of behaviour

Forethought Willingness

Reflectiveness

37

For each of the five invitational dispositional abilities, it is essential that they are developed within

the three areas of self, others and profession. The first of these interactional areas is that of

being personally inviting with oneself, which is, I feel, an aspect needing further development in

teacher training programmes in order to improve the quality of classroom teaching. According to

Bandura (2006, p.170) a sense of agency is primarily dependent on one’s notion of self-efficacy,

or in other words, the belief that change can be effected through one’s actions. Therefore, if

student teachers could develop their abilities to care, to act intentionally, to trust, to respect and to

be optimistic with regards to their own role in the teaching and learning process, a significant step

would be made towards improving the quality of education in South Africa. According to the

framework, the second area is that of being personally inviting with others. Teachers form part of

what can be described as a helping profession (Combs et al, 1977), and therefore it is clearly

apparent that they need strong abilities to enable them to form and maintain positive

relationships. Their abilities to care for, to act intentionally towards, to trust, to respect and to be

optimistic about others would influence the messages conveyed by them in their attempts to invite

others into the educative process. I believe that there is a direct link between self, others and the

teaching profession, which is based on an interdependence between the three areas. If one does

not have the ability to care for oneself, then how is it possible for one’s ability to care for others or

for the profession to be developed to its maximum potential?

A sense of agency implies an ability to make changes based on previously successful

interactions (Malmberg & Hagger, 2009, p.678), and is comprised of four properties: intentionality,

forethought, self-reactiveness and self-reflectiveness (Bandura, 2006, p.164). Therefore, in

conjunction with the five invitational dispositional abilities, Bandura’s additional three components

of human agency should be included in a dispositional framework. Forethought, self-reactiveness

and self-reflectiveness could each be viewed as dispositional abilities, as they result in actions

which impact upon the interactions one has with others (Bandura, 2006, p.165). Forethought

suggests that careful consideration and preparation is needed prior to any interaction intended for

the purpose of positive learning opportunities. Self-reactiveness could also be described as a

willingness to react, adjust, and grow during interactions in order to ensure the intended outcome.

Self-reflectiveness is an essential ability in the examination of the success of interactions. After

any interactions, self-reflection should be used to determine the level of invitational behaviour

demonstrated, thereby creating guidelines for the forethought to follow in preparation for the next

38

interaction. In this way, forethought, willingness, and reflectiveness form a cycle of dispositional

abilities. This cycle of agency would influence each of the interactional areas separately, as well

as a cohesive unit. The three interactional areas work in direct correlation with each other,

therefore an increase in agency in one area would result in an increase in the remaining two

areas as well. Based on the interconnected nature of the invitational dispositional framework, it is

therefore clear that this cycle of agency would also then impact on the dispositional framework as

a whole.

For the invitational dispositional framework, InTASC’s Model Core Teaching Standards (2011)

were used to provide examples of behaviours that could be exhibited by teachers within each of

the five invitational dispositional abilities. The behaviours were categorised according to the three

areas of self, others and profession, and could be used as a guideline for development or

assessment of these dispositional abilities.

2.4. PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE INVITATIONAL DISPOSITIONAL FRAMEWORK

The invitational dispositional framework could be used by an observer to assess the dispositional

abilities and performance of a student teacher, whilst also providing clear indicators for areas of

development. With the understanding that forethought occurs prior to interactions, willingness

during interactions and reflectiveness after interactions, it would be necessary for an observer to

examine the student teacher’s preparation, to observe her actual teaching of children, as well as

to determine through discussion her ability to reflect on her teaching after the lesson.

The dispositional ability to care would be the first ability to be considered, as this is the most

important ability required for effective teaching. In each area of self, others and profession, the

extent to which forethought, willingness and reflectiveness are used to produce invitational

interactions could be determined. The listed behaviours would serve as examples designed to

retain focus, and to prevent overlap of the five dispositional abilities. The observer would then

continue the same process with the dispositional ability to act with intentionality. Following this,

the observer would be able to examine the student’s ability to trust, to respect and to be optimistic

within each of the three areas of self, others and profession. Any areas of weakness could be

39

highlighted, and addressed in order to improve the student’s ability to function on an Intentionally

Inviting level.

2.5. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it can be suggested that the proposed invitational dispositional framework extends

the Invitational Education’s notion of the “craft of inviting” (Purkey & Novak, 1996, p.61) through

consideration of the root causes of behaviour. Whilst the craft of inviting provides useful skills in

terms of establishing and maintaining positive and inviting relationships, it also relies in part on an

assumption regarding the teachers’ underlying dispositions. The invitational stance of care,

intentionality, trust, respect and optimism are necessary for teachers to operate at an intentionally

inviting level, but the Invitational Education approach does not provide sufficient detail on how to

develop these dispositional abilities. In this approach, emphasis is placed upon the process of

interaction, with limited consideration of how to prepare oneself for this process through the

development of the key dispositional abilities. The invitational dispositional framework serves to

bridge this gap through the recognition of the impact of forethought, willingness and reflection on

the development of the primary dispositional abilities of care and intentionality, and filtering

through to the dispositional abilities of trust, respect and optimism.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. INTRODUCTION

The intention of this study is to examine the invitational dispositions of fourth year students at a

higher education institute. In a study of this nature, the context is of paramount importance in the

attempt to determine not just what meaning is made by the students, but also how the meaning is

made (Henning, van Rensburg & Smit, 2004, p.20). It is therefore necessary to situate this study

in the interpretivist paradigm, which will enable the findings to emerge naturalistically as the study

progresses. Themes will emerge dialectically through collaboration between myself, the

Foundation Phase teachers in training, and the particular context in which they are trained

(Merriam, 1998). A qualitative research approach is deemed to be the most appropriate to study

the invitational dispositions of Foundation Phase fourth year students, making use of a case study

design in qualitative methodology. The case will consist of fourth year Foundation Phase teacher

training students at a local university and can be viewed as a single, “bounded system” (Yin,

1994; Merriam, 1998; Henning et al, 2004). I will study the invitational dispositions that fourth

year Foundation Phase students may possess by observing their behaviour during the school

experience component of their training. In an effort to achieve trustworthiness, an interpretivist

researcher relies on the use of a wide variety of data, sources and analysis techniques (Henning

et al, 2004, p20). In light of this, the data collection for this study will include a range of methods,

namely observations, interviews, and document analysis. This data will be analysed through a

search for patterns and the coding of data into specific categories. The wide variety in the data

collected will, in part, afford the study a level of trustworthiness as the consideration of multiple

perspectives, interests and realities will contribute to a balanced, fair and conscientious

consideration of the data (Patton, 2002, p.575).

3.2. RESEARCH PARADIGM

The interpretivist framework stems from the notion that research is intended to provide

understanding into realities, whilst acknowledging that this may never be completely possible due

to human bias or existing standpoints (Henning et al, 2004, p.20). This study must therefore be

41

situated within the interpretivist paradigm, as the focus is on the dispositions of Foundation Phase

teachers in training, with the knowledge that it is possible to never truly understand the

dispositions of others. In order to achieve trustworthiness, the study must involve the collection of

substantial situational data through a variety of methods, allowing for a naturalistic interpretation

of the dispositions presented within the classroom contexts.

Qualitative research involves an in-depth study of a phenomenon, or phenomena, whereby the

researcher strives to gain understanding through careful consideration of literature and the

natural action of uncontrolled data (Henning et al, 2004, p.3). A qualitative researcher searches

for patterns in data in order to develop concepts or arguments, rather than using data to prove

existing theories. She therefore needs to operate from a naturalistic stance, attempting to

minimize the influence she exerts on a situation, developing a holistic view of the setting and the

people involved (Taylor & Bogdan, 1984, p.5-6). In a study focusing on the dispositions of

teachers in training, it is imperative that the researcher remains objective, viewing the participants

from their frame of reference. It is therefore necessary to collect a variety of data, as well as a

substantial amount of data, in order to maintain a holistic view of the student’s frame of reference,

while the researcher suspends her own beliefs and perspectives, taking nothing for granted.

3.3. RESEARCH DESIGN

Case studies are characterised by the fact that they are “intensive descriptions and analyses of a

single unit or a bounded system (Smith 1978) such as an individual, a program, event, group,

intervention or community” (Merriam, 1998, p.19). The focus of a case study is on the context

and the process of discovery, with the aim being to gain a comprehensive understanding of the

situation. This study asks the main research question What are the invitational dispositions of

fourth year Foundation Phase teacher training students? A case study design has been therefore

been selected as thick descriptions are needed in order to answer the research questions:

1) What are the invitational dispositions that fourth year Foundation Phase students at a HEI

portray?

2) How do invitational dispositions influence the practice of fourth year Foundation Phase

students during teaching experience?

42

3) How can invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase students at a HEI be

developed to enhance invitational practice?

The case studies will be heuristic in nature as they aim to “evaluate, summarize and conclude”

(Merriam, 1998, p.31) in an attempt to increase their applicability. Merriam (1998, p.39)

describes interpretive case studies as being complex and in-depth, with a strong theoretical

orientation and indicates that the intention of this type of case is to develop conceptual categories

or to examine theoretical assumptions. An interpretive case study requires inductive analysis,

and it is necessary for the researcher to gather much data in order to analyse, interpret and

theorise. This study will strive to describe the dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase, and

interpret the invitational nature of these. In addition, an interpretation will be made regarding the

impact of these invitational dispositions upon teaching practice as demonstrated by the students.

A defining feature of a case study is that the participants constitute a single “bounded system”

(Yin, 1994, Merriam, 1998 and Henning et al, 2004). The research question of this study

suggests that the entire group of fourth year Foundation Phase students at the selected higher

education institute form the overall case. However, within this case there are two other nested

cases which enable the collection of a variety of data and an in-depth consideration of the context

and the perspectives of the students. For the purposes of this study, it was necessary to select

two groups of three students to observe, in order to meet the necessary time constraints. The

use of two nested cases also enabled the collection of a wide variety of data, thereby ensuring an

in-depth study of holistic situation. Data was gathered through observation of the students whilst

on their practical teaching experiences, document analysis and interviews with both the students

and their supervising teachers. In this way, it became possible to interpret the invitational

dispositions of the students through multiple means and perspectives.

3.4. CASE SELECTION

The aim of this study is to determine the invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase

students; therefore it is necessary to select the cases through purposive sampling. Purposive

sampling is used when a researcher is attempting to discover the most about the particular

phenomenon, or issue, in question. Participants are chosen based on their significant role in the

43

case, and observation situations, interviews and documents are all selected according to the

amount of information they will present (Simons, 2009, p.34).

For the purposes of this study, the sample was taken from a group of fourth year Foundation

Phase teacher training students at a local university. Two cases were selected, with the

understanding that they were nested within the larger case of the entire fourth year student group.

Each case consisted of three students, and each was purposefully selected according to specific

criteria, using a typical case sampling strategy (Newton Suter, 2006). Criteria for selection

included considerations such as:-

1) The students had to be in their fourth year of a B.Ed (Foundation Phase) degree.

2) The students had to have progressed from year one to four without failure.

3) The students need to be located at one of two schools for both their teaching practices.

The students had to be in their final year of their studies as this provides an indication of, firstly,

what dispositions the students have developed over their four years of training, and, secondly,

what dispositions these students will be taking with them into their first period of employment as a

teacher. It was necessary to exclude students who have failed a year during the course of their

studies, as repeating students may experience delivered courses differently the second time

around, which would therefore impact upon their dispositional development. Finally, due to the

intended number of observation sessions, it was necessary to select students located at one of

two primary schools for both of their teaching practices. The two schools are relatively close in

proximity, with learners from a similar socio-economic background. The schools are both

government primary schools, with well functioning governing bodies, and trained staff. The

purposive selection of these schools was therefore based on convenience and also on the fact

that the schools are typical of those chosen by students for their teaching practicals.

3.5. DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Wasicsko (n.d., p.14) suggests that demonstrated behaviours are symptomatic of a person’s

underlying perceptions or beliefs. Overt behaviours would need to be analysed and interpreted

so as to determine the nature of the dispositions influencing the actions. In order to interpret

these behaviours accurately, with a limited amount of researcher bias, it is necessary to collect

44

data from a variety of sources so that findings can be corroborated and built upon. Repeated

observations will enable the development of a composite view of the demonstrated behaviours;

however it is also necessary to include a broader perspective than that of the researcher alone.

The use of documents and interviews will provide opportunities to interpret the students’

behaviour from both their own and their supervising teachers’ points of view. The students’

documents will include a reflective journal, and a final self reflective comment, whilst a general

reflective comment will provide data from the supervising teachers’ perspectives. The interviews

with both the students and the teachers will provide additional data, which will allow for greater

insight in the interpretation of the students invitational dispositions.

Table 3.1 - Tabular representation of data collection methods

Type of data

source

Source used in this study Time frame Participants

Documents

Qualitative survey Outside of

teaching practical

Larger case of students

The students’ reflective

journals

First teaching

practical

Two nested cases of three

students each

Written self reflective reports

by the students

Second teaching

practical

Two nested cases of three

students each

Written reports by the

supervising teachers

Second teaching

practical

Teachers assigned to the

students in two nested cases

Interviews

Reflective interviews with the

students at each school

First teaching

practical

Two nested cases of three

students each

Interviews with the

supervising teachers

First teaching

practical

Teachers assigned to the

students in two nested cases

Final focus group interview

with all students

Second teaching

practical

Two nested cases of three

students each

45

Direct

Observations

Individual lesson classroom

observations

Observation schedule

First teaching

practical

Two nested cases of three

students each

Whole day classroom

observations

Observation schedule

Second teaching

practical

Two nested cases of three

students each

3.5.1. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

I will use a case survey to provide data on the invitational dispositions of the entire fourth year

Foundation Phase student group. This survey has been designed using the dispositions as listed

in the InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards (2011). I have listed fifty dispositions, each with a

rating scale from Least Essential (1) to Most Essential (10). The survey will be distributed to all

the fourth year Foundation Phase students on completion of their final continuous teaching

practice, and they will be required to complete the document by placing a mark in the appropriate

box on the rating scale. The respondents will remain anonymous, and I will emphasise the need

to respond as truthfully as possible. In this way, the survey should provide additional data as to

the dispositions viewed as being most important by the student group, thereby providing a point

of comparison for the findings related to the six observed students.

The document analysis will include consideration of a reflective journal written by the six

observed students and written comments made by the supervising teachers and tutors during

each teaching practical. Students are required to keep a journal in which they provide a narrative

on their teaching, events that occurred, their preparation and their general feelings towards the

children, the school and the teaching practice as part of their teacher training. The data from this

journal will be used to provide further insight into the students’ views on their own dispositions,

teaching and interactions in the first teaching practice. At the end of the second teaching

practical, the supervising teacher is required to provide written comments regarding what was

observed in the students’ classrooms. The students are also required to write a final reflective

report, detailing their own perspectives of the teaching experience. These written comments will

provide further information on the invitational nature of the students’ dispositions.

46

3.5.2. INTERVIEWS

Sullivan et al (2000, p.249 & 260) noted the importance of clarifying perceptions, as a clearly

defined context provides for a more accurate interpretation of events. With this in mind, I will

conduct reflective interviews with the three students comprising each case after every

observation day in the first teaching practice. The students will watch each others’ lessons, and

after they have each had a chance to teach one lesson, a focus group interview will be conducted

in order to clarify my interpretation of what was observed. This is an important method of

collecting data, as “focus groups can serve as ‘safer spaces’ for people to share experiences and

perspectives” (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011, p.165). During these interviews, I will use one open-

ended question and follow-up probing questions in an attempt to get the students to converse

naturally. It will therefore be possible to gain “thick descriptions” (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011,

p.165) of their teaching experiences. In this way, there will be sufficient opportunity to learn more

about the invitational dispositions of each student as based on their responses to the discussion.

Henning et al (2004, p.58) state that if a researcher is able to ask good questions and to prompt

with evidence of interest, then the participants are likely to talk freely and openly, allowing the

researcher to obtain a sense of coherence. This coherence is necessary in order to interpret

what has been observed, without the interpretation being biased by the researcher’s own views or

beliefs.

In addition to the reflective interviews with the students, I will also conduct focus group interviews

with the three supervising teachers at each school in the final week of the fist teaching practice.

This focus group interview will add a further perspective to the observations conducted. In the

first teaching practice, the students will regularly be observed by their supervising teachers, as

well as working closely with them regarding planning, preparation and marking of the children’s

work. Therefore the interviews with the teachers will allow for greater trustworthiness of the

study, as the interpretation of the students’ invitational dispositions relies on a variety of sources,

thereby decreasing the likelihood of researcher bias influencing the findings. The interview will

follow the same format as the students’ reflective interviews, with the discussion being initiated

through one open-ended question, and further developed through follow up probing questions.

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After the second teaching practice, I will conduct one focus group interview with all six

participants, as I endeavour to interpret their invitational dispositions after the completion of their

three week continuous teaching practice. The reflective interviews, as done after each observed

lesson in the first teaching practice, would not be as informative in the second teaching practice.

The reason for this is that the reflective interviews in the first teaching practice are intended to

provide additional information on single lessons which were prepared in advance. The students

observe each others’ lessons, thereby providing a launch pad for discussion and expression of

dispositions. In the second teaching practice, the students are observed for an entire teaching

day, with the observation being unscheduled, as well as unobserved by their peers. This

observation is intended to see the student operating as a qualified teacher would, so that the

student’s overall dispositions become evident through both planned and unplanned interactions.

In this way, a final focus group interview with all six of the participating students will reveal much

of what the students have learnt about themselves as they have coped with the day to day

management of a Foundation Phase classroom. This self-reflectiveness will be a good indicator

as to the invitational dispositions possessed by each student. Therefore, the final interview will

also be conducted through the means of one open-ended question, followed by probing questions

as required.

3.5.3. OBSERVATIONS

Evertson & Holley (1981, as cited in Sullivan, Mousley & Gervasoni, 2000, p.248) “recommended

that observers clarify the purpose of observations, observe for as much time as possible, design

schedules to match the purpose of observations, and adopt a multivariate approach”. In light of

this, the observations for this study will be non-participatory in nature, and will require the use of

specifically designed observation schedules. As the focus of this study is to identify and describe

the invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase students, I will centre the observation

schedules on the five dispositions outlined in the theory of Invitational Education. These

dispositions of optimism, respect, care, trust and intentionality will be visible in the students’

involvement in classroom activities and their interactions with the children. In order for these

observations to be meaningful and trustworthy, they would need to be recurrent so that the

students feel comfortable and natural in the presence of the observer.

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I will therefore observe the participating students on two separate teaching practices. Each

teaching practice is three weeks long, with the first taking place in the second quarter of the year,

and the second practice taking place in the third quarter. Whilst completing the first teaching

practice, students are required to teach a minimum of three lessons a day and can expect at least

two scheduled visits from their supervising tutor during this period of time. They work in

conjunction with their allocated class teacher, who is expected to be present in the classroom for

much of their teaching. As the researcher for this study, I will observe each student four times in

the three week period for a 30 minute lesson each time. The students will be informed

beforehand as to when I will be observing them, allowing them ample preparation time. The

students will also be required to watch each others’ prepared lessons, as I feel that this will

provide a further perspective when conducting the focus group interviews after each observation

day. An observation schedule will be completed for each lesson observed, with the focus being

to see which dispositions are displayed by the student in a prepared and structured lesson.

The second teaching practice is the students’ final teaching practice, where they are expected to

teach continuously for a minimum of ten consecutive days. During this teaching practice students

are required to take on the role of a full time teacher, which includes classroom organisation and

management, register taking, and assessment. A Foundation Phase tutor is allocated to the

students and will arrive unexpectedly a minimum of three times during the teaching practice. The

classroom teacher is expected to do some observations of their student, but is unlikely to remain

in the classroom for extended periods of time. As the researcher, I will observe each student for

one entire teaching day, with the intention of seeing the dispositions displayed by the student in

her interactions with children, change-over of lessons, handling of discipline and general

classroom management. I believe that the observation of a whole day with a student provides

greater insight into their true dispositions as they begin to relax and forget that the researcher is

observing them. This type of observation will provide another perspective on the students’

dispositions, as the visit will be unscheduled and will result in a more natural presentation than a

single lesson for which the student may put on a prepared show. An observation schedule will

also be used for these observations, although it will be structured differently to the previous

schedule. The initial observation schedule will be designed to identify dispositions associated

with the preparation of a single lesson, whereas the second schedule will be designed to present

a more holistic view of the students overall dispositions.

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3.6. DATA ANALYSIS AND PROCESSING

A significant skill required in the analysis of data is the recognition of patterns. In order to identify

the invitational dispositions of the fourth year Foundation Phase students it is necessary to

interpret the collected data by coding and categorising the underlying patterns. Content analysis

is used to make sense of large volumes of qualitative data though the identification of “core

consistencies and meanings” (Patton, 2002, p.453). Content analysis will be conducted

throughout this study in the form of simultaneous coding of data and the creation of categories

into which coded data can be appropriately sorted (Merriam, 1998). In order for this study to be

seen as trustworthy, careful attention must be paid to the necessary ethical considerations. In

addition to this, it should be noted that qualitative content analysis can result in “superficial and

naively realistic findings” as researchers view the data as direct evidence of reality, without

questioning nor applying quality thinking to the analysis (Henning et al, 2004, p.102-103). In

order to avoid a situation such as this, it is imperative that the strength of the inquiry is developed

through triangulation, not only of a variety of data sources, but also of the methods used to

analyse or interpret the data.

3.6.1. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AND INTERVIEWS

Each of the fifty items in the case survey will be coded according to the five invitational

dispositions of trust, optimism, intentionality, respect and care, and a graph will be used to

represent the average ratings of the dispositions as indicated by the entire fourth year cohort of

students.

Content analysis will also be used to analyse the students’ reflective journals from the first

teaching practice, and the reflective comments made by both the students and the supervising

teachers at the end of the second teaching practice. The documents will be read and interpreted,

using colour-coding to represent categories or themes. The categories will then be further

examined, in order to identify any sub-categories, which can be compared and reviewed (Cohen,

Manion & Morrison, 2007, p.487). The interview transcriptions will be analysed in much the same

way as the document analysis, using content analysis with the colour-coding of categories.

