THE IMPERIAL CULT IN DALMATIA

Classica et Christiana, 10, 2015, ISSN: 1842 – 3043, 66-96

THE IMPERIAL CULT IN DALMATIA

Marija BUZOV1 (Institute of Archaeology, Zagreb, Croatia)

Keywords: imperial cult, Dalmatia, statues of emperors, Publius Corne-

lius Dolabella.

Abstract: The habit of erecting imperial statues in the Roman cities has been established from the very beginning of the Empire. Groups of imperial sculp-tures have been located in Istria and Dalmatia (Pula, Osor, Nin, Salona, Vis, and Narona). These were the sites of sanctuaries or groups of statues in already exis-ting architectural structures (forums, theatres, thermae, basilicae, and some other public places). The statues of emperors were standing alone or isolated with or without of a cult honors, but always as public monuments. Shrines in honor of the emperor were built in smaller settlements, which shows that both these places followed the general trends. The erection of imperial figures was favoured by Ro-man governors, particularly by Publius Cornelius Dolabella, whose activities to promote the imperial cult in Dalmatia are shown by inscriptions and other sources.

Cuvinte-cheie: cultul imperial, Dalmatia, statui de împăraţi, Publius Cornelius Dolobella.

Rezumat: Obiceiul înălţării în oraşele romane a statuilor imperiale a luat

naştere chiar de la începutul epocii imperiale. Grupuri de sculpturi imperiale au fost identificate la Istria şi în Dalmaţia (Pola, Osor, Nin, Saloma, Vis şi Narona). Este vorba despre situri ale sanctuarelor sau despre grupuri de statui provenite din structuri arhitecturale deja existente (forumuri, teatre, terme, bazilici şi alte spaţii publice). Statuile împăraţilor erau amplasate în mod singular sau în izo-lare, beneficiind sau nu de deferenţa unui cult, însă întotdeauna aveau aparenţa unor monumente publice. Altarele în cinstea împăratului erau înălţate în ampla-samente mai mici, ceea ce demonstrează că aceste locuri urmau şi ele tendinţele generale. Ridicarea statuilor imperiale a fost încurajată de guvernatorii romani, îndeosebi de Publius Cornelius Dolabella, ale cărui acţiuni de promovare a cultu-lui imperial în Dalmaţia sunt dovedite de inscripţii şi alte izvoare.

The imperial cult of Rome and Roman provinces identified em-

perors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctio-ned authority of the Roman state. The framework for the imperial cult

1 [email protected]

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was formulated during the early Principate of Augustus, and was ra-pidly established throughout the Roman empire with marked local variations in the reception and expression2.

A deceased emperor held worthy of the honour could be voted for as being appeared in state with a divinity (divus, divi) by the Senate and elevated as such in an act of apotheosis. The awarding of apotheosis served religious, political and moral judgment on Imperial rulers and allowed living emperors to associate themselves with a well-regarded lineage of Imperial divi from which unpopular or un-worthy or useless predecessors were excluded. This proved a useful instrument to Vespasian in his establishment of the Flavian imperial dynasty following the death of Nero and civil war, and to Septimius in his consolidation of the Severan dynasty after the assassination of Commodus. In the development of imperial rule from Principate to Dominate, the role of the Senate was increasingly marginalised and military loyalty became the key to imperial authority, as we can no-tice all through the history.

The imperial cult is sometimes considered a deviation from Rome’s traditional republican values, a religiously insincere cult of personality which served Imperial propaganda3. The Roman imperial cult thus presents itself as a mixture of the eastern influence of theo-cratic rulers and of the western Greco-Roman tradition of venerating prominent members of society, and particularly of the tradition of the Roman republican magistrates which held the aura of sanctity, as well as the religious feelings of Romans and the entire Roman tradition4.

The introduction of the Imperial cult to the province of Dalma-tia was a component of a complex process which began with Octa-vian’s conquest of Illyricum from 35 to 33 B.C. Octavian re-conque-red territory that had been lost during the civil wars between Caesar and Pompey, particularly the lands attacked and annexed from the Delmatae, and also conquered additional territory5.

The habit of erecting imperial statues in the Roman cities has been established from the very beginning of the Empire. Groups of imperial sculptures have been located in Histria and Dalmatia (Pula

2 FISHWICK 1991; FISHWICK 2002; GRADEL 2002; SEVERY 2003. 3 PRICE 1986, 13-17; SYME 1939, 265; PRICE 1986, 13, note 31; HARLAND

1996, 319-334. 4 POSAVEC 1998, 73. 5 JADRIĆ-KUČAN 2010, 94.


