THE FACTORS INFLUENCING EFFECTIVE PIT LATRINE USAGE AMONG THE

HOUSEHOLDS IN WALUKUBA MASESE DIVISION JINJA MUNICIPALITY

MUTAGWANYA TAHIR

REG NO: 09/U/14082/EXTs

A Dissertation submitted to the Department of School of Education and External Studies as

a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Award of Diploma in Youth in Development

Work of Makerere University.

December 2011

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DECLARATION

I Mutagwanya Tahir declare that this dissertation is my original work and that to the best of my

knowledge, no similar study has been conducted nor has the same report ever been presented to

another university for the award of a Diploma in Youth in Development Work.

Mutagwanya Tahir

Signature ………………………………….. Date ……………………………………..

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APPROVAL

This dissertation entitled the factors influencing effective pit latrine usage among the households

in walukuba masese division jinja municipality was undertaken with my supervision and is now

ready for submission to Makerere University Kampala with my approval as the supervisor.

Dr. Ezati Betty

Signature …………………………………… Date ………………………………………

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DEDICATION

I earnestly dedicate this dissertation to my dear parents Mr. and Mrs. Bogere Idd

Mutagwanya Tahir

Signature …………………………………….. Date ………………………………..

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I humbly extend my utmost appreciation to my parents, brothers, sisters, relatives and mainly Dr.

Ezati Betty for his parental and friendly guidance. I further wish to greatly thank my course

mates Rebecca, Molly, Nkwangu, Seezi and the CYP co-coordinator for all the efforts they put in

to ensure that I was updated on any information that concerned my course. my brothers Jamada

kaggwa, Eddy Mutebi, Ojulu Daniel Abdu kiwanuka, sisters Zuma, Pavine and my uncles Agaba

James, Badda Hussein, Jamada Kaggwa, Male willam Kayiwa. These supplied me with a

fountain of inspiration to complete this precious project. Your contribution both spiritually,

morally and financially shall eternally be in my memory. May God reward you abundantly.

Mutagwanya Tahir

Signature …………………………………….. Date ………………………………..

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TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... I

APPROVAL ............................................................................................................................. II

DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................ III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................... IV

TABLE OF CONTENT ........................................................................................................... V

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ VII

LIST OF FIGUES ................................................................................................................. VII

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................ IX

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................1

1.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................1

1.2 Background ...........................................................................................................................1

1.2.1 Conceptual background ......................................................................................................1

1.2.2 Contextual background .......................................................................................................2

1.3 Problem statement .................................................................................................................4

1.4 Objective of the study ............................................................................................................5

1.4.1 General objective ................................................................................................................5

1.4.2 Specific objectives ..............................................................................................................5

1.5 Research questions ................................................................................................................5

1.6 Scope of the study .................................................................................................................5

1.7 Significance of the study .......................................................................................................6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................7

2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................7

2.2 The factors leading to effective usage of pit latrines ..............................................................7

2.3 The factors leading to more use of pit latrine .........................................................................7

2.4 The measures that can be adopted to improve latrine usage ................................................. 10

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 13

3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 13

3.2 Research design ................................................................................................................... 13

3.3 Study area and scope sample population and study area ....................................................... 13

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3.4 Sample population/sample size ............................................................................................ 13

3.5 Sampling selection techniques ............................................................................................. 14

3.6 Data collection procedure .................................................................................................... 14

3. 7 Data presentation and analysis ............................................................................................ 15

3.8 Ethical consideration ........................................................................................................... 15

3.9 Study limitations ................................................................................................................. 15

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, DISCUSSION, INTERPRETATION AND

ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................................. 16

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 16

4.2 presentation of the findings about the bio data ..................................................................... 16

4.2.1 Presentation of the findings about the sex of respondents .................................................. 16

4.2.2 Origin (People living more than five years in the area) ..................................................... 17

4.2.3 Education levels ............................................................................................................... 17

4.2.4 Marital status. ................................................................................................................... 18

4.2.5 Age group of the respondents ........................................................................................... 19

4.2.6 Occupation of the respondents .......................................................................................... 20

4.3 Research question 1: What are the percentages of household with pit latrines in

WALUKUBA? ......................................................................................................................... 20

4.4 Research question 2: What are the factors leading to more use of pit latrine? ....................... 23

4.5 Research question 3: What measure can be adopted to improve latrine usage at Masese

landing site? .............................................................................................................................. 24

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND

CONCULSION ....................................................................................................................... 26

5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 26

5.2 Summary of the findings ..................................................................................................... 26

5.3 Observation ......................................................................................................................... 28

5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 29

5.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 29

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 31

APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 33

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

WHO world health organization

UNICEF United Nations Children‟s Educational Fund

UN united nations

MDG millennium development goal

JMC Jinja municipal council

DHE District health educators

NGOS Non government organizations

GOU Government of Uganda

CSOS Civil society organizations

FRESH Focusing resource on effective school health

UNESCO United nation educational scientific and cultural organization

HECA Healthy environments for children

PRA Participatory rural appraisal

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: categories of respondent……………………………………………………………...13

LIST OF FIGUES

Fig 1: Sex of respondents……………………………………………………………………….16

Fig 2: Origin (people living more than five years in the area)………………………………….17

Fig 3: Education level of the respondent……………………………………………………….18

Fig 4: Marital status of respondents……………………………………………………………19

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Fig 5: Age group of the respondents…………………………………………………………...19

Fig 6: Occupation of the respondents………………………………………………………….20

Fig 7: Reasons for lack of pit latrines………………………………………………………….21

Fig 8: The percentage of households with pit latrine………………………………………….22

Fig 9: Reasons why pit latrines are used by many…………………………………………….23

Fig 10: The measures taken to improve sanitation/hygiene…………………………………..24

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ABSTRACT

The respondents who were involved in the study were of two major categories, others were the

real natives of the place (soga) who dominated the study while their counterparts were migrants

or people who came to look for in the area but were not real borne of the place such as the Alur,

Gandas, Acholis among others, the factors leading to ineffective pit latrine usage, it was realized

that the factors influencing pit latrine usage in Walukuba Masese division as majorly caused by

lack of land or space to construct the pit latrine due to population in the area and also the way the

land was segmented into smaller pieces with no room for the pit latrine.