50

It is important to note that all the data will be cross-referenced in order to obtain the most

accurate interpretation possible. It may be found that a student indicates that she demonstrates a

respectful disposition, but that the findings from the researcher and the teacher indicate

differently. This is a significant finding in itself, and therefore the use of a variety of data sources

to obtain one interpretation is both necessary and valuable.

3.6.2. OBSERVATION SCHEDULES

Content analysis is typically used for written data such as interview transcriptions and documents

(Patton, 2002, p.453); however, for the purposes of this study, the observation schedules will also

serve as the documentation required for the identification of themes and categories. For the first

teaching practice, the observation schedule was structured in such a way as to record

interactions and incidents as observed in one prepared lesson. The observation schedule was

segmented according to specific aspects of a typical Foundation Phase lesson such as the lead-

in to the lesson, questioning, children’s responses and classroom management (See Appendix

3). These aspects are regarded, by the selected higher education institute, as being necessary

for effective Foundation Phase teaching. I was therefore able to make notes about the students’

demonstrated behaviour according to the requirements for a Foundation Phase teacher as

indicated by the selected education institute. The behaviours will then be coded and categorised

according to the five dispositions outlined in Invitational Education, namely: trust, respect, care,

optimism and intentionality. As each incident or interaction is read and interpreted, I will colour

code them according to the five dispositions, and make a clarifying notation in the column

provided on the observation schedule.

The observation schedule for the second teaching practice has been divided into three overall

categories so that behaviours could be coded as they were observed. I spent an entire teaching

day with each student, and used one observation schedule per day per student. The purpose of

this observation was to observe the true teaching persona of each student as she relaxes into the

day-to-day management of her class. Specific incidents were therefore recorded on the schedule

as they were observed, with additional space being used for clarifying purposes (See Appendix

8). The data will be further analysed through colour coding of the incidents according to the five

dispositions indentified in Invitational Education.

51

3.7. TRUSTWORTHINESS

I will use Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) model of trustworthiness in this study. They identify four

measures to ensure trustworthiness namely: credibility, transferability, dependability and

confirmability.

3.7.1. CREDIBILITY

Credibility refers to the degree of confidence the researcher has with regards to the findings,

based on the research design, participants and the context in which the study was conducted

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In this study, credibility will be obtained through prolonged engagement

and persistent observation of the students. Credibility will also be established through

triangulation (Henning et al, 2004; Miles & Huberman, 1984) which proposes that the true

meaning of a phenomenon may be identified through investigation of a number of differing points

of view or perspectives. In this study, data will be gathered through different sources such as

interviews, observations and document analysis. Credibility will be further established through

the inclusion of different points of view. Interviews will be done with both the students and their

supervising teachers, and the documentation will be provided from both the students and their

teachers. In this way, the interpretation of the data will stem from the perspectives of the

researcher, the students and the teachers, allowing for the cross-checking of data and

interpretations.

3.7.2. DEPENDABILITY

Dependability refers to the extent to which the research findings would be consistent if the

research was replicated in similar contexts (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In this study, there are two

nested cases of three students who would each be observed at one school for equal amounts of

time. Observation times would be allocated so that students are seen at similar times of the

week, with preference being given to Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday observations. This

would increase dependability, as results could not be skewed by atypical behaviour patterns

caused by the beginning or ending of a week. Students would also be observed at the same

52

times of the day as far as possible. In the Foundation Phase, this means that there are likely to

be similar lessons taught, with similar levels of concentration from the children.

3.7.3. TRANSFERABILITY

I will attempt to achieve transferability in this study (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) through thick

descriptions, which not only provide detailed accounts of what the participants say, but also the

context in which they say it. The data would be triangulated through the use of multiple data

sources and analysis methods, thereby enabling the descriptions to provide a clear indication of

the students, the context and the behaviours and dispositions demonstrated. In this way, it will be

possible for the reader to make meaning from what has been read, and determine for themselves

if the study can be transferred to their own situation.

3.7.4. CONFIRMABILITY

Confirmability is the criterion of neutrality and is reached when the truth value and the applicability

of data is established (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). I will attempt to achieve confirmability by keeping

an audit of my inquiry. This will involves keeping copious records of interview and observation

notes, and documentary evidence. A key area which could influence the trustworthiness of the

study is students’ tendency to stage a performance in the classroom for an observer, rather than

presenting their true nature and teaching style. This can be likened to the Hawthorne Effect

(Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1999, p.3) which suggests that a person may react more to being

observed than to the context of the observation. It is therefore imperative that a variety of data

collection methods are used, over an extended period of time. In the first teaching practice, the

students will each be observed four times. The first observation will not be used to gather data,

but rather to allow the students a “settling in” period. The first observation will proceed in exactly

the same manner as the other three observations, with the students each teaching a single,

prepared lesson and as well as being required to watch each other teach. This will provide them

with the opportunity to get used to both the process for the observations and me as an observer,

thereby hopefully reducing their nervousness for the following three observation sessions, from

which data will be gathered. In the second teaching practice, the students will be observed for an

entire teaching day. Whilst initially they may feel and display some nervousness, it is hoped that,

53

as the day progresses, they will begin to forget that they are being observed, and demonstrate

their true teaching persona. It is the consideration and inclusion of these factors which will

enable the students to become accustomed to observation, and reduce the likelihood of a

prepared show of interaction. When the data is interpreted and analysed, it will also be

necessary to consider how the students perceived the observations in order to achieve greater

confirmability.

3.8. COMPLIANCE WITH ETHICAL STANDARDS

In order to comply with ethical standards, it was necessary to obtain consent from each of the

participants through the signing of written permission forms (See Appendix 2). An ethics

clearance application was submitted to the Faculty Academics Ethics Committee, which was

approved and allocated the ethical clearance number 2011-042 (See Appendix 1). The privacy of

the participants was assured through the maintenance of anonymity and the confidentiality of any

personal information. The participants were also made aware that participation in the study was

voluntary, and that they could withdraw at any stage.

3.9. CONCLUSION

This research study is designed to provide and in-depth study of two nested cases within a larger

case of the fourth year Foundation Phase student group at a higher education institute. The aim

of the study was to identify the invitational dispositions of the students, and therefore the research

is conducted in an interpretative paradigm within a qualitative approach. A variety of data

collection methods is used in an effort to triangulate the information, thereby allowing for greater

trustworthiness.

54

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This study intended to investigate the invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase

teacher training students, and, in this chapter, an analysis of the collected data will be presented.

Firstly, a qualitative survey aimed at eliciting the opinions of fourth year Foundation Phase

students will descriptively be analysed for identifiable patterns in accordance with the invitational

dispositions (see Chapter 2). Thereafter, content analysis of the data gathered from

observations, interviews and documents, from both the first and second teaching practicals, will

be undertaken in accordance with the aim of the study, namely to describe the behaviour of fourth

year Foundation Phase students in terms of their invitational dispositions.

4.1.2. ELICITING VIEWS FROM ALL FOUNDATION PHASE STUDENTS

In this study, a case study design was used with the purposive selection of two nested cases.

The cases consisted of two groups of three fourth year Foundation Phase students. As the entire

fourth year cohort of students was comprised of 66 students, and in accordance with the first aim

of the study, namely to determine the students’ views on what comprised important teaching

dispositions, a qualitative survey consisting of 50 items was designed. The survey was based on

the dispositions identified by Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC)

in their Model Core Teaching Standards (April 2011). InTASC identified the core aspects of

teaching as being:-

Learner development

Learning differences

Learning Environments

Content knowledge

Application of content

Assessment

Planning for instruction

Instructional strategies

55

Professional learning and ethical practice

Leadership and collaboration

These key dispositions were rated on a Likert-type rating scale and students were requested to

simply rate the items on a ten-point rating scale. The students were required to anonymously

rate each disposition from not at all essential to most essential in terms of their level of

importance in a Foundation Phase teacher (see Figure 4.1.1).

Figure 4.1.1 - Average scores of dispositional rating by Foundation Phase students

8.81 8.89

8.36 8.74 8.6 8.7

7.36 9.06 9.15

8.81 7

8.47 8.06

7.98 8.28

8.72 8.87

8.45 9.17

8.85 8.53

8.06 8.3

8.28 7.51

8.38 8.94

8.13 8.43

8.57 8.3

8.72 8.43 8.49

8.11 8.55

8.96 8.62

8.23 8.26

8.3 8.67

8.04 8.64

8.85 8.38

8.72 8.3

7.96 8.72

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1

4

7

10

13

16

19

22

25

28

31

34

37

40

43

46

49

Fourth Year Foundation Phase Students' Dispositional Rating

56

4.1.3. HIGHEST AND LOWEST RATINGS

In general most items were rated as essential for Foundation Phase teachers by the respondents.

The majority of the scores for the survey fell between 8.0 and 8.89, with students placing 34 of

the 50 items in this category. Interestingly, there were four items directly on either side of this

category, with two items in the 7.9 range and two items in the 8.9 range. Furthermore, there were

six items in the lowest and highest categories, with three items in the range 7.0 – 7.51 and three

items in the range 9.06 – 9.17. Items 7 (7.36 average), 11 (7) and 26 (7.51) were the lowest

rated items. Although these ratings are lower, they still indicate that respondents viewed them as

fairly essential for the Foundation Phase teacher. Items 8 (9.06), 9 (9.15) and 19 (9.17) were the

highest rated items which indicated that students saw these as being the most essential of the

listed items.

Table 4.1.1 - The six highest and lowest rated items on the survey

Highest rated items

8) The teacher persists in helping each learner reach his/her full potential

9) The teacher respects learners as individuals with differing personal and

family backgrounds and various skills, abilities, perspectives, talents, and

interests.

19) The teacher is a thoughtful and responsive listener and observer.

Rating

9.06

9.15

9.17

Lowest rated items

7) The teacher believes that all learners can achieve at high levels.

11) The teacher values diverse languages and dialects and seeks to integrate

them into his/her instructional practice to engage students in learning.

26) The teacher values knowledge outside his/her own content area and

appreciates how such knowledge enhances student learning.

Rating

7.36

7.00

7.51

Considering the content of the dispositions, a number of interesting observations were made:

Of the six items rated highest and lowest, four of the items (Items 7, 8, 9 and 11) can be found in

the Learning Differences section of the survey. Item 7 refers to teachers’ belief that all children

can achieve at high levels and was rated at 7.36, and Item 8, which indicates teachers’

persistence (or action) in helping children to achieve their full potential, was rated at 9.06. Item 9

was seen as essential by the students, with a rating of 9.15, and refers to a teacher’s belief about

57

the need to respect the individuality of all children. Item 11 has a lower rating of 7.0, and

addresses a teacher’s ability to accommodate the children’s diversity. Item 19 was rated at 9.17,

suggesting that the students view it as essential that a teacher is a thoughtful and responsive

listener and observer. However, the students rated the valuing of knowledge outside of their own

content area (Item 26) at 7.51, suggesting that this is not as essential as some of the other items.

4.1.4. CODING OF THE SURVEY ITEMS ACCORDING TO THE INVITATIONAL

DISPOSITIONAL ABILITIES

In accordance with the aims of the study, and the theoretical framework provided in Chapter 2,

the items were then clustered according to the five invitational dispositional abilities of care,

intentionality, trust, respect and optimism (refer to Figure 4.1.2).

Figure 4.1.2 - Average scores of the survey items by the Foundation Phase students for each of

the invitational dispositions

8.81 8.89

8.36 8.74

8.6 8.7

7.36 9.06 9.15

8.81 7

8.47 8.06

7.98 8.28

8.72 8.87

8.45 9.17

8.85 8.53

8.06 8.3 8.28

7.51 8.38

8.94 8.13

8.43 8.57

8.3 8.72

8.43 8.49

8.11 8.55

8.96 8.62

8.23 8.26 8.3

8.67 8.04

8.64 8.85

8.38 8.72

8.3 7.96

8.72

0 2 4 6 8 10

1 3 5 7 9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49

Average Scores

Dispositions

Fourth Year Foundation Phase Students' Dispositional Rating

Respect Intentionality Optimism Care Trust

58

Figure 4.1.3 –Graphical representation of the average scores for all items on each invitational

dispositional ability

4.1.4.1. CARE

Care may be regarded as the most important aspect of Invitational Education, as it can be argued

that a person’s level of care influences her beliefs, attitudes and, resultantly, all her interactions

with others (Cain, 2008). Sizer (1999, p.6 as cited in Strong and Hindman, 2006, p.9) believes

that “we cannot teach students well if we do not know them well”, which is why a “deep sense of

caring” (Stronge & Hindman, 2006, p.9) towards the individuals we teach is imperative. Much

research indicates that a genuine care for the children one teaches is an essential trait needed for

effective teaching, as the purpose of education goes beyond imparting knowledge, calling instead

for the development of each child as a person (Browne & Haylock, 2004; Darling-Hammond,

2006; Gestwicki, 1999; Gordon & Browne, 2008; Green, 2009; Hasset & Reis as cited by Green,

2009; Nieto, 2005). Purkey and Novak (2008, p.14) define care as “the ongoing desire to link

significant personal means with worthwhile societal ends”. This relates to the fact that, as

teachers who care deeply for the children in our care, we feel a sense of personal joy and

satisfaction from the success of our teaching in that it signifies the children’s growth and

achievement. It can be seen that care is the foundation for each of the other four invitational

dispositional abilities, as it is difficult to maintain dispositions of intentionality, trust, respect and

optimism without an underlying sense of care. A teacher needs to care for the children in her

8.44

8.62

8.38

8.30

8.55

8.10

8.20

8.30

8.40

8.50

8.60

8.70

Rating

Overall ratings of Invitational Dispositions

Trust

Optimism

Intentionality

Respect

Care

59

class and for the educative process in order to think, act and speak intentionally. It is then this

intentionality that enables her to develop trusting, respectful relationships with children,

colleagues and other stakeholders which are based on hope and optimism.

Eleven items in the survey were linked to the invitational disposition of care, which is the highest

number of items associated with any disposition on the survey. This emphasis in the survey

correlates with the fact that research has shown that care is of particular importance in the

teaching and learning process (Browne & Haylock, 2004; Gestwicki, 1999; Gordon & Browne,

2008; Green, 2009; Hasset & Reis as cited by Green, 2009; Nieto, 2005). Three of the survey

items refer to the teacher’s interactions with children, two items relate to the teacher’s willingness

to include input from the children and other stakeholders in the teaching and learning process,

and six items address the teacher’s ability to be flexible and to engage in reflective practice in

order to grow as a teacher. Interactions with children should be based on caring, respectful and

loving relationships in order for teaching and learning opportunities to be successful (Nieto, 2005,

p.9). This success is also dependent on the teacher’s willingness to experiment with a variety of

strategies so that all the differing needs of individual children can be met (Green, 2009, p.29;

Nieto, 2005, p.9). Sockett (2009, p.294) states that reflective practice is a necessary aspect of

teaching, as a greater awareness of one’s own beliefs, attitudes and behaviours leads to greater

intentionality in the preparation and delivery of lessons. This relates to the invitational

dispositional framework discussed in Chapter 2, in which it is suggested that the dispositional

ability to care prompts intentionality, which then enables the dispositions of trust, respect and

optimism to be explicitly demonstrated.

Table 4.1.2 – Survey items coded according to the invitational dispositional ability to care

Care Rating

6) The teacher values the input and contributions of families, colleagues, and other

professionals in understanding and supporting each learner’s development.

10) The teacher makes learners feel valued and helps them learn to value each

other.

12) The teacher is committed to working with learners, colleagues, families, and

communities to establish positive and supportive learning environments.

14) The teacher is committed to supporting learners as they participate in decision

8.70

8.81

8.47

7.98

60

making.

19) The teacher is a thoughtful and responsive listener and observer.

21) The teacher keeps abreast of new ideas and understanding in the field.

32) The teacher is committed to making adjustments in assessments and testing

conditions, especially for learners with disabilities and language learning needs.

38) The teacher is committed to deepening awareness and understanding the

strengths and needs of diverse learners when planning and adjusting instruction.

41) The teacher values flexibility and reciprocity in the teaching process as

necessary for adapting instruction to learner responses, ideas, and needs.

42) The teacher takes responsibility for student learning and uses ongoing

analysis and reflection to improve planning and practice.

43) The teacher is committed to deepening understanding of his/her own frames of

reference (e.g., culture, gender, language, abilities, ways of knowing), the potential

biases in these frames, and their impact on expectations for and relationships with

learners and their families.

9.17

8.53

8.72

8.62

8.30

8.67

8.04

Items related to this disposition were viewed as particularly essential to Foundation Phase

teaching as indicated by the relatively high ratings of each of these items. Item 19 is rated as very

essential (rating of 9.17). This item refers to the teacher’s ability to listen and observe attentively,

and it is clear that students recognise the necessity of this trait in order to achieve effective

teaching and learning. Items 6, 10 and 42 were also identified by students as being of

importance. At 8.81, item 10 was rated higher than items 6 (8.7) and 42 (8.64), correlating with

the findings from item 19. Item 10 states that teachers need to ensure children feel valued, and

one way of achieving this would be to observe and listen to children with care and consideration.

Item 42 highlights the teacher’s responsibility in the teaching and learning process, indicating that

the students place high importance on the role of the teacher in the educative process. This

finding is further consolidated by the rating of item 14 as the lowest item in this category (7.98).

The students undervalue the necessity of allowing children to participate in decision-making,

thereby continuing the teacher-centred, as opposed to the child-centred, approach.

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4.1.4.2. INTENTIONALITY

Intentionality is at the centre of Invitational Education, and provides the method required to

implement the other invitational dispositional abilities of trust, respect and optimism (Cain, 2008).

As one considers the characteristics of effective teachers as suggested by research, intentionality

could serve as the driving force behind every attribute. For example, Nieto (2005, p.9) highlights

a teacher’s willingness to include parents and other stakeholders as part of the educative

process, as well as her willingness to challenge people or policies when necessary. The

underlying motivation behind these two traits would be a teacher’s intent to provide the best

education possible for the children in her class. Purkey and Novak (2008, 15) suggest that

potential can best be developed through actions “specifically designed to invite development”,

and describe the four levels of an inviting approach (Purkey & Novak, 1996, p.55). They believe

that all actions can be coded into four levels indicating the intentionality of the action. The first

level and fourth levels focus on intentional behaviours, which could be either positive or negative

in nature. Level One is Intentionally Disinviting where a teacher intentionally aims to degrade a

child through her comments or actions, whereas in Level Four the teacher is Intentionally Inviting

children to successfully participate in the learning process through carefully considered words,

actions and gestures. Levels Two and Three categorise the behaviours occurring from a

teacher’s lack of awareness of the impact of the messages she sends out. As a result, the

teacher could either be Intentionally Disinviting (Level Two), as she demeans or offends children

without intent, or she could Unintentionally Invite (Level Three) the children as she facilitates the

development of their potential without being aware of how this was achieved. Combs et al (1977,

p.22) state that all actions and behaviours are guided by our beliefs and perceptions. This means

that, if a teacher is aware of her beliefs and perceptions she would be operating primarily on a

Level One or Level Four, depending on the nature of her beliefs. However, if she were to be

unaware of her own perceptions, then she would function at a Level Two or Three, once again

depending on the nature of those perceptions. It is therefore my belief that teachers should

carefully consider their own underlying attitudes and opinions in order to intentionally direct their

teaching to the maximum benefit of the children.

Ten survey items were identified as representing intentionality, all of which refer to teachers’

specific selection of behaviours or actions with the purposive intention of facilitating successful

learning experiences. It can be seen that intentionality can be applied to a teacher’s interactions

62

with individual children, to her self-awareness and personal growth, as well as to her approach to

the implementation of teaching strategies and assessment procedures. Nieto (2005, p.9)

suggests that effective teachers should respect the individuality of children, and use this

knowledge to determine the most appropriate approach to the teaching and learning process.

Many other researchers (Browne & Haylock, 2004; Gestwicki, 1999; Gordon & Browne, 2008;

Green, 2009; Hasset & Reis as cited by Green, 2009) agree that being willing to experiment with

and use a variety of active learning strategies serves as one of the primary traits of successful

teachers. I would agree with this, but with the additional proviso that the decision to experiment

with and use strategies is underpinned by intentionality, with the focus being on what would be

best for the needs of the children.

Table 4.1.3 – Survey items coded according to the Invitational disposition of intentionality

Intentionality Rating

2) The teacher is committed to using learners’ differing strengths and needs to further

their development.

3) The teacher is committed to using learners’ strengths as a basis for growth.

15) The teacher encourages learners to engage in exploration and invention.

23) The teacher recognizes the potential of bias in his/her representation of the

discipline and seeks to appropriately address problems of bias.

28) The teacher is committed to engaging learners actively in assessment processes

and to developing each learner’s capacity to review and communicate about their own

progress and learning.

30) The teacher is committed to providing well-timed and effective descriptive feedback

to learners on their progress.

31) The teacher is committed to using multiple types of assessment processes to

support, verify, and document learning.

40) The teacher is committed to exploring how the use of new and emerging

technologies can support and promote student learning.

46) The teacher actively shares responsibility for shaping and supporting the mission of

his/her school as one of support for learners and accountability for their success.

48) The teacher takes initiative to grow and develop with colleagues through

interactions that enhance practice and support student learning.

8.89

8.36

8.28

8.30

8.13

8.57

8.30

8.26

8.38

8.30

63

When considering the average scores, intentionality has an overall rating of 8.38, with seven of

the ten survey items receiving a score of 8.3, or fractionally lower. These include items 3, 15, 23,

31, 40, 46 and 48, and cover each of the three areas of intentionality, namely: a teacher’s

interaction with individual children; her self-awareness and growth; and her implementation of

teaching and assessment strategies. Interestingly, although items 2 and 3 are very similar in that

they both refer to the use of children’s strengths, there was a significant difference in their ratings.

Item 2 was rated at 8.89 whilst item 3 was rated at 8.3. A possible explanation for this could be

that students recognise the need to adapt their teaching strategies to accommodate children’s

strengths in order for successful learning to occur (item 2), but that they undervalue the need to

use the children’s current level of understanding as the basis for all future learning (item 3). The

notion that all children should be at the same level at all times is a common misconception

amongst teachers, and is one which the students may also have adopted. Item 28 was rated the

lowest in this category, scoring only 8.13. This item deals with the children’s participation in the

assessment procedures, and refers to the teacher’s willingness to allow children a voice of

opinion in these matters.