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– Pola, Vizače – Nesactium, Cres – Crexa, Osor – Apsorus, Rab – Arva, Nin – Aenona, Solin – Salona, Čitluk – Aequum, Vis – Issa, Omiš – Oneum, and Vid – Narona) (Map 1-2). These were the sites of sanctuaries or groups of statues in already existing architectural structures (forums, theatres, thermae, basilicae, and some other pu-blic places). The statues of emperors were standing alone or isolated with or without of a cult honours, but always as public monuments. Shrine in honour of the emperor were built in smaller settlements, which shows that both these places followed the general trends.

Erection of imperial figures was favoured by the Roman gover-nors, particularly by Publius Cornelius Dolabella, whose activities to promote the imperial cult in Dalmatia are shown by inscriptions and sources6.

After Octavian had become princeps in 27 B.C., he marked the period of his rule by implementing the policy of pax Iulia, not only in its administrative but also in its spiritual aspects. He added the ap-pellation Augustus to his name and founded his own cult of which he was the supreme priest (pontifex maximus). He also established a collegium of Augustales, priests of the Augustus’ cult7. In honour of the cult statues were erected and temples built. Among the best il-lustrations of this is the Augustus’ Temple in Pula (Fig. 1). The tem-ple was built in the Iulian style between 2 B.C. and A.D. 14, beside the central republican capitolian temple8. The inscription on the archi-trave reads: Romae et Augusto Caesari Divi filio Pater Patriae9. This is one of the few preserved examples of the observance of the impe-rial cult in the whole Roman Empire, and there is also other evidence (imperial statues, inscriptions, sacrificial altars) (Fig. 2)10.

As the oldest traditional administrative and spiritual centre of the Histri, Nesactium, became predominantly a religious centre in the Roman period and lost its previous administrative powers. Du-ring the 2nd and 3rd centuries the central and northern temples were

6 RENDIĆ-MIOČEVIĆ 1964, 338-347. 7 In some cases these priests were of Oriental origin. 8 GNIRS 1915; FORLATI TAMARO 1923; FORLATI TAMARO 1926; MLA-

KAR 1958; PAVAN 1958; PAVAN 1971; CREMA 1959, 176; MANSUELLI 1971, 131 i d.; KRIZMANICH 1988; MATIJAŠIĆ 1990; FISCHER 1996, 70 i d. sl. 13-16; STA-RAC 1996; CAMBI 2002, 62; SUIĆ 2003, 234-236.

9 IIt X/1, 21. 10 GIRARDI JURKIĆ 1998, 36.

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built beside the old forum temple from the republican period which was dedicated to a local goddes11. An inscription fragment about a colle-gium of Augustales discovered in Nesactium shows that the imperial cult was worshipped at least at one temple in this group (Fig. 3). Ap-parently, the imperial cult was not as strong as in Pola, but firm evi-dence of that is still lacking. The Histrian tradition and the matriar-chal cults prevailed, and Pula as the administrative centre concentra-ted the power of the imperial cult and the imperial family. Is the im-perial cult was also worshipped in Poreč (colonia Parentium)? It is still an open question. Older and recent archaeological researches show that in a certain phase of urban development of the city three temples may have existed at the forum. The massive fundaments which were discovered indicate that, like in Pola and Nesactium, the first temple could have been built in the period of the Republic. At the beginning of the Christian era, the reign of Augustus and pax Iulia introduced a new architectural concept (three temples) and a unique official cult, the imperial cult, which marked the cultural, spiritual and political life of Roman Istria in the Iulian and Claudian periods12.

Octavian Augustus had very good knowledge of the Illyricum. As he himself formulated, he “extended its borders to the river Da-nube”13. His campaign 35-33 B.C. was a large step in conquering the reign, known towards the end of the old era as the Province of Dal-matia. In Dalmatia, the Augustus cult was worshipped in all major centres, especially in the colonies but also in the municipalities (Senia, Aenona, Scardona etc.). It was characterized by collegia of Augusta-les, generally a group of six (seviri Augustales). Forum temples in the colonies and municipalities were centres of the cult. In Pula, an in-scription referring to it was preserved on the temple front. In the tem-ples were imperial statues of the Iulian family and some later empe-rors (Aenona, Narona). The discovery of imperial statues in Narona confirms our knowledge of the developed imperial cult in that city acquired on the basis of known Augustales’ inscriptions and of the e-xisting information on the composition of the collegia, which inclu-ded several Vibians and oriental members. Narona was an important naval trade centre.