The research findings had shown that factors leading to ineffective pit latrine usage majorly

most commonly identified reasons among the households was the high cost, followed by „use

public latrines‟, „lack of space‟, and „difficult to operate and maintain, cultural issues among

others.

The researcher had conducted a study on the benefits of hygiene and sanitation on the

development of Walukuba Masese division households in Jinja. On economic front, after a

thorough and deep analysis the researcher found that majority of households in Masese lack

awareness about the health value of hygiene and sanitation. This could suggest that such

respondents either did not go to school most of which teach children about basic hygiene and

sanitation or have never had the opportunity to attend sensitization workshops where residents

are sensitized about the importance of using pit latrines. On the other hand, the social impacts of

the poor hygiene and sanitation has hindered countless development projects and NGOs, and

impacted negatively on the ability of the people to have a decent life.

To smaller extent the researcher disagrees with the Tadora‟s economic theory which urges that

poverty limits the spread of latrine most especially among the peasant economy. In Uganda it has

been proved right that in urban centres people lack toilets or where to easy themselves and to that

effect they scatter faeces everywhere thus cholera outbreaks every year than in rural.

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the researcher will cover the background information to the study, problem

statement, General objectives, specific objectives, and research questions, significance of the

study and the scope of the study.

1.2 Background

The background to the study will be divided into four major sub themes i.e. the conceptual,

theoretical, historical and contextual backgrounds as explained below:

Proper hygiene and sanitation is very important for the overall development of the people of

Uganda. That is the main reason why there has been policies and laws put by the government to

ensure that every individual has access to safe water and proper sanitation. Chapter 3, Article 17

(j) of the 1995 Constitution of the Republic of Uganda provides for the creation and protection of

a clean and healthy environment for the enjoyment of life. (1995 Constitution)

Public Health Act places this obligation on the shoulders of every citizen to have access to a

latrine or toilet at home as well as demanding that all places of work be availed with latrines

where workers and visitors can safely dispose of human waste. (Public Health Act (1964)

Access to sanitation facilities like pit latrines is bound to have significant positive results on the

health of societies. This vision is the reason behind the Millennium Development Goal (MDG)

which urges every country to achieve provision of safe water and sanitation for its people by the

year 2015. Increased use of pit latrines would, for example, reduce resources wastage on the

provision of medical services to cure diseases that would have been caused by living unhygienic

sanitary environments. (UN 2000)

1.2.1 Conceptual background

The following terms and concepts which are used in the study have the following meaning and

context:

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Pit latrines: A latrine (from Latin lavational meaning bath) is a communal space with multiple

toilets, or a single standalone apparatus that is designed for defecation and urination. These are

structures in which people defecate or deposit human excrete. The common type comprises of a

man –dug pit, several feet walled structure with a roof is erected over the covered pit. Every

household normally has its own pit latrine in a corner of a homestead. The pit latrine in this study

is the traditional one that does not use the water flush system.

Sanitation: UNICEF defines sanitation as a process where people themselves through erection

of barriers that prevent disease transmission such as building, use and maintenance of latrines

and other sanitary facilities, and safe management of solid and liquid waste disposal considering

learning, behavior change, organization and collective action with other community members.

(1997)

Hygiene: According to the World Health Organization hygiene is defined as conditions or

practices that serve to promote and preserve health. Such practices include regular bathing, skin

care, Medicare, use of antiseptics in cleaning, washing hands, tooth brushing and caring for one‟s

finger and toe nails. (WHO 2007),

Traditional cultural beliefs: These are the beliefs that members of a traditional society may

hold as true although they have not been proved scientifically. They are also known as

superstitions and are transmitted from one generation to the next through the socialization

process. An example of a traditional cultural belief among many African societies is that when a

pregnant woman uses a pit latrine, she will suffer a miscarriage.

Lack of awareness: this is a situation where a person or a group of people do not have sufficient

knowledge about an issue and its importance yet the ideal situation would have demanded that

they know. An example of lack of awareness is when some people do not know defecating in an

open can lead to spread of water-borne diseases. Awareness is created through reading written

literature or through sensitization campaign.

1.2.2 Contextual background

Masese landing site started as a small fishing bush outlet to the lake situated on a peninsula on

Lake Victoria owned orignally by a Muganda known as Eriya Sufa Kasirye in 1930s. He died at

3

the age of 79 years and was buried in Bugiri. Between 1942 and 1950 it was under the control of

the local administration, in 1962 the minister of animals and fisheries took over control of

Masese landing site and finally ever since 1996 it has been under the control of Jinja

municipality. Jinja Municipality inspectorate department reported that Masese village land at

first was owned by few individuals who later had to sell small plots to individuals without

putting in mind space for the toilets. Currently the area is densely populated with an average

population of 12,914 people with no room to construct the public toilet. The area has only two

pay toilet which is only accessible during the day. This toilet was entirely constructed for the

people working at the landing site. (JMC 2007)

Because of its unique location, Masese has grown into a convenient position from where fishing

canoes and boats set off into the lake to catch fish and later return to offload their catch. So the

majority of the residents are fishermen but there are also a significant number of other people

who are engaged in activities that support the fishing industry such as selling food, lodges and

other essential items, brewing and selling alcohol.

Most of the population of the village live in temporary grass-thatched or iron-roofed shacks most

of which are also temporary or semi-permanent and are built close to one another without

adequate physical planning. A fish processing factory, Oil processing factory (BDICO) and a

housing estate are some of the developments that have taken place on a peninsular recently.

There is a nearby school and a health centre but generally the area lacks development and a

majority of households depend directly or indirectly on fishing activities.

According to an assessment on landing sites in Jinja district Uganda by Dominic Thomas, (2007)

Masese fish landing site is highly populated and very busy with a lot of economic activities and

settlements. Masese Landing Site (Kibuga Mbata) population is 12,914 people of which 72% are

40 years and below. It has almost 3,932 households and has an adult to children ratio of 1:4.