4.1.4.3. TRUST

Purkey and Novak (2008, p.13) describe education as a “cooperative, collaborative activity”,

which suggests that, in order for successful teaching and learning opportunities to occur, it is

necessary for a trusting relationship to exist between the teacher and the children. In order to

build such a relationship a teacher needs to consistently display certain patterns of behaviour

which demonstrate her trustworthiness. According to Arceneaux (1994, as cited in Purkey &

Novak, 2008, p.13) intent, competence, genuineness, truthfulness and reliability are specific

characteristics which are indicative of a trustworthy disposition. Intent refers to the integrity and

good character of a teacher, which is reliably and dependably demonstrated through her

competence, genuineness and truthfulness. It is understood that these characteristics are

interwoven, and that, in order for there to be evidence of one of these characteristics, one of more

of the other traits would be observable as well.

From the survey, ten items were identified as specifically relating to the invitational dispositional

ability of trust. One of the key aspects of these selected items relates to the notion of

64

responsibility in terms of the teacher’s knowledge, preparation and assessment. When one

considers a competent teacher, one of the primary criteria must be that the teacher has the

necessary level of expertise. Nieto (2005, p.9) identifies the main characteristics of an effective

teacher as being “strong subject-matter knowledge and pedagogical effectiveness, as well as

excellent communication skills”. Teachers therefore need to continue learning and developing in

order to reliably produce valuable learning opportunities. A greater wealth of knowledge with

regards to content, strategies and assessment can only lead to more successful teaching. In

addition to this, Greene (2009) describes another, equally important, role of a teacher as that of

being influential in each child’s emotional and social development, suggesting that teachers need

to “mold ... students into young people who can become assets to their communities” (Green,

2009, p.26). In order to achieve this, it is necessary for a teacher to display the integrity required

in order for her to act as a suitable role model for the children in her care. She therefore needs to

demonstrate honesty and fairness in her teaching practices, and to ascribe to a professional code

of ethics. Wasicsko (n.d.) and Combs (1976) suggest that an effective teacher is dependent

upon their perceptual orientation. Two of the five perceptual areas influencing successful

teaching and learning are a teacher’s perception of herself and her view of the teaching

profession. These perceptions can be seen within the survey items as consideration is taken of

the broader context, where teachers are able to relate their teaching to global issues, and also to

see themselves as capable of making a contribution to the teaching profession. Teachers should

reliably demonstrate their intent as they, firstly, prepare children to function as productive and

innovative citizens, and, secondly, as they use their honesty and competence to enable advances

to be made in the profession.

Table 4.1.4 – Survey items coded according to the Invitational disposition of trust

Trust

5) The teacher takes responsibility for promoting learners’ growth and

development.

16) The teacher is committed to providing opportunities for learners to work

collaboratively and independently.

18) The teacher seeks to foster respectful communication among all members of

the learning community.

20) The teacher realizes that content knowledge is not a fixed body of facts but is

8.60

8.72

8.45

8.85

65

complex, culturally situated, and ever evolving.

25) The teacher is constantly exploring how to use their knowledge of Foundation

Phase teaching as a method to address local and global issues.

29) The teacher takes responsibility for aligning instruction and assessment with

learning goals.

33) The teacher is committed to the ethical use of various assessments and

assessment data to identify learner strengths and needs to promote learner

growth.

36) The teacher takes professional responsibility to use short- and long-term

planning as a means of assuring student learning.

45) The teacher understands the expectations of the profession including codes of

ethics, professional standards of practice, and relevant law and policy.

49) The teacher takes responsibility for contributing to and advancing the

profession.

7.51

8.43

8.43

8.55

8.85

7.96

As can be seen from Table 4.1.3, the invitational dispositional ability of trust scored an overall

rating of 8.44, with items 20 and 45 rated as the highest in this category. In item 20, the students

acknowledge the importance of developing content knowledge, which is a necessary aspect of

developing positive learning experiences. The students recognise the need to research widely in

order to demonstrate their competence and genuineness as they engage children in challenging

and thought-provoking lessons. A high score on item 45 suggests that the students have a clear

perception of the expectations of the teaching profession, and that they are prepared to face the

challenges dictated by these expectations. Item 25 scored the lowest of the eight survey items

correlated with trust, and is indicative of the students’ tendency to focus narrowly on classroom

practice with little consideration of the broader context. This links to the second lowest score of

item 49, where students maintain their narrow focus, and undervalue their personal contribution

to the teaching profession. This suggests that students view their role as intentional contributors,

at both a professional and a global level, as being the least important aspects of their position.

66

4.1.4.4. RESPECT

An essential criterion for successful teaching is an inherent respect for all the children and

stakeholders in the educative process (Nieto, 2005, p.9). Invitational Education asserts that

teachers should view children as valuable, able and responsible, and emphasises that a co-

operative relationship should underpin all teaching and learning (Purkey & Novak, 2008, p.12).

As part of this relationship, accountability is awarded great importance, as both children and

teachers are given opportunities to take responsibility for their personal and social decisions. As

individuals, we are able to choose the nature of the messages we send out to other people, as

well as being able to decide whether or not we choose to accept to messages we receive from

others. Giddens and Bandura both support this view of education, respectively stating that

people are “purposive agent(s)” (Giddens, 1984, p.3), and that they are also “contributors to their

life circumstances, not just products of them” (Bandura, 2006, p.164). Combs et al (1974, p.6)

and Wasicsko (1977, p.5) argue that the effectiveness of a teacher cannot be attributed to one

characteristic, but rather to her perceptual orientation. Wasicsko (1977, p.5) defines perceptual

orientation as being “the way in which they view themselves and others, and their attitudes and

beliefs about the nature of the helping situation”, which is closely linked to Invitation Education’s

emphasis on respect and accountability.

Ten survey items were identified as relating to the invitational disposition of respect. Five of

these items refer to a teacher’s respect for children’s differing abilities as well as for their unique

social, emotional, and physical differences. This is a necessary component of effective teaching

as “the way teachers attend to their pupils determines in large measures, what the children will

do” (O’leary & O’leary, 1977, as cited in Bany Yasseen, 2010, p.48). In addition to this, another

two items address the teacher’s respect for the children’s role in the teaching and learning

process. Children should be expected to take responsibility for their learning, to participate

through peer interaction, and to extend their understanding through their own input as well as

from the input of others. Three of the items address the need for a teacher’s respect for a

broader perspective than her own classroom, and her consideration of content, methods and

points of view from outside her own perceptual orientation. This relates to the teacher’s

dedication to both the teaching profession, and to the learning potential of every child in the class.

Green (2009, p.29) found that veteran teachers rated dedication highly as an essential trait for

67

effective teaching, and I believe that this dedication is difficult to maintain without a high level of

respect for children, parents and colleagues.

Table 4.1.5 – Survey items coded according to the Invitational disposition of respect

Respect

1) The teacher respects learners’ differing strengths and needs.

9) The teacher respects learners as individuals with differing personal and family

backgrounds and various skills, abilities, perspectives, talents, and interests.

11) The teacher values diverse languages and dialects and seeks to integrate

them into his/her instructional practice to engage students in learning.

13) The teacher values the role of learners in promoting each other’s learning and

recognizes the importance of peer relationships in establishing a climate of

learning.

22) The teacher appreciates multiple perspectives within the discipline and

facilitates learners’ critical analysis of these perspectives.

26) The teacher values knowledge outside his/her own content area and

appreciates how such knowledge enhances student learning.

34) The teacher respects learners’ diverse strengths and needs and is committed

to using this information to plan effective instruction

35) The teacher values planning as a collegial activity that takes into consideration

the input of learners, colleagues, families, and the larger community.

39) The teacher values the variety of ways people communicate and encourages

learners to develop and use multiple forms of communication.

47) The teacher respects families’ beliefs, norms, and expectations and seeks to

work collaboratively with learners and families in setting and meeting challenging

goals.

8.81

9.15

7.00

8.06

8.28

8.38

8.49

8.11

8.23

8.72

The survey items relating to the invitational dispositional ability of respect were rated at 8.30

overall, with item 9 being rated as the second most essential item on the survey with a 9.15

rating. This indicates that students value the recognition and appreciation of the individual

contexts and abilities of the unique children in their class. Item 1 was also seen to be essential,

receiving a rating of 8.81, as it corresponds closely with item 9. At 7.0, item 11 was the lowest

68

rated item on the survey, followed by items 13 and 35 which scored 8.06 and 8.11 respectively.

Items 13 and 35 correspond with the findings that students undervalue the input of learners and

other stakeholders in the teaching and learning process. This is indicative of the fact that

students remain focused on education as a teacher-centred process, where the teacher is the

knowledgeable other who teaches according to what she thinks is best.

4.1.4.5. OPTIMISM

Purkey and Novak (2008, p.14) believe that the invitational dispositional ability to be optimistic

encompasses a teacher’s over-arching belief that all children have untapped physical, social,

emotional and intellectual potential. This optimism goes beyond an idealistic view, proving to be

steadfast in times of challenge and frustration, and enabling the teacher to be creative in her

attempts to meet the needs of individual children. A teacher’s perception of others will influence

her ability to develop open lines of communication, and to establish and maintain trusting

relationships with both children and colleagues (Wasicsko, n.d.; Comb, 1976). If a teacher is able

to temper her views of others with an optimistic disposition, then it stands to reason that there is a

greater possibility that she would experience a high level of effectiveness with regards to teaching

and learning opportunities. Nieto (2005, p.9) states that the inclination to have high expectations

of children is a typical characteristic of successful teachers. Combs et al (1976, p24) agreed with

this view, believing that children will rise up to their teacher’s expectations of them, as is in line

with the human trend of people “who believe they are able will try ... [and those] ... who do not

think they are able will avoid responsibilities”.

Nine survey items were associated with the Invitational disposition of optimism, taking into

consideration the fact that a teacher’s optimism should relate not only to her belief in the children

she teaches, but also to her belief in herself and in the education system as a whole (Purkey &

Novak,2006, p.39). An effective teacher is confident that all children can achieve at high levels,

and is willing to adjust her teaching strategies in order to enable children to achieve their potential

(Nieto, 2005, p.9). In her attempts to meet the needs of the children in her care, such a teacher

acknowledges the need for her own personal and professional growth, and readily addresses the

need for improvement and change in her preparation, and in her content and pedagogical

knowledge. Green’s (2009, p.29) study identified that successful teachers were those that were

69

able to maintain their dedication to the profession, as well as being dynamic and flexible in their

teaching, their preparation and in their leadership of others. In addition to the qualities, Nieto

(2005, p.9) lists perseverance as another important quality in successful teachers. In my opinion,

these traits all require optimism as their foundation. It is not always easy for South African

teachers to remain dedicated to the profession, in light of the many challenges that they face

such as lack of resources, over-crowding, and lack of parental support. However, if teachers are

optimistic that all children can achieve, and that they, as their teachers, can make a significant

impact on the lives of these children, then teaching becomes a calling, as opposed to an

occupation, and giving up on the children is then no longer an option. With this dedication in

existence, perseverance, flexibility and dynamism follow as the teacher is willing and eager to

enable all children to achieve success in the classroom. Purkey and Novak (1996, p.1) describe

education as “fundamentally an imaginative act of hope”, and I believe that it is from this

continued optimism that effective teachers arise.

Table 4.1.6 – Survey items coded according to the Invitational disposition of optimism

Optimism

4) The teacher is committed to using learners’ misconceptions as opportunities for

learning.

7) The teacher believes that all learners can achieve at high levels.

8) The teacher persists in helping each learner reach his/her full potential.

17) The teacher is committed to engaging learners in purposeful learning.

24) The teacher is committed to work toward each learner’s mastery of disciplinary

content and skills.

27) The teacher values flexible learning environments that encourage learner

exploration, discovery, and expression across content areas.

37) The teacher believes that plans must always be open to adjustment and

revision based on learner needs and changing circumstances.

44) The teacher sees him/herself as a learner, continuously seeking opportunities

to draw upon current education policy and research as sources of analysis and

reflection to improve practice.

50) The teacher embraces the challenge of continuous improvement and change.

8.74

7.36

9.06

8.87

8.28

8.94

8.96

8.64

8.72

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The average scores of the survey items suggest that overall optimism was rated as the most

essential invitational dispositional ability, with a score of 8.62. This could suggest that students

recognise the importance of optimism within the teaching profession, or that the students were

feeling optimistic themselves at that point of time. I would suggest that the latter option is the

most likely in this case, according to the rating of the individual survey items in this category.

Item 8 (rated at 9.06) is the highest rated item in this category, and refers to a teacher’s

willingness to assist children in the realisation of their potential. Items 27 (8.94) and 37 (8.96)

were also viewed as particularly essential and refer to the teacher’s ability to develop children’s

potential through changes she could make in the classroom. At 8.64 and 8.72 respectively, items

44 and 50 were rated slightly lower than items 27 and 37. Items 44 and 50 refer to the teacher’s

willingness to grow and develop her own ability and potential, and, once again, I believe that the

high rating of these suggest that the students see the role of the teacher as being of particular

significance in the development of a child. The fact that items 44 and 50 are rated slightly lower

than 27 and 37 could be attributed to the fact that students may feel confident in their abilities at

this point, and therefore, whilst acknowledging the need for future growth, do not view personal

development as more essential than the adaptations they could make in classroom practice. The

most significant finding in this category is the fact that item 7 is one of the lowest rated items on

the entire survey. At only 7.36 this item has the second lowest rating, and yet is one that refers

specifically to a teacher’s belief that all children can achieve at high levels. This belief is

consistently highlighted in research as being a necessary trait for effective teaching (Combs et al,

1976; Nieto, 2005; Purkey & Novak, 1996; Purkey & Novak, 2008; Stronge & Hindman, 2006). In

my opinion, this rating of item 7 could indicate that the students exhibit a teacher-centred

approach to education as opposed to a child-centred one.

4.1.5. IN SUMMARY

In analysing the data from the survey, it can be assumed that the fourth year Foundation Phase

students at the local HEI see all the invitational dispositional abilities as essential, with the

dispositions of care and optimism as being particularly essential for successful teaching. This

assumption is supported by literature, in that the most commonly identified characteristic for

effective teachers is described as that of genuine care for children (Browne & Haylock, 2004;

Gestwicki, 1999; Gordon & Browne, 2008; Green, 2009; Hasset & Reis as cited by Green, 2009;

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Nieto, 2005). This ability to care enables what is ultimately an act of hope (or optimism) as

teachers strive to persevere, to overcome obstacles, and to vary their teaching strategies in order

to accommodate the differing needs and abilities of children. However, an interesting observation

regarding the findings from the survey is the tendency of students to view the teaching and

learning process as teacher-centred, with little value attributed to the input from children and

other stakeholders. They also appear to have a narrow focus directed primarily at the classroom,

without recognising the importance of their contribution to the wider community and to the

profession as a whole.

4.2. FIRST TEACHING PRACTICAL DATA ANALYSIS

In this section I have analysed the data collected from the first teaching experience, by examining

the observation schedules and the students’ reflective journals, as well as the transcriptions from

the student interviews and the teacher interviews. In the initial consideration of these documents,

I identified specific behaviours or actions from each data source which were used to cluster my

findings. From these behaviour patterns, the data was then coded according to the five

invitational dispositional abilities of care, intentionality, trust, respect and optimism. Therefore, in

this chapter, an overview of the behaviour patterns for each data source will be presented,

followed by a more detailed analysis of each of the invitational dispositional abilities as

represented in the data sources. Finally, the findings regarding the invitational dispositional

abilities from the different data sources will be integrated and summarised to present an overview

of the first teaching practical.

The legend depicted in Figure 4.2.1 below provides clarity on the abbreviations used in the

discussion of the data. All the data has been placed into tables, as is listed in the Appendices

(see page 129), and is supplied in the form of a compact disc (CD).

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Nested Case 1 NC1

Student 1

Student 2

Student 3

S1

S2

S3

Teacher 1

Teacher 2

Teacher 3

T1

T2

T3

Nested Case 2 NC2

Student 4

Student 5

Student 6

S4

S5

S6

Teacher 4

Teacher 5

Teacher 6

T4

T5

T6

Interviewer I

Line number L

Teaching

Practical 1

Observation 1 T1OB

Reflective Discussion 1

Reflective Discussion 2

Reflective Discussion 3

RD1

RD2

RD3

Reflective Journals RJ

Teacher Interview TI

Figure 4.2.1 – Legend depicting the abbreviations used for each data source in the first teaching practical

4.2.1. OBSERVATION SCHEDULE

The information coded from the observation schedules was accumulated from three half hour

observation sessions per student. The lessons observed were scheduled, allowing students

ample preparation time without the additional pressure of an unannounced visitor in their

classroom. The intention was to see which dispositional behaviours were apparent during the

teaching of a single, prepared lesson. The observation schedules were designed so as to

highlight the key elements of a Foundation Phase lesson such as clarity of explanations by the

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student, use of apparatus and means of addressing the children. These observations were then

coded according to the five invitational dispositional abilities, in an attempt to determine the extent

to which these abilities were in evidence in each student’s teaching.

When observing the students during the first teaching practical, it was possible to identify certain

patterns of behaviours or dispositional actions. These behaviours form an integral part of the role

of a Foundation Phase teacher (as discussed in Chapter 2), and could each be associated with

one of the invitational dispositional abilities of care, intentionality, trust, respect and optimism.

Three behaviour patterns related to the invitational dispositional ability to care were the students’

ability to listen, to care for the children, and to care for the learning taking place in the classroom.

The findings related to the invitational dispositional ability to care will be discussed in more detail

in 4.2.1.1, however it is necessary to note the initial findings related to these patterns of

behaviour. With regards to the students’ ability to listen to the children in their class, an

interesting finding was that all six students showed a tendency to not listen carefully and

attentively to what children were telling them. However, Students 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 showed high

levels of care for the children in their general stance. This was a particularly noteworthy finding

as it seemed that the students who had high levels of care for children appeared less concerned

with the learning taking place in the classroom, whilst Student 1 showed a high level of care for

learning with a lesser focus on her care for children. It could be suggested that the findings

indicate that students struggle to maintain high levels of care for both the children and for the

learning, resulting in either a relationship-orientated or a task-oriented approach to teaching.

In terms of the invitational dispositional ability of intentionality, four behaviour patterns were

identified as typical for Foundation Phase teachers. In three of the four areas (preparation,

differentiation and verbalisation) a marked difference was noted between Students 1, 2 and 3

versus Students 4, 5 and 6. Students 1, 2 and 3 were consistently well prepared with concerted

effort made to implement differentiation and to encourage verbalisation. Students 4, 5 and 6

generally had preparation that was thin or incomplete, with no evidence of differentiation of tasks

or attempts to get children to verbalise their understanding. The fourth area of behaviour was

associated with the students’ ability to ask questions and to provide instructions and explanations.

All six students showed some weakness in this area, although that is to be expected for student

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teachers who are required to teach only isolated lessons. The ability to provide simple and clear

questions, instructions and explanations comes with the experience of consistent time spent in

the classroom. The invitational ability to act with intentionality will be further discussed in 4.2.1.2.

From the observations in the first teaching practical, it was apparent that there were three primary

patterns of behaviour that could be associated with the invitational dispositional ability of trust.

The first of these is the students’ ability to trust themselves in their role as reliable, competent,

genuine and truthful teachers (Purkey & Novak, 1996, p.51). It could be seen that Students 1, 3

and, to some extent, 2 displayed high levels of content knowledge, which would contribute to their

trust in themselves as they would feel more confident in their ability to provide accurate and

appropriate learning opportunities. The second behaviour type was related to the students’

trusting relationship with the children, which was evident in the interactions between the students

and the children. It was noted that the children tended to ignore Students 5 and 6, and on

occasion Student 2, which could suggest that the children did not see these students as

dependable or competent in their abilities to manage the class. The third behaviour pattern

involved trust in the different teaching and management strategies implemented by the students.

Students 1, 2 and 3 were willing to experiment with a variety of strategies, which could indicate a

relationship between trust in oneself and trust in the strategies. It could be suggested that a

teacher needs to have faith in herself as a teacher before she willingly attempts a variety of

teaching strategies.

Two behaviour patterns were indentified in relation to the invitational dispositional ability of

respect, namely respect for children and expectations. Respect for children included the manner

in which the students interacted with the children, and the observations indicated that Students 2,

3 and 4 showed high levels of respect through their tone of voice and body language. The

second behaviour pattern related to the students’ expectations of the children with regards to their

interactions with each other and with the students as their teachers. It was noted that all the

students expected the children to respect each other, but that Students 4, 5 and 6 conversed

throughout each others’ lessons, thereby showing a decreased level of respect for the children.

The students’ approach to teaching and learning and their optimism regarding children’s abilities

were the two final behaviour patterns observed, and these were associated with the invitational

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dispositional ability of optimism. With regards to the students’ approach to their teaching and

learning, it appeared that the students had a tendency to tell children information as opposed to

allowing them opportunities for them to engage in self-discovery. The students’ perceptions of

the children’s abilities influenced the pace of their lessons, their willingness to provide extension

activities and their interpretation of the children’s actions or behaviour. Students 1 and 3 tended

to display high expectations of children, encouraging them to think for themselves, whereas the

other four students did not appear to extend children to the same extent.

4.2.1.1. CARE

On first observation Students 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 all seem to demonstrate high levels of the

dispositional ability to care. They are warm and friendly, and clearly able to establish positive

relationships with the children. Student 1 is the only student who appears less caring, in that she

“is professional and quite brisk” (T1:OB:S1), and “can sound impatient and attacking or

accusatory” (T1:OB:S1). However, on closer analysis of the observations, it seems as if all six

students struggled to really listen to the children, generally “not really paying attention”

(T1:OB:S2:S3) or “not really listening” (T1:OB:S1) to what was said by the children. This is in

direct contradiction with high levels of the ability to care, as a teacher who cares would be willing

to take the necessary time to hear what children have to say. A possible explanation for this

finding is that their inability to listen may have been caused by the students’ anxiety at being

observed. However, this could possibly link to a finding from the survey in 4.1, in which students

seemed to be more focused on the teacher’s role in the classroom. From the survey, it appeared

that students placed an emphasis on what the teacher had to say or do, with less concern evident

for the children’s perspective.