11 MATIJAŠIĆ 1990, 645, figs. 6, 7, 8, 10. 12 GIRARDI JURKIĆ 1998, 23-36. 13 Res Gestae, 31.


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Publius Cornelius Dolabella, governor from A.D. 14 to 20, was a famous person who left numerous traces in the province reaching from roads to inscriptions. He was the first legatus pro praetore Divi Augusti et Tiberii Caesaris Augusti (Obod, near Epidaurum, Cavtat)14. Appointed by Augustus as chief magistrate and military commander, he without doubt played a role in the spreading and strengthening of the imperial cult in Dalmatia15. There is a badly damaged portrait with veiled head (velatio capitis) in the museum collection of Cres (Crepsa or Crexa). It is impossible to discover to whom the head belonged.

In the shallow sea northern of Cres a portrait of Trajan (2th) was salvaged recently (Fig. 4). These two heads were not part of the same group.

Three heads from Osor (Apsorus) were salvaged from the sea in the bay of Jas, already in 1939. In 1979, Cambi attributed two of them: the first to Octavian (the Actium or so-called second type) (Fig. 5) and the second to Drusus Minor (second type) (Fig. 6)16. The third head after Cambi belonged to a Claudian empress or princess17. There are several more fragments in the local Museum which must be parts of imperial statues18. This group began in the period of Octavian, but it was enlarged during the reign of Tiberius. There are no traces of la-ter additions to the group.

There are four damaged bases of rulers’ statues from Rab (Arba). According to inscriptions three of them belonged to Severan period and one to the period of military emperors. The letters are different. The bases belong to Severan group which was enlarged several de-cades later19.

The first manifestations of the Imperial cult in Illyricum can be noted as early as in the period of Octavianus Augustus, when the col-legium Iuliales was formed, whose vir was noted at Iader20. Augus-tus was the patron of the colony of Iader, hence the primary task of the collegium was the promotion of the cult of the imperial family. At Scardona a Liburnian regional imperial cult, ad aram Augusti Libur-

14 CIL III 1741. 15 ZANINOVIĆ 1998, 44. 16 CAMBI 1998, 45-47. 17 CAMBI 1998, 46. 18 CAMBI 1998, 46. 19 CAMBI 1998, 47. 20 JADRIĆ, MILETIĆ 2008, 77-82.

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norum has been documented21. The Liburnian imperial cult probably originated during the reign of Tiberius, and was systematically orga-nized by his governors Publius Cornelius Dolabella and Lucius Volu-sius Saturninus22.

In pre-Roman times, Aenona was a strong Liburnian centre with some attributes of a city23. After the Provinces of Illyricum and Dal-matia, respectively, were established, it was given the status of a mu-nicipality and its citizens obtained civil rights. In such circumstances, Aenona experienced drastic architectural changes: newly constructed facilities comprised city walls, a bridge, an aquaeduct system, public and residential buildings, streets, and a forum with a monumental temple24. In Roman Aenona a group of imperial statues of the Julian and Claudian dynasties was found. They were excavated in the forum area, some 50 metres away from the temple. According to archive data, that research was conducted by the Zadar physician Antonio Danieli Tommasoni in 1768. At that time, 8 larger-than-life imperial statues were found, but unfortunately only four of them were preserved and are today kept in Zadar. Two statues have portraits, one representing Emperor Augustus (Prima Porta type) (Fig. 7) made after his death and the other Tiberius (Fig. 8). The remaining two are acephalous. Five of the mentioned statues according Cambi were preserved in Da-nieli-Pellegrini collection. Five draped statues disappeared after dis-covery. A statue of a headless togatus was found twenty years ago (Fig. 9). A palimpsest portrait of Nerva, made from a previous Domi-tian’s head, was discovered recently (Fig. 10). So the group numbered about 11 or 12 statues, but it must have been larger. It is not sure whe-ther the Nerva portrait stood on one of the existing statues. An in-scription dedicated to Drusus Caesar the son of Germanicus could re-fer to a statue of a group. The nucleus of the group appeared in Tibe-rius’ time, but it was enlarged during the Flavians and then again in the time of Trajan. This statues shows distinct and related classicist style features with accentuated and strong coloristic effects.

