«L’ERMA» di BRETSCHNEIDER

Interdisciplinary Studies on Ancient StoneASMOSIA X

Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference of ASMOSIAAssociation for the Study of Marble & Other Stones in Antiquity

Rome, 21-26 May 2012

P. PENSABENE, E. GASPARINI (eds.)

Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI

I VOLUME

1. APPLICATION TO SPECIFIC ARCHAEOLOGICAL QUESTIONS - USE OF MARBLE

Architecture with concave and convex rhythms and its decoration in Hadrian age: the Ma-ritime Theatre and the Southern pavilion of Piazza d’Oro in Hadrian’s Villa, B. Adembri,S. Di Tondo, F. Fantini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Imported marbles found in three Roman cities of the territory of “Cinco Villas”(Zaragoza), north of Hispania Citerior, J. Andreu Pintado, H. Royo Plumed, P. Lapuente, M.Brilli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Pentelic marble in the Severan Complex in Leptis Magna (Tripolitania, Libya),F. Bianchi, M. Bruno, S. Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

The limestone quarries of Wadi Gadatza in the territory of Leptis Magna, M. Bruno,F. Bianchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Provenance and distribution of white marbles in the arches of Titus and Septimius Severusin Rome, M. Bruno, C. Gorgoni, P. Pallante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

The imitation of coloured marbles in a first style wall painting from the Etruscan-Romantown of Populonia (LI – Italy), F. Cavari, F. Droghini, M. Giamello, C. Mascione, A. Scala . 55

Small Euboean quarries. The local community markets, M. Chidiroglou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Lumachella at Cosa: late Republican?, J. Collins-Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Ancientmarbles.org: an open community for sharing knowledge about ancient marblefrom different approaches, S. Costa, F. Marri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

The use of marble in Lusitania between Rome and Islam, M. Cruz Villalón . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

“Marmora Ostiensa”. New results from the Ostia Marina Project, M. David, S. Succi, M. Turci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

A column shaft in ‘verde rana ondato’ from the archaeological excavations in Palazzo Al-temps, M. De Angelis d’Ossat, S. Violante, M. Gomez Serito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

The exploitation of coralline breccia of the Gargano in the Roman and late antique pe-riods, A. De Stefano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Ships lapidariae and the wreck, with marmor numidicum, discovered in Camarina: hypo-thesis of route, G. Di Stefano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

V

INDEX

The use of marble in the roman architecture of Lugdunum (Lyon, France), D. Fellague,H. Savay-Guerraz, F. Masino, G. Sobrà . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Marmora and other stones in the architectural decoration of early imperial Barcino(Barcelona, Spain), A. Garrido, A. Àlvarez, A. Doménech, A. Gutiérrez Garcia-M., I. Rodà,H. Royo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Provenance of the Roman marble sarcophagi of the San Pietro in Bevagna Wreck, M. T. Giannotta, G. Quarta, A. Alessio, A. Pennetta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Thasian Exports Of Prefabricated Statuettes, J. J. Herrmann, Jr., D. Attanasio, A. van denHoek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Multimethod marble identification for figural sculpture in Hippo Regius (Annaba, Algeria),J. J. Herrmann, Jr., R. H. Tykot, A. van den Hoek, P. Blanc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Awaiting identity: Copenhagen’s “diskophoros” and its auxiliary support, M. B. Hollinshead 171

Provenance, distribution and trade of the local building materials in the Sarno river plain(Campania) from the 6th century BC to AD 79, P. Kastenmeier, G. Balassone, M. Boni, G. di Maio, M. Joachimski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

White and coloured marble on Pantelleria, T. Lappi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Local stones and marbles found in the territory of “Alto Aragon” (Hispania), in Romantimes, P. Lapuente, H. Royo, J.A. Cuchi, J. Justes, M. Preite-Martinez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

The Marmor Lesbium reconsidered and other stones of Lesbos, E. Leka, G. Zachos . . . . . 201

The marbles from the Villa of Trajan at Arcinazzo Romano (Roma), Z. Mari . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

The introduction of marble in the cavea of the Theatre of Hierapolis: building process andpatronage, F. Masino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Shipwrecks with sarcophagi in the Eastern Adriatic, I. Mihajlovic, I. Miholjek . . . . . . . . . . 233

The marble decoration of the peristyle building in the SW quarter of Palmyra (Pal.M.A.I.S.Mission), S. Nava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Stone materials in Lusitania reflecting the process of romanization, T. Nogales-Basarrate, P.Lapuente, H. Royo, M. Preite-Martinez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