However, more interesting finding is that of Students’ 1, 2 and 3 dispositional ability to care for the

children’s learning, and not just for them as people. Purkey and Novak (2008, p.14) describe

care as the “ongoing desire to link significant personal means with worthwhile societal ends”,

which highlights the importance of the teaching and learning process in the goal of educating

children. Students 1, 2, and 3 made concerted efforts to get children to understand the content

being covered in the lessons. Student 2 “takes time to deal with individual children”, whilst

Student 3 purposively “addressed (a) misconception later” (T1:OB:S3). Student 1 “persistently

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tries to get every child to understand”, although this persistence can cause children to become

“embarrassed / uncomfortable in the process” (T1:OB1:S1). It seems that, despite the fact that

Student 1’s approach caused discomfort, these three students showed an ability to care for the

purpose of their profession, namely the teaching and learning process. Students 4, 5 and 6

appear to care for children, but their tendency to ignore children’s responses suggests that their

ability to care does not necessarily extend to a focus on the actual learning process and what it

entails in practice.

4.2.1.2. INTENTIONALITY

A major aspect to be considered in the discussion of the invitational disposition of intentionality is

that of preparation. Green (2009, p.29) indicates that clear and thoughtful preparation is

essential, as teachers need to be “dedicate(ed) and ... dynamic in (their) preparation”. At the HEI

attended by the six students, detailed preparation is emphasised with the reasoning that students

need training and practice in the specific phrasing of questions, explanations and instructions.

Lessons plans are required to be in enough detail so that it would be possible for another teacher

to teach directly from the written plan. It is therefore interesting to see that, of the six students,

only Students 1, 2 and 3 incorporate the required detail in their planning and preparation, and as

such, show high levels of intentionality. Student 4 often has “incomplete” (T1:OB1:S4)

preparation, Student 5’s preparation “lacks depth and insight” (T1:OB:S5), and Student 6’s

“preparation is thin and lacks detail” (T1:OB:S6). This lack of preparation is evident in the

students’ practice, with Student 4 being unable to keep children “productively occupied”

(T1:OB:S4), and Students 5 and 6 struggling to retain children’s attention and focus on the lesson

at hand. The lack of intentionality in these three students could relate to what was identified in

4.1, where it was suggested that students feel confident in their own abilities at this point, which

would, in their opinion, thereby refute the need for detailed preparation. This could indicate lower

levels of forethought, willingness and reflectiveness (see Chapter 2), as there is limited

preparation before the lesson, an inability to see the need for preparation as based on the

children’s responses during the lesson, and a lack of reflection following the lesson. In addition to

this, Students 1, 2 and 3 demonstrated intentionality in their “differentiation of activities or tasks”

(T1:OB:S1) in order to use children’s strengths as a tool in the teaching and learning process.

However, Students 4, 5 and 6 included “no differentiation of activities or tasks” (T1:OB:S4:S5:S6)

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in their teaching. This corresponds with the finding in 4.1 that students seem to be more focused

on the role and importance of the teacher, rather than on a child-centred approach to education.

Students 1, 2 and 3 also “use(d) verbalisation as a means to continuously asses children”

(T1:OB:S1:S2:S3) through their efforts to get children to express their understanding of concepts.

This verbalisation then served as a guide to further questions, instructions or explanations

designed to extend children’s knowledge and understanding. In comparison, Students 4, 5 and 6

did “not encourage verbalisation” (T1:OB:S4:S5:S6), and they did not appear to adjust their

teaching to respond to children’s comprehension levels. In addition to this, these three students

showed weak questioning skills, in that Student 4 tended to be “vague / confusing” (T1:OB:S4),

Student 5 asked “questions with obvious answers” (T1:OB:S5), and Student 6 remained detached

from the learning process as she “wander(ed) around the class watching children work”

(T1:OB:S6) without questioning them to determine their understanding of the concepts. These

findings emphasise the distinct difference between Students 1, 2 and 3 and Students 4, 5 and 6

in terms of their levels of intentionality.

4.2.1.3. TRUST

A key comparison that can be made between the students is their inclusion of a variety of

approaches to their teaching. Students 4, 5 and 6 tended to teach to the whole class, using a

“chalk-and-talk type approach” (T1:OB:S4:S5:S6), with little consideration of the necessity for a

variety of approaches intended to meet the differing needs of children. Students 1, 2 and 3,

however, were willing to “(experiment) with a variety of teaching strategies” (T1:OB:S1:S2:S3),

and consistently applied the methodologies that they had been taught. These three students

even attempted a strategy that had been discussed but not formally taught, in the hopes of

learning through experience. In addition to this, Students 1 and 3 were the only students who

showed “evidence of good content research” (T1:OB:S1:S3) as a result of further investigation on

their topics. From these findings, it appears that Students 1, 2 and 3 show higher levels of the

dispositional ability to trust than Students 4, 5 and 6. It is unclear whether Students 4, 5 and 6

lack trust in their own abilities, resulting in their unwillingness to attempt self-perceived risky

lessons, or whether they have limited trust in the methodologies they have been taught.

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The children in the classes of all six students seemed willing to participate in the lessons, which is

a positive indicator of trust. Particularly in the cases of Students 3 and 4, “children (were) keen to

give answers, even if they might be incorrect” (T1:OB:S3:S4). Students 5 and 6 were able to get

the children to participate, however the children in their classes were more inclined to “shout out”

(T1:OB:S5) and “become loud” (T1:OB:S6), with a tendency to ignore their teachers. It can be

suggested that children’s willingness to engage with the teacher is a sign of the level of trust in

their relationship with her. Therefore, the findings indicate that all students were able to establish

some level of trust in their relationships with the children, although lower levels of trust resulted in

varying degrees of success. The students show some inconsistency in their interactions with the

children, in that they allow their pace to “(slow) down considerably” (T1:OB:S1:S2:S6) when

dealing with individual children, but “(ignoring” the antics of the rest of the class” (T1:OB:S6).

This could suggest to some children that they are not as important to the teacher as others,

thereby lowering levels of trust in the child-teacher relationship (see Chapter 2).

Students 1, 3, 4 and 5 had “consistent rules” (T1:OB:S1:S3:S4:S5) in their classrooms, and the

children in their classes were particularly keen to participate in class discussions. Student 1 has

high standards (see 4.2.1.5) for the children in her class (“Remember the rule – take

responsibility for your actions” (T1:OB:S1)), which may account for the children’s reticence in

explaining their thinking, whereas the children in the other three classes were more comfortable

with the possibility of making mistakes. Students 2 and 6 showed considerably less consistency

in their discipline management, which correlates with the children’s tendency to “become loud”

(T1:OB:S6) or to “not always listen to the student” (T1:OB:S2). These two students tended to

allow the children to become loud and restless and Student 6 in particular was often unable to

settle the class.

4.2.1.4. RESPECT

Nieto (2005, p.9) identifies respect as a key requirement for successful teaching, highlighting that

teachers need to respect “students as individuals, and (recognise) how this impacts on the

teaching and learning process”. From the observations of the students, it can be seen that the

students tend to “(use) children’s names” (T1:OB:S3:S4:S5), “bend down to eye level of children”

(T1:OB:S1:S2:S3) and use “eye contact” (T1:OB:S2) when speaking to them. This is a positive

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indicator of respect, as it shows that the students are willing to take the time to ensure that

children hear and understand instructions and explanations. However there is also evidence of a

converse finding, as noted in 4.1, which is that some students focus primarily on the role of the

teacher, and neglect that of the children. This is evident in Students 5 and 6’s tendency to

“(interrupt) a child” (T1:OB:S5) or “(brush) questions off” (T1:OB:S6). This suggests that these

students feel that children need to respect them by listening to and following instructions given,

but that they do not need to respect children by listening attentively to what they have to say.

This lack of respect for others is further indicated in the fact that Students 4, 5 and 6 “chatted to

the other student during another students’ lesson” (T1:OB:S4:S5:S6).

Students 1 and 4 expect children to respect their peers, and explicitly deal with this by telling

children “No, children – we never laugh (at an incorrect response)” (T1:OB:S1) and by saying

“That’s not how we treat each other” (T1:OB:S4). In addition to this, Students 1, 2 and 3 provide

clear expectations of children, and they require them to “monitor their own behaviour” (T1:OB:S1)

in accordance with these expectations. This suggests a high level of the dispositional ability to

respect, as, when teachers have high expectations of children, it shows their belief in the

children’s ability to achieve these expectations, which correlates with a respect for their abilities.

However, teachers who “speak in a sing-song voice to children” (T1:OB:S6) or who finish

“sentences for children” (T1:OB:S5) can be seen as condescending, which could translate into a

lack of respect for the abilities of children. This closely relates to the views of Stronge & Hindman

(2006, p.9) and Helm (2006, p. 237), who suggest that successful learning opportunities arise

from the development of positive personal relationships between the teacher and the children.

4.2.1.5. OPTIMISM

A common tendency of the students is that they appear to “tell children information”

(T1:OB:S1:S2:S3:S5:S6), rather than encouraging “learner exploration, discovery, and

expression” (Survey item 27). This corresponds with the findings in 4.1, which suggest that

student have taken on a teacher-centred approach to teaching and learning, where the role of the

teacher is as the provider of information. This can also be seen in Student 2’s decision to “(fold)

pages rather than simplifying instructions” (T1:OB:S2) for the Grade Ones to enable them to

attempt it for themselves; in Student 5’s assumption of misbehaviour “without establishing facts

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first” (T1:OB:S5); and in Student 6’s inclination to “(check) children’s books before letting them

hand in” completed work (T1:OB:S6). These actions suggest the students see themselves as

being in charge of the class, whilst the children have a limited sense of responsibility and

independence.

A second common finding is that students tend to under-estimate the abilities of the children.

Five of the six students appear to lack optimism in the children’s capability of achieving high

levels of work. Student 1 clearly demonstrates her high expectations of children as she expects

them to think for themselves, and to take responsibility for their learning (“Come now x – use your

THRASS to sound it out. You’re not even trying” (T1:OB:S1)). However, in the lessons

presented by Students 2 and 6, the “pace is too slow” (T1:OB:S2:S6), and Students 3, 4 and 5

prepare lessons in which the “content tends to be quite easy3” (T1:OB:S3:S4:S5). Students 4

and 5 “(do) not expect children to finish work early” (T1:OB:S4:S5), and have not prepared

activities to further extend the early finishers, whereas Student 3 is slightly different in that she

encourages children to complete more problems, telling them to “just try” (T1:OB:S3). From

these findings, it appears Students 3, 4 and 5 expect children to complete work at a lower level,

thereby suggesting that they are not optimistic about the children achieving at high levels.

4.2.2. REFLECTIVE JOURNALS

At the selected HEI, the students’ reflective journals are a compulsory requirement of their

teaching experience, and they are encouraged to write honestly and critically in order to indicate

their growth as a teacher. The students are expected to write a daily reflection, but given the

freedom to write on any aspect of the day. The students are aware that the intention of this

journal is for supervising tutors to gain insight into their thought processes, and into their

understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of their teaching. The initial analysis of these

journals involved the recognition of the patterns that were evident in the students’ writing, which

involved reflection on themselves, reflection on the children and reflection on the learning which

took place in their classrooms. Following this, the data was coded according to the five

invitational dispositional abilities of care, intentionality, trust, respect and optimism.

3 According to the researcher’s knowledge of grade appropriate content.

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With regards to the students’ pattern of reflecting on themselves in their reflective journals, it was

interesting to note that much of their writing indicated a lack of self confidence. Phrases such as

“I felt very lost” (RJ:S2), “I was very nervous today” (RJ:S3) and “I wasn’t sure ...” (RJ:S4) typify

much of the writing and indicate that the students may have felt that they needed more guidance

in terms of teaching strategies, classroom management and the handling of sensitive issues. For

the most part, the students’ reflections on the children centred around the management of

children’s disruptive behaviour. This can be seen by the example of Student 2’s writing where

she indicates that “x’s behaviour was really mean today – he was spitting, biting, punching,

teasing and pulling faces at people – I think he was like this today because something might have

happened at home” (T1:RJ:S2), followed by “In my classroom I would perhaps have y (and x)

sitting close to me, as well as on the carpet – I would also try and make activities for his ability

even though he is the only one” (T1:RJ:S2). The above example of writing was fairly typical in

that students tended to describe the behaviour, and often considered the cause of the behaviour

as well as possible solutions. A difference between Student 1 and the other five students was

noted in that, although Student 1 did also mention behaviour modification strategies (“I have tried

the letter to certain individuals / groups” (T1:RJ:S1)), her focus was primarily on the extension

and growth of children (“I noticed that the learners are “well rehearsed” (T1:RJ:S1))but this

knowledge is not being transferred and integrated into the majority of learners spelling and

reading” (T1:RJ:S1)) as opposed to simply the management of their behaviour. In the final

pattern of reflections, the students addressed the learning taking place in the classroom, and

tended to critique lessons or activities that were either successful or unsuccessful. It was evident

that there was a range in the students’ ability to reflect on the learning opportunities presented to

the children. An example of this is in Student 1’s ability to provide much critical insight in terms of

the children’s learning, knowledge and participation (“it was evident to me that the learners are

simply barking at print, they do not read with understanding. As this is very evident I stopped the

learners and taught them part of the “five-finger” strategy – teaching them strategies about what

to do when they get to a word they do not know. This was received positively. I also stopped the

reading and began a discussion about the book, employing techniques such as prediction,

focusing on punctuation and simple text talk. I believe that by engaging the learners in this way

they will begin to develop the necessary comprehension skills required for reading with

understanding” (T1:RJ:S1)), as opposed to Student 5’s more descriptive reflections (“Today I did

not get a chance to teach, testing (maths, spelling) took up a lot of time and then the learners

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made mothers day cards. I did learn how to test the grade 3’s and the amount of time needed to

do so” (T1:RJ:S5)).

4.2.2.1. CARE

An initial finding from the reflective journals is that some of the students find it very difficult to

reflect on their teaching in a meaningful way. Student 5 is the most extreme example of this, with

a journal entry for an entire day consisting of one sentence only (“Today was my crit lesson”

(T1:RJ:S5)). This shows a lack of care in the development and growth of her teaching abilities

through self-reflectiveness. Student 3’s entry “I carried on with the three little pigs. Some

children, like x, are doing very well. But others like y and z are struggling – they have not passed

the beginning part of the story. If I could have I would have liked to have given the weaker

learners sentence starters to help” (T1:RJ:S3) show that she is able to provide more depth in her

reflections. However the following day’s entry (“the first thing I did today was carrying on with the

three little pigs (again), I had the same problems as on Friday” suggest that she is unable to use

her reflections to effect changes in her teaching. This could suggest a reduced dispositional

ability to care about the methods and activities used in order to achieve successful learning

opportunities. In addition to this it was noted that Students 4 and 6 expressed a fair amount of

despondency in their journals. Whilst Student 4 was able to identify positive aspects to her day

(“somehow when I managed to calm them down and they were focused on me – that part of the

day flew!!” (T1:RJ:S4)), her comments that “I feel SO drained” (T1:RJ:S4) and “today definitely

dragged – it felt like such a long day” (T1:RJ:S4) suggest a lack of motivation regarding her

choice of profession. Student 6 showed a marked lack of enthusiasm in her comments “I woke

up feeling drained & not wanting to teach today” (T1:RJ:S6)and “I’m hoping for the best but

expecting the worst” (T1:RJ:S4). These students seem to have a reduced dispositional ability to

care for their choice of profession, as their journals indicate low levels of motivation and

enthusiasm for their daily teaching. Much of the literature on effective teachers emphasises the

fact that teachers need to genuinely care for children, as this develops their willingness to

persevere, their ability to overcome obstacles, and their forethought and reflectiveness regarding

teaching strategies (Browne & Haylock, 2004; Gestwicki, 1999; Gordon and Browne, 2008;

Green, 2009; Hasset & Reis as cited by Green, 2009; Nieto, 2005).

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Student 1 shows an ability to care for the learning potential of the children. The entries in her

journal highlight her areas of concern in the teaching and learning process (“it was evident that

the 3rd part of the worksheet – the questions – which were based on interpreting the bar graph –

was not something the learners were familiar with” (T1:RJ:S1)), and identify her intended course

of action (“Therefore tomorrow I will return the books and I will ensure that learners complete their

corrections and bring it to me to mark, during this process I will be able to see who is battling and

I can help them then” (T1”OB”S1)). She also explains her desire to extend and “challenge”

(T1:RJ:S1) children’s knowledge. As noted in 4.2.1.1, this level of caring goes beyond just a love

for children, as it incorporates a passion and determination for children to acquire the necessary

knowledge. Student 2 also shows concern for the children’s learning (“Overall the concept of

opposite did transfer to the children – this could be seen in their worksheets – it was only the

weak group who had no clue whatsoever” (T1:RJ:S2)) although her writing can be less insightful

than Student 1’s (“I am not sure as how to work with these children am going to have to give it

some serious thought” (T1:RJ:S2)).

4.2.2.2. INTENTIONALITY

Bandura states that “people are contributors to their life circumstances, not just products of them”

(Bandura, 2006, p.164), which I believe highlights the influence of a person’s level of intentionality

on their life experiences. Bandura (2006, p.165) also emphasises the importance of

reflectiveness, as people’s ability to reflect upon their thoughts and actions leads them to

question these, and to make adjustments to their behaviour if they see fit. This is clearly evident

in the students’ reflective journals, with Students 1 and 2 showing intentionality in their focus on

the children’s learning. Their journal entries note areas of weakness as experienced by the

children, as well as possible methods designed to rectify this. Examples of this include “they

need more concrete apparatus to help them understand concepts” (T1:RJ:S2) and “I do believe

their general knowledge is not very good. However I will continue to bring in new books and

pictures in order to stimulate them and encourage them” (T1:RJ:S1). Student 3 writes about

similar aspects, however she also directs her intentionality towards herself. As seen in her entry

“A few of them did not quite get the concept of a summary. I got the attention of the class again

and re-explained. This seemed to help. I think I need to work on making my explanations more

clear and simple” (T1:RJ:S3), she describes areas of weakness in her own teaching performance,

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and acknowledges changes she could make in future lessons. It can be suggested that the

critical reflectiveness evident in the journal entries of Students 1, 2 and 3 shows their willingness

to adjust their teaching strategies in order to effectively accommodate the varying needs of

children. This shows high levels of the ability to act with intentionality, as their reflection

influences their preparation and planning, which is then designed with the intention to remediate

or extend children. The reflectiveness demonstrated by Students 4, 5 and 6 suggest lower levels

of intentionality. Student 4 describes a lesson where children dressed up, with her focus being

primarily on “it was so much fun. And lovely to see how kids were enjoying it” (T1:RJ:S4). She

appears to lack the ability to critically reflect on her lesson in terms of effectiveness and learning

value, concentrating merely on the enjoyment factor. Student 5 also shows a reduced ability to

reflect on her teaching, as she provides a simple description of her lesson, culminating in the

acknowledgement that “the learners all did very well” (T1:RJ:S5). This does not lead to the

intention to adjust or improve future lessons. Student 6 shows some evidence of intentionality,

but this may stem from a negative perspective. She anticipates disruptive behaviour from the

children, saying “I wanted them to walk around the class & measure certain things, but I don’t

think that would go down well” (T1:RJ:S6). This is likely to influence her intentionality as directed

towards the children and her teaching and learning strategies, as she feels “limited with ideas

because of (her) classes behaviour” (T1:RJ:S6).

4.2.2.3. TRUST

An important aspect of a trustworthy disposition is a teacher’s commitment to the promotion of

children’s growth and development through the alignment of “instruction and assessment with

learning goals” (InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards, 2011,p.15). Student 1 appears to

critically reflect on the children’s work in order to make adjustments to her planning and

instruction so as to specifically address the needs of the children. She identified that “whilst they

are able to “draw a bar graph” (T1:RJ:S1) their ability to interpret the graph is lacking” (T1:RJ:S1),

and therefore decided to “focus on this” (T1:RJ:S1) in subsequent lessons. This indicates a high

level of trust, which is not evident in the other students. Student 5 in particular describes an

unsuccessful lesson, in which she did not think she had “explained for long enough and the

learners did not seem sure” (T1:RJ:S5). She planned to “re-introduce this concept again ...

tak(ing) my time until learners fully understand” (T1:RJ:S5). However in the following day’s

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reflection, she notes that “learners caught on very quickly, and after the introduction learners

were able to complete their worksheets successfully” (T1:RJ:S5). This does not correlate with

her intention to “take (her) time” (T1:RJ:S5), and suggests that she has a limited awareness of

the children’s level of understanding. Students 3 and 4 mention their preparation, but seem to

lack the necessary insight into how their preparation influences the teaching and learning that

occurs in the class. Student 3 stated that she “did not feel that this lesson went very well – which

was disappointing especially after all the prep” (T1:RJ:S3), and Student 4 commented that she

“came up with so many ideas for this lesson and couldn’t decide what was the best” (T1:RJ:S4). I

believe a possible cause for this limited insight could be a lack of confidence in their decisions

and abilities. This lack of confidence is evident in both Student 2’s comment that she “felt that I

was very under confident” (T1:RJ:S2) and that her lesson “was not good enough” (T1:RJ:S2), and

Student 6’s perception that she “wasn’t getting taken seriously” (T1:RJ:S6). Student 3 also

describes an incident where a child was tutored by his mother during the lesson and she “was not

quite sure what to do” (T1:RJ:S3) and resultantly she “basically ignored” it (T1:RJ:S3). Although

Student 1 poses questions regarding instruction and assessment, these questions are intended to

enable her to critically reflect on her teaching in order to improve it, and do not indicate a lack of

confidence in her own abilities (“When working independently the learners feel unsure of

themselves and constantly come to me for assistance. This is difficult as I am not sure how to

handle them – do I just say go sit down – this may break their confidence further or do I help them

and in doing so I am not helping them to develop their ability to work independently and I am not

able to work with the teacher dependant group as I’m always talking to “other learners”

(T1:RJ:S1). It could therefore be suggested that lower levels of trust may be correlated with

lower levels of self-confidence. According to these findings, it could also be said that lower levels

of self-confidence can be linked to limited abilities of forethought, willingness and reflectiveness.