Economic activities include fishing, charcoal burning/vending, selling crude alcohol, small retail

shops and so many small businesses. Agricultural is practiced on a small scale. Most families are

big and nuclear, and live in congested semi permanent and make shift houses. Poverty is a wide

spread and several children experience malnutrition since their families mainly depend on

subsistence.

4

In this landing site latrine coverage, sanitation and hygiene practices were very poor. There is

low usage of the latrine with arrange of 50- 0% but lower in some areas

According to Dominic‟s (2009) study of 96 randomly selected households in (2008) in four fish

landing sites showed that Rippon and Masese fish landing sites had one (two stance) public toilet

each despite the high populations. Only 19.8% of respondents in Masese landing site had latrines

in their households. Wanyange fish landing site had two (2 stance) public traditional latrines and

one (two stance) Ecological Sanitation latrine (Ibid).

There is poor rubbish disposal by the people; most times people dispose their rubbish, feaces and

urine in the lake and around the environment making it dirty which is dangerous to their health.

In fact it was reported that cholera had attached the area in 2007.

Pit latrines constructed by government have to be paid for, most of the residents dodge that, Poor

drainage channels filled up with smelling water and remains from the brewing of crude waragi

small factories scattered all over the places. It is believed that at night people pour out human

feaces in these drainage channels making the place to smell throughout the year. When it rains,

the community members use this chance to throw out anything in the drainage system including

rubbish, empty their sewage and urinals. (ibid)

The area was surveyed in 2008 and was recommended for the construction of high class houses.

This requires the developers to compensate the current sitting tenants or the municipality to

reallocate them. (ibid)

1.3 Problem statement

Basing on the District Health Educators report, it was revealed that Masese-Walukuba Division

there are 10,000 households out of whom only 4000 have got pit latrines and 200 have got flash

toilets and about 5800 households have no clear site where they deposit or assist themselves

from.(DHE 2009)

5

Dr. Kabugo (2005) “Participatory methods in evaluation of sanitation projects” indicated that

fishing communities around Lake Kyoga in Katakwi and Soroti are served by either one or two

pit latrine for hundreds of residents. Other residents go to the bushes to defecate. There are

reports that fishermen excrete in water during darkness as they go to spread their nets in the

night.

it is upon such a background therefore that the researcher picked interest to investigate whether

the toilets are effectively and also to examine the factors that influence pit latrine use among the

residents of Masese fish – landing site in Jinja – municipality.

1.4 Objective of the study

1.4.1 General Objective

The general objective of this study is to examine the use of pit latrines among households in

Masese fish- landing village and the factors that could be influencing their use.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study are to:

Find out percentage of the households who have pit latrines in their compounds.

Investigate the factors leading to more use of pit latrine.

Examine the measures that can be adopted to improve latrine usage

1.5 Research Questions

What are the percentages of the households with pit latrines in their compounds?

What are the factors leading to more use of pit latrine?

What measures can be adopted to improve latrine usage at Masese landing site?

1.6 Scope of the study

Masese is large Peri-Urban settlement divided into villages. This study will cover the areas of

Masese but concentrated on the part that is occupied by the residents who are directly or

indirectly participating in fishing activity on Lake Victoria. It is the village settlement actually

located on the immediate shores of lake.

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The study will not cover all aspects of hygiene and sanitation among the households in the study

area. The main emphasis of study is the use of pit latrines as part of hygiene.

1.7 Significance of the study

The researcher hoped that the study would provide information that would help stakeholders in

hygiene and sanitation to have a better understanding of the seriousness of the problem regarding

the low usage of pit latrines not only at Masese but in other similar fishing settlement in Uganda.

The result of the study should provide the data that would be used by government departments,

NGOs and the local community who are trying to improve the hygiene and sanitation conditions

of the villagers.

The results of the study would also enable community development workers working in the field

of rural and per-urban hygiene and sanitation projects to compare the situation in Masese with

that in other similar settlements where research has been done.

The research was carried out between the periods of November 2010 to March 2011

respectively.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the researcher will review the conceptual framework, theoretical frame work and

literature review about each specific objective of the study as revealed in details below, the

literature related to the different variables of study.

2.2 The factors leading to effective usage of pit latrines

According to Tadora (1999) urges that pit latrines are effectively used because they are cost

friendly and match with the standard of living of the majority poor in the community.

However to a smaller extent Tadora‟s argument does not hold water especially in a wrong run as

pit latrine becomes expensive in digging new stanzas, construction new wall blocks and spoiling

land with so many pit holes on top of over polluting the environment which forces the users to

spend daily on treatment due to diarrhea and such other diseases.

The researcher also reviewed the development theories of Sodora (2001) who urged out that in a

growing society where the majority of the people are still poor but sensitized the need for use of

toilets, pit latrines are more effectively recommended.

This is also in the line with the ministry of water and natural mineral resources because often

people dig pit latrine deep and affect water table in the area which affects the health of residents.

This was backed by the ministry of health Malinga (2008).

2.3 The factors leading to more use of pit latrine

There are several reasons for non-adoption of latrines. The most common are related to poverty,

socio-cultural issues, and technical difficulties. The most commonly identified reason for the

lack of a household toilet was the high cost, followed by „use public latrines‟, „lack of space‟,

and „difficult to operate and maintain‟ (Cotton, 1998).

Tadora‟s (1999) urges that Poverty and indebtedness limit the spread of latrine coverage. Poor

people surviving on subsistence incomes inhabit the majority of areas where latrine adoption has

been promoted. At this level of poverty, income is primarily spent on food and goods, with

other items given low priority.

8

There is evidence to show the people who are likely to lack access to proper sanitation are those

with low incomes which limit their capacity to erect and maintain sanitary facilities. According

to Falkner (1996) besides sanitation occupying a position of low priority, high prices are

responsible for many poor people not having latrines or toilets. The literature suggests that low

levels of income have contributed to poor sanitation.

Furthermore the researcher reviewed cotton‟s argument (1998) that the high cost of living also

limits latrine usage among the community members.