A uotorum nuncupatio from Colonia Augusta Firma. An analytical approach, S. Ordóñez,R. Taylor, O. Rodríguez, E. Ontiveros, S. García-Dils, J. Beltrán, J. C. Saquete . . . . . . . . . . . 263

The Muses in the Prado Museum and the pentelic marble of the Odeon in Hadrian’s villa:workshops and statuary programmes. Preliminary report, A. Ottati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Local workshops of the Roman imperial age. A contribution to the study of the produc-tion of Campanian Sarcophagi, A. Palmentieri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

Ceraunia and lapis obsianus in Pliny, L. Pedroni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Marbles from the Domus of ‘Bestie ferite’ and from the Domus of ‘Tito Macro’ in Aquileia (UD), Italy, C. Previato, N. Mareso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Production and distribution of Troad granite, both public and private, P. Pensabene,I. Rodà, J. Domingo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

The use of Almadén de la Plata marble in the public programs of Colonia Augusta Firma –Astigi (Écija, Seville, Spain), O. Rodríguez, R. Taylor, J. Beltrán, S. García-Dils, E. On-tiveros, S. Ordóñez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

INDEX

VI

Architectural elements of the Peristyle Building of the SW quarter of Palmyra (PAL.M.A.I.S.(PAL.M.A.I.S. Mission), G. Rossi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Casa del Rilievo di Telefo and opus sectile at Herculaneum, A. Savalli, P. Pesaresi, L. Lazzarini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

The use of marble in Roman Pula, A. Starac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Architectural decoration of the episcopal church of Rhodiapolis in Lycia, A. Tiryaki . . . . . 377

Byzantine carved marble slabs from Çanakkale Archaeology Museum, A. Turker . . . . . . . . 385

First preliminary results on the marmora of the late roman villa of Noheda (Cuenca,Spain), M. A. Valero Tévar, A. Gutiérrez García-M., I. Rodà de Llanza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

Parian lychnites and the Badminton Sarcophagus in New York, F. Van Keuren, J. E. Cox,D. Attanasio, W. Prochaska, J. J. Herrmann, Jr., D. H. Abramitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

The use of Estremoz marble in Late Antique Sculpture of Hispania: new data from the pe-trographic and cathodoluminescence analyses, S. Vidal, V. Garcia-Entero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

Montegrotto Terme (Padova) – Marble and other stone used in architectonic decoration of the Roman villa, P. Zanovello, C. Destro, M. Bressan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

2. PROVENANCE IDENTIFICATION I: MARBLE

The monument landscape and associated geology at the sanctuary of Zeus on mt.Lykaion, I. Bald Romano, G. H. Davis, D. G. Romano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

Marbles of the Aracena Massif (Ossa-Morena zone, Spain): aspects of their exploitationand use in roman times, J. Beltrán Fortes, M. L. Loza Azuaga, E. Ontiveros Ortega, J. A.Pérez Macías, O. Rodríguez Gutiérrez, R. Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

Isotopic analysis of marble from the Stoa of Attalos in the Athenian Agora and the Hel-lenistic quarries of Mount Pentelikon, S. Bernard, S. Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

An update on the use and distribution of white and black Göktepe marbles from the firstcentury AD to Late Antiquity, M. Bruno, D. Attanasio, W. Prochaska, A.B. Yavuz . . . . . . . . 461

The use of coloured marbles in the neapolitan Baroque: the work of Cosimo Fanzago(1591-1678), R. Bugini, L. Cinquegrana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

The imitation of coloured marbles in the Venetian Renaissance painting, R. Bugini, L. Folli 475

Stones and ancient marbles of the ‘Francesco Belli’ Collection: archaeological, art-histori-cal, antiquarian, geological - technical and petrographical aspects, R. Conte, A. D’Elia, E.Delluniversità, G. Fioretti, E. Florio, M. C. Navarra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485

Provenance investigation of a marble sculptures from Lyon Museum, M.P. Darblade-Au-doin, D. Tambakopoulos, Y. Maniatis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503

The limestone quarries of the Karaburum peninsula (southern Albania), A. De Stefano . . . 513

The main quarries of the central part of Dardania (present Kosova) during the Roman pe-riod: their usage in funerary and cult monuments, E. Dobruna-Salihu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

The use of marble in Hispanic Visigothic architectural decoration, J.A. Domingo Magaña . 527