4.2.2.4. RESPECT

Invitational Education asserts that teachers should view children as valuable, able and

responsible (Purkey & Novak, 2008, p.12), from which it can be seen that a respectful relationship

is necessary for successful learning opportunities. All the students made comments to provide

some insight into their perception of the children’s potential. Of these six students, only Student 1

and 3 seemed to indicate high expectations of the children’s abilities. Student 1 stated that “I do

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not believe that this type of homework adequately stimulates the learners” (T1:RJ:S1) and

Student 3 commented that “I know the child is more than capable of understanding” (T1:RJ:S3),

both of which indicate a belief that children can achieve at high levels. Students 2 and 4 seemed

to have a relatively negative view of the children’s ability to behave responsibly, as suggested by

the comments “these learners I think all have ADD / ADHD” (T1:RJ:S2) and “I have a good idea

of who shouldn’t sit next to who and which children I need to make sure are focusing and which

children to give (more than) clear explanations to” (T1:RJ:S4). Student 5 did not anticipate

accuracy from children’s responses (“I did not want to put learners on the spot if they were / or

might not be sure because it might embarrass them as well as confuse the other learners”

(T1:RJ:S5)) and Student 6’s reflections focused on the children “who I found I can’t control at all”

(T1:RJ:S6), addressing their punishment as opposed to the cause of the behaviour.

A successful teacher needs to demonstrate willingness to implement a variety of strategies in an

attempt to meet the diverse needs of children (Nieto, 2005, p.9). Of the six students, Students 1,

2, 3, 4 and 5 acknowledged these varying needs, but only Students 1 and 4 seemed willing and

able to address them. Students 2, 3 and 5 merely commented on the level of challenge (“This is

a new challenge for me” (T1:RJ:S5) and “I think that it could be quite challenging to effectively

provide for both groups” (T1:RJ:S2)) or difficulty involved in attempting to meet the needs of

children (“Everyone else seemed to know what to do, so I was a bit confused” (T1:RJ:S3)).

Student 1 anticipated that a particular strategy would be beneficial (“by employing numeracy hour

he will (receive) that little bit more attention and I will be able to help him” (T1:RJ:S1)) and

Student 4 noted that “I was able to watch out for certain behaviours from some children and

accommodate them” (T1:RJ:S4). Students 1, 4 and 5 commented on their observations of their

teachers, with Students 1 and 4 specifically noting that they feel they have “learnt so much”

(T1:RJ:S4) from their teachers. This may indicate a level of self respect, as these students are

prepared to grow as teachers through observation of their supervising teachers. Student 1

extends this by critically examining her own performance, and by acknowledging her areas of

weakness (“I think it went well but I am aware of trying to fine tune my teaching, focusing on how I

teach and what I say to my learners. It is very difficult and I am battling to express myself in a

simple manner” (T1:RJ:S1)). This suggests a particularly high level of the invitational

dispositional ability to respect oneself.

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4.2.2.5. OPTIMISM

Students 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 all expressed a sense of nervousness, with comments such as “I was

really nervous for this lesson” (T1:RJ:S2), “I was a little worried” (T1:RJ:S4) and “I feel particularly

nervous” (T1:RJ:S6). This sense of nervousness could indicate a lack of confidence in their own

abilities, thereby suggesting a lack of optimism in their role as a teacher. However, it is both

understandable and common for students to be anxious about starting a teaching practical and

about being observed in the classroom. What is more interesting, I believe, is the fact that

Student 1 did not express any nervousness. Her first comment in her reflective journal was

“Today was a very difficult day as I did not feel welcome by my teacher. I felt that she stuck me in

a corner and I was invisible” (T1:RJ:S1), but other than this, her comments did not indicate

nervousness about her ability to teach or about being observed.

There is a stark difference in the reflections of Students 1 and 4. Student 1 acknowledges areas

of weakness in the children’s work, and uses words such as “fear” (T1:RJ:S1) and “disappointed”

(T1:RJ:S1) to describe her reactions. These words indicate optimism, as they suggest the

student has high hopes for the children which they have failed to meet. In addition to this,

Student 1 comments how she will “continue to persist” (T1:RJ:S1) and she “will follow this up”

(T1:RJ:S1), suggesting that she has continued optimism that the hurdles can be overcome, and

that her expectations of the children will at some point be realised. It can be seen from this that

she is optimistic about her own ability to enable children to meet these expectations. Student 4,

on the other hand, generalises children’s lack of “willingness to learn” (T1:RJ:S4) to the whole of

“this generation of kids” (T1:RJ:S4) and uses the word “sad” (T1:RJ:S4) to describe her response.

This suggests that she has lost hope and optimism in the children in her class, and in fact, in all

children of their generation. In addition to this she says “I could only guide them and even then,

they didn’t do anything good” (T1:RJ:S4), which further contributes to the finding that she is not

optimistic about her role in enabling children to meet their potential. Students 3 and 6 seem to be

lacking optimism particularly in the area of their role in the teaching and learning process.

Student 3 commented that she wondered if she is “actually capable of being a full-time teacher”

(T1:RJ:S3), and Student 6 describes her class as being “so impossible” (T1:RJ:S6) that she

“found (her)self feeling so frustrated & disheartened” (T1:RJ:S6).

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Some of the students show an ability to adjust their planning in order to accommodate the needs

of the children. Students 1 and 2 indicated an intention to incorporate particular strategies based

on their assessment of the children’s understanding of the concept being taught. Student 1

implemented a particular reading strategy based on her assessment of the fact that “It is

encouraging to see ‘how productive this reading strategy is’” (T1:RJ:S1) and Student 2 planned to

“play some more sight word games with the children” (T1;RJ:S2). Students 3 and 4 showed their

ability to adjust their preparation based either on the children’s reactions during a lesson in their

comments that “I had planned to read the book to them, but I decided to let them carry on

reading” (T1:RJ:S3) and “I changed my lesson slightly because the children didn’t seem that

interested” (T1:RJ:S4). This is a positive indicator of optimism, as it suggests a sense of hope

that a particular method or strategy will enable children to “know what to do” (T1:RJ:S1), thereby

enabling them to achieve the learning goals.

Students 5 and 6 did not show much optimism in their reflections. Student 5’s writing suggests

she underestimates the abilities of the children, as firstly the children already “knew a lot”

(T1:RJ:S5) about her first topic, and secondly she intended to teach the Grade Threes a limited

amount of very basic information on shapes. Student 6 describes a similar situation where she

limits the content given to the children, although it appears her lack of optimism is in her own

abilities as she justifies her decision by saying “for the sake of my nerves” (T1:RJ:S6).

4.2.3. STUDENT INTERVIEWS

The observation sessions were followed up with a reflective discussion on the lessons. These

discussions were held with all three students from the school together, and the purpose was to

provide students with an opportunity to clarify what was observed during the lessons. It is

understood that certain actions could be explained by nerves, or an impulsive response, and I

wanted the students to be able to clarify my perceptions of what I had seen in their classrooms.

The student interviews were initially analysed in terms of the patterns presented in the reflective

discussions, and, as with the reflective journals, three main areas of discussion arose. These

patterns were then further coded according to the five invitational dispositional abilities (see the

attached CD).

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The first of the three primary patterns addresses the notion of the teacher as a person, and

includes aspects such as the students’ perceptions and beliefs regarding teachers, and their

confidence and faith in themselves as teachers. It was clear that, while the students had specific

beliefs regarding the essential characteristics necessary for effective teachers and regarding their

personal position on certain sensitive issues, the students tended to lack confidence in

themselves as teachers. Comments were made about children needing “a lot more individual

attention. And like you can’t really do that so much …” (NC2:RD1:S4:L128), and also how “it is

good to listen but sometimes you have to kinda limit your involvement” (NC2:RD1:S6:L146) which

suggest that the students have thought about certain aspects of teaching, and have formed their

own opinions on these. Their lack of confidence or faith in their own ability is indicated in

comments such as “it’s so nerve wrecking on prac” (NC2:RD2:S5:L320) and “we actually don’t

have that much knowledge” (NC1:RD1:S1:L143). This is to be expected, considering their level

of experience, although Student 6 did appear to be struggling with a lack of self confidence the

most, making comments such as “I just get so stressed” (NC2:RD1:S6:L40) and “I can see how

easily I just want to give up” (NC2:RD3:S6:L513).

The second main area was related to the learning taking place in the classroom, and it was

interesting to see that Students 1, 2 and 3 showed a keen interest in developing learning

opportunities through the implementation of different teaching strategies, whereas Students 4, 5

and 6 were less willing to experiment in this area. Students 1, 2 and 3 all attempted a new

strategy for an observed lesson because they thought that “this was the best place for me to

practice it, and for me to get the best input. (NC1:RD3:S2:L384), with Student 1 noting that “you

take your strategies that you learn at varsity and you try fit them in there” (NC1:RD2:S1:L365-

366). Students 4, 5 and 6, however, indicated that it was “easier to just tell” (NC2:RD1:S4:L86),

because getting children actively involved in a lesson “feels like that is a bit like time consuming”

(NC2:RD1:S6:L83)

The third area reflected in the discussions was associated with the children, particularly in the

areas of diversity and ability. A noteworthy finding was the students’ apparent focus on either the

children’s emotional well-being or on their academic ability. Student 1 showed the most concern

for the children’s learning and, as such, had high expectations of them in terms of the tasks she

set for them to do. She voiced her concern over the children’s pace of working, commenting that

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“my teacher says I'm setting too much work for them, but I'm not” (NC1:RD2:S1:L271-272). It

seemed that the other students were less focused on how far to extend children academically,

and more inclined to address their emotional difficulties. Student 6 stated that “My teacher says

this year’s class – she’s never had so many issues” (NC2:RD1:S6:L112), and Student 4

wondered “Why would they even need to care about school, when it’s such a small issue

compared to their life?” (NC2:RD1:S4:L118-119)

4.2.3.1. CARE

From the reflective discussions, it was easily apparent that all six students recognised the

importance of the ability to care in the teaching profession. They used words such as “passion”

(NC2:RD1:S5:L96) (NC2:RD1:S4:L103), “enjoy” (NC2:RD1:S6:L98) and “love”

(NC1:RD1:S2:L175) to describe what is necessary to ensure successful teaching. Students 1, 2

and 3 also felt that “you can’t be taught to be” a teacher (NC1:RD1:S3:L179), but rather that you

are born to be a teacher. Interestingly, despite recognising the need for the ability to care

(“there’s a lot of caring that has to go into teaching” (NC2:RD1:S5:L97)), Students 4, 5, and 6 did

not demonstrate high levels of this ability themselves. They felt that teachers needed to “kinda

limit (their) involvement” (NC2:RD1:S6:L146) with children, rather than giving them the “individual

attention” (NC2:RD1:S4:L128) they need. Student 6 also notes that care can dissipate in the face

of pressure, as “sometimes it is very hard” (NC2:RD1:S6:L165). In addition to this, these three

students believe that “it is easier to just tell” (NC2:RD1:S4:L86) children information, thereby

showing little evidence of the ability to care about the selection of teaching and learning strategies

for the benefit of the children. Students 1, 2 and 3, however, showed high levels of the ability to

care about the teaching and learning process. All of these three students, without prior

discussion, opted to implement an unknown strategy for one of their observed lessons, in the

hope that they would learn from the experience. They anticipated receiving guidance from each

other and from me, and so took a risk on a possibly unsuccessful lesson in order to grow as

teachers. Student 2 summed up their feelings when she said “I think this was the best place for

me to practice it, and for me to get the best input” (NC1:RD3:S2:L384).

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4.2.3.2. INTENTIONALITY

From the student interviews, it became apparent that the students’ ability to act with intentionality

was directed at specific areas in the teaching and learning process. Students 1, 2, and 5 showed

intentionality towards others and towards the teaching profession through their careful selection

of teaching strategies designed to benefit children. Student 1’s comment that “You will remember

something that you did easier than something somebody told you” (NC1:RD3:S1:L436-437) is a

clear example of how she specifically chooses strategies based on her knowledge of children and

how they learn, as related to Piaget’s views on the importance of concrete apparatus (Pritchard,

2005, p.22-23). Student 4’s comment that “I feel like a lot of the stuff at varsity I’m not that

interested in because it doesn’t affect me” (NC2:RD1:S4:L181-182) suggests that her

intentionality towards the profession is at a lower level, based on her apparent inability to think

critically about teaching strategies. She states that “most of the time I feel like I could have done

the lesson exactly the same, if not better, just teaching about what I ‘m thinking about”

(NC2:RD3:S4:L492-493). This statement indicates a lack of intentionality regarding specific

questions or actions intended for the benefit of the children, as well as towards herself through

her perception of the importance of preparation. Another area in which intentionality became

evident, is that of the students’ views of themselves as teachers. Students 1, 2 and 3 have

specific views regarding their teaching personalities, and from where these originated. Student 1

stated that “you don't have to try be like anyone else” (NC1:RD2:S1:L366), and Student 3 felt that

“your own personality definitely comes into it” (NC1:RD2:S3:L374). This suggests intentionality

towards themselves as they are beginning to establish an idea of the kind of teacher they would

like to be when they have qualified. Students 4 and 5, however, seem to be more directed by

what others think of them, as is indicated by their unwillingness to respond to unsuccessful

lessons by making spontaneous adaptations. Student 5 indicated her view by stating that “it’s

nice to hear that it does sometimes fall apart ... and that you can just stop it but no one’s ever

said that” (NC2:RD2:S5:L336-338). An interesting observation from the student interviews is that

Student 6 did not say anything to suggest her ability to act with intentionality in any area.

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4.2.3.3. TRUST

When coding the students’ reflective interviews according to the invitational disposition of trust, it

became clear that the data associated with trust could be divided into two categories. The first

category relates to the fact that some of the students lack confidence in their own choices and

decisions with regards to their teaching practices. Students 4 and 5 expressed their desire to be

given more direct guidance from the HEI, stating that they needed “lessons that ... explained

things... (in order to)... help (them) see how it’s done” (NC2:RD3:S5:L343-344), so their practical

teaching experiences were less “trial and error” (NC2:RD3:S4:L348). Students 1 and 2 also

acknowledged that they “actually don’t have that much knowledge” (NC1:RD1:S1:L143), however

they demonstrated more insight into their own capabilities, and appeared more will to attempt

new methods and to “practice” (NC1:RD1:S2:L151) what they have been taught.

The second category identified which associated to the disposition of trust was related to the

students’ perceptions of their teaching personalities. Students 1, 2 and 3 seemed to believe that

they were showing signs of being “comfortable” (NC1:RD2:S3:L331) in the classroom. This

suggests that in the four years of their degree with their numerous teaching experiences, they

may have become accustomed to being observed and are more able to show their true

personalities in the classroom. Student 6 however became “stressed” (NC2:RD1:S6:L40) when

observed, which is apparently in contradiction to her normally “chilled” (NC2:RD1:S6:L41) nature.

It could be suggested that this relates to one of the Invitational Education aspects of trust,

namely: “genuineness” (Purkey & Novak, 2008, p.13). Another aspect described by Purkey and

Novak is that of competence, and I believe that genuineness comes with the knowledge of one’s

own competence. If one lacks confidences in one’s own abilities then it becomes extremely

difficult to demonstrate genuineness, as there is a level of indecision which permeates all actions.

4.2.3.4. RESPECT

From the student interviews, it appeared that the dispositional ability to respect from a

professional perspective was quite predominant. All six students recognised the need to

accommodate the diverse needs of children within the teaching and learning process. Student 4

specifically acknowledged that a teacher needs “definitely compassion, and definitely maybe a bit

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of insight and discernment to be able to delicately navigate a situation” (NC2:RD1:S4:L121-122),

and Student 3 stated that “You also need to understand where they are coming from”

(NC1:RD1:S3:L134).

Another area of respect is that of the ability to see children as valuable, able and responsible

(InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards, 2011; Purkey & Novak, 1996). Students 1 and 3

indicate that they expect a level of respect from children towards other children, as well towards

the teacher. Student 1 comments that “It does irritate me when they fight with one another

though ... I think it is so unproductive (NC1:RD1:S1:L163,166-167) and Student 3 admits her

frustration when “they are all calling me to come help them and I am trying to be busy with

someone” (NC1:RD1:S3:L157-158). This expectation suggests that they have the ability to

respect children’s potential to act in an appropriate manner. Students 4 and 6, however, do not

seem to have this positive expectation, stating that “I think it’s that my kids just can’t control

themselves” (NC2:RD2:S6:L252) and “I think most cases is attention seeking ...because they’re

not getting it home” (NC2:RD2:S4:L256-257). This suggests a lower level of respect for the

children as being responsible in their own right.

A final area in which respect is evident is in the comments made by Students 1, 2 and 3 regarding

their determination to treat all children fairly. Student 1 believes that “You need to find out what

their background is and what their needs are, but I don't think they should be given special

attention because I think you're doing them a disservice” (NC1:RD2:S1:L290-291). Student 2

and 3 agreed with this view because “in the real world nobody is going to be ‘ah shame or

whatever’” (NC1:RD2:S2:L300). These three students agree that the children should be treated

fairly (“I would treat him the same as everybody - and I have been” (NC1:RD2:S1:L296)), with the

acknowledgement that they need to “positively reinforce (children)... to make (them) feel good

about (themselves)” (NC1:RD2:S2:L302-304). This could be viewed as respect for themselves,

as they have clearly established standards and expectations, upon which they have begun to

base their practice.

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4.2.3.5. OPTIMISM

Student 6 showed a lack of optimism in her own abilities as she describes feeling as if she could

“give up” (NC2:RD3:S6:L513), and how she “didn’t have much enthusiasm or energy to plan for

this class”(NC2:RD1:S6:L209-210). It appears she became overwhelmed by the behaviour of the

class, and that she did not have the self confidence to overcome the challenges presented to her.

Student 5, on the other hand, clearly has more belief in herself as she is “excited to qualify”

(NC2:RD3:S5:L558), suggesting that she believes and is optimistic about the fact that she has

the ability to manage full time teaching.

Student 5”s optimism does not extend to the abilities of the children in her class. She comments

that the “kids knew a lot more than I thought they would” (NC2:RD3:S5:L357), and yet she

acknowledges the fact that a teacher’s expectation has “a lot” (NC2:RD3:S5:L444) of influence on

children’s learning. Both she and Student 4 believe in giving children opportunities to succeed

through providing them with easier work. Student 4 notes that “I’d rather start at a low level”

(NC2:RD3:S4:L455), with Student 5 adding that “that also builds their confidence”

(NC2:RD3:S5:L462). However, a significant difference is that Student 4 believes “it pays to push

(children) a little” (NC2:RD3:S4:L453) in order to get them to succeed with more difficult work,

whereas Student 5 does not, emphasising instead her concern with children “getting things

wrong, wrong, wrong” (NC2:RD3:S5:L462). Students 2, 4 and 6 seem to lack optimism in the

potential for children to grow and develop. Student 2 describes some children as “just so weak”

(NC1:RD2:S2:L251), and she believes that “most of them have concentration problems”

(NC1:RD2:S2:L263), whilst Students 4 and 6 display a sense of hopelessness in the “family

issues” (NC2:RD1:S6:L116) of children and in the fact that their “home life is horrible”

(NC2:RD1:S4:L106), wondering how children could “concentrate” (NC2:RD1:S6:L117) or even

“care about school, when it’s such a small issue compared to their life” (NC2:RD1:S4:L118-119).

The tone of their writing indicates a greater lack of optimism than is evident in the writing of

Student 1. Her statement “they can’t work independently” (NC1:RD2:S1:L270), is a statement of

fact which, when considered with her disagreement of her teacher’s view that she is “setting too

much work for them” (NC1:RD2:S1:L271), suggests that she hold an optimistic perception that

this is learnt behaviour which can be modified.

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One area where the majority of the students appear to lack optimism is in the belief that

modifications in teaching strategies can influence children’s ability to learn. They expressed their

concern that the methodologies taught at the HEI were not implemented in the schools. Student

1 commented that they are being taught “certain things but it is not being done in the schools”

(NC1:RD1:S1:L11), and Student 6 felt that “Life Skills is basically a waste of a subject ... there’s

nothing exciting” (NC2:RD3:S6:L518 & 522). The students’ asked questions such as “how do you

fit into a school where they don’t do it?” (NC1:RD1:S3:L35) and “how do you say I want to re-run

my classroom this way?” (NC1:RD1:S3:L37). These questions suggest that the students do not

believe that they will be able to bring about change when they enter the profession because they

cannot imagine providing guidance or suggestions to more experienced teachers.

4.2.4. TEACHER INTERVIEWS

The teacher’s interviews were conducted at the end of the first teaching experience, and serve as

an additional perspective on what was observed and discussed with the students. The interview

was conducted with the three supervising teachers from each school together, which provided

opportunities for comparison and contrast of the students. The interviews were initially analysed

to determine the over-arching patterns that emerged, and then further coded according to the five

invitational dispositional abilities. Once again, the three main areas in which patterns were noted

included the teacher as a person, learning opportunities and the children. The teachers were

generally quite positive about their students, although some of their comments did link back to the

findings from the other data sources.

In terms of the teacher as a person, the teachers identified that willingness was a characteristic

associated with the students (“she's always willing to learn” (NC1:TI:T2:L42) and “she's like

willing to do anything” (NC2:TI:T6:L59)), although they acknowledged that some of the students

struggled with preparation, time management and discipline. Teacher 3 felt that Student 3

“battles with time management” (NC1:TI:T3:L60), Teacher 4 commented that Student 4 did not

make “a lot of resources of her own” (NC2:TI:T4:L67) and Teacher 6 stated that Student 6 “had

difficulty with discipline” (NC2:TI:T6:L5). Teachers 4, 5 and 6 noted that their students could

increase their focus on the learning opportunities presented within the classroom (“the idea was

there to make big learning but not that much learning actually took place” (NC2:TI:T6:L137-141)),

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whereas Teacher 1 indicated that her student had “unrealistic expectations” (NC1:TI:T1:L66) in

this area as she would “set tasks and (expect) them to be completed” (NC1:TI:T1:L67). Student

1’s focus on learning influenced her relationship with the children as well, with her teacher

acknowledging her ability to identify diverse needs and to assist and extend children. Teacher 1

noted that Student 1 “knows the children” “and there's always extension work for the children to

do” (NC1:TI:T1:L32 & 30), which is similar to Teacher 2’s observation that “she hones in very,

very quickly on the weaker children, and she gravitates towards them when they're working”

(NC1:TI:T2:L76-77). This finding that Student 1 and 2 strove to extend children’s learning

appears to be in contrast with the finding that the Students 4 and 6 were “more like (the

children’s) friend” (NC2:TI:T4:L105).

