The Effect of Self-Efficacy Training on the Willingness of ...

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The Effect of Self-Efficacy Training on the Willingness of The Effect of Self-Efficacy Training on the Willingness of

Preservice Teachers to Implement Social Skill Training in the Preservice Teachers to Implement Social Skill Training in the

Classroom Classroom

Linda J. Miller Western Michigan University

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Miller, Linda J., "The Effect of Self-Efficacy Training on the Willingness of Preservice Teachers to Implement Social Skill Training in the Classroom" (1988). Dissertations. 2172. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/2172

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THE EFFECT OF SELF-EFFICACY TRAINING ON THE WILLINGNESS OF PRESERVICE TEACHERS TO IMPLEMENT SOCIAL SKILL TRAINING

IN THE CLASSROOM

by

L inda J . Mi I l e r

A D is s e r ta t io n S ubm itted to th e

F a c u lty o f The G raduate C o lle g e in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e

re q u ire m e n ts fo r th e Degree o f D octor o f E d u catio n

Departm ent o f S p e c ia l E d u ca tio n

W estern M ic h ig an U n iv e r s i ty Kalam azoo, M ic h ig an

August 1988

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

THE EFFECT OF SELF-EFFICACY TRAINING ON THE WILLINGNESS OF PRESERVICE TEACHERS TO IMPLEMENT SOCIAL SKILL TRAINING

IN THE CLASSROOM

Linda J . Mi I l e r , E d .D .

W estern M ic h ig an U n iv e r s i ty , 1988

S e l f - e f f i c a c y is th e b e l i e f th a t one can s u c c e s s fu lly

pe rfo rm a b e h a v io r , and is a c o g n it iv e process th e o r iz e d to

p la y an im p o rta n t r o le in th e a c q u is i t io n and r e te n t io n o f

new b e h a v io r p a t te r n s . The purpose o f t h is in v e s t ig a t io n

was to d e te rm in e th e e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f u t i l i z i n g s e l f -

e f f ic a c y t r a in in g procedures to in f lu e n c e th e perform ance

o f p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs , s p e c i f ic to s o c ia l s k i l l

in s t r u c t io n , in t h e i r d ir e c te d te a c h in g ass ignm ents.

A m o d ifie d p o s t te s t o n ly c o n tro l group d es ign was

u t i l i z e d to compare th e perform ance o f th re e groups: (1 ) a

tre a tm e n t group exposed to s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g

p ro c ed u re s , (2 ) a tre a tm e n t group exposed to s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g c o n te n t in fo rm a tio n , and (3 ) a com parison group

r e p re s e n t in g th e s ta n d ard c lassroom management u n iv e r s ity

t r a in in g sequence. The sam ple c o n s is te d o f 34 p r e s e rv ic e

te a c h e rs in s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n p r e p a ra t io n programs a t

W estern M ic h ig an U n iv e r s i ty , Kalam azoo, M ic h ig a n , and Grand

V a l le y S ta te U n iv e r s i ty , A l le n d a le , M ic h ig a n .

A n a ly s is o f th e d a ta c o lle c te d re s u lte d in th e

fo I Iow i ng cone I us i o n s :


1. Exposure to e i t h e r s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g or

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g c o n te n t in fo rm a tio n r e s u l ts in a

w ill in g n e s s to conduct s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g a c t i v i t i e s in

th e c lassroom .

2 . P re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs exposed to s e l f - e f f i c a c y

t r a in in g d e m onstra te more w i ll in g n e s s to i n i t i a t e , expend

e f f o r t , and p e r s is t a t s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g than s u b je c ts

exposed to th e s ta n d a rd u n iv e r s it y t r a in in g sequence.

3 . P re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs a re fa v o ra b ly p re d is p o s ed to

conduct s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g .

4 . S u b je c ts exposed to s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g a re

more w i I I in g to p e r s is t a t s o c ia l sk i I I t r a in in g in th e

c lassroom when faced w ith o b s ta c le s .

The h y p o th e s is th a t s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g would

produce more w i l l in g n e s s to engage in s o c ia l s k i I I t r a in in g

than e i t h e r a c o n te n t t r a in in g approach o r th e s ta n d ard

u n iv e r s it y t r a in in g sequence was not s u p p o rte d . However,

s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g was more e f f e c t i v e a t m o tiv a t in g

classroom perform an ce than s ta n d ard u n iv e r s it y p r e p a r a t io n .

The fo l lo w in g im p lic a t io n s w ere drawn from th e

f i nd i n g s :

1. Through t r a in in g , p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs can be

in flu e n c e d to pursue s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in th e

c la s sro o m .

2 . S e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g is e f f e c t i v e as a t r a in in g

approach and has th e advan tage o f s im u la t in g f i e l d


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The effect of self-efficacy training on the willingness o f preservice teachers to implement social skill training in the classroom

Miller, Linda Jane, Ed.D.Western Michigan University, 1988

Copyright ©1988 by Miller, Linda Jane. All rights reserved.

U M I300 N. Zeeb Rd.Ann Arbor, MI 48106


C o p y rig h t by Linda J . Mi I l e r

1988


e x p e r ie n c e even when such hands-on o p p o r tu n it ie s a re not

a c c e s s ib le .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T h is endeavor w ould not have been com pleted w ith o u t

th e h e lp and su p p o rt o f many in d iv id u a ls . I t is w ith

g r a t i tu d e th a t th e s e in d iv id u a ls a re acknow ledged.

A s p e c ia l th a n k -y o u is extended to D r. A lonzo

H a n n a fo rd , c h a irp e rs o n o f th e d is s e r ta t io n com m itte e , who

p ro v id e d c o n s ta n t gu id an ce , e x p e r t is e , and u n fa i l in g

commitment to e th ic a l p r a c t ic e . H is w is e le a d e rs h ip w i l l

a lw ays be remembered and rem ain an exem plar fo r me.

Acknowledgement is a ls o due D r . Dona Icabone, D r.

Joseph E is e n b ac h , and D r. Howard F a r r is who served as

members o f th e d is s e r ta t io n c o m m itte e . T h e ir in p u t

th ro u g h o u t th e p rocess c o n tr ib u te d to th e m e r it o f th e

f i n a l p ro d u c t.

R e c o g n it io n must be extended as w e ll to D r . A lan B ain

and D r. S tephen Barbus, c o lle a g u e s in th e d o c to ra l program .

They p ro v id e d in v a lu a b le su p p o rt d u rin g th e course o f th e

e n t i r e re s e a rc h p r o je c t , and dem onstrated a commitment to

e x c e lle n c e th a t c o n t in u a lly served as a source o f

in s p ir a t io n and a s ta n d ard by w hich to o p e ra te .

In th e c o u rse o f th e d is s e r ta t io n re s e a rc h , Ann ice

O 'B r ie n , C a ro l W il l ia m s , C indy G reen , V a la r ie Dorgan,

B e rn ie M u ld e r , D r . Jeanne W il l ia m s , D r. Brenda L a z a ru s , and

D r. R obert Sundick supported th e p r o je c t in a m u lt i tu d e o f

i i


ways. As w e l l , s tu d e n ts in th e s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n programs

a t W estern M ic h ig an U n iv e r s ity and Grand V a l le y S ta te

U n iv e r s i ty , and numerous te a c h e rs and a d m in is tr a to r s in

s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n o f fe r e d t h e i r t im e and e x p e r t is e to

p a r t ic ip a t e in th e p r o je c t . A l l th e s e c o n tr ib u to r s served

to f a c i l i t a t e a n d /o r accommodate im p o rta n t asp e c ts o f th e

r e s e a rc h .

I t is w ith s p e c ia l g r a t i tu d e th a t I acknow ledge th e

person who made t h i s e n t i r e e x p e rie n c e p o s s ib le , my husband

Ken M i l l e r . The c o n tin u a l e xp re ss io n s o f s upport from Ken

and th e e n t i r e M i l l e r fa m ily w ere in s tru m e n ta l in th e

c o m p le tio n o f t h is p r o je c t . T h is is f u l l y t h e i r

a ccom plishm ent, to o .

F i n a l l y , I w ish to d e d ic a te t h is p r o je c t to th e la te

Lena S. B o te l lo and H a ro ld K. M i l l e r , m other and f a t h e r - i n -

law r e s p e c t iv e ly . They both v a lu e d e d u c a tio n h ig h ly and

w ere key pe o p le in fu r th e r in g my e d u c a tio n . T h e ir p r id e in

t h is ach ievem ent would be immense.

L inda J . Mi I l e r


TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... i i

L IS T OF..........................TABLES ........................................................................ ix

L IS T OF..........................FIGURE ........................................................................ x i

CHAPTER

I . INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 1

The Research S tudy ........................................................ 5

R a tio n a le .............................................................................. 5

Sequence o f th e S tudy... ................................................ 8

I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.................................................... 10

In tro d u c tio n ......................................... ; ........................... 10

Approaches to S tu d e n t Management ....................... 10

S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in gfo r S tu d e n ts ............................................................... 10

C lassroom Management ........................................... 17

Knowledge o f S o c ia l S k i l lC o n ten t ............................................................................ 23

Knowledge o f T ra in in gP rocedures .................................................................... 24

Knowledge o f Assessment ................................... 25

Knowledge o f M a te r ia ls ..................................... 26

Knowledge o f S tu d e n t Responses ................. 26

Knowledge o f S it u a t io n a l V a r ia b le s . . . . 27

Knowledge o f Teacher B e h a v io rs ................. 27

Teacher P re p a ra t io n Approaches toS tu d e n t Management ........................................................ 28

The Teacher as C lassroom Manager ............. 28


TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ i i

L IS T OF.......................... TABLES ......................................................................... ix

L IS T OF.......................... FIGURE ......................................................................... x i

CHAPTER

I . INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1

The Research S tudy ........................................................ 5

R a t io n a le ............................................................................... 5

Sequence o f th e S tudy.................................................... 8

I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.................................................... 10

In tro d u c t io n ....................................................................... 10

Approaches to S tu d e n t Management ....................... 10

S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in gfo r S tu d e n ts ................................................................ 10

Classroom Management ............................................ 17

Knowledge o f S o c ia l S k i l lC o n ten t ............................................................................ 23

Knowledge o f T ra in in gP rocedures ..................................................................... 24

Knowledge o f Assessment ................................... 25

Knowledge o f M a te r ia ls ..................................... 26

Knowledge o f S tu d e n t Responses ................. 26

Knowledge o f S it u a t io n a l V a r ia b le s . . . . 27

Knowledge o f Teacher B e h a v io rs ................. 27

Teacher P r e p a ra t io n Approaches toS tu d e n t Management ........................................................ 28

The Teacher as C lassroom Manager ............. 28

i v


T a b le o f C o n te n ts — C o n t in u e d

CHAPTER

The Teacher as In te rp e rs o n a lCommunicator ............................................................... 31

The M o t iv a t io n a l Aspect o f TeacherB eh avio r ................................................................................. 34

R e le v a n t C o g n it iv e Psychology andS o c ia l L e arn in g Theory P r in c ip le s .......... 36

S e l f - E f f ic a c y and Teacher M o t iv a t io n .......... 43

The C o n s tru c t ............................................................. 43

A p p lic a t io n o f th e S e l f - E f f ic a c yConcept to E d u ca tio n ........................................... 48

T r a in in g in S e l f - E f f ic a c y fo rP re s e rv ic e Teachers .............................................. 51

C a u tio n s ......................................................................... 55

S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g fo r Teachers ............... 58

I I I . METHOD ............................................................................................. 60

Design o f th e S tudy ..................................................... 60

H ypotheses ................................ 61

O p e ra tio n a l D e f in i t io n s .................................... 61

Independent V a r ia b le s ......................................... 63

Dependent V a r ia b le s .............................................. 64

S u b je c ts ......................................................................... 68

Developm ent o f th e T r a in in g Program .............. 71

S e l f - E f f ic a c y T r a in in g ...................................... 71

Soc i a I Sk i I I T ra i n i ngC o n ten t In fo rm a tio n .............................................. 89

v



CHAPTER

V a l id a t io n o f th e S o c ia l S k i l lT r a in in g C o n ten t In fo rm a tio nProgram ............................................................................ 95

Developm ent o f th e DependentM easures ................................................................................. 100

The C lassroom S c e n a rio s ................................... 100

T e s t -R e te s t R e l i a b i l i t y ................................... 108

The S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in gKnowledge In v e n to ry .............................................. 110

The Perform ance M easure ................................... 115

P rocedures ............................................................................ 120

Summary .................................................................................... 127

IV . RESULTS ........................................................................................... 129

C o n s id e ra tio n s In f lu e n c in gS t a t i s t ic a l A n a ly s is ................................................... 129

Independent and DependentV a r ia b le s ....................................................................... 130

Measurem ent S c a le ................................................... 130

The S t a t i s t ic a l P roceduresEmployed ......................................................................... 130

S t a t i s t ic a l E q u iv a le n c e o f th eSample Across Groups ................................................... 131

Com parison o f Groups a t Phase ID ata C o l le c t io n ............................................................... 135

The S e lf -R e p o r t M easure ................................... 137

SSTKI ................................................................................. 138

v i



CHAPTER

(Com parison o f ) Groups a t Phase I I D ata C o lle c t io n ............................................................................ 139

(Com parison o f ) S u b je c ts from WMUand GVSU ................................................................................. 144

Summary o f R e s u lts ........................................................ 145

V . DISCUSSION .................................................................................... 153

Assumptions and L im ita t io n s ................................. 156

C onc lus ions ......................................................................... 159

Im p lic a t io n s and Recommendations ..................... 162

APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... 166

A. The S e lf -R e p o r t Measure (G enera lS e l f - E f f ic a c y S c a le ) .......................................................... 167

B. Response from D r . A lb e r t Bandura:C o n ten t V a l i d i t y o f S e l f - E f f ic a c yT r a in in g ........................................................................................ 170

C. C lassroom S ce n a rio s Measure .......................................... 172

D. S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g KnowledgeIn v e n to ry ...................................................................................... 176

E. The P erform ance Measure .................................................... 180

F . The S e l f - E f f ic a c y T ra in in g Program ......................... 182

G. S e If-S c h e m a ta W orksheet .................................................... 193

H. Teacher S e l f -E v a lu a t io n M easure ................................ 195

I . E lem en tary and Secondary Lessons fromth e SkI I I s trea m in g C u rr ic u lu m .................................... 197

J . L e t te r to E xp e rts R egard ing C onten tV a l i d i t y o f th e S e l f - E f f ic a c yT ra in in g Program .................................................................... 240

v i i



APPENDICES

K. Response L e t te r from D r . P a t r ic i a A shton:C o n ten t V a l i d i t y o f th e S e l f - E f f ic a c yT r a in in g Program ..................................................................... 243

L . S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g Program ................................... 245

M. A reas fo r E v a lu a t io n o f S o c ia l S k i l lC u r r ic u la ...................................................................................... 262

N. L e t te r to Teachers R eview ing th eS o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g Program .................................... 273

0 . D e f in i t io n o f S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g Domainand S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g Subset A reas ................ 276

P. Ju d g e 's R a tin g Sheet Used by E x p e rts inC o n ten t V a l id a t io n o f th e S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g Knowledge In v e n to ry ...................................... 278

Q. Response L e t te r from D r . Joanne Mi I b u rn :C o n ten t V a l i d i t y o f th e S o c ia l S k i l lT r a in in g Knowledge In v e n to ry ...................................... 280