Preliminary study of Los Bermejales, a new roman quarry discovered in the province ofCádiz, Southwestern Spain, S. Domínguez-Bella, M. Montañés, A. Ocaña, J. M. Carrascal,J. Martínez, A. Durante, J. Rendón Aragón, J. Rios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

INDEX

VII

Marble pavements from the house of Jason Magnus in Cyrene, E. Gasparini, E. Gallocchio 545

The Portoro of Portovenere: notes about a limestone, S. Gazzoli, G. Tedeschi Grisanti . . . . 555

Saw cuts on marble sarcophagi: New York and Ostia, J. J. Herrmann, Jr., M. Bruno, A. vanden Hoek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559

The basalt of the sacred caves at Ajanta (India): characterization and conservation, F. Ma-riottini, M. Mariottini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565

Marble and stones used in the central eastern Alpine area and in the northern area of Bena-cus: topographical reconstruction of trade routes and aspects of use in the Roman Era,A. Mosca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

Life of Nora (Province of Cagliari - South Sardinia). Roman quarries and their organizationin the rural landscape, C. Nervi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585

Naxian or parian? Preliminary examination of the Sounion and Dipylon kouroi marble,O. Palagia, Y. Maniatis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593

Analysis of the stony materials in the Arucci city, E. Pascual, J. Bermejo, J. M. Campos . . . . 601

Blocks and quarry marks in the Museum of Aquileia, P. Pensabene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611

Archaeology and archaeometry of the marble sculptures found in the “Villa di Poppea” atOplontis (Torre Annunziata, Naples), P. Pensabene, F. Antonelli, S. Cancelliere, L. Laz-zarini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

“Marmo di Cottanello” (Sabina, Italy): quarry survey and data on its distribution, P. Pensa-bene, E. Gasparini, E. Gallocchio, M. Brilli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

A quantitative and qualitative study on marble revetments of service area in the Villa delCasale at Piazza Armerina, P. Pensabene, L. Gonzalez De Andrés, J. Atienza Fuente . . . . . . 641

Quarry-marks or masonry-marks at Palmyra: some comparisons with the Phoenician-Punic documentation, D. Piacentini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651

Fine-grained dolomitic marble of high sculptural quality used in antiquity, W. Prochaska . . 661

Discriminating criteria of Pyrenean Arties marble (Aran Valley, Catalonia) from Saint-Béatmarbles: evidence of Roman use, H. Royo, P. Lapuente, E. Ros, M. Preite-Martinez,J. A. Cuchí . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

II VOLUME

3. PROVENANCE IDENTIFICATION II: OTHER STONES

The stone architecture of Palmyra (Syria): from the quarry to the building, R. Bugini, L. Folli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683

Quarries in rural landscapes of North Africa, M. De Vos Raaijmakers, R. Attoui . . . . . . . . . 689

Local and imported lithotypes in Roman times in the Southern part of the X Regio Au-gustea Venetia et Histria, L. Lazzarini, M. Van Molle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699

Preliminary study of the stone tesserae of Albanian mosaics. Materials identification, E. Omari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713

4. ADVANCES IN PROVENANCE TECHNIQUES METHODOLOGIES AND DATABASES

Provenance investigation of some funeral marble sculptures from ancient Vienna (France), V. Gaggadis-Robin, J.-L. Prisset, D. Tambakopoulos, Y. Maniatis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

INDEX

VIII

Isotopic testing of marble for figural sculpture at Guelma, Algeria, J. J. Herrmann, Jr., R.H. Tykot, D. Attanasio, P. Blanc, A. van den Hoek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739

5. QUARRIES AND GEOLOGY

Analysis and discrimination of Phrygian and other Pavonazzetto-like marbles, D. Atta-nasio, M. Bruno, W. Prochaska, A. B. Yavuz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753

Roman stone-carvers and re-carving: ingenuity in recycling, S. J. Barker, C. A. Ward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765

Can a fire broaden our understanding of a Roman quarry? The case of el Mèdol (Tarragona, Spain), A. Gutiérrez Garcia-M., S. Huelin, J. López Vilar, I. Rodà De Llanza . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779

The Roman marble quarries of Aliko Bay and of the islets of Rinia and Koulouri (Skyros,Greece), M. Karambinis, Lorenzo Lazzarini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791

The splendor of Andesite. quarrying and constructing in Larisa (Buruncuk) Aeolis, T. Sa-ner, U. Almaç . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805