4.2.4.1. CARE

The teachers all identified positive key characteristics of the students which clearly relate to the

invitational dispositional ability to care. Teacher 1 identified Student 1’s ability to care as being on

a “professional” (NC1:TI:T1:L22) level, whilst Teacher 2 pinpointed caring at both a professional

(“she's passionate about being a Foundation Phase teacher” (NC1:TI:T2:L49-50)) and personal

level (“Caring” (NC1:TI:T2:L23)) for Student 2. Teachers 3, 4, 5 and 6 focused primarily on their

students’ relationship with the children in their classes. Teachers 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 all commented

that their students showed some level of willingness to learn and grow as teachers (“she's always

willing to learn” (NC1:TI:T2:L42) and “she was keen to learn from me” (NC1:TI:T3:L37)). Only

Student 4 showed “some resistance” (NC2:TI:T4:L71-72) to an opportunity which her teacher felt

would provide her with excellent experience.

4.2.4.2. INTENTIONALITY

Students 2, 3, 4 and 6 appeared to lack intentionality in terms of their preparation and time

management. Teacher 2 felt that Student 2 “prepares too much” (NC1:TI:T2:L53), and Teacher 3

noted that Student 3 had “a lot of work not finished” (NC1:TI:T3:L60), whereas Teacher 6

commented that “I think Student 6’s prep is lacking a bit” (NC2:TI:T6:L52). This suggests that the

students need development in the area of planning lessons intended for specific purposes, in

order to achieve their stated outcomes. Student 1 seemed to have more focus, particularly as

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she is “very much a perfectionist” (NC1:TI:T1:L66), but she tended to aim her lessons

predominantly towards “the top students” (NC1:TI:T1:L68). Teacher 6 suggested that her student

showed intentionality in her initial planning (“the idea was there to make big learning”

(NC2:TI:T6:L141)), but that she is unable to follow through on this in the actual implementation of

her lessons (“not that much learning actually took place” (NC2:TI:T6:L141)).

4.2.4.3. TRUST

The teachers’ interviews appear to contradict the previous findings relating to the disposition of

trust. Previously it was noted that the students lacked confidence in their own abilities, and that

that this lack of confidence could influence their competence and genuineness in the classroom

situation. However, in this data source, all six teachers commented upon the competence of the

students, with only a few issues regarding time management, preparation and discipline being

raised as weaknesses (see 4.2.4.3). Teacher 5 was the only teacher to mention reduced

confidence, stating that Student 5’s “confidence is a bit lacking” (NC2:TI:T5:91) as “she does rely

on me to tell her what to do and sort of expect” (NC2:TI:T5:L87). However, this data is not

necessarily in conflict with the previous findings, as the teachers may view students as

knowledgeable and competent whilst the students still lack confidence in their own abilities.

Qualified teachers may make observations of students based on their memories of what it was

like to be a student, as well as on their belief that teaching ability improves with experience. They

are therefore more likely to see instances of “intent, competence, genuineness, truthfulness and

reliability” (Purkey & Novak, 2008, p.13) in their students than their students may perceive in

themselves. In light of this, it is unsurprising to see that the data suggests that the supervising

teachers see their students as having higher levels of trust than indicated from the other data

sources.

4.2.4.4. RESPECT

Students 2 and 3 showed high levels of respect in terms of children’s varying needs, with their

teachers commenting on their abilities to “(hone) in very, very quickly on the weaker children”

(NC1:TI:T2:L76). Student 4 also demonstrated this ability, however her teacher felt that she was

a little naive in her interpretations of children’s needs as she spent “a whole lot of time that she

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spent on this child who was completely conning her” (NC2:TI:T4:L112-113). She felt that Student

4 needed to be more aware of children’s actual abilities before providing them with individual

attention, at the expense of other children’s more urgent needs. Student 1 shows high levels of

respect in terms of her “professional” (NC1:TI:T1:L22) manner with the children, although she

then contradicts this by struggling to “separate the deed from the child” when a child misbehaves.

Teacher 1 interpreted this as part of her “basic need (to) ... not to get too close to the children”

(NC1:TI:T1:L110-111). Students 4, 5 and 6 also appear to struggle to establish a respectful

relationship with the children, as they tend to be “more of a friend than a teacher”

(NC2:TI:T4:L117). This level of familiarity is an important consideration in terms of the students’

invitational dispositional ability to respect, as it could suggest a lack of respect for themselves in

their role as the teacher.

4.2.4.5. OPTIMISM

Teachers 3 and 4 commented on their students’ willingness to try different teaching and learning

strategies. Whilst Student 3 did ask to be allowed to try a different reading strategy, which

“showed she wanted to try reading another way from my way” (NC1:TI:T3:L136), Teacher 3

described her as being “almost timid about it” (NC1:TI:T3:L188). The teachers felt that both

Students 3 and 4 could have experimented more with a variety of different teaching styles and

strategies in order to do “different things to include all the learners in the classroom”

(NC2:TI:T4:L182).

The teachers also referred to certain characteristics or tendencies of the students, which could be

interpreted as a possible lack of self confidence in the students. Teacher 1 noted that Student 1

was “aware of all the areas she feels she is failing” (NC1:TI:T1:L200), adding that she feels “that

the more positive you can be about a career, the more you are going to relax” (NC1:TI:T1:L202-

203). This is an interesting observation as it could be suggested that confidence may be equated

with positivism. This would be in accordance with the findings of this study in that it has been

suggested that a relationship exists between self confidence and an optimistic disposition. In line

with this view, Teacher 3 implies that her student lacks self confidence as she says that she

“needs to relax more, and to really enjoy it” (NC1:TI:T3:L188). Teachers 2, 5 and 6 refer to their

students’ lack of assertiveness which could be indicative of a lack of self confidence. Student 6 is

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described as being “soft” (NC2:TI:T6:L174), and Student 5’s underestimation of the children’s

abilities causes them to become “bored and ... start bouncing around” (NC2:TI:T5:L155-156).

This ties in with Teacher 5’s view that the student is too “sweet” (NC2:TI:T5:L188), and needs to

establish a “happy medium otherwise ... the teaching side sinks” (NC2:TI:T5:L187-190).

4.2.5. IN SUMMARY

In conclusion, it can be seen that the patterns emerging from the data collected from the first

teaching practical depict three main themes, namely:

the teacher as a person,

the children and

the learning opportunities.

These three themes coincide with the categories identified in the invitational dispositional

framework which are self, others and profession (as discussed in Chapter 2, see Figure 2.2). The

themes were then coded according to the five invitational dispositional abilities of care,

intentionality, trust, respect and optimism. After analysing and comparing all the data from the

first teaching practical, four distinct findings became apparent.

The first of these is the acknowledgement that the invitational dispositional ability to care is the

driving force behind any effective teacher. Stronge and Hindman (2006, p.9) suggest that a

teacher’s “deep sense of caring” towards the individuals she teaches increases her effectiveness

because “we cannot teach students well if we do not know them well” (Sizer, 1999, p.6 as cited in

Strong and Hindman, 2006, p.9). The data gathered from each of the sources correlates with this

view, with words such as “caring” and passionate” being used to describe key characteristics of

successful teachers, as well as the students. Students 1, 2 and 3 all agreed that teachers were

“born and not made” (NC1:RD1:I:L180), and, interestingly, these three students also displayed

the most self confidence when discussing their perceptions and beliefs about children. This

information corresponds with the findings from 4.1, in which the fourth year Foundation Phase

students rated caring as the most importance dispositional ability. However, there is a definite

link between the dispositional ability to care, and the dispositional ability to act with intentionality,

and it appears that the students are unable to maintain high levels in both of these areas. All six

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students showed a tendency to fail to listen to children properly, which, in my opinion, falls into

the Unintentionally Disinviting category of behaviour. The advice given by the teachers to the

students adds weight to the discrepancy between the ability to care and the ability to act with

intentionality. A common thread from their responses involves a desire to see students “relax”

(NC1:TI:T3:L188) more, and to start as they mean to go on with regards to discipline, lesson

planning and the teaching and learning process.

Intentionality also forms part of the teaching and learning process, which has been identified as

the second theme. Students 1, 2 and 3 showed high levels of intentionality in their constant

efforts to implement a variety of teaching strategies with detailed and well-research preparation.

These students also encouraged participation and verbalisation from children, and attempted to

critically reflect on their teaching. Students 4, 5 and 6, however, appear more content to “tell”

(NC2:RD1:S4:L86) children information, rather than guiding them to discover it for themselves.

Despite being aware of the fact that children learn through the manipulation of concrete

apparatus, and the development of their own understanding (Pritchard, 2005, p.22-23), these

students admitted it was simply “easier” (NC2:RD1:S4:L86) to tell children what they needed to

know. This ties in closely with the dispositional ability to care, as this ability needs to extend to

oneself, to others and to the profession. As stated by Teacher 6, “you have to more than just love

(children)” (NC2:TI:T6:L194), teachers also need to be passionate about what and how children

are learning. If one considers the invitational dispositional framework described in Chapter 2, this

theme would be located in the profession area, and forms a crucial part of what it takes to

develop and maintain effective learning situations.

Also closely related to the abilities to care and to act with intentionality, is the notion of self

confidence. It was clear the six students all lack self confidence to a greater or lesser degree.

There were numerous indications that students were overwhelmed, or that they were unsure of

their abilities to cope with children, situations or learning opportunities in the classroom.

Fortunately, this lack of confidence was tempered by the students’ willingness to learn from their

teachers, and to grow in their own abilities. This theme is located in the invitational dispositional

framework in the area of self, which Purkey and Novak (1996, p.31) describe as being critically

important in its influence of person’s actions and interactions.

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The fourth and final finding to be identified is that of the students’ interactions with the children.

All six students made at least some effort to engage respectfully with the children, through the

use of children’s names and the establishment of eye contact. The students also all recognised

the variety of diverse needs presented by children, although some of them found this quite

challenging to contend with in the classroom. In addition to this, the students appeared to have

high expectations of the children in terms of behaviour and level of responsibility. An interesting

observation was that Students 4, 5 and 6 expected this level of behaviour and responsibility from

the children, but they were unable to show the same level of respect. These three students

tended to chat to each other whilst supposedly observing a lesson. This corresponds with the

finding from 4.1 that the students appear more focused on a teacher-centred approach, with little

regard for the children’s input. In my opinion, this correspondence is evident in that their

behaviour suggests that it is acceptable for a teacher to talk whilst another teacher is teaching,

but that it is unacceptable for children to attempt the same. An invitational dispositional ability

that I felt was lacking, was that of optimism. More than half of the students were inclined to

underestimate children’s abilities, and experienced frustration and difficulty when dealing with the

diversity of needs presented in the classroom. Purkey and Novak (1996) emphasise the need for

teachers to view children as valuable, able and responsible, and yet there was little evidence of

this from Students 2, 4, 5 and 6.

4.3. SECOND TEACHING PRACTICAL DATA ANALYSIS

The second teaching practical took place in September, and the data collection involved the

observation of an entire teaching day for each student, a final focus group interview, and the

written reflective reports from both the supervising teachers and the students. The intention of

this section of the analysis was to track the trajectory of the students’ invitational dispositional

abilities from the first to the second teaching practical. Therefore, the initial analysis of this data

involved the determination of specific patterns of behaviour, which were found to be very similar

to the patterns identified in the first teaching practical. These behaviour patterns included the

students’ views on themselves as teachers, on the children and, finally, on the learning taking

place in the classroom. These similarities enabled a comparison to made between the findings

from the survey (4.1), the first teaching practical (4.2), and the findings from the second teaching

practical. In this way, it will be possible to interpret the students’ dispositional opinions (as

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determined from the survey in 4.1) to their behaviour or actions over the course of their fourth

year of study (as determined from the findings in 4.2 and 4.3).

The legend depicted in Figure 4.3.1 below provides clarity on the abbreviations used in the

discussion of the data. All the data has been placed into tables, as is listed in the Appendices

(see page 129), and is supplied in the form of a compact disc (CD).

Nested Case 1 NC1

Student 1

Student 2

Student 3

S1

S2

S3

Teacher 1

Teacher 2

Teacher 3

T1

T2

T3

Nested Case 2 NC2

Student 4

Student 5

Student 6

S4

S5

S6

Teacher 4

Teacher 5

Teacher 6

T4

T5

T6

Interviewer I

Line number L

Teaching

Practical 2

Observation T2OB

Focus Group Interview FGI

Student Reflective Report SRR

Teacher Reflective Report TRR

Figure 4.3.1 – Legend depicting the abbreviations used for each data source in the second teaching practical

4.3.1. OBSERVATION SCHEDULES

The observation of each student was conducted over an entire teaching day in the hope that the

students would become comfortable with the presence of an observer, and would revert to their

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typical teaching styles as used when unobserved. The observation schedule was separated into

the three essential areas of interaction (in accordance with the literature in Chapter 2 and the

findings from 4.2), namely: self, others and profession, in order to determine where the students’

dispositional strengths and weaknesses lay. In addition to this, the schedule also identified the

levels of invitational interactions, with Intentionally Disinviting being classified as level 4,

Unintentionally Disinviting as level 3, Unintentionally Inviting as level 2 and, finally, Intentionally

Inviting as level 1. Within each area of interaction, the observed behaviours were categorised

into themes, as well as being linked to a dispositional ability. The survey items from 4.1 were

used as guidance for the identification of the dispositional abilities.

4.3.1.1. SELF

The first area of interaction is that with oneself, based on Combs’ (1974, p.8) belief that one

learns to teach via a process of self-discovery. Purkey and Novak (1996, p.31) agree with this

view, emphasising the importance of a positive self concept. They suggest that a teacher’s

actions are dependent upon her perceptions of her own abilities and characteristics. When

analysing the data from the observation schedules regarding self, two themes clearly emerged.

The first is that of the students’ preparation and the intended learning for each lesson, which is

linked to the invitational dispositional ability to trust. Green (2009) describes an important role of

a teacher as being influential in each child’s emotional and social development, suggesting that

teachers need to “mold ... students into young people who can become assets to their

communities” (Green, 2009, p.26). This dispositional ability was rated quite highly by the

students (See Figure 4.1.2), and yet all six students showed some level of Unintentionally

Disinviting behaviour with regards to the preparation and learning process. Students 3, 4 and 5

had either not researched their content sufficiently (“Needs to do more research into her topics”

(T2OB:S3:S5)), or had not prepared thoughtfully enough (“Prep file is quite thin / empty”

(T2OB:S4)); and Student 6 stated in her reflections that “there wasn’t a lot of time to [implement

methodology] this week – I’ll try next week when it’s quieter” (T2OB:S6). It can be suggested that

the lack of careful and considered planning is detrimental to the trusting relationship established

between the teacher and the children, as there is insufficient emphasis on both what and how

learning should be done. Students 1 and 2 were “well prepared” (T2OB2:S2) with their

preparation being “thorough and detailed” (T2OB:S1), although there needed to be more

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evidence of a deeper understanding of the content or strategies used as the “bulletin board didn’t

have all the info for children to answer questions” (T2OB:S2). This can have Unintentionally

Disinviting consequences, although the observed behaviours may stem from a lack of self

confidence which could lessen with greater experience. This correlates with the findings in 4.2,

where it was noted that a lack of self confidence was a pattern evident across all the data

sources. A further reason for the identification of a lack of self confidence as a causal factor for

insufficient or thin preparation is the Intentionally Inviting behaviours exhibited by Students 1, 2, 3,

4 and 6. Examples of these behaviours include instances where Student 1 took into

“consideration ... different ability groups” “T2OB:S1), Student 3 “noticed children were battling

with adjectives so got them to play a “describing objects” game” (T2OB:S3) and Student 4 “(took)

responsibility for the ‘academic learning’” (T2OB:S4). This suggests that the students are aware

of the importance of their trusting relationships with the children and that they make concerted

attempts to provide valuable learning opportunities through which to “promote (their) growth and

development” (InTASC’s Model Core Teaching Standards, 2011).

The second theme identified was that of self confidence, which is linked to the dispositional ability

to be optimistic. Once again, all six students demonstrated some Unintentionally Disinviting

behaviour through a lack of self confidence. Student 1 “becomes a little flustered” (T2OB:S1),

Student 2 “almost seems to take a back seat in the teaching and learning process” (T2OB:S2),

Student 3 “worries about what the other teachers think about her class’s noise levels” (T2OB:S3)

and Students 4, 5 and 6 “(take) the easy option” (T2OB:S4:S6) by “(sticking) to safe lessons”

(T2OB:S5) with little “initiative” (T2OB:S4:S5:S6) shown in their preparation. As previously

mentioned this lack of self confidence was consistently evident in 4.2, whereas in 4.1 students

actually appeared over-confident. In 4.1, students were predominantly focused on a teacher-

centred role which suggests high levels of confidence and optimism in themselves. The reason

for this apparent contradiction may be that the survey was conducted at the university during

lecture time. In this environment students may have felt confident because they were only

anticipating their role in the classroom, as opposed to being immersed in it during their teaching

practical. In this way, the over-confidence in 4.1 may have been a more theoretical standpoint,

as opposed to the practical, under-confident standpoint evident in 4.2. However, students 1, 2,

and 3 did show some instances of the dispositional ability to be optimistic with regards to

themselves. Student 1 “(took) initiative in attempting a variety of lessons / strategies” (T2OB:S1),

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Student 2 was “willing to teach difficult lessons as a learning experience” (T2OB:S2) and Student

3 was “willing to make changes in her prep and during a lesson” (T2OB:S3) if she saw her

original plan was not working as intended. Their initiative and willingness in their attempts to

teach in different ways indicates a level of self confidence which was not evident in Students 5

and 6. Whilst Student 4 did try “different ways of dealing with reading during class” (T2OB:S4),

her “prep file (was) quite thin / empty” (T2OB:S4) and she seemed to “struggle to address

children’s differing needs” (T2OB:S4), which suggests a more conservative nature with regards to

preparation and teaching.

4.3.1.2. OTHERS

The second aspect of the observation schedule focused on the students’ interactions with others,

as education is primarily based on interdependence (Cain, 2008; Purkey & Novak, 1996).

Wasicsko (n.d. p.10) describes effective teachers as those who are willing and able to view their

learners in a positive light, believing them to be ‘dependable, able and worthy”. It is for this

reason that the predominant dispositional abilities identified in this aspect of the observation

schedule are optimism, care and respect. The interactional area associated with others was

categorised into two themes, with the first of these relating to learning opportunities. In 4.1,

survey item 7 stated that “The teacher believes that all learners can achieve at high levels”, and it

was this item that had the second lowest rating on the survey. This was an interesting finding as

this particular belief is consistently highlighted in research as being a necessary trait for effective

teaching (Combs et al, 1976; Nieto, 2005; Purkey & Novak, 1996; Purkey & Novak, 2008;

Stronge & Hindman, 2006). In 4.2 it was noted that, of the six students, only Students 1 and 3

displayed high expectations of children, whilst Students 2, 4, 5 and 6 consistently under-

estimated the children’s abilities. This finding is further consolidated in the data gathered from

the second teaching practical, with Student 1 being the only student Intentionally Inviting children

through the provision of “challenging and interesting” (T2OB:S1) content. The other five students

tend to “underestimate” (T2OB:S3:S4:S5:S6) children’s abilities, and provide “extension activities

(that) are “busywork” rather than designed to actually extend learning” (T2OB:S2), and

“worksheets (that are) quite short – (needing) more challenge” (T2OB:S3) thereby demonstrating

a lack of optimism in the abilities of children.

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Interaction with children was the second theme identified, and ties in with the dispositional

abilities to care for and to respect others. In 4.1 the students rated the survey items relating to

valuing others, and respecting different needs as particularly high. This indicated that the

students acknowledge the significance of appreciating the individual contexts and abilities of the

children, and work towards ensuring everyone in the class feels valued. This finding was

reinforced in 4.2 where it was observed that the students displayed a genuine care for children,

despite their apparent inability to listen carefully to them. The dispositional ability to respect

children was evident in Students 1, 2 and 3’s high expectations of children’s learning and

behaviour. This finding is further corroborated in the observation schedule from the second

teaching practical, as there is evidence of genuine care for children through sincere and

thoughtful interactions, with limited respect for the learning potential of children. Student 1 takes

the time to lead “a child outside to talk about why he’s so upset” (T2OB:S1), whilst also providing

“differentiated recording sheets” (T2OB:S1) to meet the varying needs of children. Students 2

and 4 tend to display Intentionally Inviting behaviour in their ability to relate to children “gently”

(T2OB:S2) and “kindly” (T2OB:S2:S4), whilst being Unintentionally Disinviting with regards to

respecting their learning potential (as discussed above). The actions of Students 3, 5 and 6

appear to be fairly contradictory in nature, as their ready “smile(s)” (T2OB:S3:S5) and willingness

to praise “a correct part of an incorrect answer” (T2OB:6) could be Unintentionally Inviting, but

their handling of individual children or class control is Unintentionally Disinviting. Student 3 “can

sound irritated and frustrated as opposed to just firm” (T2OB:S3), Student 5 “seems quite

unaware” (T2OB:S5) of what children in her class are going through, and Student 6 “ignores”

(T2OB:S6) a child who is following her around the class to tell her that “I still don’t understand”

(T2OB:S6). This could be attributed to nervousness at being observed, or a sense of being

overwhelmed, which was would correspond to the findings in 4.2.

4.3.1.3. PROFESSION

Schmidt (2008, p.10) believes learning begins with awareness, where teachers firstly need to

capture children’s interest in order to get them to learn new information, skills or content. It is

therefore essential for teachers to hold the profession in high regard, as the enthusiasm and

passion of a teacher is what ignites a children’s will to learn. Combs et al (1974, p.103) propose

that a teacher’s tendency to under-estimate children’s abilities could stem from a limited

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perception of the purpose of teaching. It is for this reason then that the interactional area of the

profession is associated with the invitational dispositions of optimism and trust. It is necessary for

teachers to be optimistic about the learning opportunities presented in their classrooms, in order

to sufficiently excite and motivate children in the learning process. As the first theme in this area,

optimism regarding learning opportunities appeared to correlate to some extent with the findings

in both 4.1 and 4.2. In 4.1, students rated the “flexible learning environments” (InTASC’s Model

Core Teaching Standards, 2011) as being of particular importance, and in 4.2, Students 1, 2, 3

and 4 all showed the willingness and ability to adapt their teaching in order to achieve their

intended outcomes. This flexibility is closely connected to the dispositional ability to be optimistic,

as the willingness to adapt indicates a hope for a better or different result to the previous attempt.