R. L e t te r to P re s e rv ic e Teachers R equestingt h e i r P a r t ic ip a t io n in th e S tudy............................... 282

S. L e t te r to S o l i c i t P a r t ic ip a n t s fo rth e Com parison Group ........................................................... 285

T . E v a lu a t io n Form Com pleted by S u b je c tsin S e l f - E f f ic a c y T r a in in g and S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g T re a tm e n t Groups.................................. 288

U. S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g C e r t i f i c a t e .......................... 290

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 292


v i i i

L IS T OF TABLES

1. D is t r ib u t io n o f S u b je c ts From WMU and GVSU ............. 70

2 . Dem ographics o f P ro fe s s io n a ls R eview ingth e SST Program ................................................................................. 98

3 . Dem ographics o f Teachers Review ing th eC lassroom S c e n a rio s M easure ................................................... 106

4 . Ju d g e 's R a tin g o f th e C lassroom S ce n a rio sM easure ..................................................................................................... 107

5 . D i f f e r e n c e Among Groups Based on GPA:Means and S ta n d ard D e v ia t io n s .............................................. 132

6 . D i f f e r e n c e Among Groups Based on GPA:ANOVA Summary T a b le ....................................................................... 132

7 . Frequency D is t r ib u t io n Based on M a jo r Area ............. 133

8 . D i f f e r e n c e Among Groups Based on Number o f Sem ester Hours in th e U n iv e r s i ty T ra in in gSequence: Means and S tan d ard D e v ia t io n s .................. 134

9 . D i f f e r e n c e Among Groups Based on Number o f S em ester Hours in th e U n iv e r s i ty T r a in in gSequence: ANOVA Summary T a b le ........................................... 134

10. C lassroom S c e n a r io s : Com parison o f Meansand S tandard D e v ia t io n s ............................................................. 136

11. C lassroom S c e n a r io s : ANOVA Summary T a b le ................... 136

12. S e lf -R e p o r t M easure: Com parison o f Meansand S tandard D e v ia t io n s ................................................... 137

13. S e lf -R e p o r t M easure: ANOVA Summary T a b le .................. 137

14. S e lf -R e p o r t M easure: Tukey M u l t ip leCom parisons ........................................................................................... 138

15. SSTKI: Com parison o f Means and S tandardD e v ia t io n s .............................................................................................. 138

16. SSTK I: ANOVA Summary T a b le ................................................... 139

17. SSTKI: Tukey M u l t ip le Com parisons......... ........................... 139

ix


L i s t o f T a b le s — C o n t in u e d

18. The Perform ance M easure: Com parison o fMeans and S tan d ard D e v ia t io n s .............................................. 140

19. The Perform ance M easure: ANOVA Summary T a b le . . . 141

2 0 . The Perform ance M easure: Tukey M u l t ip leCom parisons ........................................................................................... 141

2 1 . Frequency D is t r ib u t io n o f Responses on th eP erform ance M easure ....................................................................... 141

2 2 . Com parison o f WMU and GVSU S u b je c ts in th eSET Group on th e Dependent M easures: Meansand S tandard D e v ia t io n s ............................................................. 146

2 3 . SET Group C om parisons: ANOVA Summary T a b le ........... 147

2 4 . Com parison o f WMU and GVSU S u b je c ts in th eSET Group on th e Dependent M easures: Meansand S tandard D e v ia t io n s ............................................................. 148

2 5 . SST Group C om parisons: ANOVA Summary T a b le .......... 149

2 6 . Com parison o f WMU and GVSU S u b je c ts in th eCom parison Group on th e Dependent M easures:Means and S ta n d ard D e v ia t io n s .............................................. 150

2 7 . CG Com parisons: ANOVA Summary T a b le ............................ 151

x


L IS T OF FIGURES

S chem atic D iagram o f Research P rocedures and Tim e L in e s ...............................................................


CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

S e l f - e f f i c a c y Is th e b e l i e f th a t one can s u c c e s s fu lly

p e rfo rm a b e h a v io r , and is a s t r a t e g ic c o n s tru c t th e o r iz e d

to u n d e r l ie m o t iv a t io n (B andura , 1977 , 1 9 8 2 ). I t is a

c o g n it iv e process w hich p la y s an im p o rta n t r o le in th e

a c q u is i t io n and r e te n t io n o f new b e h av io r p a t te r n s

(B andura , 1 9 7 7 ). A cco rd ing to Bandura ( c i t e d in S h ere r e t

a l . , 1982, p . 6 6 3 ) , "e x p e c ta tio n s o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y a re th e

most pow erfu l d e te rm in a n ts o f b e h a v io ra l change because

s e l f - e f f i c a c y e x p e c ta n c ie s d e te rm in e th e i n i t i a l d e c is io n

to p e rfo rm a b e h a v io r , th e e f f o r t expended, and p e rs is te n c e

in th e fa c e o f a d v e r s i t y ." Thus, an in d iv id u a l must

b e lie v e th a t he o r she can p erfo rm a g iv e n b e h a v io r in th e

re q u ire d s i t u a t io n fo r b e h a v io r change to o c c u r.

Acknowledgement th a t c e r ta in b e h a v io r (s ) w iI I lead to

p a r t ic u la r consequences is (a r e ) not s u f f i c ie n t .

For s e v e ra l reaso n s , s e l f - e f f i c a c y th e o ry has

p a r t ic u la r a p p l ic a b i l i t y to th e s u b je c t o f te a c h e r

p r e p a ra t io n in th e a re a o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g . S o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g is an approach to b e h a v io r management th a t

is in s t r u c t io n a l ly - o r ie n t e d and c h ild - c e n te r e d , in c o n tr a s t

to th e th e o r ie s and p r a c t ic e s o f s ta n d ard classroom

management w hich em phasize th e r o le o f th e te a c h e r as


o rg a n iz e r and manager (H a r r is , 1984; Jones & Jones, 1986;

W olfgang & G lickm an , 1 9 8 6 ) . In p r a c t ic e , how ever, th e r e is

q u e s tio n w hether p ro s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs fe e l e f f ic a c io u s

about t h e i r a b i l i t i e s to p r o p e r ly gu id e s tu d e n ts throug h

th e s o c ia l s k i l l a c q u is i t io n process (B a in , 1 9 8 7 ).

C o n s id e rin g th a t b e g in n in g te a c h e rs a re p r im a r i ly concerned

about d is c ip l in e o r c o n tro l in t h e i r c lassroom s (Denham &

M ic h a e l, 1 9 8 1 ), th e y may no t be fa v o ra b ly d isp osed to

im plem ent programming w hich c o m p lic a te s t h e i r p e rc e iv e d

m a n a g e ria l r o le . Thus, th e r e e x is ts a need to e x p lo re th e

b e l i e f s t r u c tu r e s w hich u n d e r l ie t h e i r b e h a v io r i f s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g w ith s tu d e n ts is to be accep ted as a v ia b le

ap p ro ach . A c c o rd in g ly , Ashton (1 9 8 4 ) proposes th a t "A

te a c h e r e d u c a tio n program , designed to h e lp te a c h e rs

c l a r i f y t h e i r e f f ic a c y b e l i e f s and deve lo p a we I I-o rg a n !z e d

c o n c e p tio n o f how th e s e b e l i e f s would be re p re s e n te d in

b e h a v io r , should r e s u l t in in cre a se d r e la t io n s h ip s between

e f f ic a c y b e l ie f s and te a c h e r b e h a v io r" (p . 2 9 ) . F u r th e r ,

Ashton (1 9 8 4 ) a d v is e s th a t te a c h e r e d u c a tio n aim ed a t

fo s te r in g te a c h e r e f f i c a c y must in c lu d e t r a in in g

e x p e rie n c e s w hich e n a b le p re s e r v ic e in d iv id u a ls to deve lop

th e human r e la t io n s k i l l s necessary to b u ild t r u s t in g

r e la t io n s h ip s w ith s tu d e n ts and prom ote s tu d e n t e f f o r t s a t

s e lf -g o v e rn a n c e ( s t r a t e g ic needs in s o c ia l s k i l l

program m ing ). Through such an in tr o d u c t io n , th e l ik e l ih o o d

is in cre a se d th a t p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs w i l l re c o g n iz e s o c ia l


s k i l l t r a in in g as an im p o rta n t c u r r ic u la r need and see

them selves as e f f e c t i v e f a c i l i t a t o r s o f s o c ia l le a rn in g fo r

ch i Id r e n .

S k i l l deve lopm ent is a ls o necessary to a l l a y some o f

th e concern e x p e rien c e d by b e g in n in g te a c h e rs in new

le a rn in g s it u a t io n s (Denham & M ic h a e l, 1 9 8 1 ) . However, in

and o f i t s e l f , s k i l l b u i ld in g is no t s u f f i c ie n t

p r e p a r a t io n . A cco rd ing to Bandura ( c i t e d in G ibson & Dembo,

1 9 8 4 ) , " in d iv id u a ls can b e lie v e th a t c e r ta in b e h a v io rs w i l l

produce c e r t a in outcom es, bu t i f th e y do no t b e l ie v e th a t

th e y can p e rfo rm th e necessary a c t i v i t i e s , th e y w i l l not

i n i t i a t e th e r e le v a n t b e h a v io rs , or i f th e y do, th e y w i l l

no t p e r s is t " (p . 5 7 0 ) . As noted by numerous re s e a rc h e rs in

th e s o c ia l s k i l l s f i e l d , d e l iv e r y o f s o c ia l s k i l l

programming fo r c lassroom s tu d e n ts re q u ir e s s k i l l in a

v a r ie t y o f a re a s (B a r g a r o z z i , 1985; G o ld s te in , S p r a fk in ,

Gershaw, & K le in , 1983; Gresham, 1982; H a r r is , 1984; Ladd &

A s h e r, 1985; Ladd & M iz e , 1983; Schum aker, P ederson, H a z e l,

& Meyen, 1983; Spence, 1 9 8 3 ). C e r ta in ly both i n i t i a t i v e

and p e rs is te n c e on th e p a r t o f t r a in e e s a re re q u ire d to

le a rn th e s e s k i l l s and adopt th e a t t i t u d e s necessary to

im plem ent such t r a in in g in c lassroom s w ith s tu d e n ts .

A d d i t io n a l ly , th e number and v a r ie t y o f s it u a t io n a l

v a r ia b le s w hich p o t e n t ia l ly can in f lu e n c e perform ance in

th e school env ironm ent have th e chance to underm ine th e

in te n t io n s o f th e b e s t o f te a c h e rs (Ladd & A sher, 1 9 8 5 ).


4

As p o s ite d by Bandura (1 9 7 7 , 1 9 8 2 ) , i f b e l i e f in o n e 's

a b i l i t y to s u c c e s s fu lly p e rfo rm a b e h a v io r is la c k in g , th e

chances fo r s i t u a t io n a l v a r ia b le s to d e te r s p e c i f ic a c t io n

is g r e a t ly in c re a s e d .

“S e l f - e f f i c a c y th e o ry a s s e r ts th a t success fu l

perfo rm an ce leads to in cre a se s in s e l f - e f f i c a c y

e x p e c ta t io n s ." (S h e re r e t a I . , 1982, p . 6 6 8 ) . As such,

s e l f - e f f i c a c y is proposed to a c t as an im p o rta n t m e d ia to r

o f b e h a v io r . In term s o f p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs , th e ways in

w hich t h is th e o ry may c o n t r ib u te to te a c h e r t r a in in g in th e

a re a o f s o c ia l s k i l l s is th e issue fo r in v e s t ig a t io n .

T h e re fo re , th e purpose o f t h is re s e a rc h is to answer th e

fo I Iow i ng quest i o n s :

1. W i l l p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs who a re p ro v id ed s e l f -

e f f ic a c y t r a in in g d e m o n stra te more w il l in g n e s s to i n i t i a t e ,

expend e f f o r t , and p e r s is t a t s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in

t h e i r d ir e c te d te a c h in g ass ignm ents than p re s e rv ic e

te a c h e rs exposed to s o c ia l s k i l l s c o n te n t t r a in in g ?

2 . WiSS p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs who a re exposed to s e l f -

e f f ic a c y t r a in in g d e m o n stra te more w i l l in g n e s s to i n i t i a t e ,

expend e f f o r t , and p e r s is t a t s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in

t h e i r d ir e c te d te a c h in g assignm ents than p re s e rv ic e

te a c h e rs who e x p e r ie n c e th e s ta n d ard c lassroom management

t r a in in g sequence?


5

The R e s e a rc h S tu d y

T h is s tudy was designed to e v a lu a te th e e f fe c t iv e n e s s

o f u t i l i z i n g s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g p ro c ed u re s , i . e . , s e l f -

s tu d y (A sh to n , Webb & Doda, 1983; EI I i s & H a rp e r , 1 9 7 5 ),

m odeling and r o le p la y in g (B andura , 1 9 7 7 ), and s e l f

management (K a n fe r & G a e lic k , 1986; Meichenbaum, 1 9 7 7 ), in

th e p re p a ra t io n o f te a c h e rs to d e liv e r s o c ia l s k i l l

c u r r ic u la . An e x p e rim e n ta l p o s t te s t o n ly com parison group

de s ig n was used to compare th e perform an ce o f th r e e groups:

(1 ) a tre a tm e n t group exposed to s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g

p ro c ed u re s , (2 ) a tre a tm e n t group exposed to s o c ia l s k i l l

c o n te n t in fo rm a tio n , and (3 ) a com parison group

re p re s e n t in g th e s ta n d ard c lassroom management u n iv e r s it y

t r a in in g sequence. Outcome measures r e la te d to know ledge,

b e l i e f s , and perfo rm an ce in th e c lassroom w ere compared to

s t a t i s t i c a l l y e v a lu a te d if fe r e n c e s between th e th r e e

g ro u p s .

R a tio n a le

The r a t io n a le fo r t h is s tudy was th e need to d e te rm in e

th e im portance o f add res s in g th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l fa c to r o f

s e l f - e f f i c a c y as a p re c u rs o r to th e d e liv e r y o f s o c ia l

s k i l l c u r r ic u la by p ro s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs . C o n tr ib u tin g to

t h is need w ere th e fo l lo w in g issues:

1. The grow ing in te r e s t and use o f s o c ia l s k i l l s

t r a in in g c u r r ic u la w ith s tu d e n ts in s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n


classroom s re q u ir e s th a t te a c h e rs a re w i l l i n g to d e l iv e r

th e s e program s. T y p ic a l ly , a t th e p r e s e r v ic e le v e l th e

t r a in in g em phasis is d ir e c te d tow ard c la s s ro o m /b e h a v io r

management ( H a r r is , 1 9 8 4 ) . T h is o r ie n t a t io n encompasses

e x a m in a tio n o f te a c h e r -s tu d e n t r e la t io n s h ip s and

o rg a n iz a tio n a l-m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t ic e s on th e p a r t o f th e

te a c h e r w hich can r e s u l t in o r d e r ly , p r o d u c tiv e c lassroom

en viro n m e n ts (Jones & Jones, 1 9 8 6 ) . How ever, s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g fo r c h ild r e n and a d o le s c e n ts r e f l e c t s a d i f f e r e n t

p e r s p e c t iv e . T h is programming is aim ed a t a c q u is i t io n o f

b e h a v io r s k i l l s w hich p ro v id e th e s tu d e n t w ith th e to o ls to

c o n tro l and d i r e c t h is /h e r own b e h a v io r . The goal is to

te a ch a p p r o p r ia te in te rp e rs o n a l b e h a v io rs to s tu d e n ts fo r

t h e i r use in a v a r ie t y o f s i t u a t io n s . In so d o in g , th e

s t r u c tu r e d e n vironm ent c re a te d by th e te a c h e r is enhanced

th ro u g h s e l f - m o n it o r in g s tu d e n t b e h a v io r .