The researcher to same extent would like to disagree with the cotton‟s argument that the high

cost limits latrine usage because first of all it may be difficult for peasant to understand what is

considered high cost‟ in a developing country. It is often useful to consider the cost of latrines as

a proportionate of the household income.

William (1998) who urges that the concept of dirty and clean can vary from culture to culture

Latrines themselves may be viewed as dirty and evil places. It may be considered more sanitary

to defecate in the fields away from the house. Existing traditions and beliefs also play a part in

the reception of latrines. It is difficult to change long ingrained behaviors dictating defecation

practices and without proper reinforcing people will revert to old habits.

Johnson‟s theory also forgot that there other factors which can also limits the latrine usage for

example, some cultures religious beliefs may influence latrine use as well. A latrine construction

project in India placed the toilets in the northeast corner of the plot. According to the local Hindi

belief this is an inauspicious location to place a toilet, so the people refused to use them (Cotton,

1998).

There are several cultural beliefs that discourage not only the construction of pit latrines but also

their use. Cultural beliefs are instilled into individual members of society through the process of

socialization whereby elders teach the young about the right and wrongs of their social

groupings. These beliefs are reinforced throughout one‟s life but can also be undone through

deliberate sensitization.

Johnson (2010) argues that some reasons for non usage of latrines are non explainable

scientifically for example in northern Uganda, a woman who has never given birth is not allowed

9

to use a pit latrine because it is believed that the latrine „spoils the woman‟s eggs‟. Similarly,

Sanneh (1989) also found that expectant mothers who are due to deliver do not use latrines for

fear of their babies falling into latrine while she is squatting.

Gender issues are an important consideration in sanitation projects. In many cultures women

need separate facilities from the men. This may be especially important for menstruating

women. Women often require more privacy and will boycott facilities that they feel give

inadequate protection.

Another frequent barrier to latrine adoption is difficulties in operation and maintenance. Odor

and insect problems are often quoted as deterrents to use, the largest numbers of maintenance

problems are related to emptying. Emptying may require extra costs that are difficult for

families to afford. There are also concerns with hygiene during emptying and the frequency with

which it must be done.

Lack of space for latrine construction may be a concern in urban areas, but studies have not

shown a link between plot size and the absence of a latrine (Cotton, 1998).

In a survey done in Nakasongola, one of the rural districts of Uganda, Kayise (2003) found that

the level of awareness regarding the importance of erecting and using pit latrines is very high. He

found that some heads of households and other adults in it just did not know what to do how to

build a latrine or anything regarding the health benefits of proper hygiene. They could not even

tell the recommended sizes for a pit latrine or what kinds of materials were required. The study

concluded that a low level of awareness was particularly rampant among those household heads

that had lived the whole of their lives in situations where pit latrines were not being used.

Similar results were described by Hillary (1982) who declared that many people, especially the

rural poor, do not have the knowledge of hygiene practices which includes the construction and

use of pit latrines. This according t o him, has created a major obstacle to latrine construction in

the construct latrines neither do they have knowledge about the valves of proper disposal of

human waste.

Lanton (2005) is of the opinion that people and communities are less aware of positive

relationship between sanitation and health than that between clean water and health. This

10

widespread lack of awareness can generally be attributed to use of ineffective hygiene and

sanitation promotion strategies by government and civil society organizations (CSOs) extension

workers.

NAMA (1996) cities three major factors inhibiting social progress: ignorance, poverty and

disease. It argues that by scaling down the level of ignorance, it is possible to reduce the level of

disease and poverty.

NAMA (1996) recommends that significant development gains can be made by pursuing

widespread education both as a means towards development because it is a critical factor in

determining access to formal employment, household livelihood and well-being of women,

adolescents and children. Besides, education is also instrumental in influencing adaptation and

attitudes.

2.4 The measures that can be adopted to improve latrine usage

According to The World Health Organization 2007,”measures to improve Hygiene and sanitation

practices”, 1.1 billion people worldwide lack access to a potable water supply; and that 1.8

million people die every year from diarrheal diseases. The WHO estimates that 94% of these

deaths could be prevented by improved water supply and storage and improved sanitation and

hygiene practices. (WHO 2007)

No single measure would do more to reduce disease and save lives in the developing world than

bringing safe water and adequate sanitation to all”. Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General (1997-

2006)

It was importation that measures like sensitization on primary Health Care, investment in

projects on water and sanitation, empower the poor households most especially the youth and

women, built more public toilets, improve on cesspool and sewerage treatment plants be

undertaken.

Well-designed education programmes to demonstrate the link between sanitation, hygiene, health

and economic development can contribute to increasing demand for improved sanitation.

Hygiene promotion campaigns are most effective among younger populations, and students can

be targeted both as beneficiaries and as agents of behavioral change within their families and

11

their communities. Hygiene education should be included in school curricula, together with the

provision and maintenance of sanitation facilities at school premises. These are essential

elements of marketing campaigns in schools.

Providing separate sanitation facilities at schools for boys and girls can help to keep girls in

school longer. The long-term benefits of education – especially for women – are well

understood. Educated mothers are more likely to adopt healthy hygiene and sanitation behaviors

– and consequently have lower infant mortality rates in their households.

The increased interest in water, sanitation and hygiene in schools to contribute to a safe and

healthy learning environment is a positive development. Special steps must be taken to accelerate

and coordinate progress on water, sanitation and hygiene programmes in schools.

Ministry of education and sports would invest in sanitation in schools; pay for training of

teachers to deliver effective hygiene education; create incentives for schools to do more in-

house; fund national education and awareness campaigns aimed at children and young people;

and create legislation to require schools to provide separate toilet facilities for boys and girls.

Jinja Municipal Council Authorities (2010) would invest in sanitation in schools; find ways to

use the expertise of health and infrastructure professionals in the education department; and

create incentives for schools and teachers who improve sanitation access or deliver effective

hygiene promotion.

Communities and civil society would actively support schools in their efforts to improve

sanitation and hygiene; campaign for more public funds for sanitation and hygiene promotion;

create connections between social organizations focusing on youth and those that focus on

health; and endorse and further reinforce hygiene messages delivered in schools.