On the basis of the conducted research of the ancient urban structure of Aenona one can assume that the statues were placed ei-ther inside the temple (in the chamber with semicircular niches) or at

21 JADRIĆ, MILETIĆ 2008, 77-82. 22 JADRIĆ, MILETIĆ 2008, 90. 23 SUIĆ 2003. 24 SUIĆ 2003.


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the forum, whose proportions could have allowed such monumental sculptures25.

A group from Tiberius’ period existed in Salona (Fig. 11)26. The portraits of boys Nero and Drusus Caesar (sons of Germanicus) could have been a part of such a Tiberian group. A torso fragment, once in Graz (Austria) could also have been a member of the same group. Also a fragment of a big male naked and seated statue and a togatus without its head might belong to the Julio-Claudian group. If Domitian head from Kotor was of Salonitan origin, the Tiberian group might have been enlarged on the Flavian period. The head of the prin-cess Plautilla could belong to a different, Severan imperial group (Fig. 12-13)27. The third group comprises the portraits of Tetrarchic rulers. A male and two intentionally damaged female portraits could have made part of this Tetrarchic period28. The two herms (four heads) show two persons carrying pileus pannonicus, so characteristic of tetrarchic pe-riod. The attached heads represent the personification of Felicitas Saeculi29. Statues of Tetrarchic rulers were erected on the preserved bases above the northern gate of Diocletian’s Palace, but the statues are not preserved now30. The bases are of different heights. Jupiter's statue was on the highest, now missing base, while the statues of Au-gusti were on lower. The statues of Caesars stood on the lowest bases. Only one badly damaged male portrait from another tetrarchic group in Diocletian’s Palace is preserved (Fig. 14-15). It is hard to say to which of tetrarchic rulers it belonged, due to known iconographic pro-blems of this period. The cult of dead Diocletian and his wife Prisca is testified by their busts in wreaths in the Mausoleum freeze31. This octo-gon is rather Templum Divi Diocletiani with a porphyry sarcophagus than an ordinary mausoleum.

Čitluk (Aequum). A lower part of a cuirassed emperor's statue was found in the town long ago. It is impossible to say to whom it be-longed. It is obviously that this statue was not alone. Since Claudius was parens coloniae the group contained the persons which at least

25 KOLEGA 1998, 85-91. 26 CAMBI 1998, 50. 27 CAMBI 1998, 50. 28 CAMBI 1998, 51-52. 29 CAMBI 1998, 51. 30 CAMBI 1998, 51-52. 31 CAMBI 2002, 139, 144, 145, figs. 209, 210.

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constituted his imperial propaganda32. The statues of goddesses were also linked with imperial cult in this town. One of them represented Fortuna, the second belonged to Roma which is testified by the base inscription: Romae (et) Aug(usto) (or Romae Augustae) Cornelia No-bilis v(otum) s(olvit)33. The statues are later than the emperor’s frag-ment. The group must have been later enlarged.

According to a now lost inscription from Vis (Issa) raised in honour of the divine Augustus, DIVVS AVGVSTVS PATER PROVI-DEN(TIAE), which was on the pedestal of a bronze statue of him and which was mentioned by the fifteenth century Italian humanist Ciria-co d’Ancona34. It can be safely stated that the introduction of the im-perial cult in Issa commenced already after the death of Augustus. Suić believed that Issa was administratively linked to Salona, and it probably acquired the status of civitas during the reign of Augustus35. This is in fact the reason for the early introduction of his veneration as a deity at a time when Roman authority had not been entirely rein-forced here. In this the monumental sculpture played a major role as a means whereby Roman propaganda could be disseminated in the simplest possible manner, i.e. through indirect contact with the em-peror and his family. Five monumental imperial sculptures have been found in Issa thus far. Two of them are emperors from the Julio-Cla-udian dynasty, whose heads have not been preserved. One portrays the emperor as a semi-nude deity which Gabričević associated with the divine Augustus36. With the aforementioned inscription to Empe-ror Augustus, this would serve as another confirmation of his venera-tion in Issa. According (or based) on stylistic features, the other scul-pture has been attributed to emperor Tiberius or, in Cambi’s view to emperor Claudius, since the emperor is portrayed in the Claudian-type armour37.