E s s e n t ia l l y , s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in c lassroom s

r e f l e c t s a s tu d e n t-c e n te re d o r ie n t a t io n to b e h a v io r

management and re q u ir e s th a t te a c h e rs a re f a m i l ia r w ith and

a c c e p tin g o f th e b e h a v io rs and s k i l l s necessary on t h e i r

p a r t to s u p p o rt t h is ty p e o f approach .

2 . A cco rd ing to th e le a rn in g th e o ry o f Bandura (1 9 7 7 ,

1 9 8 2 ) , i t is im p o rta n t th a t in d iv id u a ls b e lie v e in t h e i r

a b i l i t y to produce c e r t a in , s p e c i f ie d outcom es. W ith o u t

such s e l f - a p p r a i s a l , in d iv id u a ls a re l i k e l y to be less

i n i t i a t i v e and less p e r s is te n t in t h e i r b e h a v io r r e la te d to


a g iv e n outcom e. Thus, p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs need s p e c i f ic

gu idance to re c o g n iz e , u n d e rs ta n d , and m o d ify th e a t t i t u d e s

and b e l i e f s w hich u n d e r l ie t h e i r b e h av io r i f th e y a re to

fe e l e f f ic a c io u s about t h e i r a b i l i t i e s to a c t as conveyers

o f s o c ia l s k i l l s . In th e p a s t , th is a sp e c t o f te a c h e r

p r e p a r a t io n has la r g e ly in v o lv e d a psychodynam ic approach

( e . g . , human r e la t io n s t r a i n in g , in te rp e rs o n a l s k i l l s

t r a i n in g , c o n te x t-b a s e d in s t r u c t io n , e tc . (F in e , 1975;

G lo s e n g e r, 1985; H in z & Saba, 1977; S chm id t, 1982; T ik u n o ff

& W ard, 1 9 7 8 ) . E s s e n t ia l ly th e purpose o f th e s e e f f o r t s

has been to im prove in te rp e rs o n a l fu n c tio n in g throug h s k i l l

b u i ld in g , e . g . , l i s t e n in g , re sp o n d in g , and showing

d e m o n s tra tio n s o f re s p e c t . However, th e goal o f p re s e n t

p s y c h o -s o c ia l th e o ry is not o n ly to im prove in te rp e rs o n a l

in t e r a c t io n , b u t to understand and p o s s ib ly r e s t r u c tu r e th e

th in k in g w hich m o tiv a te s and su p p o rts b e h a v io r .

P ro s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs may be u n c le a r about t h e i r own

a t t r i b u t i o n s o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y , and thus may not fe e l

e f f ic a c io u s about t h e i r a b i l i t i e s to p ro p e r ly g u ide

s tu d e n ts th roug h a s y s te m a tic b e h a v io r change p ro c es s .

A c c o rd in g ly , p r e s e rv ic e te a c h e rs need to e x p lo re and le a rn

about t h e i r own b e h a v io rs and th e sources o f m o tiv a t io n

w hich compel them to a c t as th e y do. In th e process th e y

have th e o p p o r tu n ity to b u i ld persona l and p ro fe s s io n a l

s e l f - e f f i c a c y about s o c ia l s k i l l s and t r a n s la te th a t

le a rn in g to a c tu a l c lassroom p e rfo rm an ce .


Sequence o f th e S tudy

T r a in in g components fo r p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs w i l l be

d eve loped and im plem ented in t h is s tudy which a tte m p t to

address th e issues d isc u s se d . U l t im a te ly , th e goal is to

make a c o n t r ib u t io n to e x is t in g p r a c t ic e in th e te a c h e r

p re p a r a t io n a r e a . The s tudy was conducted a cc o rd in g to th e

fo l lo w in g g e n era l sequence o f e v e n ts :

1. Id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e sam ple fo r s tu d y .

2 . A rrangem ent o f procedures w i th in th e departm ent o f

s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n w hich p ro v id e an a p p ro p r ia te s i t e fo r th e

s tu d y to be conducted : (a ) Id e n t i f i c a t io n o f c o u rs e (s )

c o n ta in in g th e p r e s e rv ic e p o p u la t io n ; (b ) id e n t i f i c a t io n o f

o p p o r tu n it ie s fo r random s e le c t io n a n d /o r ass ignm ent;

( c ) id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f o p p o r tu n it ie s fo r p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r

p lacem ents in a c tu a l c lassroom s it u a t io n s fo l lo w in g

t r e a tm e n t ; (d ) id e n t i f i c a t io n o f t im e lin e s fo r c o n d u c tin g

th e s tu d y ; and (e ) id e n t i f i c a t io n o f in s t r u c t o r (s ) w i l l i n g

to p a r t ic ip a t e in th e s tu d y , e . g . , r e v is e course s y lla b u s

as n e c e s s a ry , a tte n d to t im e lin e s .

3 . D eve lop s p e c if ic s o f th e t r a in in g program based on

a l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w o f : (a ) th e n a tu re o f s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g fo r c h ild r e n and te a c h e r s k i l l s r e la te d to t h is

ty p e o f program m ing; '(b ) approaches to te a c h e r p re p a ra t io n

r e la te d to c la s s ro o m /b e h a v io r management, and human

r e la t io n s t r a in in g ; (c ) c o g n it iv e psychology and s o c ia l


le a rn in g th e o ry as i t a p p lie s to m o tiv a t in g te a c h e r

b e h a v io r .

4 . I d e n t i f y , o b ta in o r c o n s tru c t th e in s tru m e n ts /

methods fo r m easuring independent and dependent v a r ia b le s

in th e s tu d y .

5 . Conduct r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y p ro ced u res

r e la te d to both th e s o c ia l s k i l l and s e l f - e f f i c a c y te a c h e r

tr a in in g program s and any in s tru m en ts c o n s tru c te d fo r th e

s tu d y .

6 . Conduct th e s tudy a cc o rd in g to p re d e te rm in e d

t im e li nes:

(a ) A d m in is te r th e t r a in in g program s:

- S o c ia l s k i l l s t r a in in g

- S e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g

(b ) Conduct p o s t te s t in g on a l l s u b je c ts , in c lu d in g

fo llo w -u p in te rv ie w s w ith p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs and t h e i r

co rres p o n d in g s u p e rv is in g te a c h e rs .

7 . C om plete d a ta a n a ly s is on a l l p o s t te s t

in fo rm a tio n .

8 . P re s e n t th e r e s u lts o f th e tre a tm e n ts .

9 . D iscuss th e r e s u lts and im p lic a t io n s o f s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g fo r te a c h e rs .


CHAPTER I I

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

In tro d u c t ion

The purpose o f t h is re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e is to

(a ) d e s c r ib e s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g fo r c h ild r e n and th e

d i f fe r e n c e betw een t h is approach and c lassroom management

p r a c t ic e ; (b ) id e n t i f y th e te a c h e r s k i l l s n e cessary to

conduct s o c ia l s k i l l program m ing; (c ) d e s c r ib e ty p ic a l

m ethods o f te a c h e r p re p a ra t io n r e la te d to management o f

s tu d e n t b e h a v io r ; and (d ) d e s c r ib e th e c o g n it iv e

p s y c h o lo g y /s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry approach to b e h a v io r

change. T h is in fo rm a tio n is in ten d ed to d e s c r ib e th e

c u r r e n t s ta tu s o f te a c h e r t r a in in g in th e s o c ia l s k i l l a re a

and th e r a t io n a le fo r a p p ly in g s e l f e f f ic a c y th e o ry to

developm ent o f a s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g program fo r

te a c h e rs .

Approaches to S tu d e n t Management

S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g fo r S tu d e n ts

An O verv iew

R e la t iv e to s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g , Ladd and Asher

(1 9 8 5 ) r e p o r t th a t "few to p ic s in c h i ld developm ent have

re c e iv e d as much a t te n t io n in so s h o r t a tim e from

10


11

re s e a rc h e rs re p re s e n t in g such a w id e range o f d is c ip l in e s "

(p . 2 1 9 ) . The reason fo r t h is a t te n t io n is r e f le c te d in

th e p h ilo s o p h y and o r ie n t a t io n u n d e r ly in g t h is ty p e o f

program m ing. The b a s ic assum ption o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g

is th a t s o c ia l b e h a v io r is lea rn e d and can be ta u g h t u s in g

s tr u c tu r e d te a c h in g methods (G o ld s te in , S p r a fk in , Gershaw,

& K le in , 1983; Spence, 1 9 8 3 ) . A llo w in g th a t "many

e m o tio n a l and b e h a v io ra l problem s o f c h ild r e n a re a r e s u l t

o f f a u l t y le a rn in g o r in ad eq u a te s o c ia l i z a t io n

o p p o r tu n it ie s " (B re n d tro & Ness, 1983, p . 1 6 3 ), s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g focuses on te a c h in g s p e c i f ic p r o -s o c ia l

b e h a v io rs to s tu d e n ts fo r t h e i r use in a v a r ie t y o f

s i t u a t io n s , r a th e r than l im i t in g focus o f th e c lassroom

te a c h e r to d is c ip l in a r y o r b e h a v io r management p rocedures

( H a r r is , 1 9 8 4 ) . The goal is to e n a b le s tu d e n ts to im prove

t h e i r s ta tu s w ith in groups as th e y d e m onstra te more

s o c ia l ly a c c e p ta b le b e h a v io r , a r e la t io n s h ip th a t Ladd and

Asher (1 9 8 5 ) re p o r t is supported in th e re s e a rc h . The

p a r t ic u la r need by e x c e p tio n a l c h ild r e n fo r t r a in in g in th e

s o c ia l s k i l l a re a is g e n e r a l ly acknowledged (S t r a in & Odom,

1 9 8 6 ) . For th e s e y o u n g s te rs , as peer a c c ep tan ce ,

r e c ip r o c a l p o s i t iv e s o c ia l in te r a c t io n and s e If -a c c e p ta n c e

a re fo s te r e d , th e p r o b a b i l i t y o f d e v e lo p in g problem s

r e la te d to d e a lin g w ith o th e rs is reduced a c c o rd in g ly

(Gresham , 1982; O sberg , 1 9 8 2 ).


12

Ladd and Asher (1 9 8 5 ) re p o r t th a t re s e a rc h eilso

su ggests a l in k between e a r ly peer e x p e rie n c e s and la t e r

in te rp e rs o n a l d is o rd e r s . From t h is p e r s p e c tiv e , s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g is v iew ed as a p re v e n tiv e means o f

a d d re s s in g p o te n t ia l problem s and c o n c o m ita n tly as a means

o f fo c u s in g on th e s p e c i f ic b e h a v io ra l s k i l l d e f i c i t s w hich

c h ild r e n e x h ib i t (G o ld s te in e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 ).

In p r a c t ic e , s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g is based on th e

te a c h in g o f a s e t o f d is c r e te b e h a v io rs c o n s id e re d

e s s e n t ia l fo r s tu d e n t success in in te r a c t io n s w ith p eers

(DeLuke & Knob lo c k , 1987; Hops, 1983; Schumaker, Pederson,

Hazel & Meyen, 1983; Spence, 1 9 8 3 ). A lthou gh th e

g e n e r a l i z a b i I i t y o f t h is le a rn in g is a t issue and is be in g

s tu d ie d m ore th o ro u g h ly (B a r g a r o z z i , 1985; Hops, 1983;

K ib u rz , M i l l e r , & Morrow , 1 9 8 4 ), th e r e is grow ing use o f

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g w ith m i ld ly handicapped s tu d e n ts .

S k i l l s Addressed in S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g fo rS tu d e n ts

The b e h a v io ra l components w hich come under th e r u b r ic

o f s o c ia l s k i l l a re d iv e rs e and numerous. S in ce th e range

o f ta r g e t p o p u la tio n s encompassed in t h is a re a may in c lu d e

m u lt i -a g e handicapped and non-handicapped in d iv id u a ls

(J e n so n , S lo a n e , & Young, 1988; L 'A b a te & M ila n , 1 9 8 5 ), th e

s k i l l s n e cessary and r e le v a n t fo r a g ive n p o p u la tio n can

v a ry w id e ly .


13

T y p ic a l ly , th e c o n te n t o f s o c ia l s k i l l s c u r r ic u la is

based on a g e n era l s k i l l s o r a p r o b le m -s p e c if ic approach

(H ops, 1983; Schumaker e t a I . , 1983; Spence, 1 9 8 3 ). E ith e r

g e n e ra l co p in g s k i l l s o r s it u a t io n s p e c i f ic responses a re

ta u g h t (C o le & K a zd in , 1 9 8 0 ), a lth o u g h some packages

In c o rp o ra te both approaches. Depending on th e o r ie n t a t io n

o f th e c u rr ic u lu m th e b e h a v io rs addressed a re perfo rm an ce

a s p e c ts o f s o c ia l b e h a v io r r e la te d to i n i t i a t i n g and

respond ing in in te rp e rs o n a l s i t u a t io n s , a n d /o r problem

s o lv in g -c o g n it iv e a s p e c ts o f s o c ia l b e h a v io r .

A t a m olar ie v e l th e r e is b a s ic r e c o g n it io n th a t th e

c o n te n t o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g is g e n e r a l ly d ir e c te d to

one o f th r e e a re a s : (a ) s k i l l d e f i c i t s , (b ) s o c ia l

perfo rm an ce d e f i c i t s , o r (c ) s e l f - c o n t r o l d e f i c i t s

(Gresham , 1 9 8 2 ). R e s p e c tiv e ly , th e r e is (a ) a t t e n t io n to

th e a c q u is i t io n o f necessary s k i l l s , (b ) e f f o r t to in c re a s e

use o f e x is t in g s k i l l s to a p p r o p r ia te le v e ls , and (c )

t r a in in g to im prove s e l f - c o n t r o l o f im p u ls iv e /a g g re s s iv e

s o c ia l b e h a v io r . The means by w hich s o c ia l s k i i i s a re

ta u g h t r e f l e c t s e v e ra l s ta n d ard p r a c t ic e s .

M ethods o f Im p lem enta tion

S tu d e n ts a re ta u g h t s o c ia l s k i l l s in more o r less

c o n s is te n t ways depending on th e s k i l l d e f i c i t s to be

a d d res s ed . In g e n e r a l , im p lem e n ta tio n in c lu d e s many


14

p ro ced u res found In b e h a v io r m o d if ic a t io n re s e a rc h (DeLuke

& Knob lo c k , 1987; G o ld s te in e t a l . , 1983; Spence, 1 9 8 3 ):

1 . D is c u s s io n . In tro d u c tio n to th e s k i l l a re a ,

c o n te x tu a l c o n s id e r a t io n s , and p ersona l a p p l ic a t io n .

2 . M o d e lin g . Com petent d e m o n stra tio n o f th e s k i l l .

3 . R o le -p la y in g . S tu d e n t d e m o n stra tio n o f th e s k i l l

in a s im u la te d s i t u a t io n .

4 . P r a c t ic e . Repeated d e m o n stra tio n o f th e s k i l l in

a c tu a l o r s im u la te d s i t u a t io n s .

5 . Feedback. R e in fo rc em e n t or c o r r e c t io n r e la t i v e to

d e m o n s tra tio n o f th e s k i l l .