Households would lobby schools for better sanitation facilities and hygiene education; keep their

children in school (both boys and girls); use good sanitation and hygiene practices in the home;

and can find ways of raising resources to support schools in this effort.

12

Entrepreneurs would provide free or subsidized services in schools in their own communities

(this will not only have a direct positive impact on children‟s health; it will also increase demand

for sanitation in the house); and endorse and reinforce hygiene messages delivered in schools.

According to WHO 2007, FRESH (Focusing Resources on Effective School Health), an

initiative of WHO, UNICEF, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO) and the World Bank, aims to create an environment in schools and in

basic education programmes in which children are both able and enabled to learn. The four

components of the FRESH framework for action are: health- related school policies, provision of

safe water and sanitation, skills-based health education, and school-based health and nutrition

services. FRESH advocates three types of supporting activities: effective partnerships between

teachers and health workers and between the education and health sectors, effective community

partnerships, and pupil awareness and participation.

Further more in the effort of improving the hygiene and sanitation, WHO, together with various

partners, established a global alliance to tackle environmental threats to children‟s health,

including inadequate sanitation and hygiene. Through advocacy and information sharing, the

Healthy Environments for Children Alliance (HECA) aims to raise awareness, with the goal of

informing and influencing policy- and decision-makers on effective measures for protecting and

promoting healthy environments for children. One of the key areas of focus is creating healthy

settings in schools, including the provision of separate sanitation facilities for boys and girls.

The researcher argued that it is crucial to remember that all measures presented to improve

hygiene and sanitation practices focus a lot on awareness creation a thing which cannot easy be

grasped by the peasant community and also there other measures which need a lot of investments

for example upgrading to the wastewater treatment process demand not only technological

advances, but improvements in reliability, operational costs, and performance.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter explained in specific terms how the study will be carried out. It will present an

analysis of the research design and type, sample size and objectives. This chapter will further

highlight on the methods that will be used to enlist, relevant data and finally the chapter pointed

out how, the enlisted data will be analyzed and processed.

3.2 Research design

The research design will be the case study design. It will focus on Masese Landing site

community in Jinja Municipality Jinja District.

3.3 Study area and scope sample population and study area

The area of study will be Walukuba Masese landing site in Jinja District. The researcher cannot

conduct a study on the whole of Jinja district.

3.4 Sample population/sample size

The research consisted of a total population of 56 respondents and these would come from

Walukuba Masese Division and in particular the landing site (Kibuga Mbata village) where the

researcher undertook the research from. The categories of respondents comprises of 20

fishermen,4 local leaders, 4 municipality health workers,20 boda boda raiders, and 20 Small

business men/women market vendors as seen in the table below.

Table 1: categories of respondents

NO CATEGORY OF RESPONDENTS NO OF RESPONDENTS

1. Boda boda raiders 10

2. Fishermen 20

3. Market vendors 20

4. Local leaders 2

5. Municipality health workers 4

TOTAL 56

Source: Primary data

14

3.5 Sampling selection Techniques

The sampling techniques to be used will be random sampling techniques. These will be preferred

because they will enable the researcher to enlist data from all the required sources and to bet the

historical nature of his respondents.

3.6 Data collection procedure

The study will be both quantitative and qualitative where the researcher hopes to adopt a wide

range of data collection techniques including unstructured interview, focus group discussion and

observation.

Interviews

This method will be aided by the use of an interview schedule. The interviews will be conducted

with respondents on face-to-face basis. The researcher (interviewer) will take short notes as the

respondents provide responses. The method is convenient especially due to its flexibility for

probing where there is a need. It also enables free interaction with both the literates and

illiterates. It equally gives the researcher an opportunity to repeat unclear questions as well as

making follow-ups on new ideas.

Focus group discussion

This involve grouping people into small discussion forums, and involving them into a discussion

and obtaining their views on the study issue especially regarding the level of latrine use among

the fishing community of Masese and the factors that could be influencing latrine use in the area.

In group discussion the researcher examined and recorded non-verbal expressions of the

respodents. The researcher applied this technique particularly because sanitation is a culturally

sensitive topic and some people feel pressed not to talk so much about their sanitation habits

because they feel it is „private‟.

Observation

This is where the researcher will use the eyes to evidence the problem in situation and this

method will be used to supplement the data derived from interview and focus group discussion.

15

3. 7 Data presentation and analysis

Data obtained by focus group discussion and interview was summarized by the researcher and

reported. The data was collected and analyzed every after the field work practice with critical

examination for easy interpretation, the process involved editing, coding and tabulation.

Thereafter it was into themes examined to ensure completeness, accuracy and uniformity of data

before grading it for coding and complied in tabular forms where corresponding figures,

percentages or statements are presented for easy interpretation and analysis.

3.8 Ethical consideration

The major ethical issue considered in this study was confidentially and privacy of the

respondents, it entailed gaining access to the household pit latrines which itself is an

infringement on the privacy and confidentiality of the respondents.

However, respondents were guaranteed privacy for information provided and assured of

confident of information obtained.

3.9 Study limitations

Limited time period for the researcher was a key factor which led to narrowing of the study area

to a village than working within or with two and considering more respondents. Despite the

limitation, the researcher had good discussions with the respondents and largely collected data

and information that were sufficient for the research.

16

CHAPTER FOUR:

DATA PRESENTATION, DISCUSSION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents data that was collected to fulfill the objectives of the study. The data

specifically provides answers to the research questions. Each group of data under a study

variable is also here interpreted.

4.2 Presentation of the findings about the bio data

Under this chapter the researcher presents the findings about the age group, sex, education status,

occupations and tribe of the respondents.

4.2.1 Presentation of the findings about the sex of respondents

When the researcher carried out investigation, it was realized that the males were 38 and the

female were 18, an indication that the males dominated the fishing business. Out of the fifty six

respondents 38(68%) were male and 18(32%) were females as shown in the pie chart.