Carving a corinthian capital. New technical aspects regarding the carving process, N. Toma . 811

New evidence on ancient quarrying activity at the Mani Peninsula, M.P. Tsouli . . . . . . . . . . 823

Ancient lithic naval cargos around Sicily, S. Tusa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

An unusual Roman stone cinerary urn from London, D.F. Williams, R. Hobbs . . . . . . . . . . 843

Presenting and interpreting the processes of stone carving: The Art Of Making In Anti-quity Project, W. Wooton, B. Russell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851

The Roman Mio-Pliocene underground quarries at Ksour Essaf (Tunisia), A. Younès, M.Gaied, W. Gallala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861

6. STONES PROPERTIES, WEATHERING EFFECTS AND RESTORATION

A strigilated sarcophagus in providence: ancient, modern or both?, G. E. Borromeo, M. B. Hollinshead, S.Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871

Art historical and scientific perspectives on the nature of the orange-red patina of theParthenon, O. Palagia, S. Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

7. PIGMENTS AND PAINTINGS ON MARBLE

The polychromy of Roman polished marble portraits, A. Skovmøller, R. H. Therkildsen . . 891

Some observations on the use of color on ancient sculpture, contemporary scientific explo-ration, and exhibition displays, J. Pollini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901

The Ulpia Domnina’s sarcophagus: preliminary report about the use of digital 3d model forthe study and reconstruction of the polychromy, E.Siotto, M. Callieri, M. Dellepiane, R.Scopigno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911

8. SPECIAL THEME SESSION: ORDERS, REPERTOIRES AND MEANING OF MARBLE WITHINTHE PUBLIC AND THE DOMESTIC CIRCLE FROM ANTIQUITY TILL POST-ANTIQUE TIME

Marbles from the theatre of Colonia Caesar Augusta (provincia Hispania Citerior),M. Beltrán, M. Cisneros, J. Á. Paz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923

INDEX

IX

Calculating the cost of columns: the case of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, P. Barresi . . . 933

The decorative stoneworks in the east and center of Roman Gaul: recent data of the ar-chaeological operations, V. Brunet-Gaston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941

Colored columns and cult of the emperors in Rome, B. Burrell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947

Roman sculpture in Pannonia between imports and local production, M. Buzov . . . . . . . . . 955

A New Julio-Claudian Statuary cycle from Copia Thurii. Brief remarks on quality andmethods of extraction and processing of marble used for the sculptures, A. D’Alessio . . . . 969

Stone in the decorative programs of Villa A (So-Called Villa Of Poppaea) at Oplontis, J. C. Fant, S. J. Barker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977

Stable isotope analysis of Torano valley, Carrara, marble used in 18th-century frenchsculpture, K. Holbrow, C. Hayward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987

Cassiodorus on marble, Y.A. Marano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997

Colored marbles of Diocletian’s Palace in Split, K. Marasovic, D. Matetic Poljak, Ð. Gobic Bravar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003

Fabri Luxuriae. Production and consumption of coloured stone vases in the Roman Period,S. Perna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021

Porphyry bathtubs in the sacred space, O. Senior-Niv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031

Mythological sculptures in late antique domus and villas: some examples from Italy,C. Sfameni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039

Architectural language and diffusion of decorative models: a group of unpublished figuredcapitals from Hierapolis in Phrygia, G. Sobrà . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049

INDEX

X

THE IMITATION OF COLOURED MARBLES IN A FIRST STYLE WALL PAINTINGFROM THE ETRUSCAN-ROMAN TOWN OF POPULONIA (LI – ITALY)

F. Cavari1, F. Droghini2, M. Giamello3, C. Mascione4, A. Scala5

1. University of Siena (Italy) - Dipartimento di Scienze Storiche e dei Beni Culturali, fernanda.cavari@unisi.it.2. University of Siena (Italy) - Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche della Terra e dell’Ambiente, U.R. Conservazione dei Beni Cultu-

rali, droghini@unisi.it.3. University of Siena (Italy) - Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche della Terra e dell’Ambiente, U.R. Conservazione dei Beni Cultu-

rali, marco.giamello@unisi.it.4. University of Siena (Italy) - Dipartimento di Scienze Storiche e dei Beni Culturali, cynthia.mascione@unisi.it.5. University of Siena (Italy) - Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche della Terra e dell’Ambiente, U.R. Conservazione dei Beni Cultu-

rali, andrea.scala@unisi.it.