6 . C oach ing . T r a in e r o r peer o b s e rv a tio n and su p p o rt

o f s k i l l d e m o n s tra tio n by th e s tu d e n t.

In term s o f g e n era l s k i l l a c q u is i t io n , Gresham (1 9 8 2 )

suggests th a t t r a in in g should proceed throug h th r e e phases:

aw areness, p r a c t ic e , and a p p l ic a t io n . A t each s ta g e , he

advo c a te s s e le c t iv e use o f th e a fo re m e n tio n e d p ro c ed u re s —

d is c u s s io n , m o d e lin g , e t c . , and a d d it io n a l r e in f o r c in g

ta s k s such as games, homework ass ignm ents , goal s h e e ts , and

c o n tin g e n c y c o n tr a c ts . The t r a in in g packages a v a i la b le to

te a c h e rs t y p i c a l l y s t r u c tu r e lessons a cc o rd in g to t h is

fo r m a t .

Beyond th e P ro b le m -S o lv in g Process

Along w ith g e n e ra l s k i l l and p ro b le m -s o lv in g t r a in in g ,

B re n d tro and Ness (1 9 8 3 ) a ls o a d v is e a t te n t io n to a b roader


15

c o n s t ru c t o f le a r n in g , th e c o g n it iv e a sp e c t o f s o c ia l

b e h a v io r . D e sc rib ed by M a r t in (1 9 8 1 ) ,

T h is k in d o f I e a r n in g . . . is no t d i r e c t l y l in k e d to c o n c e p tio n s o f b e h a v io r change. R a th e r , le a rn in g from th e c o g n i t i v i s t v ie w p o in t , a tte m p ts to d e s c r ib e th o s e changes o r a l t e r a t io n s in th e e la b o r a t io n o r s t r u c tu r e o f in fo rm a tio n in s id e our heads, w hich may be c o n s id e re d to be b a s ic ( p r e r e q u is i t e ) to any o v e r t b e h a v io ra l changes.The im p lic a t io n o f t h i s s h i f t in em phasis from b e h a v io r to c o g n it iv e s t r u c tu r e is th a t te a c h e rs should be more concerned w ith in f lu e n c in g th e th in k in g s t r a t e g ie s (c o g n it iv e s t r a t e g ie s ) w hich p u p ils use to g u id e t h e i r b e h a v io rs , th a n w ith in f lu e n c in g p u p i ls ' b e h a v io r d i r e c t l y . One m a jo r advan tage o f t h is v ie w p o in t is th a t i t fo rc e s te a c h e rs and e d u c a tio n a l th e o r is t s to c o n s id e r th e le a rn e r as h is /h e r own te a c h e r , (p . 6 8 )

Examples o f c o g n it iv e r e s t r u c tu r in g s t r a t e g ie s in th is

domain in c lu d e s e l f - in s t r u c t i o n a l t r a in in g (M eichenbaum ,

1 9 7 7 ), r a t io n a l e m o tive th e ra p y (RET) ( E l l i s , 1 9 6 2 ), and

s e l f - r e in fo r c e m e n t (K ib u rz e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 ). In h is Mak i ng

B e tte r C hoices c u r r ic u lu m , H a r r is (1 9 8 4 ) a ls o s u p p o rts th e

te a c h in g and use o f c o g n it iv e s t r a t e g ie s .

A lthou gh t r a in in g c u r r ic u la a re not c o n s is te n t ly

s tr u c tu r e d to address th e a fo re m e n tio n e d c o g n it iv e a sp ec ts

o f s o c ia l s k i l l , packages a re a v a i la b le w hich in c lu d e both

p ro b le m -s o lv in g s t r a t e g ie s and g e n era l s o c ia l s k i l l s . From

th e v ie w p o in t o f Schumaker e t a l . (1 9 8 3 ) , a t th e v e ry le a s t

a t r a in in g em phasis on both g e n era l and p ro b le m -s o lv in g

s k i l l s p ro v id e s le a rn e rs w ith a more co m p le te approach to

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g and subsequent b e h a v io r change

ma i n te n a n ce .


S o c ia l S k i l l C u r r ic u la in th e Schools

16

S o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g is a c u rr ic u lu m in n o v a tio n

re co g n ize d to have p a r t ic u la r v a lu e fo r handicapped

in d iv id u a ls . A lthou gh th e re se arc h is e q u iv o c a l about th e

m ain tenance and g e n e r a l iz a t io n o f th ese s k i l l s o u ts id e th e

c lassroom and to la t e r s o c ia l a d ju s tm e n t, th e fa c t rem ains

th a t s o c ia l s k i l l programming is g a in in g accep tan ce as a

complement to s ta n d ard c lassroom management p r a c t ic e .

A cco rd in g to S tephens ( c i t e d in Gresham, 1 9 8 2 ), "Teaching

s o c ia l ly d e s ir a b le b e h av io r w i l l p ro b a b ly be h e a v ily

em phasized in th e schoo ls d u rin g th e 1 9 8 0 's " (p . 1 3 3 ).

Presum ably t h is means th a t te a c h e rs w i l l a ls o be

a p p r o p r ia te ly t r a in e d to c a r r y o u t t h is m andate. I t

fo l lo w s th a t e v a lu a t io n o f te a c h e r p re p a ra t io n program s in

t h is a re a is n e ce s sa ry; e d u c a tio n w hich is p r im a r i ly

focused on c lassroom management may not p ro v id e p re s e rv ic e

te a c h e rs w ith th e in -d e p th s k i l l and m o tiv a t io n re q u ire d to

keep pace w ith th e demands o f s o c ia l s k i l l program m ing.

How ever, to draw such a c o n c lu s io n , an e xa m in a tio n o f

th e o ry and p r a c t ic e in th e a re a o f c lassroom management is

n e ce s sa ry .


17

C lassroom Management

An O verv iew

A cco rd ing to S a n fo rd , Emmer, and C lem ents (1 9 8 3 ), "The

concept o f c lassroom management is b roader than th e n o tio n

o f s tu d e n t d is c i p l i n e . I t In c lu d e s a l l th e th in g s te a c h e rs

must do to fo s te r s tu d e n t invo lvem ent and c o o p e ra tio n in

c lassroom a c t i v i t i e s and to e s ta b l is h a p ro d u c tiv e w orking

environm ent" ( p . 5 6 ) . In t h is te a c h e r -d ir e c te d environm ent,

th e focus is on th e d e c is io n making and management ta s ks

in vo lv e d in m a n ip u la tin g tim e , in s t r u c t io n a l c o n te n t and

d e l iv e r y , s tu d e n t b e h a v io r , p h y s ic a l arrangem ents,

c lassroom a tm osphere , e tc . (S ta in b a c k , S ta in b a c k , & F royen ,

1987) .

To e s t a b l is h e f f e c t i v e c o n tro l w ith in th e c lassroom ,

Jones and Jones (1 9 8 6 ) id e n t i f y s e v e ra l management ta s ks

te a c h e rs may p e rfo rm to a c h ie v e an o r d e r ly , p ro d u c tiv e

e n v iro n m e n t. These in c lu d e :

1. E f f e c t iv e ly te a c h in g r u le s and procedures .2 . M a x im iz in g o n -ta s k b e h a v io r .3 . M o t iv a t in g s tu d e n ts to in c re a s e le a rn in g .4 . Reducing u n p ro d u c tiv e s tu d e n t b e h av io r through

p ro b le m -s o lv in g approaches.5 . Using b e h a v io r is t ic management s t r a t e g ie s .6 . Em ploying schoo lw ide d is c ip l in e programs (p . 2 3 ) .

The d e s c r ip t io n by S an fo rd e t a l . (1 9 8 3 ) n o tw ith s ta n d in g ,

i t is no te w o rth y th a t a l l th e s e components in some way

r e la t e to th e issue o f s tu d e n t b e h a v io r management— o r as

i t is b e t te r known, d is c ip l in e . P o p u la r ly , t h is con cep tio n


18

o f c lassroom management suggests th a t p r a c t ic e Is l im ite d

to methods o f s tu d e n t c o n tro l and c lassroom com p lia n c e .

T h is I s a fram e o f re fe re n c e w hich lends i t s e l f to fu r t h e r

exami n a t io n .

The D is c ip l in e Aspect o f C lassroom Management

In c o n t r a d ic t io n to th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f c lassroom

management p ro v id e d by S an fo rd e t a l . ( 1 9 8 3 ) , i t is th e

d is c ip l in a r y a sp e c t o f c lassroom management which emerges

as th e p r im a ry issue fo r a t te n t io n from te a c h e rs . Recent

n a tio n a l re p o r ts and numerous surveys have co n firm ed th a t

te a c h e rs p la c e d is c ip l in e a t th e head o f t h e i r concerns

about te a c h in g (C h a r le s , 1 9 8 5 ).

W ith in th e fram ework o f th e c la s sro o m , d is c ip l in e

r e fe r s to th e s y s te m a tic use o f s t r a t e g ie s by th e te a c h e r

to m a in ta in p roper s tu d e n t b e h a v io r (W olfgang & G lickm an ,

1 9 8 6 ) . The means by w hich in d iv id u a l te a c h e rs g a in t h is

c o o p e ra tio n a re v a r ie d , r e f le c t in g d iv e r s e s ty le s o f

in te r a c t io n w ith s tu d e n ts , p ersona l p h ilo s o p h ie s , and more

o r less s tr u c tu r e d and o v e r la p p in g use o f th e o r e t ic a l

a n d /o r m e th o d o lo g ic a l m odels o f c lassroom management

(M a r t in , 1981; W eber, R o f f , C ra w fo rd , & Robinson, 1 9 8 3 ).

The l i t e r a t u r e in d ic a te s th a t numerous m odels e x is t to

s t r u c tu r e t h is p rocess (C h a r le s , 1985; M a rt in , . 1981;

O 'L e a ry & O 'L e a ry , 1972; Weber e t a I . , 1983; W olfgang &

G lic k m a n , 1 9 8 6 ). Models range from those based on


19

t h e o r e t ic a l p e r s p e c t iv e s , e . g . , le a rn in g th e o ry , group

management, p e r s o n a l/s o c ia l grow th (M a r t in , 1 9 8 1 ), to th o s e

based on m e th o d o lo g ic a l s t r a t e g ie s , e . g . , a u th o r i t a r ia n ,

b e h a v io r m o d if ic a t io n , p e rm is s iv e , s o c io e m o tio n a I c l im a te ,

e tc . (Weber e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 ).

In p r a c t ic e , n o t a l l m odels o r s t r a t e g ie s o f c lassroom

management a re c o m p a tib le w ith s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g , fo r

th e reason th a t some o n ly m a in ta in th e n o tio n o f d is c ip l in e

"as w hat a d u lts do to 'm anage' c h ild r e n " (M orse , 1987,

p . 4 ) . In t h is c o n te x t , th e environm ent is no t c o nduc ive

to s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g . P r a c t ic e s w hich a re c o m p a tib le

and p e rm it in c lu s io n o f t h is programming a re d iscussed

f u r t h e r .

In te g r a t in g C lassroom Management and S o c ia l S k i l l T ra i n Ing

S ev e ra l p r a c t ic e s u t i l i z e d in c lassroom management a re

a ls o congruous w ith th e m ethodology and p e rs p e c tiv e o f

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g . S p e c i f ic a l ly :

1 . The p r in c ip le s and te c h n iq u e s o f b e h a v io r

m o d if ic a t io n a re p ro c ed u re s used w id e ly by p r a c t i t io n e r s in

each a r e a . In te r a c t io n betw een environm ent and b e h a v io r is

th e fram e o f re fe re n c e in both c a s e s . A c tu a l p r a c t ic e is

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d la r g e ly by th e purpose to w hich b e h a v io r

m o d if ic a t io n te c h n iq u e s a re a im ed, th a t is , in s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g th e y a re u t i l i z e d as in s t r u c t io n a l methods in th e

t r a in in g sequence, w hereas in c lassroom management th e


20

em phasis is on use o f th e s e s t r a t e g ie s fo r th e e x te r n a l

management o f b e h a v io r .

2 . C lassroom management le a rn in g th e o ry (s o c ia l and

c o g n it iv e le a r n in g ) corresponds h ig h ly to th e c o g n i t iv e -

s o c ia l le a rn in g model o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g (Ladd &

M iz e , 1 9 8 3 ) . P rem ised on th e assum ption th a t s tu d e n ts

" le a r n as much from o b s erv in g th e a c t io n s o f o th e rs as th e y

do from e x p e r ie n c in g th e d i r e c t consequences o f t h e i r own

a c t io n s " (M a r t in , 1981, p . 6 8 ) , s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry

com bines th e key p r in c ip le s o f d i r e c t o p e ra n t c o n d it io n in g

w ith p r in c ip le s o f m odeling and v ic a r io u s re in fo rc e m e n t.

A d d i t iv e ly , c o g n it iv e le a rn in g th e o ry suggests th a t

a s s im ila t io n o f new in fo rm a tio n is an i n t e r n a l ly m ed ia ted

p ro c e s s . As a p re c u rs o r to p ro b le m -s o lv in g , th e ta s k o f

te a c h in g is aim ed a t in f lu e n c in g th e th in k in g s t r a t e g ie s

w hich c h ild r e n use to gu id e t h e i r b e h a v io r (DeLuke &

K nob lock , 1 9 8 7 ) . W hether a p p lie d as c lassroom management

m ethodology o r s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g , th e in te n t and

te c h n iq u e s a re s u b s t a n t ia l ly a l i k e .

3 . The p ro b le m -s o lv in g model is an approach w hich

"a tte m p ts to te a ch c h ild r e n to become s e n s it iv e to

in te rp e rs o n a l p rob lem s, to d e ve lo p th e a b i l i t y to g e n e ra te

a l t e r n a t i v e s o lu t io n s , and to u n d erstand m eans-end

r e la t io n s h ip s and th e e f f e c t s o f o n e 's s o c ia l a c ts on

o th e rs " (M eichenbaum , 1986, p . 3 5 6 ) . C o n s is te n t w ith th e

in te n t o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g (Ladd & M iz e , 1 9 8 3 ) , in


21

c lassroom management th e goal is to h e lp c h ild r e n o rg a n iz e

c o g n it io n s (th o u g h ts ) and b e h a v io rs in to an in te g ra te d

c o u rse o f a c t io n d ir e c te d tow ard c u l t u r a l l y a c c e p ta b le

s o c ia l o r in te rp e rs o n a l g o a ls . T h is approach su p p o rts th e

im portance o f te a c h in g s tu d e n ts a d e c is io n -m a k in g fram ework

from w hich b e h a v io r can be m o n ito re d . “J u s t as [s tu d e n ts ]

r e q u ir e a s s is ta n c e in le a rn in g m ath e m a tic a l and re a d in g

s k i l l s , [ th e y ] need in s t r u c t io n in and re in fo rc e m e n t o f th e

s k i l l s in ta k in g r e s p o n s ib i l i t y fo r t h e i r own b e h a v io r"

(Jones & Jones, 1986, p . 3 2 7 ) . When fo rm a liz e d in to a

c u r r ic u lu m , t h is is th e essence o f many s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g packages.