Fig 1: Sex of respondents

The predominance of men showed that decision making especially among the fishing

communities lied totally in males. During the interviews, in households where the husbands were

not available, women refused to respond to the interview questions claiming not to have

authority to discuss such questions in absence of the husbands.

17

4.2.2 Origin (People living more than five years in the area)

The researcher realized that the respondents who were involved in the study were of two major

categories, the natives (soga) who dominated the study and the migrants or people who came

from Alur, Gandas, Acholis. Among the respondents interviewed 40(71%) were the native and

16 (29%) were migrants as shown.

Fig 2: Origin (people living more than five years in the area)

4.2.3 Education levels

When the researcher inquired from the respondents about their education status, it was revealed

that the respondents had various academic qualifications, ranging from certificates of 0 and A

level, professional certificates, diplomas, degrees, postgraduate diplomas, masters while others

had no education qualifications. This is shown in Pie Chart drawn below.

18

Fig 3: Education level of the respondent

As seen from Figure 3, there is a disparity in education levels in study areas especially among the

sexes. More women were illiterate. According to the pie chart most respondents (39.2%) were

illiterate, 19.6% had A level qualification. Majority of illiterate respondents were those dealing

in silver fish (mukene).

4.2.4 Marital status.

When the researcher inquired from the respondents about their marital status, findings showed

that 28 (50%) of the respondents were married while 13(23.2%) widowed, 3(5.4%) and divorced

with making up 12(21.4%). The reason why there are so many married respondents was that, like

in many Africans, the Masese landing site generally viewed marriage as one of the fundamental

basis of life. This data has been summarized above in the diagram and in the bar graph below.

19

Fig 4: Marital status of respondents

4.2.5 Age group of the respondents

When the researcher inquired from the respondents about their age, findings showed that

16(28.6%) of the respondents fall under the age 25-34 years. This was followed by 26(35-44)

and lastly 14(25%) above 45 years of age.

0

20

40

60

Below 24 years25-34 years35-44 years

44 and above

0

28.6

46.4

25

PE

RC

EN

TA

GE

Below 24 years

25-34 years

35-44 years

44 and above

Fig 5: Age group of the respondents

20

As seen from Figure 5, majority of those market vendors of Walukuba Masese division as well

as the fishermen and staffs of the municipality who participated in the research are between aged

group of 35 and above.

4.2.6 Occupation of the respondents

About the occupation of the respondents, data showed that 22(39.3%) were peasants, 20(27%)

civil servants, 05(8.9%) politicians, religious practitioners were 06(35.7%), while were other

various occupations that did not belong to above. Below the data is summarized and represented

in the bar graph.

Fig 6: Occupation of the respondents

With this therefore, it‟s cleared that the peasants had a largest percentage simply because of

either lack of academic qualification or lack of jobs nationwide.

4.3 Research question 1: what are the percentages of household with pit latrines in

walukuba?

When the researcher inquired from the respondents about the percentage of household with pit

latrines, out of the two hundred (200) households, 50% percent had the toilet and pit latrines. The

majority of the respondents reported that they do not own pit latrines but used public toilets.

21

When the researcher inquired from the respondents about the factors leading to lack of pit

latrines, the following were reported; Primitive culture, Excessive poverty, Lack of land, Can

pay public toilet, Can share with neighbor, Can go to the bush/ waters/lake, Maintenance is hard

and expensive. These reasons are shown in the figure below.

Fig 7: Reasons for lack of pit latrines

As shown from the graph, out of 56 respondents, 19(33.9%) of the respondents when

interviewed and acknowledged that lack of land/space was the major factor that leads to lack of

pit latrine. Furthermore, 6(10.7%) of the respondents when interviewed admitted that it is

because of the excessive poverty the people of area have which has contributed to low

availability of pit latrine while 7(12.5%) out of 56 respondents reported that availability of public

pay toilets was the reason why they did not own pit latrines.

The research also revealed that 2(3.5%) of the respondents out of 56 respondents when

interviewed had no problem with sharing the pit latrine with the neighbors.

22

This findings agreed with literature about lack of latrines reviewed that showed that mobile

populations like those at fish landing sites are very notorious for using other alternative methods

for disposing off their human waste.

Findings showed that the community in Masese used various form of toilet available included;

Pit latrine, Flash toilet, Mobile toilet, Bucket toilet, Trough, Baby pot, Sacks/Polythene bags,

Bush/lake, Public toilets,

Fig 8: The percentage of households with pit latrine

Findings on the type of pit latrines used showed that used pit latrine, said that they are using

bush/lake or dust bins which are then dispose off at night.

According to my research, pit latrines were common used by 14(25%), followed by the bush/lake

used by 12(21.4%), mobile toilets, while flash toilets which is hygienically recommended

worldwide was least used by only 5(8.9%) out of 56 respondents. The low use of flash toilets is

due to the high level of poverty in the area. This also shows that the people in Masese landing

site community are still living below the acceptable standard of living and that is why it has

lagged behind in Jinja Municipality as far as development is concerned.

Out of the 56 respondents, 44% reported that they do not use latrines due to the different type of

cultures. This calls for the government to add in more effort in the capacity building of the

community to promote use of pit latrines. Secondly the level of poverty in the area cannot allow

the respondent to have flash toilets in their houses. Those who use the public toilet are those who

do small business at the landing site and the Boda boda during the day.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

25

8.9

16.1

17.9

21.4

6

PERCE

KEY

Percentage of household

Public Toilets

Bush/lake

Sacks/polythene bags Mobile toilet

Flash toilet

Pit Latrine

P

E

R

C

E

N

T

A

G

E

23

The presence of bush system of toilet, (people going to the bush or lake, use of sacks or

polythene bags and other forms toilet) shows that there is still a big problem of hygiene and

sanitation in most homes of Walukuba Masese.

Lastly, due to the presence of Bush system of toilet, people going to the bush or lake, use of

sacks or polythene bags and other forms toilet shows that there is still a big problem of hygiene

and sanitation in most homes of Walukuba Masese

4.4 Research question 2: what are the factors leading to more use of pit latrine?

When the researcher inquired from the respondents factors leading to more use of pit latrine,

findings showed that the use was recommended by authorities (Health inspector), while others

reported that it is cheaper to use pit latrines, Culture (Family culture), Hygiene, Standard of

living, Urbanization, safe. This is illustrated through the bar graph below.