Also quite significant to Issa was the stay of Tiberius’ son Dru-sus (Drusus Iulius Caesar), who used the occasion to build and ex-pand the playing field (campus) in the city. In the city’s central sec-

32 CAMBI 1998, 52. 33 CAMBI 1980, 36, pl. XIII-XVI. 34 JADRIĆ-KUČAN 2010, 86, see note 26. 35 SUIĆ 1966, 181-194. 36 GABRIČEVIĆ 1968, 55. 37 CAMBI 1998, 45-61.


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tion named Gradina, an inscription found testifies to this (Fig. 16)38. According to sources, the son of Tiberius resided in the province of Dalmatia, with interruptions, for roughly three years, and he actively toured its major settlements and saw to the establishment of the im-perial cult. His imperial sculpture, discovered in Osor, is testimony to this, and in Cambi’s opinion it was installed precisely during the time that Drusus was in Dalmatia39. Also preserved is a small fragment of a glass phalera showing Germanicus or Drusus the Younger40. The raising or reconstruction of a plying field, the installation of imperial statues, and the conferral of military medals were without doubt a form of propaganda whereby the emperor’s son and potential heir to the throne attempted to secure popularity and experience41.

Veneration of the imperial cult in Issa continued into the reign of emperor Vespasian, who restored the Augustan practice of impe-rial reverence, and he incorporated the remaining deified emperors and empresses into the cult of the living emperor and the goddess Roma42. A small portion of this veneration in Issa is reflected in the damaged portrait sculpture of emperor Vespasian, which is today held in Vienna43. The head is connected to a statue in a toga which is also from Vis. Cambi believes that a much larger head would suit the body, meaning that it is a head and body belonging to two different sculptures44. The portrait has been dated to the last years of Vespa-sian’s reign. The statue of a man wearing a toga, with head not pre-served, is also from the Flavian period, so it may be assumed that it portrayed one of Vespasian’s two sons, his future heirs, who were also included in the veneration. Ivčević tied the statue with the portrait of the Emperor Domitia45, which is held in the Archaeological Museum in Split. The portrait was remade as one of Trajan, after the Senate proclaimed damnatio memoriae for the former, but the original por-

38 JADRIĆ-KUČAN 2010, 87. 39 CAMBI 1998, 45-46; TAC. Ann. 2, 44. 40 CAMBI 2000, 40; JADRIĆ-KUČAN 2010, 88. 41 JADRIĆ-KUČAN 2010, 88. 42 JADRIĆ-KUČAN 2010, 88. 43 CAMBI 2005, 64, figs. 88, 89. 44 CAMBI 1998, 53; CAMBI 2000, 98. 45 IVČEVIĆ 1998, 80.

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trait of Domitian can be discerned in the prominent chin which was typical of the facial physiognomy (Fig. 17)46.

Veneration of the imperial cult continued in Issa even during the dynasty of adoptive emperors, which demonstrated by Trajan’s portrait. The evidence of veneration of the imperial cult in Issa con-cludes with this portrait of Trajan. Whether or not this veneration continued under the Antonine dynasty can only be the subject of con-jecture, as there is a lack of archaeological evidence47.

In the village of Borak above Omiš (Oneum) a very fine, but mu-tilated Tiberius’s portrait was found (Fig. 18). A fragmentary inscrip-tion: DIV/O AVG(usto) ET /ROM(ae)//SACRV/M48 is an evidence of the existence of state cult: posthumous August statue agond proba-bly, of a larger imperial statuary group. On the other side of the in-scription an ara of Genius (loci?) was mentioned. A fragmentary in-scription: ARA/M GENI/O L//OC(i)/ AVGVSTAM //…./LLICA VOL // <sacravit orconsacravit>49. Probably Tiberius and August were erected there among other Tiberian assembly.

The city of Narona (Vid near Metković) was an important Ro-man colony in the valley of the Naron/Naro river (Neretva), on the eastern coast of the Adriatic50. In the Late Republican period Narona played a wider role in relation to south-eastern Europe, in that it con-nected the coast with the interior51. The first important archaeologi-cal research52 took place at the beginning of the 20th century when Karl Patsch published the first book on Narona, based on his resear-ches, in Vienna in 190753. Modern archaeological researches began in the 1950’s, when rescue excavations were carried by Ivan Marović in the area beside the river that was believed to be the Forum54. In the 1960’s and 1970’s further excavations were carried by Nenad Cambi55. The most complete group was discovered in Narona in 1995 (Fig. 19-21). It consisted of at least 16 statues, since also several fragments

46 CAMBI 2005, 67, fig. 62. 47 IVČEVIĆ 1998, 75-84. 48 GOTOVAC 1991-1992, 53 i d. 49 GOTOVAC 1991-1992, 50 MARIN 2004, 15. 51 ALFÖLDY 1988, 105; MARIN 2004, 15. 52 MARIN et alii 1999; MARIN 2004, 15. 53 PATSCH 1907. 54 MAROVIĆ 1952, 153-173. 55 CAMBI 1976, 57-66; CAMBI 1984-1985, 33-59.