4 . “P re v e n tiv e approaches to d is c ip l in e b eg in w ith

th e a t t i t u d e th a t a l t e r n a t iv e s to c o r r e c t iv e d is c ip l in e may

be w o rth y o f c o n s id e ra t io n and th a t p re v e n tiv e d is c ip l in e

a tte m p ts to te a ch s o c ia l s k i l l s can be ta u g h t w ith th e same

enthusiasm th a t is u s u a lly d ir e c te d tow ard a c h ie v in g

academ ic o b je c t iv e s " (S a b a t in o , 1987, p . 8 ) . T h is

acknow ledgem ent, th a t " p re v e n t iv e d is c ip l in e " m e r its th e

same a t te n t io n and s t r u c tu r e as o th e r in s t r u c t io n a l a rea s

u n e q u iv o c a lly s e ts th e s ta g e fo r s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g .

I t can be concluded th a t c lassroom management and

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g a re not m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e approaches

to s tu d e n t b e h a v io r change. In cases where th e c lassroom

management model r e f l e c t s any o f th e a fo re m e n tio n e d

o r ie n t a t io n s , th e re is some c o m p a t ib i l i t y . A t th is p o in t


22

I t is la r g e ly th e te a c h e r 's d e c is io n s r e la t i v e to

fo r m a l iz a t io n , com prehensiveness, and o r ie n t a t io n o f th e

in s t r u c t io n w hich s p e ll th e d i f fe r e n c e between a b e h a v io r

management o r s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g purpose.

G iven th e p o te n t ia l fo r o v e r la p , I t is Im p o rta n t to

c o n s id e r th e fe a tu r e s o f te a c h e r p re p a ra t io n in th e s o c ia l

s k i l l s a re a w hich d is t in g u is h i t from c lassroom management.

Through t h i s e x a m in a tio n an o v e rv ie w o f th e re q u ire d s k i l l s

can be ga in ed and an assessm ent conducted o f th e pending

needs fo r t r a in in g .

S k i l l s R equ ired o f Teachers to Engage in S o c ia l S k i l l Tra i n i ng

The c o n s id e ra t io n o f d i f f e r e n t i a l te a c h e r p re p a ra t io n

fo r s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in th e s choo ls is an issue

su p p o rted in many ways by th e s t r u c tu r e o f p re s e n t

e d u c a tio n a l program m ing. Ladd and Asher (1 9 8 5 ) m a in ta in

th a t te a c h e rs a re lo g ic a l c h o ice s fo r im plem enting s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g because t h e i r ro le s a llo w them to e x e r t

c o n s id e ra b le in f lu e n c e ov er th e s o c ia l developm ent o f t h e i r

s tu d e n ts . A d m itte d ly , w h ile t h e i r in f lu e n c e and a t te n t io n

m ust be d is t r ib u te d o v er a number o f y o u n g s te rs , th is

d is a d v a n ta g e is b a lan ced by t h e i r o p p o r tu n it ie s to observe

th e b e h a v io r o f s tu d e n ts in a w ide v a r ie t y o f s i t u a t io n s .

A d d i t io n a l ly , te a c h e rs b r in g w ith them t r a in in g r e la te d to

in s t r u c t io n a l program m ing, b a s ic p r in c ip le s o f le a r n in g ,


23

classroom management p r a c t ic e s , in d iv id u a l d i f fe r e n c e s in

le a r n e r s , and use o f v a r ie d re s o u rc e s .

N o tw ith s ta n d in g a l l o f th e a fo re m e n tio n e d , te a c h in g

s o c ia l s k i l l s to s tu d e n ts is an in s t r u c t io n a l p rocess w hich

r e q u ire s many a d d it io n a l s k i l l s and in fo rm a tio n on th e p a r t

o f te a c h e rs . For th e most p a r t , th e s e can be e x t ra p o la te d

from th e w r it in g s o f th e numerous re s e a rc h e rs who d isc u s s

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g . The fo l lo w in g g e n era l c a te g o r ie s

r e f l e c t recommended a re a s o f s k i l l o r in fo rm a tio n

a c q u is i t io n fo r p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs .

Knowledge o f S o c ia l S k i l l C on ten t

Knowledge o f th e c o m p le x ity , d i v e r s i t y , and sequence

o f s o c ia l s k i l l is com pulsory fo r te a c h e rs to e f f e c t i v e l y

in t e r p r e t and use th e in s t r u c t io n a l m a te r ia ls w hich

accompany c o m m e rc ia lly packaged s o c ia l s k i l l c u r r ic u la .

Schumaker e t a l . (1 9 8 3 ) observe th a t s o c ia l s k i l l , as a

w h o le , is a "com plex com posite o f s e v e ra l s k i l l s " (p . 2 ) ,

com prised o f e q u a lly complex in d iv id u a l s k i l l s . Of

n e c e s s ity , th e s e s k i l l s must become f a m i l ia r to p re s e r v ic e

te a c h e rs . The c o m p le x ity o f th e s o c ia l p ro b le m -s o lv in g

approach o v e r a l l , in term s o f both mechanisms and e f f e c t s ,

a ls o re q u ire s c o n s id e ra b le e x p lo r a t io n (S pence, 1 9 8 3 ).


Knowledge o f T ra in in g P rocedures

24

"The s o c ia l s k i l l s t r a i n e r must ta k e in to

c o n s id e r a t io n how to f a c i l i t a t e th e in te g r a t io n o f new

b e h a v io ra l system s w i th in th o s e s k i l l s system s a lre a d y

possessed by th e le a rn e r" (B a g a ro z z i, 1985, p . 6 0 7 ) . Thus,

in s t r u c t io n in s o c ia l s k i l l in v o lv e s know ledge o f a d iv e rs e

body o f p rocedures and s t r a t e g ie s . A t a p r e r e q u is it e

l e v e l , know ledge o f b e h a v io r m o d if ic a t io n m ethodology is

e s s e n t ia l , e . g . , m o d e lin g , r o le - p la y in g , perfo rm an ce

fe e d b ac k , and t r a n s fe r o f le a r n in g , as w e ll as th e a b i l i t y

to ta s k -a n a ly z e a s k i l l (DeLuke & K noblock , 1 9 8 7 ). A lso

im p o rta n t is know ledge o f a p p r o p r ia te s t r a t e g ie s fo r

re a c h in g a s o c ia l g o a l, know ledge o f a p p r o p r ia te g o a ls fo r

s o c ia l in te r a c t io n , and knowledge o f th e c o n te x t (s ) in

w hich s p e c i f ic s t r a t e g ie s may be a p p r o p r ia te ly a p p lie d

(Ladd & M iz e , 1 9 8 3 ).

At an o p e r a t io n a l le v e l , a n o th e r s e t o f needs e x i s t .

K ib u rz e t a l . (1 9 8 4 ) a d v is e th a t t r a in e r s need (a )

in s t r u c t io n on th e b e h a v io ra l s te p s o f th e s k i l l s

ad d ressed , (b ) t r a in in g on how to model th e s k i l l

a p p r o p r ia te ly , and (c ) in s t r u c t io n in how to p ro v id e s o c ia l

re in fo rc e m e n t to s tu d e n ts fo r a p p r o p r ia te perfo rm an ce o f

th e s k i l l . H a r r is ' (1 9 8 4 ) recommends th a t te a c h e rs must

a ls o know how to lead a d is c u s s io n w hich enhances each s te p

o f a s o c ia l s k i l l and e n ab le s p u p ils to th in k about

v erb a I/n o n v e rb a I d im ensions o f th e s k i l l . Ladd and M ize


25

(1 9 8 3 ) add th a t a b i l i t y to fo s te r s k i l l m a in tenance and

g e n e r a l iz a t io n is a n o th e r key component o f t r a in in g , w hich

suggests th a t te a c h e rs need to be f a m i l ia r w ith te c h n iq u es

em ployed in c o g n it iv e psychology and s o c ia l le a rn in g

th e o ry , e . g . , s e l f - in s t r u c t i o n , s e l f - r e in fo r c e m e n t .

Knowledge o f Assessment

As a p r e r e q u is it e to t r a in in g , e s ta b l is h in g v a l id and

r e l i a b l e methods o f a ss es s in g s o c ia l s k i l l is an issue o f

c o n s id e ra b le im portance (S pence, 1 9 8 3 ). Knowledge o f these

m ethods is e s s e n t ia l i f e d u ca to rs a re to d i r e c t t h e i r

t r a in in g a p p r o p r ia te ly . To d e te rm in e th e s e rio u s n e s s o f a

p roblem , and i t s e t io lo g y (Ladd & A s h e r, 1 9 8 5 ), Gresham

(1 9 8 2 ) o f f e r s th a t th e most commonly used methods o f s o c ia l

s k i l l s assessm ent in c lu d e : (a ) te a c h e r r a t in g s , (b )

s o c io m e tr ic assessm ent, and (c ) n a t u r a l i s t i c o b s e rv a tio n s .

He urges use o f a l l th r e e methods to g a in an o v e r a l l v iew

o f th e s o c ia l s k i l l q u o t ie n t o f a s tu d e n t. For th e

p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r t h is means g a in in g f a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e

m easures, th e a p p l ic a b i l i t y o f o b ta in e d d a ta to s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g , and th e ways th e s e m easures can be used to

assess th e p o s s ib le im pact o f newly g a in ed s k i l l s on th e

le a rn e r in h is o r her env ironm ent (B a g a ro z z i, 1 9 8 5 ).


26

K n o w le d g e o f M a t e r i a l s

Id e n t i f i c a t i o n and use o f r e le v a n t , e f f e c t i v e s o c ia l

s k i l l s m a te r ia ls Is a n o th e r im p o rta n t c o n s id e ra t io n fo r th e

p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e r . The need fo r t h is a sp e c t o f t r a in in g

is r e in fo r c e d by H a r r is (1 9 8 4 ) who re p o r ts "C u rric u lu m

m a te r ia ls and program s d ir e c te d tow ard s o c ia l s k i l l s

t r a in in g a r e r e l a t i v e l y new to th e e d u c a tio n a l m a rk e tp la c e ,

and a re l i t t l e known by most p r a c t ic in g te a c h e rs " (p . 1 7 ) .

F u r th e r , Schumaker e t a l . (1 9 8 3 ) in d ic a te th a t te a c h e rs o f

th e m i ld ly m e n ta lly im p a ire d , e m o tio n a lly d is tu rb e d , and

le a rn in g d is a b le d id e n t i f y s o c ia l s k i l l m a te r ia ls as th e i r

g r e a te s t c u r r ic u la need ( f o r p re a d o le s c e n t and a d o les ce n t

age s tu d e n ts ) . A d d it io n a l t r a in in g needs in v o lv e s k i l l in

i n te r p r e t in g in s t r u c t io n s o f c o m m erc ia lly prepared

c u r r ic u la a n d /o r c r e a t iv e a d a p tio n o f a v a i la b le m a te r ia ls

fo r use w ith e x c e p tio n a l s tu d e n ts .

Knowledge o f S tu d e n t Responses

Knowledge o f th e k in d s o f r e s is ta n c e to s o c ia l s k i l l

in s t r u c t io n w hich s tu d e n ts may dem onstra te is an o th e r

e s s e n t ia l a sp e c t o f t r a in in g fo r which th e p re s e rv ic e

te a c h e r must be p re p a re d . Unexcused absence, ta r d in e s s ,

a c t iv e o r p a s s iv e r e fu s a l to p a r t ic ip a t e , and in a p p ro p r ia te

p a r t ic ip a t io n a re a l l p o s s ib le responses s tu d e n ts may

e x h ib i t (G o ld s te in e t a I . , 1 9 8 3 ). P rocedures fo r cop ing


2 7

w ith and c o u n te r in g th e s e s it u a t io n s a re im p o rta n t and

germane to any in s t r u c t io n a l s i t u a t io n .

Knowledge o f S it u a t io n a l V a r ia b le s

The r o le c o n f l i c t In to w hich th e te a c h e r may s te p is a

s it u a t io n a l v a r ia b le w ith w hich th e p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e r may

be u n fa m i l ia r . Because many school d i s t r i c t s and

com m unities d e f in e th e e d u c a to r 's r o le s t r i c t l y in term s o f

academ ic le a r n in g , in s t r u c t io n r e la te d to s o c ia l b e h a v io r

may not have equal v a lu e , o r su p p o rt (Ladd & A sher, 1 9 8 5 ).

T h is p re s e n ts an o b s ta c le w ith w hich s p e c ia l e d u c a to rs , in

p a r t ic u la r , must contend as th e s e a re th e in d iv id u a ls who

t y p i c a l l y have th e yo u n g s ters most in need o f s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a i n i ng .

Knowledge o f Teacher B eh a vio rs

"Even th e most we I I-d e s ig n e d and a l l - i n c l u s i v e

t r a in in g program may be rendered in e f f e c t iv e i f i t is

conducted in an o v e r ly d id a c t ic , m e c h a n ic a l, and u n in v it in g

manner" (Ladd & M iz e , 1983, p . 1 5 3 . ) . Developm ent o f a

r e le v a n t te a c h e r t r a in in g program not o n ly in v o lv e s c o n te n t

and p ro c ed u ra l know ledge, bu t a ls o knowledge o f th e

in te rp e rs o n a l r e la t io n s h ip s th rough w hich in te r v e n t io n s

w i l l be o p e r a t io n a l iz e d . "The in s t r u c t o r -c h i ld

r e la t io n s h ip may w e ll in f lu e n c e e v e ry a sp e c t o f th e s k i l l -

t r a in in g process" (p . 1 5 3 ) . C o n s e q u en tly , th e b e h a v io rs


28

and s ty le s o f te a c h in g most l i k e l y to enhance le a rn in g fo r

s tu d e n ts must be id e n t i f i e d and exam ined.

Teacher P re p a ra t io n Approaches To S tu d e n t Management

The Teacher as C lassroom Manager

T y p ic a l ly , th e means by w hich in d iv id u a ls a re p re p are d

fo r r o le s as te a c h e rs in v o lv e s em phasis on c lassroom

management. However, as noted e a r l i e r , th e focus o f t h is

approach is no t a lto g e th e r c o n s is te n t and not e n t i r e l y

s u ite d to th e re q u ire m e n ts o f s o c ia l s k i l l d e l iv e r y . W h ile

te a c h e r t r a in in g may encompass a broad range o f a re a s

r e la te d to e f f e c t i v e management, in s t r u c t io n , and

d is c i p l i n e , th e o th e r extrem e is a ls o p o s s ib le — a s t r i c t

d is c ip l in a r y in te r p r e t a t io n o f c lassroom management

fo c u s in g on issues o f c o n tro l and c o m p lia n c e . The

l im i t a t io n s o f th e second approach a re o b v io u s . I t is

r e a c t iv e , fo s te r s com pliance r a th e r than s o c ia l iz e d

b e h a v io r , and o v e rlo o k s th e c o m p le x it ie s o f th e c h ild r e n

who a re b e in g s erved (M orse , 1 9 8 7 ). M o re o v er, a s t r i c t

d is c ip l in a r y in te r p r e t a t io n does not h e lp te a c h e rs

re c o g n iz e th a t fo re th o u g h t and p re v e n t iv e a c t io n can

u l t im a t e ly in c re a s e t h e i r e f fe c t iv e n e s s and d i r e c t t h e i r

e n e rg ie s more p r o a c t iv e ly (Jones & Jones, 1 9 8 6 ).