Fig 9: Reasons why pit latrines are used by many

A larger percentage of the respondents 18(32.1%) said that pit latrines are cheap as compared to

flash toilets. This was followed by 12(21.4%) of the respondents said that urbanization, and

10(17.9%) of the respondents said that the standard of living were the factors leading more use

of pit latrines.

24

According to the research, 7(12.5%) of the respondents said that the authorities recommended

the usage of pit latrines in the community otherwise if the authorities were not there, may be they

would use other means of disposal.

The research revealed that only 4(7.1%) of the respondents out of the 56 said that hygiene was

the reason why they use pit latrines. This suggests that some households have pit latrines yet they

do not know about the health reasons of having it. Why do they then have pit latrines? It could be

because they thought it was a „social fashion‟ to have a latrine or inherited the latrine from a

previous resident of the home who probably was aware of importance of having and using pit

latrines.

4.5 Research Question 3: what measure can be adopted to improve latrine usage at Masese

landing site?

When the researcher inquired from the respondents about the measures to improve sanitation of

pit latrines, it was realized that, Sensitization of the public, Empowerment of the poor, encourage

family planning, Provide public toilets, Use of Law enforcement, Promote public health

education, Improve on rural water and sanitation, Projects for House hold development, provide

cesspool van/tank were identified.

25

Fig 10: The measures taken to improve sanitation/hygiene

Out of 56 respondents, 12(21%) respondents when interviewed had the highest percentage of

respondents reported that sensitization of the public could be the major measure to be taken to

improve hygiene and sanitation in the area.

The research also revealed that 10(18%) of the respondents out of 56 respondents said that the

provision of public toilets could be the measure which need to be taken to improve hygiene and

sanitation in the area. This can easy be interpreted that the respondents have no space for

construction of pit latrines or have enough money to afford a pay toilet or have no resources for

own toilet.

Promotion of public health education 5(9%) and improvement on water and sanitation 5(9%)

both had the same score of the respondents who believed that their points could be the measures

to be undertaken to improve hygiene and sanitation.

Furthermore the research also revealed that 8(14%) of the respondents said that the only measure

to improve hygiene and sanitation is to empower the poor while 3(5%) of the respondents out of

56 respondents said that the promotion of projects for house hold development is the answer.

But literature has already revealed that in many households, sanitation is not a priority so even

with the financial means, some households would still not spend it on erecting pit latrines.

26

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the conclusions arrived at by the researcher based on the findings and

interpretation presented in the previous chapter. It also contains appropriate recommendations

based on findings. This was delivered chronologically as seen below.

5.2 Summary of the findings

From the findings of the study it was revealed that on the issue of gender it was realized that the

males were 38 and the female were 18 an indication that the males dominated the female in the

area.

On the issue of the origin (People living more than five years in the area) in the area, realized

that the respondents who were involved in the study were of two major categories, others were

the real natives of the place (soga) who dominated the study while their counterparts were

migrants or people who came to look for in the area but were not real borne of the place such as

the Alur, Gandas, Acholis among others

On the issue of education status, there was a disparity in education levels in study areas

especially among the sexes. This bring about or out their concept of male superiority in the study

area, most respondents were illiterate and have certificate of secondary education. The young

members of the native community were not going to schools especially during the season for

sliver fish (Mukenne) when they are employed to watch them against the birds wile sun drying.

On the issue of occupation, it‟s cleared that the peasants had a largest percentage simply because

of either lack of academic qualification of lack of jobs nationwide and civil servants percentage

was slightly small because of few jobs created by the government and NGOS.

On the is of age group, it was realized that majority of those tenant and landlords of Walukuba

Masese division as well as the fishermen and staffs of the municipality were the main targets

age between aged group of 35 and above.

On the issue of marital status it was revealed that the majority of the respondents were married

followed widowed, and divorced. The Masese landing site generally viewed marriage as one of

27

the fundamental basis of life and island to nurture the person who was not married as they would

be generally viewed with suspicion.

On the issue of the nature of toilets used, it was realized that pit latrines were common used,

followed by the buckets, baby pots, while flash toilets which is hygienically recommended

worldwide took almost the least number of respondents which made the researcher to conclude

that Masese landing site community is still below the acceptable standard of leaving and that is

why it has lagged behind in Jinja Municipality as far as development is concerned. In fact the

place deserved the name “Kibuga Mbata”.

Furthermore on the issue of factors leading to effective pit latrine usage, it was revealed the

majority of the respondents said that pit latrines are cheap as compared to flash toilets which

have a high technology followed by urbanization and the standard of living were the factors

leading to effective usage of pit latrines.

On the issue of the factors leading to ineffective pit latrine usage, it was realized that that the

factors influencing pit latrine usage in Walukuba Masese division as majorly caused by lack of

land or space to construct the pit latrine due to population in the area and also the way the land

was segmented into smaller pieces with no room for the pit latrine.

On the issue of measures to be under taken to improve on hygiene and sanitation, it was realized

that the majority of respondents acknowledged that sensitization of the public could be the major

measure to be taken to improve hygiene and sanitation in the area followed by provision of

public toilets in the area since they lack space for own toilets.

The research findings had shown that factors leading to ineffective pit latrine usage majorly

most commonly identified reasons among the households was the high cost, followed by „use

public latrines‟, „lack of space‟, and „difficult to operate and maintain, cultural issues among

others.

The researcher had conducted a study on the benefits of hygiene and sanitation on the

development of Walukuba Masese division households in Jinja. On economic front, after a

thorough and deep analysis the researcher found that majority of households in Masese lack

awareness about the health value of hygiene and sanitation. This could suggest that such

28

respondents either did not go to school most of which teach children about basic hygiene and

sanitation or have never had the opportunity to attend sensitization workshops where residents

are sensitized about the importance of using pit latrines.