AbstractRecently (2000-2004) a First Style wall painting (end of2nd century BC) was found in the Etruscan-Roman townof Populonia (LI – Italy). The richness and variety ofmarbling in the multicoloured courses of ashlar block-work are extremely interesting if compared to other con-temporary examples, up till now known, in Italy. Themarbling, especially for some types, resembles the realstones surprisingly, not only for the realistic pattern butalso for the accurate modelling, the colours tones andthe smoothing and shimmering gloss of the surface. Theplasterers and painters had a great technical skill that al-lowed to make a surface appearance very similar to realmarbles. The minero-petrographic analysis of the tecto-rium and pigments, carried out in order to identify theraw materials and the different painting techniquesused, have emphasized the great accuracy of the wallpainting.

KeywordsPopulonia, Roman wall painting, archaeometric analy-ses

Introduction

Populonia was the only Etruscan city founded alongthe coast (for the first phases of settlement: ACCONCIA

ET AL. 2007) and lies on the top of the northern part ofthe promontory, actually known as Piombino Promon-tory. This position was very strategic because it alloweda wide control of the productive neighbourhood withthe “Colline Metallifere” area (Campiglia Marittima)and of the northern coast with the islands, among whichthe Elba Island with its iron ores.

After a history of five centuries, during the first twodecades of 3th century BC Populonia – as well as manyother Etruscan cities – agreed upon an alliance with

Rome that, after the raid against Volterra (298 BC: Livio10.12.4) and the defeat of Roselle (294 BC: Liv. 10.37.1-12), finally extended its control upon northern Etruria.

We don't know specifically the dynamics of the Ro-manization process and above all we cannot value therole of the great Roman aristocratic families during theconquest action and later in the management of the civi-tas foederata economic activities, first of all in the ex-ploitation of mineral resources (MANACORDA 2006;CAMBI 2009, 224-228).

Indeed from the 3th century BC a renaissanceprocess of the city is evident through the great urbandevelopment attested within the acropolis area (AC-CONCIA, NIZZO 2009) as well as in the area out of thecity wall (BOTARELLI, DALLAI 2003, 241-243).

Furthermore from the end of 3th century BC the cen-tral part of the acropolis shows the accomplishment ofan extensive and important restructuring project (Fig.1). It concerned the construction of a sacred area withthree temples (ROMUALDI 2002; MASCIONE 2007; EAD.2008), placed in the valley between the two hillockswhere the city laid, as well as of infrastructures (pavedroads, canalizations and cisterns) linked to the urbaniza-tion of the southern hillock slope. During the secondhalf of the 2nd century BC in this area a domus with atri-um and alae (COCCOLUTO et al. 2008, 76-78) and a largebuilding known as “Le Logge” (still of dubious func-tion: MASCIONE 2005, 134-135) were built. Althoughonly a small part of “Le Logge” has been investigatedhigh quality mosaic floors (SHEPHERD 1999; MARRI

2005; GUALANDI, PATERA 2001; CAVARI 2007) and wallpaintings dating to the end of 2nd century BC have beenbrought to light showing the participation of particular-ly trained, probably foreign, craftsmen.

In these buildings it is possible to identify the prop-erty or the patronage of a Roman aristocratic family, theAemilii Paapi, for the presence of tile sherds, with thestamp PAAPI, in the area (MANACORDA 2005).

During recent excavations (2000-2004) carried outin the acropolis area a First Style or Masonry Style walldecoration was brought to light in the building “LeLogge”. The upper terrace of the building was support-ed on the northern side by a monumental wall withblinded arches and by a large room accessible from thelower terrace. Excavations brought to light the collapseof a room situated on the upper terrace The decoration,situated in a sort of “loggiato”, date to the last quarterof the 2nd century BC (Fig. 2). The fragments belong to

a rich and complex decorative system in which plasterreliefs imitate stone masonry and architectural featuresof monumental structures (CAVARI 2006; DONATI,CAVARI, 2007).