C o n v e rs e ly , c lassroom management t r a in in g w hich is

more c o m p reh e n s iv e ly d ir e c te d p ro v id e s g r e a te r o p p o r tu n ity


29

fo r p re s e r v ic e te a c h e rs to expand t h e i r th in k in g about and

e x p lo r a t io n o f th e te a c h in g p ro c e s s . In t h is mode,

c h a r a c t e r is t ic s w hich a re a s s o c ia te d w ith e f f e c t iv e

in s t r u c t io n a re im p o rta n t e le m e n ts o f t r a in in g (B ic k e l &

B ic k e l , 1 9 8 6 ). A s y n th e s is o f th e s e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s is

p ro v id e d by B ic k e l and B ic k e l who id e n t i f y th re e a rea s

su p p o rted by re s e a rc h found to be a s s o c ia te d w ith b a s ic

s k i l l s ach ie ve m en t. These in c lu d e :

1. Teach ing b e h a v io rs . O b servab le b e h av io rs

dem onstrated by te a c h e rs w hich a llo w them to " ta k e an

a c t iv e r o le in c r e a t in g a p o s i t iv e , e x p e c ta n t, and o r d e r ly

classroom environm ent in w hich le a rn in g ta k es p la c e "

(B ic k e l & B ic k e l , 1986, p.. 4 9 3 ) . P r im a r i ly th ese in c lu d e

gu ided p r a c t ic e , m odeling new p rocesses o f le a rn in g , and

c o r r e c t iv e fe e d b ac k .

2.. O rg a n iz a t io n o f i n s t r u c t io n . D e c is io n s e x e rc is e d

by te a c h e rs w hich c o m p a rtm e n ta liz e t im e , th e pace o f

in s t r u c t io n , s t r u c tu r e and d e l iv e r y o f th e c u rr ic u lu m ,

s tu d e n t p ro g re ss through th e c u r r ic u lu m , and g rouping o f

s tu d e n ts fo r in s t r u c t io n .

3 . In s t r u c t io n a l s u p p o r t . C o n s id e ra tio n s r e la te d to

c la s s s iz e and te a c h e r in s e r v ic e t r a in in g .

C le a r ly , th e aim o f t h is c lassroom management approach

is to broaden th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e te a c h e r and encourage

c o n s id e r a t io n o f th e m u lt i tu d e o f v a r ia b le s which in f lu e n c e

s tu d e n t a ch ie ve m en t. The m a jo r em phasis on te a c h e r -


30

d ir e c te d in s t r u c t io n is somewhat m it ig a te d by th e

u n d e r ly in g m o tiv a t io n to e n su re c l a r i t y o f g o a ls and th e

shared r e s p o n s ib i l i t y by te a c h e r and s tu d e n ts fo r m eeting

th e s e g o a ls .

On th e s id e o f c a u t io n , B ic k e l and B ic k e l (1 9 8 6 )

a d v is e th a t fu r t h e r re s e a rc h is needed to address th e

g e n e r a l iz a t io n o f th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f e f f e c t iv e

in s t r u c t io n to a re a s o th e r th a n b a s ic s k i l l s , in c lu d in g

s o c ia l s k i l l s . A cco rd ing to B ic k e l and B ic k e l ,

E f f e c t iv e c la s s ro o m /te a c h e r re se arc h has focused h e a v ily on b a s ic s k i l l s achievem ent as th e c e n t r a l outcome m easure fo r ju d g in g th e w orth o f a g iv e n p ro c ed u re o r p r a c t ic e . . .What is not w e ll u n d e rs to o d , and w hat rem ains as an im p o rta n t a re a o f fu tu r e re s e a rc h , is th e r e la t io n s h ip o f th e s e e f f e c t i v e p r a c t ic e s to o th e r va lu ed s tu d e n t outcom es, (p . 4 95 )

T h e re in l i e s th e g is t o f th e c h a lle n g e fo r te a c h e r

p r e p a r a t io n program s in th e a re a o f s o c ia l s k i l l s : To

in te g r a te and o p e r a t io n a l iz e more e x te n s iv e ly th e re le v a n t

p r in c ip le s o f c lassroom management p r a c t ic e and e f f e c t iv e

in s t r u c t io n re s e a rc h w ith th e s k i l l s re q u ire d o f te a c h e rs

to engage in s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g . C o n s is te n t w ith a l l

th e d is c u s s io n th u s f a r , th e c o n te n t o f such a program

w ould id e a l ly d i r e c t a t te n t io n to th e fo l lo w in g a re a s :

(a ) b e h a v io r m o d if ic a t io n te c h n iq u e s ; (b ) c o g n it iv e

p ro c e s s in g ; ( c ) p ro b le m -s o lv in g s t r a t e g ie s ; (d ) e f f e c t iv e

in s t r u c t io n p r a c t ic e s ; (e ) th e c o n te n t and p rocedures

s p e c i f i c a l l y r e la te d to s o c ia l s k i l l assessm ent and

t r a in in g ; and ( f ) th e te a c h e r b e h av io rs a s s o c ia te d w ith


31

com petent d e l iv e r y o f s o c ia l s k i l l c u r r ic u la . The la s t

a re a i d e n t i f i e d , te a c h e r b e h a v io rs , is one in p a r t ic u la r

r e q u ir in g fu r t h e r e x p lo r a t io n .

In term s o f th e b e h a v io ra l s k i l l s re q u ire d o f te a c h e rs

to e s t a b l is h a c lassroom environm ent c o nduc ive to s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g , Ladd and M ize (1 9 8 3 ) no te th a t

" R a r e ly . . .have p re v io u s s o c i a l - s k i l l t r a in in g in v e s t ig a to r s

a llu d e d to in s t r u c to r c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o r th e in s t r u c t o r -

c h i ld r e la t io n s h ip as im p o rta n t asp e c ts o f th e s k i l l -

t r a in in g process" (p . 1 5 3 ). N o n e th e le s s , t h is is a

c r i t i c a l p a r t o f th e p ro c es s . F u r th e r , Ladd and Asher

(1 9 8 5 ) o b s e rv e , " i t has been noted th a t e d u ca to rs have no

e s ta b lis h e d body o f p r a c t ic e in th e s o c ia l i z a t io n a rea s

and t h a t t h is poses problem s in term s o f te a c h e r t r a in in g

and th e m eaning o f p ro fe s s io n a l b e h a v io r" (p . 2 3 9 ) . The

lack o f a t te n t io n to te a c h e r p re p a ra t io n in th e b e h a v io ra l

domain re in fo r c e s t h is concern (H in z & Saba, 1 9 7 7 ).

T y p ic a l ly , t r a in in g in t h is a re a has ta k en a h u m a n is tic

o r ie n t a t io n and focused p re d o m in an tly on th e com m unication

s k i l l s o f th e p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r .

The Teacher as In te rp e rs o n a l Communicator

For th e most p a r t , p re p a ra t io n o f te a c h e rs in th e

b e h a v io ra l domain has m a in ta in e d a r e la t i v e l y u n ifo rm

fo c u s , th a t i s , a psychodynam ic approach based on

in te rp e rs o n a l s k i l l deve lopm ent, human r e la t io n s t r a in in g ,


32

o r a f f e c t i v e com m unication t r a in in g . E s s e n t ia l ly , s k i l l s

r e la te d to e m p a th e tic com m unication ( l i s t e n i n g and

re sp o n d in g ) and th e s tr u c tu r e o f t h is process have

com prised th e c o re o f in s t r u c t io n (F in e , 1975; Long,

P a ra d is e , & Colem an, 1 9 7 8 ). The g o a ls o f t h is t r a in in g

have been to p ro v id e th e t r a in e e w ith more s k i l l in th e

in t e r a c t iv e process (G erben & D re ze k , 1977; H in z & Saba,

1 9 7 7 ), g r e a te r a b i l i t y to s e l f - e x p lo r e (F in e , 1975; F u l l e r ,

1974; Noad, 1 9 7 9 ) , and problem to s o lv e (S o u th ern R egional

E d u ca tio n B oard , 1 9 7 4 ).

The methods by w hich t r a in in g have been conducted

r e f l e c t an e f f o r t to expand te a c h e r p r e p a r a t io n beyond th e

m a ste ry o f academ ic s u b je c t m a tte r . H in z and Saba (1 9 7 7 )

p ro v id e an exem plar o f t h is approach in t h e i r d is c u s s io n o f

a t r a in in g program fo r p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs in in te rp e rs o n a l

s k i l l s . In t h e i r s tu d y , t r a in in g was d iv id e d in to two

phases: (1 ) in te rp e rs o n a l s k i l l s t r a i n in g — s tre n g th e n in g

in d iv id u a l u n d e rg ra d u a te s ' a t te n d in g , p e r c e iv in g , and

respond ing s k i l l s , and (2 ) c a p i t a l i z in g on th e s e s tre n g th s

by te a c h in g un d e rg rad u ate s to u t i l i z e them in th e

c la s sro o m . The g e n era l t r a in in g s t r a t e g ie s inc lu d ed

( a ) d is c u s s io n o f th e new s k i l l , (b ) d e m o n s tra tio n o f th e

s k i l l , (c ) r o le p la y , and (d ) p r a c t ic e o f th e s k i l l in an

a c tu a l o r s im u la te d s e t t in g . F u n d a m en ta lly , th e issue to

w hich H in z and Saba (1 9 7 7 ) d ir e c te d t h e i r in v e s t ig a t io n was

how to b e s t t r a i n te a c h e rs to be humane, t h e i r prem ise


33

o r ig in a t in g as "Humane t e a c h e r s . . . f a c i I i t a t e le a r n in g ,

persona l g ro w th , and s o c ia l d e v e lo p m e n t . .." (p . 6 5 ) b e t te r

th a n th o s e in d iv id u a ls w ith les s o r d e f ic ie n t in te rp e rs o n a l

sk i I I .

The m ethodology employed by H in z and Saba is

in d ic a t iv e o f s im i la r t r a in in g conducted by re s e a rc h e rs in

th e a re a o f human re I a t io n s /in te rp e rs o n a I s k i l l s w ith

p re s e rv ic e in d iv id u a ls . in th e s e s tu d ie s th e g e n e ra l aim s

o f s k i l l - b u i l d in g w ere to : S tre n g th e n th e t r a in e e 's r o le

as com m unicator, enhance th e w o rk in g r e la t io n s h ip w ith

s tu d e n ts in th e c la s sro o m , and in c re a s e th e s e n s i t i v i t y o f

tr a in e e s to th e needs o f t h e i r s tu d e n ts (F in e , 1975; G erber

& D re ze k , 1977; G lo s e n g e r, 1984; Long e t a l . , 1978;

Thorman, 1 9 7 1 ) . A cco rd ing to th e s e re s e a rc h e rs , th e

psychodynam ic approach to t r a in in g has ga rn ere d p o s i t iv e

r e s u l t s . D e s p ite m e th o d o lo g ic a l l im i t a t io n s , t h is t r a in in g

has a s s is te d u n d e rg ra d u a te s to b e t te r u nderstand them selves

and e lem ents o f th e h e lp in g p ro c es s .

I t is a ls o w o rth n o tin g th a t th e re is a l im i t a t io n to

psychodynam ic t r a in in g as i t is commonly em ployed. The

d is t in g u is h in g c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f t h is approach is th e

in t e r a c t iv e n a tu re o f th e com m unication , and th e em phasis

on e m otional deve lopm ent o f th e " h e lp e e ." W h ile such an

e f f o r t is im p o rta n t and necessary in th e p ro b le m -s o lv in g

p ro c es s , such c o n c e n tra t io n does not im ply equal a t te n t io n

to th e a t t i t u d e s , b e l i e f s , and m o tiv a t io n s u n d e r ly in g th e


b e h a v io r o f th e te a c h e r . As psychodynam ic t r a in in g is

aimed la r g e ly a t enhancing th e in te r a c t io n between th e

te a c h e r and s tu d e n t and e n a b lin g th e t r a in e d person to

a s s is t p u p ils to n e g o t ia te th e p rocess o f change more

e f f e c t i v e l y (E gan , 1 9 8 2 ), th e te a c h e r is posed in th e

"h e lp e r" r o le . P resum ab ly , more d i r e c t focus on th e

te a c h e r , beyond th e r o le o f f a c i l i t a t o r , c o u ld a ls o b e n e f it

th e r e la t io n s h ip . F i r s t , com m unication te c h n iq u es and

p ro b le m -s o lv in g s k i l l s , s im i la r to those procedures used in

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g and classroom management, c o u ld be

lea rn e d by th e te a c h e r in t r a in in g . Second, t h is

in d iv id u a l w ould be a c t iv e ly in v o lv e d in exam in ing th e

c o g n it iv e a s p e c ts o f h is o r her own b e h a v io r and thereupon

u s in g th a t know ledge to e la b o r a te b e l ie f s and th e o r ie s in

fu r t h e r le a rn in g e x p e r ie n c e s . U l t im a te ly t h is co u ld enhance

th e p re s e rv ic e p e rs o n 's r o le as s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in e r by

p ro v id in g a p r a c t ic a l t r a in in g component commensurate w ith

th a t o f s tu d e n ts and a llo w in g g r e a te r p e r s o n a liz a t io n o f

th e b e h a v io r change p ro c es s .

The M o t iv a t io n a l Aspect o f Teacher B ehavio r

For th e most p a r t te a c h e r e d u c a tio n is f a i r l y

s ta n d a rd , b a s ic a l ly encompassing m a ste ry o f academic

s u b je c t m a tte r and th e th e o r ie s a p p l ic a b le to management o f

s tu d e n t b e h a v io r . As d iscussed th u s f a r , w ith some

accommodation t h is s ta n d ard c u rr ic u lu m c o u ld be expanded to


3 5

m eet s p e c i f ic s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g needs. B u t, how t h is

p re p a ra t io n c o u ld a ls o be c o n s tru c te d to address te a c h e r

w ill in g n e s s to d e liv e r s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g is th e issue

o f in t e r e s t .

Denham and M ichae l (1 9 8 1 ) in d ic a te th a t "A t f i r s t ,

th e s e b e g in n e rs [p ro s p e c t iv e te a c h e rs ] a r e a t t e n t iv e to

t h e i r own s a t is fa c t io n s and g a in s ; o n ly la t e r do th e y

become concerned about p u p il ach ievem en t" (p . 4 7 ) . G iven

o th e r c o n s id e ra t io n s w hich have been p re s e n te d , th is

o b s e rv a tio n suggests th a t i t is lo g ic a l and p r a c t ic a l to

in c lu d e a process o f s e l f - s t u d y in te a c h e r e d u c a tio n

program s, p a r t i c u l a r ly i f such an e f f o r t can f a c i l i t a t e a

q u ic k e r a n d /o r more q u a l i t a t iv e s h i f t o f a t te n t io n to th e

needs o f s tu d e n ts . A c h ild -c e n te r e d o r ie n t a t io n is a

c r i t i c a l e lem en t o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in th e classroom -,

and a llo w in g fo r th e complex n a tu re o f s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g i t is e n t i r e l y p o s s ib le th a t te a c h e rs who do not

understand t h e i r own b e l i e f s , a t t i t u d e s and o p in io n s , and

a re no t f a m i l ia r w ith th e source o f th e s e c o g n it io n s , w i l l

not be s u it a b ly p repared o r m o tiv a te d to convey t h is

in fo rm a tio n to c h ild r e n . As noted by B ain (1 9 8 7 ) ,

These a t t r ib u t e s [m o t iv a t io n s , b e l i e f s , and a t t i t u d e s ] have g e n e r a l ly been re p re s e n te d in h ig h ly a b s t r a c t form , and n o n -o p e ra tio n a I te rm in o lo g y . T h is makes i t p a r t i c u l a r lyd i f f i c u l t to id e n t i f y and e x p la in th e nono b s e rv a b le fa c to r s th a t c o n t r ib u te to th e s u cc e ss fu l invo lvem ent o f te a c h e rs in procedures l i k e s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g , (p . 13)


The l i t e r a t u r e in th e a re a o f c o g n it iv e psychology has

a tte m p te d to e x p la in th e c o n s tru c ts th a t u n d e r l ie

a t t i t u d e s , b e l i e f s and o p in io n s o f in d iv id u a ls . L ik e w is e ,

th e l i t e r a t u r e in th e rea lm o f s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry

c o n s id e rs th e in te r a c t iv e r e la t io n s h ip among b e h a v io r a l ,

p e rs o n a l, and e n v iro n m e n ta l v a r ia b le s th a t in f lu e n c e th e

c o g n it iv e process (P h a re s , 1984; R o t te r , 1 9 5 4 ). A spects o f

th e a fo re m e n tio n e d l i t e r a t u r e a re r e le v a n t when a p p lie d

s p e c i f i c a l l y to id e n t i f y in g th e fa c to r s th a t u n d e r l ie

m o tiv a te d te a c h in g b e h a v io r , and th e fa c to r s th a t

c o n tr ib u te to changing and expanding a p e rs o n 's b e h a v io ra l

r e p e r t o ir e . O f p a r t ic u la r in te r e s t a re th o se b e h a v io rs

a s s o c ia te d w ith th e d e liv e r y o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g .