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were found. The statues discovered in the Augusteum (Fig. 22-26) of Narona belong to well known imperial statuary groups56 and include monuments of the imperial cult, extensively researched by many out-standing scholars57. The most important discovery was the inscrip-tion set up by the governor Publius Cornelius Dolabella to Divus Au-gustus (Fig. 27-28)58. The newly unearthed statues are headless. Li-via’s portrait was discovered in the 19th century (Fig. 29) and belon-ged to the forum group59. Regarding the sculptural type of the Ox-ford-Opuzen (Fig. 30), Livia it can be concluded that it is clearly ti-berianic60, and that it derives from the type known as the Lesser Her-culanean woman61. The statue no. 6 presumably a second Livia would not be a surprise, since the mother of the reigning emperor received far more honours than she had ever done in the Augustan period (Fig. 31)62.

Cambi personally unearthed Vespasian’s head in the vicinity of the site twenty one years ago63. His portrait discovered in the imme-diate vicinity confirms the presence of statues of the Flavian dynasty rulers. A woman dressed statue and a fragment of cuirassed statue were discovered even earlier. On the basis of an inscription the nucleus of the group was erected in the Tiberian period. Vespasian’s head is the evidence of the second enlargement (Fig. 32-33), while a new fragment of a Trajanic female head testifies to the third enlargement64. The torso of the statue was found during the excavations in 1996 in the north-eastern corner of the cella of the temple lying on the mosaic pavement and what was clearly its base was discovered in its immediate vicinity, close to the pedestal that supported the sculptures65. The statue was published as representing the emperor Claudius (Fig. 34-35)66.

56 ROSE 1977. 57 TURCAN 1998, 200-215; FISHWICK 1987-1992; PRICE 1984; HÄN-

LEIN-SCHÄFER 1985; ZANKER 1988; MARIN 2004, 17. 58 MARIN 2004, 67. 59 MARIN 2004, 76. 60 The analysis is provided in MARIN 2003. 61 MARIN 2004, 81. 62 ROSE 1977, 23. 63 CAMBI 2002, 130-131, 132, fig. 183. 64 CAMBI 2002, 130-131. 65 MARIN 2004, 87. 66 MARIN 2001, 101-102; MARIN 2003, 17.

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The statue no. 1 was observed in section inside the cella of Au-gusteum in 1995, but was only excavated in 199667. It lay close to sta-tue no. 2, in the central part of the cella between the two pedestals with inscriptions testifying the consecratio in formam deorum68. Ac-cording to Rodà the figure represent Agrippina the Younger (Agrippi-na Minor) (Fig. 36-37)69.

The statue no. 7 was found in 1995 in the southern part of cella, below the central part of the southern platform70. According to Rodà the statue represent Agrippa (with calcei patricii) dressed in toga si-milar to the one in Narona, although the umbo is somewhat wider (Fig. 38)71.

The statue no. 2 was found in section inside the cella of the Au-gusteum in 1995, but was excavated in 1996. It lay close to statue no. 1, in the central part of the cella between the two inscribed pedestals decribing consecratio in formam deorum72. This statue may repre-sent Agrippina the Elder (Agrippina Senior), of the Claudian era (Fig. 39).

During the extensive excavations in the Augusteum, a large cui-rassed statue (no. 13) was found in 199673 in the centre of the cella, close to its western, original pedestal (Fig. 40)74. The statue was ob-viously thrown down from the central place on the western platform. Close by, in approximately the central part of the cella a fragment of the inscription DIVO AUGUSTO set up by Publius Cornelius Dolabella pro praetore was found75. According to the dedicatory inscriptions and its central place in the temple the sculpture represent Augustus.