On the other hand, the social impacts of the poor hygiene and sanitation has hindered countless

development projects and NGOs, and impacted negatively on the ability of the people to have a

decent life.

To smaller extent the researcher disagrees with the Tadora‟s economic theory which urges that

poverty limits the spread of latrine most especially among the peasant economy. In Uganda it has

been proved right that in urban centres people lack toilets or where to easy themselves and to that

effect they scatter faeces everywhere thus cholera outbreaks every year than in rural.

To some extent the researcher would like to agree with Cotton (1998) that the high cost has lead

to ineffective usage of latrines in that the cost of materials for a good pit latrine can take a

peasant a full year to save.

5.3 Observation

The researcher observed that the factors leading to ineffective usage of pit latrines as they were

presented, Primitive culture, Excessive poverty, Lack of land, Can pay public toilet, Can share

with neighbor, Can go to the bus, Go to waters/lake, Can use Kavera/ tin, It is full, Maintenance

is hard and expensive are still a song in the area.

Through the efforts of several other researchers its observed that pit latrine usage in Walukuba

Masese division is still a problem after a thorough investigation being done in Masese landing

site.

It was majorly observed that pit latrine usage in Masese landing site is still a problem and there is

a need of the government and other stake holders to come up with a deliberate plan of improving

the hygiene and sanitation in the area otherwise there is a possible outbreak in the near future if

this is not taken as serous.

A casual observation by the researcher during the study revealed that the living conditions of

residents of Masese fish-landing Village posed a number of environmental health challenges that

demands better understanding so that sustainable solutions are implemented.

29

It was observed that pit latrines are more applicable in poor societies than in the urban centres.

The government is reluctant in providing enough public toilets in the area since the peasants

cannot afford to provide their own

5.4 Recommendations

The purpose of the research was to examine the use of pit latrines among households in Masese

fish- landing village and the factors that could be influencing their use, a case study of Walukuba

Masese landing site. From the above topic, the researcher came up with information from the

recommendation to the stakeholders and respondents as possible remedies to improve on the

current situation.

The researcher recommends that more Health public educators should be recruited, empowered

and enforced to man the hygiene and sanitation not only in Masese landing site but also to the

entire country Uganda.

Furthermore the researcher also recommends that subsidies should be given to households who

are in a total poverty but willing to construct pit latrines. This could be an encouragement of

improving water and sanitation.

The researcher furthermore recommends the NGOs should also come up with projects which are

aimed at empowerment and sensitizing the community on issues concerning hygiene and

sanitation.

The researcher also recommends that the government, municipal council and the local

government should put in place ways of acquiring land or gazette more places in affordable

distance for construction of public toilets.

The government or the local councils should recruit more cleaners in the area such that hygiene

and sanitation possible threats like cholera and diarrhea are averted

5.5 Conclusion

In conclusion, the factors influencing the effective pit latrine usage among the people of Masase

landing site that lack of land/space was the major factor that leads to ineffective usage of pit

30

latrine. Therefore the issue of lack of land/space could bring about negative phenomenon of

disease outbreak in the area thus cholera and diarrhea

The researcher with greater extent agrees with Tadora of 1999 because pit latrines seem to be

cheap under normal circumstances as compared to flush toilet which need water, tanks, taps,

professionals to install and maintenance costs on a daily basis which the majority poor cannot

afford.

At this extreme level of poverty, the majority of the households in Masese do not just have the

income to enable them hire labour or purchase materials needed for the erection of pit latrines

even if they were aware of the health benefits of using pit latrines and having one at home. So

it‟s the responsibility of the government and its stake holders to see that the hygiene and

sanitation problem in Masese is solved without a delay.

31

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Biran A, Jenkins MW, Dabrase P, Bhagwat I. Trop Med Int Health. 2011 Mar 17

Buwule Grace (1991): Constraints affecting sanitation: A case of Mulago in Kampala District.

Charles Muhumuza (2001): Maternal Child health and Environmental sanitation practices,

Bugweri County: a report of field work team, Iganga district.

DANIDA (2000): Recommendations for accelerating the national sanitation programmes.

Kampala,Uganda.

Dr. Kabugo (2005): Participatory methods in evaluation of sanitation projects.

Dr. L. Hillary (1982): Rural Water and Sanitation.

Falkner Frank (1996): International Child Health. Volume III.

GOU-UNICEF (2005): School and community sanitation: Hygiene and water programme plan of

operations.

Jinja Municipality inspectorate department report 2007

Kayise Chrizeston (2003): Report of Inspection of sanitation Facilities in Nakasongola District,

Nakasongola District Local Government.

Louis Pasteur, On the extension of the germ theory to the etiology of certain common diseases,

Translated by H. C. Ernst, M. D.

Michigan State University Libraries, Report of the Committee for Scientific Inquiries in Relation

to the Cholera-Epidemic of 1854"

MOFP&ED (2002): Uganda participatory poverty Assessment Report, GOU, Kampala.

MOGL&SD (2004): National Orphans and other Vulnerable children popular version: Kampala.

NEMA (1991): Environmental Report for Uganda. Volume III.

NEMA (1996): State of Environment Report: Uganda.

Patterns and determinants of communal latrine usage in urban poverty pockets in Bhopal, India.

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The constitution of the Republic of Uganda: (1995) Uganda Government printers, Entebbe,

Uganda.

The local Government Act (1997): Uganda Printing press, Entebbe, Uganda.

UBOS (2002): Uganda Household Survey Report

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World Health Organization (2007): Millennium Development Goals: progress Report.

33

APPENDICES

INTERVIEW GUIDE

PERSONAL DATA

1. What is your sex?

2. What is your marital status?

3. How old are you?

4. What is the highest level of education you have ever attained?

5. What is your occupation?

34

INTERVIEW GUIDE

What are the natures of toilets used by household in Walukuba Masese community or Kibuga

Mbata?

What is the latrine coverage in the area?

What is the usage level of pit latrine?

What would you consider to be the factors leading to current status usage of pit latrines among

the households in Walukuba Masese Division?

What would you consider to be the measures which can be taken to improve on the hygiene and

sanitation in Walukuba Masese Division?