R e le v a n t C o g n it iv e Psychology and S o c ia l L e arn in g Theory P r in c ip le s

C o g n it iv e psychology is concerned w ith how th e mind

fu n c tio n s (W ic k e lg re n , 1 9 7 9 ), and s tu d y is focused on th e

process o f c o g n it io n , th a t is , " a l l th e processes by

w h ic h . . .s e n s o ry in p u t is tra n s fo rm e d , reduced , e la b o r a te d ,

s to re d , re c o v e re d , and used" (N e is s e r , 1967, p . 4 ) . T h is

in c lu d e s th e processes common to p e rc e p tio n , le a r n in g ,

memory, lang uage , and th in k in g (W ic k e lg re n , 1 9 7 9 ). A t th e

same t im e , s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry c o n s id e rs th e im portance

o f in te g r a t in g re in fo rc e m e n t w ith th e co n ce p ts o f c o g n it iv e

psycho logy " th a t d e p ic t a th in k in g , knowing person who has

e x p e c ta t io n s and b e l ie fs " (P h a re s , 1984, p . 3 3 9 ) .


M e ta p h o r ic a l ly , in th e s o c ia l c o g n it io n approach th e

human mind is view ed as an in fo rm a tio n p ro c e s s o r, r e c e iv in g

in p u t from th e e n v iro n m e n t, s e a rc h in g memory s to re s fo r

d a ta s t r u c tu r e s , and c y c lin g t h is in fo rm a tio n th roug h a

c e n t r a l p ro c es s o r fo r o u tp u ts r e la te d to t h in k in g ,

re a s o n in g , and m aking d e c is io n s (B ow er, 1978; O strom ,

1 9 8 4 ). The a n a ly s is o f t h is c o g n it iv e process is " th e c o re

o f p s y c h o lo g is ts ' and e d u c a to rs ' a tte m p ts to u nderstand th e

mind and i t s d eve lo p m en t” (M urray & M osberg, 1982, p . 2 7 9 ) ,

and s e p a ra te th e a c t o f c o g n it io n in to i t s component

p ro c es s es . The p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e in t h is a re a

su p p o rts in te r e s t by re s e a rc h e rs in th e c o g n it iv e v iew o f

b e h a v io r (Haaga & D a vis o n , 1 9 8 6 ). I t is not th e in te n t o f

t h is re v ie w , how ever, to d isc u s s th e th e o r e t ic a l

p e rs p e c tiv e s o f th e many in d iv id u a ls who have produced t h is

body o f l i t e r a t u r e o r th e d iv e r s e ways in w hich t h is

in fo rm a tio n is be in g a p p lie d . R a th e r , th e purpose is to

c o n s id e r p e r t in e n t e lem ents o f c o g n it iv e psychology and

s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry th a t can h e lp to e x p la in m o tiv a te d

te a c h e r b e h a v io r . T h is o b je c t iv e is no t w ith o u t b a s is as

B a ll (1 9 8 4 ) r e p o r ts , " C o g n itiv e th e o r ie s o f m o tiv a t io n

today re p re s e n t one o f th e most dynamic a re a s o f

th e o r e t ic a l and re s e a rc h a c t iv i t y " (p . 1 2 5 6 ).

In a b ro ad er sense , th e “c o g n it iv e r e v o lu t io n " is a

pro d u c t o f th e 1 9 8 0 's (F ra n k s , 1984, p . 1 4 0 ) , and a

s y n th e s is o f work begun by th e o r is t s in th e 5 0 's who


c h a lle n g e d th e n o tio n th a t b e h a v io r is o n ly e x p la in e d by

i t s im m ediate consequences. W h ile not d is re g a rd in g

e n v iro n m e n ta l in f lu e n c e s , c o g n it iv e p s y c h o lo g is ts expand

t h e i r e x p la n a t io n to a ls o In c lu d e c o n s id e ra t io n o f o th e r

i n t e r n a l ly m ed ia te d fo r c e s . They o v e r la p w ith s o c ia l

le a rn in g th e o r is t s to v iew th e in d iv id u a l as an accum ulato r

o f know ledge about th e m utual r e la t io n s h ip s among e ve n ts in

h is /h e r env ironm ent (B ow er, 1 9 7 8 ) . F o llo w in g t h is v ie w ,

th e r e a re c o g n it iv e s tr u c tu r e s th a t have been id e n t i f i e d

w hich have p a r t ic u la r re le v a n c e to th e s tudy o f te a c h e r

a t t i t u d e s and b e l i e f s . These a re d iscussed f u r t h e r .

C o g n it iv e S tru c tu re s

C o g n it iv e s tr u c tu r e s a re " th e g e n e ra l, lo n g -te rm

c o g n it iv e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , in c lu d in g b e l ie f s and a t t i tu d e s "

(Haaga & D a v is o n , 1986, p . 2 5 0 ) th a t a c t as r u le s and

p r in c ip le s to govern an in d iv id u a l 's in t e r p r e t a t io n o f

e v e n ts ; a c c o rd in g ly th e y p ro v id e a u n ifo rm way o f

e x p la in in g and u n d e rs ta n d in g th e s e l f and th e w o rld

(M eichenbaum , 1 9 8 6 ) . The background s tr u c tu r e s r e la te d to

th e b e l i e f s an in d iv id u a l ho lds about a dom ain, "s e rve as a

te rm o f r e fe re n c e or b a s is fo r th e p ro cess in g o f fu tu r e

in p u t about th a t domain" (B a in , 1987, p . 1 4 ) . Hence, th e s e

o r g a n iz in g s tr u c tu r e s p ro v id e a fram ework from which

b e h a v io r p a t te r n s d e v e lo p .


As i t p e r ta in s to th e p re s e n t s tu d y , i t is re a s o n a b le

to assume th a t th e o r g a n iz a t io n a l fram ework o f a p re s e rv ic e

te a c h e r h o ld s few s u b s ta n t ia te d b e l ie f s r e la te d to th e

te a c h in g p ro c e s s . However, th is does no t im ply t h a t th e

in d iv id u a l Is la c k in g in such p r e d is p o s it Io n a I b e l i e f s . To

th e c o n t r a r y , and acc o rd in g to c o g n it iv e th e o r y , th e

c o g n it iv e s tr u c tu r e s w hich e x is t a lre a d y ho ld a s to r e o f

c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , in c lu d in g b e l ie fs q u ite p o s s ib ly t in g e d

w ith n a iv e te , b ia s , and d is t o r t io n (N e is s e r , 1 9 6 7 ).

A c c o rd in g ly , i t is t h is fram ework th a t serv es as a p o in t o f

re fe re n c e fo r fu tu r e b e h a v io r . The way in w hich s to re d

in fo rm a tio n c o n tr ib u te s to m o tiv a te d b e h av io r is e x p la in e d

fu r t h e r by s tu d y o f "schem ata ," a concept w hich Ostrom

(1 9 8 4 ) d e s c r ib e s "p ro v id e d th e i n i t i a l m eeting ground fo r

th e s o c ia l and c o g n it iv e re s e a rc h groups" (p . 3 3 6 ) .

Schemata

"C o g n it iv e s t r u c tu r e s p la y a p a r t i c u l a r ly in te r e s t in g

r o le in le a rn in g and rem em bering. In t h is c o n n e c tio n , th ey

a re most f r e q u e n t ly c a l le d ‘ schem ata '" (N e is s e r , 1967,

p . 2 8 7 ) . A cco rd ing to P ia g e t ( c i t e d in D iV e s ta , 1 9 8 2 ),

schem ata a re re p re s e n te d in th e form o f schemes o r m ental

s t r u c tu r e s . O p e ra tin g as concep tua l fram ew orks, schem ata

form th e b a s is in d e te rm in in g (a ) what is a tte n d e d t o , (b )

w hat is le a rn e d , (c ) what k in d s o f in fe re n c e s a re made, and

(d ) what is r e c a l le d (D iV e s ta , 1 9 8 2 ). S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e


4 0

term "schema" r e fe r s to th e knowledge s tr u c tu r e o f an

in d iv id u a l , in c lu d in g th e fa c t s , c o n ce p ts , and o r g a n iz a t io n

o f know ledge a c t in g to d e te rm in e b e h a v io r . "These

o r ie n t a t io n s encompass th e s to re d consequences and

i n te r p r e t a t io n s o f e x p e rie n c e s and th e re b y re p re s e n t th e

c u r r e n t w o rld v iew o f th e person" (D iV e s ta , 1982, p . 2 9 0 ) .

The schema f a c i l i t a t e s s e le c t iv e a t te n t io n to and th e

o rg a n iz e d p ro c es s in g o f a i l incoming s t im u li (T u rk &

S a lo v e y , 1 9 8 5 ). L iken ed to a te m p la te th a t is imposed on

o n e 's w o r ld , a schema e n ab le s an in d iv id u a l to p e rc e iv e

r e le v a n t e ve n ts s e l e c t iv e ly , to f i l l in th e gaps when

c e r t a in in fo rm a tio n is m is s in g , and to r e c a l l th e e s s e n t ia l

a sp e c ts o f an in c id e n t (G o ld fr ie d & R ob ins , 1 9 8 3 ) . Thus,

th e end p ro d u ct can be co n stru ed as th e dynam ic in te r a c t io n

o f m u l t ip le v a r ia b le s . As new in fo rm a tio n and e xp e rie n c e s

a re brought to th e le a r n e r 's aw areness, th e p rocess o f

encoding th e in fo rm a tio n and in te g r a t in g i t w ith

in fo rm a tio n p re v io u s ly s to re d is ongo ing .

F u n d a m en ta lly , th e a fo re m e n tio n e d d e s c r ip t io n

a r t ic u la t e s th e process in a l l new le a rn in g fo r p re s e rv ic e

te a c h e rs . I t a ls o d e s c r ib e s th e id e n t ic a l process throug h

w hich c h ild r e n proceed as th e y a re p re se n te d w ith new

le a rn in g o p p o r tu n it ie s . As i t a p p lie s to th e d e liv e r y o f

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g by p ro s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs , know ledge o f

schema may p ro v id e in s ig h t in to th e fa c to r s a f f e c t in g t h e i r

a t t i t u d e s and b e l ie f s re g a rd in g t h is m ethodology (B a in ,


41

1 9 8 7 ) , f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r in s ig h t in to th e le a rn in g process

o f c h i ld r e n , and thereupon t h e i r w i l l in g n e s s to conduct

soc i a I sk i I I t r a i n i n g .

S e lf-S c h e m a ta

E xten d in g th e concep t o f schem ata one s te p f u r t h e r ,

Markus (1 9 7 7 ) proposes

th a t in d iv id u a l a tte m p ts to o r g a n iz e , sum m arize, o r e x p la in o n e 's own b e h a v io r in a p a r t ic u la r domain w i l l r e s u l t in th e fo rm a tio n o f c o g n it iv e s tr u c tu r e s about th e s e l f o r w hat m ig h t be c a l le d s e lf -s c h e m a ta . S e lf-s c h e m a ta a re c o g n it iv e g e n e r a l iz a t io n s about th e s e l f , d e r iv e d from p a s t e x p e r ie n c e , t h a t o rg a n iz e and g u id e th e p ro c es s in g o f s e l f - r e l a t e d in fo rm a tio n c o n ta in e d in th e in d iv id u a l 's s o c ia l e x p e r ie n c e s , (p . 6 4 )

H aving a w e l l -d e f in e d s e lf-s c h e m a in a p a r t ic u la r

b e h a v io ra l domain (a ) f a c i l i t a t e s s e lf - ju d g m e n t in th a t

dom ain; (b ) a llo w s e a s ie r r e t r i e v a l o f in fo rm a tio n w hich

c o n firm s th e s e l f - ju d g m e n t; (c ) h e ig h te n s re s is ta n c e to

d is c o n f irm in g schem atic in fo rm a tio n ; and (d ) p ro v id e s th e

b a s is fo r s tro n g e r p r e d ic t io n about f u r t h e r b e h a v io r in

th a t domain (G o ld f r ie d & R obins , 1 9 8 2 ) . S ta te d o th e rw is e

from a s o c ia l le a rn in g p e rs p e c tiv e , as pe rso n a l e x p e rie n c e

b r in g s about a g e n e ra l iz e d e x p e c ta t io n (s e If -s c h e m a ta )

between a c t io n and outcom e, subsequent in d iv id u a l l i f e

e x p e rie n c e s t r a n s la t e in to e x p e c ta n c ie s re g a rd in g p e rsona l

a b i l i t y to e f f e c t i v e l y in f lu e n c e o th e r outcomes (B andura ,

1 9 7 7 ). T h is e x p e c ta n c y , o r b e l i e f — th a t one has th e power

to produce an e f f e c t — is th e essence o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y


42

th e o ry and th e fundam ental r e f le c t io n o f a p e rs o n 's s e l f

schem ata fo r a p a r t ic u la r a re a o f fu n c tio n in g (G o ld fr ie d &

R ob ins , 1 9 8 2 ).

The a p p l ic a b i l i t y o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y th e o ry to th e s tudy

o f te a c h e r m o t iv a t io n In th e s o c ia l s k i l l s a re a Is a m ajor

a re a o f In te r e s t In t h is re v ie w . Research re p o rte d by

G o ld f r ie d and Robins (1 9 8 3 ) , suggests th a t a r e la t io n s h ip

e x is ts betw een s e lf-s c h e m a ta and th e in cre a se d l ik e l ih o o d

o f d e te c t in g e v id e n ce c o n s is te n t w ith th a t schem ata.