The torso no. 17 had long been considered to be that of an em-peror76, but it was good to learn that it originally belonged to the Na-rona Augusteum (Fig. 41). According to Rodà the date of the statue, its location in the temple, and the crucial role of Dolabella in the se-

67 MARIN 1997, 127. 68 MARIN 2004, 103. 69 RODÀ 2004, 106, 108, in: MARIN, KOLEGA, CLARIDGE, RODÀ 2004. 70 MARIN 2004, 113, 116. 71 RODÀ 2004, 116, note 83, in: MARIN, KOLEGA, CLARIDGE, RODÀ 2004. 72 MARIN 2004, 121. 73 MARIN 1997, 127 sq. 74 MARIN 2004, 143. 75 MARIN 2004, 143. 76 SCHNEIDER 1885, 76; CAMBI 1980a, 140 sq., 143, Fig. 19; CAMBI 1988,

55, fig. 29.


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cond phase when the statues were erected after Augustus death, it would appear that the torso belonged to a statue of Tiberius77. The reason for such an attribution is the presence of the statue next to that of Augustus, although there would also seem to be the same da-ted examples of similar cuirassed statues78.

Obviously also later imperial statues existed in Narona79. The evidence for this conclusion is given by a fragment of a big marble head from the middle 3rd century. The head was intentionally dama-ged. A big head of local limestone, also intentionally damaged, might have belonged to the emperor Carus. Intentional mutilation and ex-ceptional large dimensions speaks in favour of this hypothesis. It is significant that Carus was bald like this head and probably of Naroni-tan origin.

After short presentation of imperial cult in Dalmatia, accor-ding to Cambi79 we can conclude:

The statues were erected from the early imperial period, as is evidenced by Octavian’s from Osor. Largest number of groups are da-ted to Tiberius period, which were encouraged by the Roman governor of the province of Dalmatia P. Cornelius Dolabella. According Tacitus (Ann., III, 2), the imperial groups in provinces were his idea. Tiberius’ groups almost ordinarily had the statues of August. The groups from Apsorus and Aenona might also have the statue of Caesar, but it was not the rule. The naked statues were likely used for dead persons. There were two types of such statues – one seated and one in upright position and the second were dressed in Jupiter’s costumes (only mantle). The groups were incresaed in Flavian and Trajanic periods, so they made part of the same assembly, but after Trajan such groups disappeared. Some imperial persons had extremely large statues like a statue in Jupiter’s costume in Aenona and cuirassed statues from Narona. Probably these must have had special importance. All three Domitian’s portraits also were huge. Damnatio memoriae was tho-roughly carries out in Dalmatia, and even in Pannonia. There are no Nero’s statue or portrait. Two Domitian’s portraits were transfigured in later imperial succesors. Curiously the head from Salona, now in

77 RODÀ 2004, 134, in: MARIN, KOLEGA, CLARIDGE, RODÀ 2004. 78 RODÀ 2004, 134, 136, note 103, in: MARIN, KOLEGA, CLARIDGE, RODÀ

2004. 79 CAMBI 1998, 55. 79 CAMBI 1998, 55-58.

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Kotor, was neither recut nor mutilated. It is interesting that there are no groups of Hadrian, Antonines and of their family members, but their individual portraits might have existed. It is logical, because of their non-familiar way of inheriting the throne. The groups reappeared in Severan time. The evidence is Plautilla’s head from Salona and in-scription on statuary bases from the island of Rab. Severan groups of statues had not any connection with earlier. Only small numbers of soldier-emperor portraits have been preserved, but there are no groups of these emperors’ statues. A base from Rab testifies that a statue of Tre-bonianus Gallus was later added to this Severan group. Marcus Aure-lius also made part of the Rab group, but he belonged to the Septimius Severus’ propaganda. It is necessary to mention that some soldier-em-perors were honoured separately. There is also some evidence about tetrarchic groups, but the problem of their identification is difficult, since the iconography of tetrarchic rulers is rather uncertain. A group of marmor statues probably existed in Salona. A group of herms from local limestone also evidenced very developed tetrarchic propaganda in Salona. There were statues of local limestone in Diocletian’s Pa-lace. The porphyry groups were not found until now, but their exis-tence is very probable in Salona and Diocletian’s Palace. The groups were erected in all-important towns of Roman Dalmatia, in some smaller settlements (Oneum) and on some islands. The fact that the groups were not found in some very significant towns, Jader for example, does not mean that they did not exist there. The groups were erected in small forum aediculae like Narona, on Roman fora like Ae-nona and Apsorus, but very likely without own architecture. So this fact illustrates that some of them belonged to the imperial cult, while the other only to imperial propaganda. This question must be studied much better. All statues of emperors and their family members, ex-cept those from Aenona, show bad damages, which is the evidence that they were pulled down and intentionally mutilated in the Early Christian centuries. Intended damages could be the indication of their belonging to imperial persons. A constantinian group possibly existed in Salona, but unfortunately there were no imperial statues in Dal-matia after Constantine.