The surfaces of the plaster imitation blocks, or-thostates and the isodomic zone, are painted to resem-ble different types of monochrome and colourfullyveined or mottled stones. The richness and variety ofmarbling in the multicoloured courses of ashlar block-work are extremely interesting if compared to other

THE IMITATION OF COLOURED MARBLES IN A FIRST STYLE WALL PAINTING

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Fig. 1. The excavated area of Populonia Acropolis: reconstructive sketch of the buildings (InkLink-Firenze).

contemporary examples discovered up till now in Italy.About twenty lithotypes are painted (Fig. 3): amongthese are different types of Alabaster (e.g. Lapis onyx,Alabastro Fiorito), four kinds of multicoloured Brecce(e.g. Breccia frutticolosa, Breccia Pavonazza) and otherwell recognizable “marbles” (e.g. Marmor Carystium,Marmor Iassense, Marmor Sagarium). The illusionisticeffect was completed by architectural elements such asdentil cornices and a row of half columns in the upperzone, simulating a real white marble open gallery. A cof-fered ceiling, modelled on a false vault, completed thedecoration imitating a real coffered white marble ceilingwith grooves painted in red.

The preference for eastern and Greek marbles,which could really deceive the observer due to their richand shiny appearance, indicates a clear reference to theroyal Hellenistic palaces as an exhibition of luxury andpower. The marbling, especially certain types, resemblesextraordinarily the real stones, not only for the realisticpattern but also for the accurate modelling, the colourtones and the smoothing and shimmering gloss of thesurface.

The parallels are mostly with the eastern Mediter-ranean style, for instance in Delo, Cnido, Erythrai (BU-LARD 1908, 52-53; LOVE 1972; BINGOL 1988; AUBERT,ERISTOV 2001, 211-214); in Italy the closest parallel is

the “Casa del Fauno” in Pompei (ZEVI 1996, 37-47). Wecan assume that the artisans painting in Populonia wereeither trained in the east or, alternatively, that the paint-ing was carried out by eastern artists.

The macroscopical analysis indicates that the opuscraticium or mud bricks walls were first prepared withan adobe coat. To this layer, a coarse plaster based onlime and siliceous aggregate was applied. In the soclearea pottery sherds can be observed so that the layer ismuch thicker. The last finishing coat, white and ex-tremely hard, according to the macroscopical observa-tion, was based on lime and an aggregate characterizedby transparent crystals: the transparency and granulom-etry of these crystals indicate likely the probably use ofcrushed vein sparry calcite. Similar compositions andstrata characterise also the architectural elements, cor-nices, half columns etc.

Aim of the research

The technical aspects are of extreme importance tocreate a surface appearance very similar to real “mar-bles” and to allow the polishing of wall painting to amirror-like appearance as Vitruvius has described (Vitr.VII, 3).

F. CAVARI, F. DROGHINI, M. GIAMELLO, C. MASCIONE, A. SCALA

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Fig. 2. Graphical reconstruction of the “loggiato” decoration (G. Grassi, R. Spina, E. Vattimo).

The aim of this work was to examine wall plaster andpigments samples in order to identify the composition ofmaterials, the painting technique and the procedure usedto obtain such a polished surface; the plaster compositionand structure such as the pigments and their method ofapplication deeply influenced the final polishing opera-tion. Moreover the chemical composition of both pig-ment and substrate is responsible for the final aspect.

Particularly interesting was to verify the presence ofvein sparry calcite, clearly indicated by Vitruvius as themost suitable material for the last layers. In Vitruvius’text a precise recommendation to use marble dust onlyif it is impossible to find vein calcite is made: Marmornon eodem genere omnibus regionibus procreatur sedquibusdam locis glaebae ut salis micas perlucidas habentesnascuntur... (Vitr. VII, 6). The use of vein sparry calcite,not easily available everywhere, is quite interesting: it in-dicates a precise technological choice that can be referedto highly specialized craftsmen, to a chronological peri-od or to a specific geographical area. Vein sparry calcitein the plaster finish appears to be used both in theGreek and Roman world (BARBET 1995, 62; BIANCHETTI

et al. 1990; CALIA, GIANNOTTA 2005, 277; DANIELE,GRATZIU 1996; GIANNOTTA, QUARTA 2005, 287; IID.2007, 43; MARCHI, CATALLI 2008; MEUCCI 1995, 312)but lack of information with the lack of a coherent ter-minology prevent knowing its real diffusion and makingprecise conclusions.

Another matter was the presence of yellow or redochre ground under the cinnabar layer (Fig. 4), macro-scopically detected and often mentioned in literature(BEARAT 1997, 30; BARBET 1990, 257-260; BARBET 1995,73; CAVARI 2008, 258; DAVEY, LING 1982, 62) but notexplained and studied thoroughly.

Sampling and methods

About thirty painting fragments, considered repre-sentative of the various marbling typologies of the“Logge”, have been studied together with ten mortarsamples, in turn representative of the complete stratig-raphy, from the plaster substrate to the pictorial film.