In addition to this, optimism also refers to the belief that children can and will learn, and that they

are able to actively participate in the learning process. The observation schedule for the second

teaching practice indicated similar findings to what was highlighted in 4.1 and 4.2, with Students

1, 2 and 3 demonstrating Intentionally Inviting behaviour with regards to their variance of teaching

strategies and ability to critically reflect on the teaching and learning process. These three

students were able to “adapt” (T2OB:S2) or “modify lessons” (T2OB:S1), and “include variations

as per request by the children” (T2OB:S3). Student 1 showed “clear evidence of reflective

practice” (T2OB:S1), whilst Students 2 and 3 “trie(d) hard to write reflectively in (their) journal(s)”

(T2OB:S2), although lacking some “depth and insight” (T2OB:S3). Students 4 and 6 also showed

some evidence of incorporating different strategies, such as “active involvement” (T2OB:S4) and

“group / pair work” (T2OB:S6), whereas Student 5 focused predominantly on asking questions

with “very little evidence of collaborative work” (T2OB:S5) or other methods of engaging children.

The reflective practice of Students 4, 5 and 6 was less meaningful, with their journal entries being

“weak” (T2OB:S4) and “thin” (T2OB:S5:S6). The data relating to Students 4, 5 and 6 appears to

correlates with the findings in 4.2, where it was noted that majority of the students appeared to

focus on caring for the children (as discussed previously), as opposed to caring for the learning

taking place in the classroom.

The second theme identified refers to the students’ level of willingness with regards to the

development of a trusting relationship with children. A teacher’s willingness to implement various

methodologies, and to learn from others, is imperative for the successful establishment of a

positive and cooperative culture of learning, both with her classroom and within the school.

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Students 1 and 2 were Intentionally Inviting in their ability to experiment with a “variety”

(T2OB:S2) of “difficult strategies” (T2OB:S1), and in their willingness “to learn from others”

(T2OB:S2) and to “take advice and suggestions” (T2OB:S1). Students 3, 4, 5 and 6 showed

some willingness to try out different strategies, however their inability to implement suggested

changes to lessons represented an Unintentionally Disinviting behaviour. Students 3, 5 and 6

“(do not) take tips into consideration” (T2OB:S5), leaving lesson formats “virtually the same as for

the previous one” (T2OB:S6) without making “many changes according to given suggestion(s)”

(T2OB:S3), whilst Student 4 “struggles to implement tips given” (T2OB:S4). This inability to learn

from others could have served to erode their relationships established with the children, and with

their supervising teachers. In 4.1, students did not see the notion of continual personal growth

and development, or the view of teachers as learners as particularly essential on the rating scale.

This would then correlate with the findings from the second teaching practical, in that four of the

six students appear to struggle with the implementation of guidance and suggestions.

4.3.2. FINAL FOCUS GROUP STUDENT INTERVIEW

The final focus group student interview took place at the end of the second teaching practical.

The semi-structured nature enabled the students to express themselves more freely, with the

inclusion of probing questions to facilitate clarification and interpretation.

Darling-Hammond (2006, p.1) describes a primary function of a teacher as being able to

understand the very essence of each child in her care, and endeavouring to further develop the

spirit of every child. Purkey and Novak (2008, p.14) agree with this view in their description of

care as the “ongoing desire to link significant personal means with worthwhile societal ends”. A

key element of Purkey and Novak’s view is the fact that, in order for effective teaching to occur,

the dispositional ability to care must be situated within each of the three interactional areas of

self, others and profession. When analysing the data collected from the final focus group

interview, it was clearly apparent that the students all displayed the dispositional ability to care.

An interesting observation was that this ability to care seemed to be located predominantly within

the interactional area of others, whilst less so in the area of the profession. This finding was also

noted in 4.2, with five of the six students focusing predominantly on care for children. The fact

that all six students care about the children is unsurprising, as many, if not most, students select

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teaching as a profession based on their natural affinity towards children. However, what is

interesting is the fact that most of the students appear to care more about the well being of the

children than about their learning. Student 1 is an exception to this, in that her focus is

consistently on children’s growth and learning. In the identified them of caring for children, her

statement that teachers must “invest in each child” (FFG:S1:L383), is underpinned by a desire to

enable children “to be the best (they) can” (FFG:S1:L386). This suggests that her focus is on the

development of the children, and that she will not allow a sense of pity regarding difficult

circumstances to cloud her focus, “as then you are doing him an injustice anyway”

(FFG:S1:L387). The comments made by the other five students suggest that the emotional well-

being of children takes precedence over the “academic stuff” (FFG:S5:L294) and that a “teacher

cares about the children and plans the lessons around the children” (FFG:S3:L89).

This is not to say that the students do not value the learning aspect at all, but rather that the data

gathered from the various sources indicates that this is simply less of a focus for them. When

considering the theme care for learning, it can be seen that Students 1 and 2 were the most

concerned with the learning opportunities presented to children. Student 1’s comment that

teachers need to take what they do “seriously” (FFG:S1:L20) served as a catalyst for much of the

discussion regarding care for learning. Student 2 was the only other student who discussed the

need for a variety of teaching strategies, indicating that this would enable children to “want to

further (their) own knowledge” (FFG:S2:L289). Students 3 interpreted “taking what you are doing

seriously” (FFG:S1:L20) as another way of saying “dedicated” (FFG:S3:70), whereas Students 4

and 5 took Student 1’s comment to mean “time management” (FFG:S5:L74) and “planning”

(FFG:S5:L74) (FFG:S6:L69). This suggests that these three students are less focused on what

they are teaching, but more concerned with the effort and techniques used to manage this

teaching. The findings from 4.2 coincide with this data, although Student 2 shows some growth in

her ability by the culmination of her second teaching practical.

In conjunction with this, the third theme of willingness highlighted similar findings. Students 1, 2,

3 and 4 showed high levels of willingness in terms of needing “to be your best in the classroom”

(FFG:S3:L179) and seeing teaching as a “calling” (FFG:S4:L92). Student 1 felt that “(The

teacher) is responsible for as much as she can take on” (FFG:S1:L326), and Student 2 was

willing to “experiment with all the different types of styles” in order to meet the needs of the

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children (FFG:S2:L42). Students 5 and 6 demonstrated lower levels of this willingness, stating

that “I think you need to find that line” (FFG:S6:L339) because “you know you do the best you

can, but you can’t kill yourself” (FFG:S5:L357). Once again, Students 1 and 2 linked this

willingness with a care for learning, with Student 1 commenting that “you have to think about what

you can change or maybe how you should have tried to do it” (FFG:S1:L51-52). Student 3

showed a focus on organisation “because if you are not organized … I feel flustered and I start

unravelling” (FFG:S3:L205-206), whereas Student 4 acknowledged her difficulties in

“struggle(ing) to balance it out with putting in the time and the effort, and ... the physical work”

(FFG:S4:L196-197). The comments made by Student 4 highlight two significant findings. The

first is the degree of change in her reflective ability, as made from the first teaching practical to

the second. The second finding is related to the notion of thinking as suggested by Student 1

(“you have to think” (FFG:S1:L48)). Of the six students, Student 1 consistently showed the

greatest ability to think about her practice, and to make adaptations as she saw fit. This was

evident in the findings in 4.2, as well as in her comment that “you have to think all the time”

(FFG:S1:L50-51). Student 4 is able to critically reflect on the fact that she finds this particularly

difficult, stating that she was unable to “make (lessons) my own ... not like “not mine” in terms of

the lesson but in the way I was teaching” (FFG:S4:L60-61). I feel this is a defining statement in

this study for a number of reasons. Firstly, in order to come to this realisation, Student 4 must

have grown in her dispositional ability to care for the learning, or for the profession from the first

to the second teaching practical. This statement is based on the progression of findings from 4.2

to 4.3 which indicate that a lack of care for learning is indicated in minimal reflective practice, with

a lack of insight into the strengths and weaknesses of one’s own practice. It can therefore be

noted that Student 4 has demonstrated that it is possible to develop dispositions. Secondly, this

finding is significant because it clearly demonstrates the relationship between the three

interactional areas of self, others and profession. A student needs to have sufficiently developed

dispositional abilities regarding the profession in order for her to take ownership of her teaching,

for the ultimate benefit of the children.

4.3.3. TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ REFLECTIVE REPORTS

The teachers’ and students’ reflective reports were completed at the end of the second teaching

practical, and provided no structure in terms of what needed to be written. The teachers and

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students were entitled to write whatever they deemed to be important, with the only suggestion

being to consider the students’ strengths and weaknesses. From this, it was interesting to note

whether the teachers and students expressed similar views, and also to identify the predominant

themes commented on by each respondent.

As can be expected, based on previous findings, Student 1 focused her reflective comments on

the teaching and learning that took place in the classroom. Her only comment regarding her

interaction with the children referred to her “professional attitude” (SRR:S1), which was

corroborated by her teacher’s view that she was “extremely professional in her conduct”

(TRR:T1). This closely ties in with the findings from 4.2, where it was clear that Student 1 placed

significant emphasis on the quality of learning. Her teacher also comments that she should “not

be such a perfectionist with every detail” (TRR:T1), which provides an explanation for the findings

from other data sources where there was some evidence of Unintentionally Disinviting behaviour

on the part of Student 1. Her high standards may cause her to experience frustration, although

this is predominantly directed at herself as her teacher explains that “she is the hardest on

herself” (TRR:T1).

The reflective report made by Student 2 was also consistent with previous findings, as the

majority of her comments were directed towards the teaching and learning aspect. This is in line

with previous findings as it demonstrates a continued growth in her care for the learning

opportunities provided. She comments that her interactions with children were different to those

experience previously, “because it was more “my” own class” (SRR:S2). This links to the finding

that a student’s personal sense of ownership influences her interactions with the profession and

with the children. Her teacher further reinforces this in her comments that Student 2 “embraced

this time” with “enthusiasm” (TRR:T2).

Interesting, Student 3 did not comment at all on her interactions with children. Her focus was

only on the teaching and learning aspect, with the majority of her comments identifying her

weaknesses. She noted that “I also found planning difficult because in the beginning I was not

sure of where the children were at in terms of their understanding” (SRR:S3), which could

represent growth on the part of the student, as previous findings regarding Student 3 have

indicated a higher focus on care for the children as opposed to the learning. It could be

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suggested that her dispositional abilities have been developed over the course of the year,

resulting in a greater awareness of her weaknesses within the interactional areas of self and the

profession.

A similar finding can be noted with Student 4, who also comments significantly more on her

teaching and learning, as opposed to her interactions with children. She explains that she feels

“confident in (her) abilities to interact with both the students and other teachers” (SRR:S4), and

goes into more detail on both her growth and weaknesses in the interactional area of the

profession (“My planning has improved” (SRR:S4) and “I definitely saw gaps and more learning

could have taken place!” (SRR:S4)). Once again, this is in line with previous findings, as analysis

of other data sources have demonstrated a growing ability to reflect meaningfully on her practice

in an attempt to improve the teaching and learning process. Her teacher’s comments reflect the

same focus, highlighting that Student 4 “could have taken more risks especially in lessons that

were not for an assignment” (TRR:T4).

An interesting observation is that Students 5 and 6 have consistently demonstrated lower levels

of the five dispositional abilities within the three interactional areas of self, others and profession.

This is further consolidated by their reflective reports, which are very similar. It appears that they

could have discussed their reports, and thus each written about their learning, their preparation

and their openness to criticism. In addition, there were also clear links between each of the

teachers’ reports and those of their corresponding students. Teacher 5 commented on the fact

that Student 5 “got to know all the learners and cared for their individual needs” (TRR:T5).

Student 5 repeated this view, saying that “I got to know each learner in the class and enjoyed

their individuality” (SRR:S5). Teacher 6 noted that “she is soft by nature and will have to work

hard on finding a balance between friend / authoritarian in order for the children not to take

advantage of her” (TRR:T6). Student 6 refuted this view by saying “I felt I found the balance

between enjoying the children yet not being a friend but their teacher, this is what I used to

struggle with” (SRR:S6). These similarities suggest that Students 5 and 6 are lacking in their

ability to reflect meaningfully on their practice as a result of a lower dispositional ability to care for

self, others and the profession.

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4.3.4. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it can be seen that the data gathered from the second teaching practical indicates

the importance of the dispositional ability to care on the quality of the teaching and learning

process. This notion that care is the driving force behind an effective teacher corresponds with

the finding from 4.2, and is also in line with the literature on the topic variations (Browne &

Haylock, 2004; Gestwicki, 1999; Hasset & Reis as cited by Green, 2009; Gordon and Browne,

2008; Green, 2009; Nieto, 2005). This ability to care was noted most specifically in the two

interactional areas of others and the profession.

The ability to care for children is evident throughout the study, although, equally, it is also evident

that the implementation of this care is tempered by a weaker ability to act with intentionality. In

Chapter 2 (2.3), the invitational dispositional framework (Figure 2.3) represents the influence of

one’s ability to care for self, others and profession on one’s ability to act with intentionality, to

develop trusting relationships, to respect and to be optimistic. The close relationship between the

three interactional areas suggests that a lower ability level in one of these areas will result in a

ripple effect cascading down the framework. It is for this reason that students tended to

demonstrate some Unintentionally Disinviting behaviours, despite evidence of a high ability to

care for children.

In 4.2, the professional area was linked to the invitational dispositional ability to act with

intentionality, and it was noted that most of the students struggled to maintain high levels of this

ability. From the data during the second teaching practical, this finding remains evident, although

there is also distinct growth on the part of some students. It can therefore be said that over the

course of the year, some of the students were able to develop their ability to care for the

profession and their willingness to develop and grow children, thereby increasing their level of

intentionality when planning and implementing lessons. As suggested in the invitational

dispositional framework, it appears that there is a direct relationship between the students’ ability

to care, and their ability to act with intentionality. A student who is able to care for herself, for the

children and for the teaching and learning, will be able to sustain higher levels of intentionality in

these three interactional areas. This view is further evident in Student 4’s comment that “I feel I

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can teach well naturally, but it is not enough” (FFG:S4:L195-196), suggesting that there needs to

be a higher degree of both care and intentionality in her preparation and implementation.

Finally, another consistent finding in both the first and the second teaching practicals is that of the

students’ lack of self confidence. In my opinion, this can be traced back to the students’ ability to

care for themselves. Whilst confidence can be associated with the dispositional ability to be

optimistic, in the invitational dispositional framework it can be seen that optimism stems from

intentionality, which has its roots in the dispositional ability to care. Once again, the close

relationship between the interactional areas of self, others and profession become apparent in

that a failing in one area results in difficulties in the other areas, as well as further down the

framework. Much of the Unintentionally Disinviting behaviour exhibited by the students could be

attributed to a lack of self confidence, which influences their interactions with children and with

the teaching and learning process.

In Chapter 5, the findings will be summarised and the final conclusions and recommendations will

be proposed. A critical reflection on the strengths and weaknesses of certain aspects of the

study will also be included.

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. INTRODUCTION

In this chapter I will summarise the findings from the data analysis conducted in Chapter 4, when

answering the research question: What are the invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation

Phase teacher training students? In order to answer the main research question, the following

sub-research questions were posed:

1) What are the invitational dispositions that fourth year Foundation Phase students at a HEI

portray?

2) How do invitational dispositions influence the practice of fourth year Foundation Phase

students during their teaching experience period?

3) How can invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase students at a HEI be

developed to enhance invitational practice?

I will make conclusions and recommendations based on these. In addition, I will critically reflect

on the study from both a research and a personal perspective, identifying the strengths and

weakness of the study.

5.2. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS

The purpose of this study was to investigate the invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation

Phase students, and to consider the influence of these dispositional abilities on their teaching

practice. On the basis of this investigation, it is then possible to propose a means of development

regarding these dispositions in order to increase the invitational practice of future teachers. A

survey was used to gather data from the larger case, in order to serve as a theoretical

perspective of the students’ dispositions. This survey was completed during lecture time at the

HEI, thereby providing students with an opportunity to describe their dispositions in possibly a

more idealistic manner, as they were not currently immersed within the teaching practice. The

data was then compared to the information gathered from two nested cases, through various data

sources during the first teaching practical in May. Following this, further data was gathered from

the two nested cases during the second teaching practical in September, once again through a

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variety of sources. From this, it was possible to analyse the data from a broad perspective,

thereby enabling greater trustworthiness. In addition to this, it was also possible to determine

whether the students had demonstrated growth in their dispositional abilities over the course of

the year. This was an essential aspect, as there remains little literature regarding the

development of dispositions, and it was necessary to see if it would be plausible to propose a

means of dispositional development.

Upon analysis of the various data sources, it became apparent that there were certain

consistencies across the survey, the first teaching practical, and the second teaching practical.

The first of these consistencies relates to the dispositional ability to care. Whilst a definitive list of

the characteristics describing effective teachers does not exist, the predominant view is that a

genuine care for children is essential (Browne & Haylock, 2004; Gestwicki, 1999; Hasset & Reis

as cited by Green, 2009; Gordon and Browne, 2008; Green, 2009; Nieto, 2005). The

effectiveness of a teacher is increased if they possess a “deep sense of caring” (Stronge &

Hindman, 2006, p.9) towards the individuals they teach, because “we cannot teach students well

if we do not know them well” (Sizer, 1999, p.6 as cited in Strong and Hindman, 2006, p.9). This

ability to care affects a teacher’s willingness to persevere, to overcome obstacles, and to vary her

teaching strategies. A teacher who has a strong ability to care will demonstrate high levels of this

willingness, as well as passion and enthusiasm for the profession. At some point, her

experience, life, knowledge and training would then merge into a unified whole, causing her

beliefs and practices as a teacher to become inextricably linked with who she is as a person

(Gordon & Browne, 2008, p.209; Stronge & Hindman, 2006, p.9). It is therefore the teacher as a

person that has the greatest influence on children, and on the teaching and learning process.

Combs et al (1977, p.22) investigated which dispositions tended to result in effective teaching,

identifying five key perceptual characteristics as an essential part of the perceptual orientation of

a teacher. These include perceptions about others, perceptions about oneself, perceptions about

subject matter, perceptions about the teaching and learning process and finally perceptions about

how to teach effectively (Combs et al, 1976; Wasicsko, n.d). In the Invitational Education

approach to education, Purkey and Novak (1996, p.39) describe an inviting approach to

developing positive relationships with children, which incorporates three of these perceptions.

Purkey and Novak (1996, 41) highlight the importance of seeing children as valuable, able and

responsible, as well as viewing both oneself and education in a positive light.

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It is therefore significant that a key finding from this study involved the invitational dispositional

ability to care. When one considers the three areas of self, others and the profession, it was

consistently clear throughout the data sources that the students have an inherent ability to care

for others. However, it was noted that, despite the believed inherent nature of their positive

regard for children, this ability to care was not always demonstrated in an Intentionally Inviting

manner. Upon further analysis it became apparent that “whether an individual will be an effective

teacher depends fundamentally on the nature of his private world of perceptions” (Combs et al,

1974). In other words, a teacher’s effectiveness is bound by the close relationship between her

perceptions regarding the three interactional areas of self, others and the profession. If a teacher

has a weak dispositional ability in one of these areas, then it follows that the other areas will

suffer as well.

From the study, it was discovered that the fourth year Foundation Phase students suffer from a

lack of self confidence. This is directly related to the dispositional ability to care for oneself, as an

effective teacher needs to develop the ability to change any negative interpretations of events into

positive interpretations. Perfection should be recognised as an unrealistic goal, and so teachers

should personally invite themselves to accept their own flaws, and to celebrate the positive

direction in which they are moving (Cain, 2008; Purkey & Novak, 1996). It was clearly evident

that most of the students found this an exceptionally difficult task. A finding from the survey was

that the students did not value their continued growth as a teacher. It was suggested that this

was a result of over-confidence in their abilities, possibly stemming from their position as final

year students or from the fact that the survey was completed outside of their practical teaching

time. This finding was refuted by the data from both the first and second teaching practical.

Student 1 demonstrated a strong belief in what she was doing, but her perfectionist nature

resulted in an inability to consistently maintain an Intentionally Inviting approach in her

interactions with children. Students 2 and 4 were able to grow in their ability to reflect on their

ownership of their teaching practice from the first to the second teaching practical, but continued

to struggle with the implementation of this. It is therefore clear that the knowledge of how best to

interact with children in teaching and learning situations did not necessarily reproduce itself into

actions in the classroom (Combs et al, 1977, p.20).

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In addition to this, it was evident that the dispositional ability to care for the profession was not

deemed as important as the ability to care for the children. Green (2006) and Nieto (2005) agree

that an effective teacher needs to demonstrate a strong sense of willingness with regards to the

experimentation of a variety of strategies. This experimentation is necessary as children are

unique with differing abilities, and teachers who are knowledgeable and enthusiastic are more

likely to promote an interest in learning in their learners (Purkey & Novak, 1996, p.49). A

teacher’s willingness to experiment with teaching and learning strategies is influenced by her

ability to engage in reflective practice. A meaningful consideration of the teaching and learning

process is likely to result in a greater awareness of one’s own beliefs, attitudes and behaviours,

which in turn will lead to greater intentionality in the preparation and delivery of lessons (Sockett,

2009, p.294). Furthermore, Combs et al (1974, p.103) suggest that a teacher’s tendency to

under-estimate children’s abilities could stem from their perception of the purpose of teaching.

The expectations of a teacher who views education simply as a path to employment would be

substantially different to those of a teacher who strives to develop problem solvers and critical

thinkers. In the survey, students did not rate flexibility and reciprocity in the teaching process as

particularly important. This, together with the low rating of the need to support children as they

participate in decision-making, suggests that the larger case of students displays a decreased

willingness to experiment with a variety of teaching strategies. When considered in conjunction

with the data from the first and second teaching practicals, it became apparent that this lack of

willingness also extends to the students’ ability to discover the deeper purpose of their lessons,

and to reflect on their practice. Student 1 consistently showed a high regard for the profession,

with her primary concern being the quality of the teaching and learning. She willingly

implemented a variety of strategies, taking care to reflect critically on the strengths and

weaknesses of these. Students 2 and 3 also displayed evidence of their willingness to

experiment with their teaching strategies, although their abilities to reflect were less well

developed. However, both Students 2 and Students 4 showed growth in this area by the end of

the second teaching practical, providing a positive indicator as to the development of invitational

dispositional abilities. While it has been noted that four of the six students showed at least some

level of care for the profession through their experimentation or through their reflective practice,

their lack of self confidence continues to impact on their implementation of this. As previously

mentioned, a decreased dispositional ability in one interactional area will result in a decrease in

the implementation of the ability in another area.