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Map 1 Croatian historical area in the time of Roman Empire. Map 2 Map of cities with the findings. Fig. 1 Temple of Roma and Augustus, Pola. Fig. 2 Fragment of an emperor's cuirassed statue, Pola, first half of

the 1st century A.D. Fig. 3 Nesactium – Nezakcij. Fig. 4 Portrait of Trajan, marble, Staganjac bay on Cres, Early 2nd

century A.D. Fig. 5 Portrait of Augustus, marble, end of 1st century B.C., Osor Ap-

sorus. Fig. 6 Portrait of Drusus Minor, marble, Apsorus, second or third de-

cade of the 1st century A.D. Fig. 7 Posthumous statue of Augustus, marble, Aenona, the end of Ti-

berius reign. Fig. 8 Statue of Tiberius in a toga, marble, Aenona, end of Tiberius

reign. Fig. 9 Statue of an emperor or a member of the imperial family mar-

ble, Aenona, end of Tiberius reign. Fig. 10 Portrait of Nerva, recarved from a head of Domitian, marble,

Aenona, end of the 1st century A.D. Fig. 11 Salona, plan of the capitolium, various phases, 1st to 3rd cen-

tury A.D. (after E. Dyggve). Fig. 12 Portrait of a young woman (princess Plautilla?), marble, Salo-

na, first decade of the 3rd century A.D. Fig. 13 Portrait of a young woman (princess Plautilla?), marble, Salo-

na, first decade of the 3rd century A.D. Fig. 14 Diocletian's Palace, eastern entrance, limestone, late 3rd or

early 4th century A.D. Fig. 15 Diocletian's Palace, portrait of a man (Tetrarch?) from the

western entrance, limestone, late 3rd or early 4th century A.D. Fig. 16 Inscription of Drusus Caesar the Younger from Issa. Fig. 17 Portrait of Trajan, recarved from a head of Domitian, marble,

Issa, early 2nd century A.D. Fig. 18 Portrait of Tiberius, marble, Oneum, first half of the 1st cen-

tury A.D., Omiš. Fig. 19 Map of Narona, Vid. Fig. 20 Panorama of Narona, Vid.

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Fig. 21 Plan of the Narona. Fig. 22 Augusteum in Narona. Fig. 23 Roman statues found in Augusteum in 1996. Fig. 24 Roman statues found in Augusteum in 1996. Fig. 25 Number of Roman statues found in Augusteum. Fig. 26 Plan of the Augusteum. Fig. 27 Dolabella's inscription from the imperial shrine in Narona. Fig. 28 Dolabella's inscription from the imperial shrine in Narona. Fig. 29 Portrait of Livia, marble, Narona, first half of the 1st century

A.D. Fig. 30 Statue of Livia, marble, Narona first half of the 1st century

A.D. Fig. 31 Statue of woman (Livia?), marble, Narona, half of the 1st cen-

tury A.D. Fig. 32 Statue of Vespasian in a toga, marble, Narona, second half of

the 1st century A.D. Fig. 33 Statue of Vespasian in a toga, marble, Narona, second half of

the 1st century A.D. Fig. 34 Fragments of the statue, marble, Narona, half of the 1st cen-

tury A.D. Fig. 35 Fragments of the statue, marble, Narona, half of the 1st cen-

tury A.D. Fig. 36 Statue of woman (Agrippina Minor?), marble, Narona, half of

the 1st century A.D. Fig. 37 Statue of woman (Agrippina Minor?), marble, Narona, half of

the 1st century A.D. Fig. 38 Statue of man in a toga (Agrippa?), marble, Narona, half of

the 1st century A.D. Fig. 39 Statue of woman (Agrippina senior), marble, Narona, half of

the 1st century A.D. Fig. 40 Statue of imperator August, marble, Narona, half of the 1st

century A.D. Fig. 41 Statue of imperator Tiberius, marble, Narona, half of the 1st

century A.D.


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THE IMPERIAL CULT IN DALMATIA

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