The micro-samples were analyzed by polarized lightmicroscopy in thin cross-sections, in both transmittedand reflected light, in order to reconstruct the pictorialfilm stratigraphic sequence, the pigments and bindersnature as well as the composition and preparation tech-niques of the plaster substrate. Optical microscopyanalysis allows to establish the painting techniques too,analyzing the relationship between pictorial levels andplaster substrate.

As a standard procedure, XRD analyses were alsoperformed on each sample, both directly on the frag-ment and on powder gently scraped from it. Theseanalyses were carried out with a Philips X'Pert PRO

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Fig. 3. Examples of different kinds of marblings.

PW 3040 diffractometer (Bragg-Brentano geometry)operating at 40 kV and 40 mA, equipped with a post-diffraction monochromator and PW3015 X'Celeratordetector, using CuK radiation in the 5-70° 2 range witha scan speed of 1,6° per min.

Moreover, SEM-EDS analyses, using a Philips XL20electron microscope operating at 20 kV accelerationvoltage and equipped with an EDAX DX4 energy dis-persive spectrometer, were carried out to confirm andsupplement the optical and diffractometric data. SEManalyses were performed directly on thin sections cov-ered by a light carbon film.

Only the combination of all these analytical data of-fers a sufficiently detailed characterization of the filmand a reconstruction of the complex microstratigraphy.

Results

In this section the mineralogical and petrographicanalyses results, both as regards the pictorial film andthe underlying plaster substrate, are reported.

The supporting plaster

The supporting plaster is arranged in three differentstrata. The deepest one (Fig. 5A) lays on a reddish-brown adobe plaster and is constituted by a lime mortarwith sandy aggregate (rather sorted and rounded) char-acterized by an 1/1 binder/aggregate ratio. The secondstratum (Fig. 5B) is again a lime mortar but the aggre-

F. CAVARI, F. DROGHINI, M. GIAMELLO, C. MASCIONE, A. SCALA

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Fig. 4. Double drafted panel of the wall decoration main zone painted with cinnabar above a layer of red ochre. The suface is ex-tremely smooth and shiny.

Fig. 5. A - Lime mortar with sandy aggregate (rather sortedand rounded) characterized by an 1/1 binder/aggregate ratio.B - Lime mortar with an aggregate prevalently represented bysparry calcite coarse fragments with minor grains derived bythe underlying mortar level. The binder/aggregate ratio is 1/1. C - Lime mortar with an aggregate exclusively represented bysub-angular sparry calcite fragments (derived from vein calcitegrinding) scarcely sorted. The binder/aggregate ratio of 1/2.All the three images are in trasmitted light with crossed polars.

gate is here prevalently represented by sparry calcitecoarse fragments with a less sandy aggregate of the pre-vious layer. The aggregate is scarcely sorted and preva-lently sub-angular (binder/aggregate ratio is 1/1). Thethird stratum (Fig. 5C), on which the pictorial film is ap-plied, is still a lime mortar. Here the aggregate is exclu-sively represented by sub-angular sparry calcite frag-ments (derived from vein calcite grinding), scarcelysorted, with binder/aggregate ratio of 1/2.

The pictorial film

The pictorial film is applied on finished plaster bothby fresco and secco painting techniques. The pigmentsare the following: red and yellow ochres, cinnabar, greenearth, carbon black, lampblack and lime white. All thesewere used as pure pigments or mixed with calcium car-bonate to vary the colour tonality and intensity. For in-

stance cinnabar is always mixed with lime white (Fig.6A) in order to obtain a pale brilliant red. Green earth(celadonite), as well as cinnabar, is never pure butmixed with lime white (Fig. 6B) to obtain a light green.Red (hematite) and yellow ochres (goethite) are used aspure pigments in the fresco paintings (Figs. 6A,C) whendeep red and yellow tones are needed; they are mixedwith lime white when paler tones are required. Similarlypure carbon black is used in fresco for black whereaslampblack with lime white is used for grey (Fig. 6C).

It is interesting to note that in some cases kaolin, inglobular shapes, has been found in red and yellow ochresas well as in some cinnabar strata (Fig. 6A, c level).

Furthermore cinnabar is never directly applied onthe underlying plaster but always on a red or yellowochres level (Fig. 6A).