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The invitational dispositional ability to act with intentionality provides the methodology for the

application of the other four invitational dispositional abilities, and is of utmost importance in the

teaching and learning process (Cain, 2008). Whilst the ability to care initiates the interaction,

intentionality serves as the driving force required to establish positive relationships. With a high

level of the dispositional ability to care, a teacher is able to carefully consider the situation in

which she finds herself, and then intentionally select the most suitable course of action.

Therefore, when examining the interactional area of self, a key aspect influenced by intentionality

would be that of preparation. O’leary & O’leary (1977, as cited in Bany Yasseen, 2010, p.48)

suggest that “the way teachers attend to their pupils determines in large measures, what the

children will do”, which indicates that teachers need to be well prepared for every lesson in order

to “attend” to the children in the most appropriate and effective manner. This view is corroborated

by Nieto’s (2005, p.5) view that effective teachers exhibit “strong subject-matter knowledge and

pedagogical effectiveness, as well as excellent communication skills”. In order to ensure

“pedagogical effectiveness”, a teacher needs detailed and thorough preparation designed to

achieve her intended outcomes. Green’s (2009, p.29) description of successful teachers as

“being dynamic in ... preparation” corresponds with the notion of teachers needing to develop a

sense of ownership in their adaptations of teaching strategies. “Dynamic” suggests that flexibility

and modifications are needed in order for the teacher to meet the specific needs of the children in

her contextual situation. Students 1, 2 and 3 produced detailed and thorough preparation,

whereas planning of Students 4, 5 and 6 tended to be thin and lacking in depth. With the

understanding that care is the basis of all interactions, it stands to reason that the reduced

dispositional ability of Students 4, 5 and 6 to care for the profession influences their intentionality

regarding their preparation. In much the same way, so too would this dispositional ability be

influenced within the interactional areas of others and the profession. This was demonstrated

through the findings that Students 4, 5 and 6 struggled to meet the diverse needs of children

through specifically designed activities, and through their lack of willingness to experiment with a

variety of teaching strategies. Following on from this, it can then be determined that the observed

inconsistencies in the level of intentionality, demonstrated in the students’ inviting approaches,

can be attributed to an underdeveloped ability to care for themselves and for the teaching

profession.

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It was also discovered that, although some development was evident, there no significant change

in the dispositional abilities of the students from the first to the second teaching practical.

Students 2 and 4 showed some growth in their abilities to reflect on their practice, and began to

think more critically about the teaching and learning taking place in their classrooms. Students 5

and 6, however, showed little development in their dispositional abilities. These students

remained focused predominantly on the wellbeing of the children, with limited care for the

profession and the learning or for their own growth as teachers. This could suggest a reduced

likelihood of success in the implementation of a dispositional development programme, although

it is possible that higher levels of intervention could result in a more notable developmental

difference in dispositions. In addition, the inter-connectedness of the three interactional areas

must be remembered. If a lower dispositional ability in one area impacts upon the other two

areas, then it could be argued that a higher impact in one area could also impact upon the other

two areas.

5.3. CONCLUSIONS EMANATING FROM THE FINDINGS

In conclusion, it is necessary to respond explicitly to the research questions posed in Chapter 1.

It can be suggested that the invitational dispositional ability to care is of paramount importance in

the teaching of Foundation Phase children. This dispositional ability has three predominant

interactional areas (self, others and profession) which are connected and inter-related. If the

dispositional ability associated with one of these areas is under-developed, then the remaining

two areas would be impacted upon. The effect of this would further impact on the invitational

dispositional ability to act with intentionality, as reduced levels of care result in reduced levels of

intentionality. The first sub-research question asks What are the invitational dispositions that

fourth year Foundation Phase students at a HEI portray? It appears that at the selected HEI,

there is a high level of the dispositional ability to care for others, but the students are lacking in

their ability to care for themselves and for the learning taking place in their classrooms. Following

on from this, the second sub-research question asks How do invitational dispositions influence

the practice of fourth year Foundation Phase students during their teaching experience period?

As previously mentioned, a reduced dispositional ability in one interactional area will result in a

decrease in the implementation of the ability in another area. Therefore, students’ reduced ability

to care for themselves and for the teaching profession results in lower levels of intentionality with

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regards to their preparation and risk-taking in teaching strategies. Finally, the third and final sub-

research question asks can invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase students at

a HEI be developed to enhance invitational practice? The interconnected nature of the

interactional areas, together with the slight dispositional growth shown by two students, suggest

that an explicit dispositional development programme may have some impact on the dispositions

of future Foundation Phase students.

5.4. RECOMMENDATIONS

The invitational dispositional framework developed in Chapter 2 (Figure 2.3) clearly demonstrates

the hierarchy of the invitational dispositional abilities, with the ability to care as the foundation for

the other four abilities. From the summary of the findings, it became apparent that an

underdeveloped ability within one interactional area of the ability to care would influence a

student’s ability to act with intentionality, and further, to trust, to respect and to act with optimism.

Sockett (2009, p.294) states that teachers need an awareness of their dispositional abilities, and

their resulting actions, in order to examine the effectiveness of their teaching. Greater

awareness, and resulting intentionality, can be achieved through self reflection. It is therefore

clear that Sockett views dispositions as being malleable, an opinion which is shared by Claxton

(2007), and Ritchhart (2001).

Whilst self reflection is necessary for a greater awareness of one’s own dispositional abilities, I

feel that further action is needed in order to change, not just the behaviour, but to actually

develop the disposition itself. A student can adapt behaviour, particularly when observed by a

supervising teacher or tutor, but my concern is whether or not this change could be sustained

once the student is immersed in the practice in her own classroom. I feel that it is necessary to

consistently address the underlying dispositions of an effective teacher, the teacher as a person,

rather than simply the symptomatic actions presented.

It is therefore my recommendation that a framework such as the one indicated in Figure 2.3 is

used with teachers in training in order to not only assess their dispositional abilities, but also to

create an awareness of these abilities and to further develop them. The framework would be

used in conjunction with the assessment of written work during the course of the academic year,

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as a means of providing students with insight into their perceptions regarding themselves, others

and the profession. A possible way of managing this would be to include it as a self evaluation

for students, which would be completed after each assignment. This would be particularly

effective when used with practical methodology assignments, as students could critically evaluate

their lesson design and preparation by using the framework for guidance. In addition to this, the

framework could be used to develop students’ ability to assess other people’s teaching through

critical reflection of video clips or peer assessment. Furthermore, the framework could be used

by university tutors, or supervising teachers during the students’ teaching practicals. The use of

the framework in this way would enable the students to become more aware of their dispositional

abilities, and it would also provide guidance for them in terms of how to engage in reflective

practice. From the findings, it is evident that this is an area of weakness for most students,

although some students did show growth towards the end of the year. However, it would be more

beneficial if this ability could be effectively developed in the formative years of the undergraduate

degree, as opposed to at the end of their final year of study. Ideally, the framework could be with

used with students from first year through to fourth year, with varying expectations for each

consecutive year group. First years might not be expected to engage in peer assessment, or in

honest group discussions regarding their own dispositional abilities, whereas by their final year

students may be required to participate in critical peer assessment.

In conjunction with this, a further step needs to be taken in the development of dispositional

abilities of students. From the findings of this study, I believe that it is necessary for teacher

training institutions to explicitly develop the self confidence of students. Current practice typically

involves lecturers implicitly addressing this through interactions with the students, and I do not

believe this is sufficient. As could been seen from the data, all areas of teaching (from

interactions with children, to selection of strategies, to delivery of lessons) were negatively

influenced by a lack of self confidence. It is therefore necessary for this to receive a specific

focus in the development of future teachers, and HEI could attempt to address this issue through

the implementation of ways for students to develop their ability in taking ownership of their

teaching practices. From the data collected it was apparent that, although some students did

attempt to implement a variety of teaching strategies, the majority of them found themselves

striving to do this as they were explained in lectures. The students showed little understanding of

how it could, and should, be adapted to suit their specific context, and so were unable “to make it

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(their) own” (FFG:S4:L59), as described by Student 4. A possible method of achieving this would

be to provide opportunities for students to participate in the application of their methodologies

through repeated school visits. During these school visits students could be expected to

implement the particular strategies addressed in the methodology courses, with possible

repetition of lessons to different classes. This repetition would provide students with opportunities

to address any issues that arose during the first teaching of the lesson, and would also develop

their confidence as they would feel more prepared for the subsequent lessons. This would then

enable them to implement changes to the strategy based on their previous experience, until they

begin to discover what works for them in terms of their context. Hopefully this would further lead

students to a greater willingness in their experimentation of strategies, as they would not be

immersed in the often overwhelming pressures of their teaching practicals.

5.5. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

In terms of further research, it could be recommended that this study be expanded into a

programme development study, in which a dispositional development programme is devised and

implemented at a local HEI. The students at the HEI could be monitored and assessed in order

to determine the development of their dispositions, and the influence these have on their practice.

An additional area of study could be that of investigating the dispositional abilities of newly

qualified Foundation Phase teachers. Teachers could be involved in a study of an ethnographical

or narrative design, intended to provide in-depth data on the nature of their dispositions.

5.6. CRITICAL REFLECTION

The study needs to be critically reflected upon from both a research perspective and a personal

perspective. Within each of these perspectives it is necessary to examine the strengths and

weaknesses of the study in order to establish what can be learnt from the experience.

Firstly, from a research perspective, the fact that the students were in their final year of study was

a positive aspect, as the students were beginning to establish their own teaching personalities

based on their previous experiences and teaching practicals. However, the selection of only six

students may not have allowed for sufficient exposure to and comparison of the dispositional

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abilities. Whilst it was possible to obtain the data needed for the study, it is felt that perhaps it

would have been possible to determine more consistent patterns of dispositional behaviour with a

greater number of participants.

It is also necessary to consider the data collection methods used in the study. The strength of the

data collection was that the variety in data sources, and the three separate times frames allowed

for a more trustworthy interpretation of the students’ dispositional abilities. However, the quantity

of data became a weakness as well, in that it became difficult to select specific examples in order

to establish a cohesive analysis. The survey was a positive aspect in theory, as it was necessary

to clarify the relationship between what students say is essential in terms of teaching dispositions

and what they do in practice. However, once completed it became clear that the students may

have been influenced by what they thought were expected responses on the survey. There was

little variation in the responses, and this may indicate that the students were disinclined to

critically consider their rating of the dispositions, or that they felt obligated to rate the dispositions

as most essential due to their context. The observation schedules, the interviews and the

students’ reflective journals were valuable data collection methods, providing much relevant data.

The students’ and teachers’ reflective reports were less valuable, as there was insufficient detail

in those to add much depth to the findings. It appeared as if these documents were written as if

in anticipation of a reader (for example as prospective employer), and therefore became almost

generic in nature. Considering the view that there were possibly too few participants and too

many data sources, perhaps another option for the study would have been to include a third

nested case of three students at a different school, and reduce the number of data sources for a

more focused investigation.

The analysis of the data straddles both the research perspective and the personal perspective.

As an employee of the selected HEI, I had a vested interest in the study which proved to be both

a strength and a weakness. The positive aspect of this was that I was able to approach the study

with a well-established knowledge of Foundation Phase teaching, allowing me to identify

behaviours or activities, as presented by the students, as either suitable or inappropriate for

Foundation Phase children. However, the negative impact of this was that it was difficult to

remain impartial. I strove to remain objective in all areas of the study, reassuring students that

this study was separate from their evaluations as required by the HEI, but my role as both

125

researcher and teaching practical tutor may well have influenced their responses to me. I believe

that my position at the HEI allowed me establish a relationship with the students, based on

previous interactions or on what they knew about me from other students. Unfortunately, this

position may also have created a perception that their interactions with me would influence their

final mark for their teaching practical. Perhaps it would have been a better alternative to select

students from an HEI with which I had no relationship, although I feel that this may not have

resulted in the same depth of data.

5.7. CONCLUSION

This study examined the invitational dispositions of fourth year Foundation Phase students, in an

attempt to determine the impact of these on their teaching practice, with the hope that a

dispositional development strategy could be devised. It was evident that students do exhibit the

five invitational dispositional abilities of care, intentionality, trust, respect and optimism, although

these are inconsistently demonstrated in their practice. From the findings of this study, it is my

belief that an underdevelopment of the dispositional ability to care within the interactional areas of

self and the profession is the cause for these inconsistencies in the invitational approach.

Students would greatly benefit from explicit development in their reflective practice and in their

self confidence, as “caring is an ethic that guides action” (Purkey and Novak, 1996, p.9). In this

way students would be able to be Intentionally Inviting more consistently, and purposefully

engage with children in the teaching and learning process.

126

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APPENDIX 1 – ETHICAL CLEARANCE

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APPENDIX 2 – PERMISSION FORM

134

APPENDIX 3 - SURVEY

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this short survey. Any and all information given here will be treated as confidential and you will not be identified in any way.

The survey completion is anonymous. After your experiences on Teaching Experience, please rate each statement in terms of how essential

each one is for a Foundation Phase teacher. On a scale of 1 – 10, place a cross in the most appropriate numbered block.

It is imperative that you write what you genuinely believe, NOT what you think you are expected to say. ____________________________________________________________________________________

Learner Development

1) The teacher respects learners’ differing strengths and needs. Not at all Most essential essential

2) The teacher is committed to using learners’ differing strengths and needs to further their development.

Not at all Most essential essential

3) The teacher is committed to using learners’ strengths as a basis for growth.

Not at all Most essential essential

4) The teacher is committed to using learners’ misconceptions as opportunities for learning.

Not at all Most essential essential

5) The teacher takes responsibility for promoting learners’ growth and development. Not at all Most essential essential

6) The teacher values the input and contributions of families, colleagues, and other professionals in understanding and supporting each learner’s development.

Not at all Most essential essential ____________________________________________________________________________________

Learning Differences

7) The teacher believes that all learners can achieve at high levels.

Not at all Most essential essential 8) The teacher persists in helping each learner reach his/her full potential.

Not at all Most essential essential

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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9) The teacher respects learners as individuals with differing personal and family backgrounds and various skills, abilities, perspectives, talents, and interests.

Not at all Most essential essential 10) The teacher makes learners feel valued and helps them learn to value each other. Not at all Most essential essential 11) The teacher values diverse languages and dialects and seeks to integrate them into his/her

instructional practice to engage students in learning. Not at all Most essential essential ____________________________________________________________________________________

Learning Environments 12) The teacher is committed to working with learners, colleagues, families, and communities to

establish positive and supportive learning environments. Not at all Most essential essential

13) The teacher values the role of learners in promoting each other’s learning and recognizes the

importance of peer relationships in establishing a climate of learning. Not at all Most essential essential

14) The teacher is committed to supporting learners as they participate in decision making. Not at all Most essential essential 15) The teacher encourages learners to engage in exploration and invention.

Not at all Most essential essential

16) The teacher is committed to providing opportunities for learners to work collaboratively and

independently.

Not at all Most essential essential 17) The teacher is committed to engaging learners in purposeful learning.

Not at all Most essential essential

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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18) The teacher seeks to foster respectful communication among all members of the learning community.

Not at all Most essential essential

19) The teacher is a thoughtful and responsive listener and observer. Not at all Most essential essential ____________________________________________________________________________________

Content Knowledge 20) The teacher realizes that content knowledge is not a fixed body of facts but is complex,

culturally situated, and ever evolving.

Not at all Most essential essential 21) The teacher keeps abreast of new ideas and understandings in the field.

Not at all Most essential essential

22) The teacher appreciates multiple perspectives within the discipline and facilitates learners’

critical analysis of these perspectives.

Not at all Most essential essential

23) The teacher recognizes the potential of bias in his/her representation of the discipline and

seeks to appropriately address problems of bias.

Not at all Most essential essential

24) The teacher is committed to work toward each learner’s mastery of disciplinary content and

skills.

Not at all Most essential essential ____________________________________________________________________________________

Application of Content 25) The teacher is constantly exploring how to use disciplinary knowledge as a lens to address

local and global issues.

Not at all Most essential essential 26) The teacher values knowledge outside his/her own content area and how such knowledge

enhances student learning.

Not at all Most essential essential

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

137

27) The teacher values flexible learning environments that encourage learner exploration, discovery, and expression across content areas.

Not at all Most essential essential ____________________________________________________________________________________

Assessment

28) The teacher is committed to engaging learners actively in assessment processes and to developing each learner’s capacity to review and communicate about their own progress and learning.

Not at all Most essential essential

29) The teacher takes responsibility for aligning instruction and assessment with learning goals.

Not at all Most essential essential

30) The teacher is committed to providing timely and effective descriptive feedback to learners on their progress.

Not at all Most essential essential 31) The teacher is committed to using multiple types of assessment processes to support, verify,

and document learning.

Not at all Most essential essential

32) The teacher is committed to making accommodations in assessments and testing conditions, especially for learners with disabilities and language learning needs.

Not at all Most essential essential

33) The teacher is committed to the ethical use of various assessments and assessment data to identify learner strengths and needs to promote learner growth.

Not at all Most essential essential ____________________________________________________________________________________

Planning for Instruction

34) The teacher respects learners’ diverse strengths and needs and is committed to using this information to plan effective instruction.

Not at all Most essential essential

35) The teacher values planning as a collegial activity that takes into consideration the input of learners, colleagues, families, and the larger community.

Not at all Most essential essential

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

138

36) The teacher takes professional responsibility to use short- and long-term planning as a means of assuring student learning.

Not at all Most essential essential

37) The teacher believes that plans must always be open to adjustment and revision based on

learner needs and changing circumstances. Not at all Most essential essential ____________________________________________________________________________________

Instructional Strategies

38) The teacher is committed to deepening awareness and understanding the strengths and needs of diverse learners when planning and adjusting instruction.

Not at all Most essential essential

39) The teacher values the variety of ways people communicate and encourages learners to

develop and use multiple forms of communication.

Not at all Most essential essential

40) The teacher is committed to exploring how the use of new and emerging technologies can

support and promote student learning.

Not at all Most essential essential 41) The teacher values flexibility and reciprocity in the teaching process as necessary for adapting

instruction to learner responses, ideas, and needs.

Not at all Most essential essential ____________________________________________________________________________________

Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

42) The teacher takes responsibility for student learning and uses ongoing analysis and reflection to improve planning and practice.

Not at all Most essential essential

43) The teacher is committed to deepening understanding of his/her own frames of reference (e.g., culture, gender, language, abilities, ways of knowing), the potential biases in these frames, and their impact on expectations for and relationships with learners and their families.

Not at all Most essential essential

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

139

44) The teacher sees him/herself as a learner, continuously seeking opportunities to draw upon current education policy and research as sources of analysis and reflection to improve practice.

Not at all Most essential essential

45) The teacher understands the expectations of the profession including codes of ethics, professional standards of practice, and relevant law and policy.

Not at all Most essential essential ____________________________________________________________________________________

Leadership and Collaboration

46) The teacher actively shares responsibility for shaping and supporting the mission of his/her school as one of advocacy for learners and accountability for their success.

Not at all Most essential essential

47) The teacher respects families’ beliefs, norms, and expectations and seeks to work collaboratively with learners and families in setting and meeting challenging goals.

Not at all Most essential essential

48) The teacher takes initiative to grow and develop with colleagues through interactions that enhance practice and support student learning.

Not at all Most essential essential

49) The teacher takes responsibility for contributing to and advancing the profession.

Not at all Most essential essential

50) The teacher embraces the challenge of continuous improvement and change.

Not at all Most essential essential

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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APPENDIX 4 – FIRST TEACHING PRACTICAL OBSERVATION SCHEDULE

Action Description Coding

Lead-in to lesson

Getting children settled

Creating interest

Lesson

Explanation

Listening ability of student

Children’s responses

Construction of children’s own understanding

Implementation of a variety of strategies

Use of aids

Children’s participation

141

Peer assistance

General

Classroom management (Space, time, resources)

Discipline

Noise level

Students’ general stance

Physical contact with children

Means of addressing children

Asking questions

Answering questions

142

APPENDIX 5 – SECOND TEACHING PRACTICAL OBSERVATION SCHEDULE

Intentionally disinviting

Unintentionally disinviting

Unintentionally inviting

Intentionally inviting

Perception of self

The student takes responsibility for promoting learners’ growth and

development by providing thoughtful preparation, conducting valuable assessments,

identifying children’s differing needs

Comments

The student believes that her preparation, methods and activities

must be open to adjustment to allow for optimal development of

differing abilities by adapting the supervising teacher’s

set tasks, recognising flaws in lessons, adapting lessons/tasks to

suit different children/groups

Comments

The student believes she is able to rise to the challenge of continuous

improvement and change and is able to take initiative in this regard by displaying self confidence, being willing to make changes to lessons, tasks, groups, showing enthusiasm

and initiative in preparation and teaching

Comments

143

Perception of others

The student believes all children can achieve at high levels

by setting tasks that challenge children, going beyond the minimum

requirement, allowing children to experiment, creates a feeling of

belonging (“we” statements) [relating]

Comments

The student makes all children feel valued and helps them learn to

value each other by being a thoughtful and responsive listener and observer, being sincere in

her interactions with children, providing fair and thoughtful

feedback, encouraging positive relationships

[relating] [asserting]

Comments

The student respects learners’ differing strengths and needs by providing differentiated tasks,

using a variety of teaching strategies, using continuous assessment,

working towards removing barriers [relating] [asserting]

Comments

144

Perception of teaching

and learning process

The student values flexible learning environments that

encourage learner exploration, discovery and expression

by providing lessons and tasks that allow for active participation by the children,

implementing collaborative work opportunities, asking good questions

which encourage thinking [investing] [coping]

Comments

The student is committed to engaging children in purposeful

learning by making valuable use of classroom time, showing evidence of thoughtful

weekly preparation, engaging in reflective practice

[investing] [coping]

Comments

The student appreciates multiple perspectives in the field, and is

willing to experiment with a variety of teaching and learning strategies by implementing the Foundation Phase methodologies, going beyond what the

supervising teacher does, showing perseverance and flexibility when a

strategy is challenging or unsuccessful [investing] [coping] [asserting]

Comments