The results also indicate that monochrome (red, yel-low and orange) panels and orthostates show always,above the last stratum of the plaster (Fig. 5C), another

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60

Fig. 6. A - a) Lime mortar with an aggregate exclusively constituted by sparry calcite fragments; b) lime white level; c) yellow ochreslevel with kaolin (fresco); d) cinnabar and lime white level. Dark-field reflected light, with a white paper under the thin section.B - a) Lime mortar with an aggregate exclusively constituted by sparry calcite fragments; b) green earth and lime white level with mi-nor brownish-orange ochres and carbon black; c) lime white level. Transmitted light, one nicol.C - a) Lime mortar with an aggregate exclusively constituted by sparry calcite fragments; b) red ochres level (fresco); c) lampblackwith lime white level. Dark-field reflected light, with a white paper under the thin section.D - a) Lime mortar with an aggregate exclusively constituted by sparry calcite fragments; b) plaster layer with and aggregate of spar-ry calcite grains coloured by abundant red ochres. Trasmitted light with crossed polars.

plaster layer (Fig. 6D) with a sparry calcite aggregate. Itsgranulometry is minor compared to the underlying plas-ter aggregate but equally derived from vein calcitegrinding. This stratum is coloured by abundant red, yel-low or mixed ochres and it is sometimes overlapped bya further level of cinnabar or of red and yellow ochres.

Concluding remarks

The analyses have emphasized the great accuracy ofthe wall painting: to the high quality compositionscheme corresponds a remarkable technology. The plas-terers and painters were of a great technical skill that al-lowed to create a surface appearance very similar to realmarbles. Confirmation was provided that the aggregateused for the finishing layer is composed of crushed veinsparry calcite. The crystals, obtained by grinding veincalcite, due to their romboedric structure and trans-parency, contributed probably much more than marbledust to the polishing and to enhancing the colour of theupper pictorial layer. Generally the selection of the ag-gregates to use was influenced by the local resources: inthis case marble outcrops are located in Populonia hin-terland (Campiglia Marittima) that were surely exploit-ed during the Etruscan-Roman period (CAVARI et al.2012). Therefore marble aggregate it was easily avail-able. In spite of this vein sparry calcite was used as ag-gregate for the upper plaster layers. It is worth noticingthat next to one of the exploited quarries (Campo alleBuche) there is a karstic cave (Buca delle Capre) withhuge calcite flows: exploitation marks can be observedon its walls. In the same cave are present red and yellowochres deposits too. We can assume that probably thecave was well known at that time and exploited for theraw wall painting materials. This confirm that the use ofvein sparry calcite was a precise technological choice toachieve requested properties.

The colours are applied by fresco and secco tech-niques: the ground colours are always in the frescopainting technique while lime served as a binding medi-um for the superimposed decoration as the marbleveins (secco technique). The smoothing and shimmeringgloss of the painted surface is the result of repeated pol-ishings according to Vitruvius (VII,3: ...coloribus cumexpolitionibus inductis...), aided by the combined use ofvein sparry calcite and clay based pigments which givesthe greasy unctuous appearance to the surface. Thecolours, such as cinnabar, which does not have a clayeycharacter, acquire probably the same properties of be-ing polished with the addition of kaolin and with theunderlying layer of red and yellow ochre. The polishingwas obtained by the use of liacula, probably metal orwood tools and finally with wool cloth (MORA, MORA,PHILIPPOT 1984, 91-94). In relation to this, it is worthnoticing, in some cases, the use of mixing pigments (redand yellow ochres) with a plaster made of slaked limemixed with vein sparry calcite, similar to the last layerof rendering but finer in texture, to paint the mono-

chrome marbled slabs. This method, allowing the crys-tals to glimmer against the coloured ground and en-hancing the shimmering gloss of the surface, facilitatedthe polishing. This technique may be observed, for in-stance, in Masonry Style painting from House of theComedians at Delos (2nd century BC): the painting pres-ents an highly sophisticated plaster application consist-ing in five different layers and the pigments, usually redor yellow ochre, are incorporated in the uppermost lay-er composed of lime and marble aggregate (KAKOULLI

2009, 33). The pigments used in Populonia wall-painting rep-

resent the typical constituents of the Greek and Romanpainters’ palette: both common pigments (yellow andred ochres are considered the commonest ones of theancient world) and rare and expensive (cinnabar is oneof the most precious) were observed. Finally, it is worthunderlining that the stucco works (i.e. architectural ele-ments), imitating white marble, employed the same ma-terials and techniques.

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THE IMITATION OF COLOURED MARBLES IN A FIRST STYLE WALL PAINTING

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