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , "s e lf -s c h e m a ta a re [a ls o ] l i k e l y to make one

more r e s is ta n t to c o u n te rs c h e m a tic in fo rm a tio n a n d e a n

p ro v id e a b a s is fo r s tro n g e r p r e d ic t io n s about fu tu r e

r e le v a n t b e h a v io r" (p . 4 9 ) . Thus, w here p r e s e rv ic e

te a c h e rs a re co n cern ed , th e p r o b a b i l i t y th a t an even more

g e n e r a l iz e d s e lf-s c h e m a ta can in f lu e n c e an in d iv id u a l 's

e x p e c ta t io n fo r fu tu r e fu n c t io n in g , is a r e la t io n s h ip which

must be c o n s id e re d when d e liv e r in g p re p a ra to ry t r a in in g fo r

th e s e in d iv id u a ls . Because s o c ia l s k i l l in s t r u c t io n

re p re s e n ts a d i f f e r e n t b e h a v io ra l and in s t r u c t io n a l

o r ie n t a t io n , th e p re co n c e p tio n s w hich e x is t on th e p a r t o f

t r a in e e s , must be exam ined to g a in some e s t im a te o f t h e i r

p o te n t ia l in f lu e n c e on fu tu r e i n i t i a t i o n o f and p e rs is te n c e

w ith t h is ty p e o f t r a in in g .


43

S e l f - E f f ic a c y and Teacher M o t iv a t io n

The C o n s tru c t

A cco rd ing to Bandura (1 9 8 2 ) , s e l f - e f f i c a c y is th e

p e rc e iv e d c a p a b i l i t y o f an in d iv id u a l to e xe cu te a b e h av io r

r e q u ire d to m eet th e e x p e c ta t io n s o f a p ro s p e c tiv e

s i t u a t io n ; c o n se q u e n tly i t in f lu e n c e s th e n a tu re and e x te n t

o f b e h a v io r , th e amount o f e f f o r t expended, and th e

d u r a t io n o f e f f o r t in th e fa c e o f o b s ta c le s (B andura ,

1 9 7 7 ) . T h ereb y , s e l f - e f f i c a c y is th e o r iz e d to be a

s t r a t e g ic c o n s tru c t u n d e r ly in g m o t iv a t io n , and a c o g n it iv e

process w hich p la y s an im p o rta n t r o le in th e a c q u is i t io n

and r e te n t io n o f new b e h a v io r p a t te r n s .

Research in t h is a re a has a tte m p te d to o p e r a t io n a l iz e

and s tu d y th e c o n s tru c t in s e v e ra l w ays. An e xp e rim en t

conducted by Bandura, Adams and Beyer (1 9 7 7 ) in v o lv in g

snake phobics is i l l u s t r a t i v e o f one such e f f o r t . They

th e o r iz e d th a t a c e n t r a l p ro cessor o f e f f ic a c y in fo rm a tio n

re g u la te s b e h a v io r r e la te d to m aking c h o ice s and th e

e x p e n d itu re o f e f f o r t based on p e rc e iv e d s e l f - e f f i c a c y . As

th e y c o n c e p tu a liz e d i t , t h is in v o lv e s p ro c e s s in g , w e ig h in g ,

and in te g r a t in g d iv e rs e sources o f in fo rm a tio n co n cern in g

p e rso n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s . Depending on th e source o f th e

s e l f - e f f i c a c y in fo rm a tio n fo r s u b je c ts in th e s tu d y , e i t h e r

m a ste ry -b a se d tre a tm e n t o r v ic a r io u s e x p e r ie n c e , th e

s tr e n g th and genera I i z a b i I i t y o f s e l f - e x p e c ta t io n s w ere


44

a f fe c t e d . R e s u lts in d ic a te d th a t a c tu a l b e h a v io ra l

ach ievem en ts produced more change in s e l f - e f f i c a c y th a n d id

im agined a ch ievem en ts , sug g estin g th a t m astery perform ance

produces more r e l i a b l e ev id e n ce about a b i l i t y than does

v ic a r io u s e x p e r ie n c e . How ever, re g a rd le s s o f w hether th e

changes in s e l f - e f f i c a c y w ere produced th rough e n a c tiv e

m a ste ry o r by v ic a r io u s e x p e rie n c e a lo n e , i t was found th a t

s e l f - e f f i c a c y was a c o n s is te n t ly a c c u ra te p r e d ic to r o f

p erfo rm an ce on ta s ks o f v a ry in g d i f f i c u l t y .

In a n o th e r s tudy conducted by B andura, Adams, H a rd y ,

and H o w e lls (1 9 8 0 ) , th e g e n e r a l i t y o f e f f ic a c y th e o ry

a cro ss a n o th e r b e h a v io ra l domain (a g o ra p h o b ia ) was te s te d .

A g o rap h o b ics , those w ith a fe a r o f p u b lic p la c e s , w ere

t r e a te d th roug h a co m b in atio n o f p re p a ra to ry and f i e l d

m a ste ry e x p e r ie n c e s . The p re p a ra to ry asp e c t o f th e

t r a in in g in c lu d e d such e lem ents as s e l f - r e l a x a t i o n , goal

s e t t in g , a s s e r t iv e n e s s , and s e lf -e x p r e s s iv e n e s s . The

r e s u l ts o f th e experim ent a g a in supported a r e la t io n s h ip

between s e l f - e f f i c a c y and perform ance on in d iv id u a l ta s k s .

E m p ir ic a l te s ts have a ls o dem onstrated th a t " e f f ic a c y

e x p e c ta t io n s v a ry on s e v e ra l d im ensions th a t have im p o rta n t

perfo rm an ce im p lic a t io n s " (B andura , 1977, p . 1 9 4 ). That

is , th e y v a ry in m agnitude, or th e le v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y o f a

ta s k in d iv id u a ls b e lie v e th ey can a cc o m p lis h ; th ey v a ry in

g e n e r a l i t y , o r a s it u a t io n a l vers u s a broader m astery

e x p e c ta t io n ; and th e y v a ry in s tr e n g th , o r th e r e la t i v e


ease o r d i f f i c u l t y w ith w hich th e e f f i c a c y e x p e c ta t io n may

be m o d if ie d . A cco rd ing to Bandura, "an a dequate expec tan cy

a n a l y s i s . . . r e q u ir e s d e ta i le d assessm ent o f th e m ag n itu d e ,

g e n e r a l i t y , and s tre n g th o f e f f i c a c y e x p e c ta t io n s

com m ensurate w ith th e p r e c is io n w ith w hich b e h a v io ra l

pro c es s es a re measured" (p . 1 9 4 ) .

From t h e i r s tu d y o f th e c o n s t r u c t , Denham and M ic h ae l

(1 9 8 1 ) found th a t one o f th e c o g n i t iv e fa c to r s re co g n ize d

to e x e r t c o n s id e ra b le in f lu e n c e on th e s tre n g th o f s e l f -

e f f ic a c y e x p e c ta n c ie s is th e s o u rce o f a t t r i b u t i o n , or

"cause" fo r o n e 's success o r f a i l u r e . An e x p e rie n c e o f

success a t t r ib u t e d to perfo rm an ce a b i l i t y is proposed to

g e n e r a l iz e a s tro n g e r sense o f e f f i c a c y than success

a t t r ib u t e d to e x te r n a l fa c to r s o r lu c k . V ic e v e rs a ,

f a i l u r e a t t r ib u t e d to lack o f perfo rm an ce a b i l i t y is

th o u g h t to be more d e b i l i t a t i n g to a sense o f e f f ic a c y than

f a i l u r e a t t r ib u t e d to lack o f e f f o r t o r f a c to r s o u ts id e

o n e 's c o n t r o l . Hence, as in d ic a te d in th e a fo re m e n tio n e d

s tu d ie s by Bandura e t a l . (1 9 7 7 , 1 9 8 0 ) , th e mode by w hich

e f f ic a c y e x p e c ta n c ie s a re d e r iv e d is re co g n ize d to e x e r t

c o n s id e ra b le in f lu e n c e on th e s tr e n g th o f a p e rs o n 's

b e l i e f s .

The sources o f in fo rm a tio n in f lu e n c in g s e l f - e f f i c a c y

e x p e c ta t io n is a v a r ia b le w hich Bandura (1 9 7 7 ) in d ic a te s

can be m a n ip u la te d th roug h v a r io u s modes o f tr e a tm e n t . In

descend in g o rd e r o f s tre n g th in th e fo llo w in g l i s t , he


4 6

i d e n t i f i e s fo u r m a jo r sources by w hich e f f ic a c y

e x p e c ta n c ie s a re e s ta b lis h e d ; G o ld fr ie d and Robins (1 9 8 2 )

add th e s i t u a t io n a l - v a r ia b le ( s ) under w hich th e source is

most e f f e c t i v e as a le a rn in g m echanism. A ls o id e n t i f i e d

a r e th e p r in c ip a l m ethods by w hich a source o f e f f ic a c y

e x p e c ta t io n is induced (B andura , 1977, p . 1 9 5 ):

1 . P erform ance accom plishm ents - D ir e c t exposure o r p a r t ic ip a n t m o d e lin g ; a p a r t i c u l a r ly in f l u e n t i a l source because i t is based on pe rso n a l m a ste ry e x p e r ie n c e . (M ost e f f e c t i v e when success is a t t r ib u t e d to o n e 's a b i l i t y o r to a v a r ia b le w i th in o n e 's c o n t r o l ) .

Mode o f in d u c tio n - p a r t i c ip a n t m odeling-p e rfo rm a n c e d e s e n s it iz a t io n-p e rfo rm a n c e exposure- s e I f - i n s t r u c t e d perform an ce

2 . V ic a r io u s e x p e r ie n c e - O bserv ing th e perform an ce o f o th e rs and pe rsu a d in g o n e s e lf th a t he o r she can be s im i l a r l y s u c c e s s fu l. ( E f f e c t iv e i f th e model is c r e d ib le and s im i la r in c h a r a c t e r is t ic s to th e le a r n e r ) .

Mode o f in d u c tio n - 1i ve mode I i ng-s y m b o lic m odeling

3 . V erb a l p e rsu a s io n - In fo rm a tio n p ro v id ed by a n o th e r s ource w hich a tte m p ts to co n v in c e th e le a rn e r th a t he o r she can be s u c c e s s fu l a t a g ive n ta s k . ( E f f e c t iv e when th e p e rsuader is v iew ed as c r e d ib le and e x p e r t . )

Mode o f in d u c tio n -s u g g e s tio n -e x h o r ta t ion - s e I f - i n s tr u c t ion - i n t e r p r e t i v e tre a tm e n ts

4 . Em otional a ro u sa l - In fo rm a tio n a p p e a lin g to th e em otions in ten d ed to d im in is h th e p h y s io lo g ic a l ly aroused s t a t e o f th e in d iv id u a l so th a t inducement to a c t io n can be acc o m p lis h e d . (D ependent on an in d iv id u a l 's own inadequacy o r o th e r s i t u a t io n a l f a c t o r s ) .

Mode o f in d u c tio n - a t t r i b u t io n - r e la x a t io n -b io feedb ack-s y m b o Ii c desens i t i z a t ion -s y m b o lic exposure


47

A cco rd ing to th e ev id e n ce p re s e n te d , i t appears th a t

judgm ents o f persona l e f f ic a c y in v o lv e a t le a s t two

c o n s id e r a t io n s , g e n e ra l iz e d p e rc e p tio n s (o r s e lf -s c h e m a ta )

g a in ed from le a rn in g e x p e r ie n c e s , and th e in te r p la y o f

th e s e p e rc e p tio n s w ith s it u a t io n a l f a c to r s . Depending on

th e s tre n g th o f th e source o f th e e f f i c a c y e x p e c ta t io n ,

e . g . , perfo rm an ce accom plishm ent, v ic a r io u s e x p e r ie n c e ,

v e rb a l p e rs u a s io n , or em otional a r o u s a l, th e g r e a te r is th e

p r e d ic t iv e r e la t io n s h ip between s e l f - e x p e c ta t io n and

s u cc e ss fu l fu tu r e perfo rm an ce . The s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e

s ource o f e f f ic a c y e x p e c ta t io n is p a r t i c u l a r ly no tew orthy

when one c o n s id e rs R oss 's ( c i t e d in G o ld fr ie d & Robins ,

1982, p . 3 67 ) p r o p o s it io n " th a t in cases o f c o n f l i c t

between g e n e ra liz e d b e l ie f s and s i t u a t io n a l in fo rm a tio n ,

peo p le te n d to r e ly more h e a v ily on t h e i r b e l i e f s , ig n o rin g

c o n f l ic t in g in fo rm a tio n ." S im i la r ly , T v ersky and Kahnemann

(1 9 7 4 ) have shown th a t peop le tend to m in im iz e o b je c t iv e

e v id e n ce i f t h is in fo rm a tio n is not c o n s is te n t w ith th e i r

more g e n era l b e l ie f s and e x p e c ta t io n s .

For p ro s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs , s e l f - e f f i c a c y concep ts have

a p p l ic a t io n to t h e i r ro le s as s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in e r s .

A cco rd ing to c o g n it iv e th e o ry , a w e l l -d e f in e d s e If-s c h e m a ta

in a b e h a v io ra l domain is a c o rn e rs to n e o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y

and enhances th e p e rc e iv e d c a p a b i l i t y o f th e in d iv id u a l to

a c q u ire and m a in ta in new le a rn in g in th a t dom ain.

T h e re fo re , e x a m in a tio n o f th e b e l ie f s w hich com prise th e


4 8

s e lf-s c h e m a ta o f a p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r in th e a rea o f s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g and th e s tre n g th o f th e s e g e n e r a l iz a t io n s ,

is im p o rta n t to c o n s id e r i f new in fo rm a tio n r e la te d to

s o c ia l s k i l l s is to be in te g ra te d and t r a n s la te d in to

fu tu r e pe rfo rm an ce . As th e re se arc h s u p p o rts , th e means by

w hich th e s e g e n e r a l iz a t io n s a re i n s t i l l e d is an e q u a lly

c r i t i c a l c o n s id e ra t io n and a v iew w hich has d i r e c t

a p p l ic a t io n to th e p re p a ra t io n o f in d iv id u a ls as s o c ia l

s k i I I t r a in e r s .

A p p lic a t io n o f th e S e l f - E f f ic a c y Concept to E ducation

W h ile not s p e c i f ic to th e b e h a v io ra l domain o f s o c ia l

s k i l l s t r a in in g , th e l i t e r a t u r e in d ic a te s th a t some

a t te n t io n has been g ive n to th e s tudy o f " te a c h e r

e f f ic a c y ," a m o d if ic a t io n o f B andura 's s e l f - e f f i c a c y th e o ry

(A sh to n , 1984; A shton , Webb & Doda, 1983; Denham & M ic h a e l,

1 9 8 1 ). Research in d ic a te s th a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n s tru c ts

encompassed in th e a re a o f c o g n it iv e psychology have

appeared in th e te a c h e r p re p a ra t io n l i t e r a t u r e as proposed

th e o r e t ic a l fram ew orks to gu ide e d u c a tio n program s (Denham

& M ic h a e l, 1 9 8 1 ). O f p a r t ic u la r in te r e s t in t h is

l i t e r a t u r e has been th e emergence o f re se arc h on te a c h e r

e f f ic a c y , a concep t r e f le c t in g m o d if ic a t io n o f B andura 's

(1 9 7 7 ) concept o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y . S p e c i f ic a l ly , Ashton e t

a l . (1 9 8 3 ) d e f in e te a c h e r e f f ic a c y as " th e e x te n t to w hich

te a c h e rs b e lie v e th e y have th e c a p a c ity to a f f e c t s tu d e n t


4 9

c o n tr a s t to th e c lassroom e f fe c t iv e n e s s re se arc h th a t

focuses on o b s e rv a b le te a c h e r b e h a v io rs , e . g . , guided

p r a c t ic e , m o d e lin g new le a rn in g , and c o r r e c t iv e feedback

(B ic k e l & B ic k e l , 1 9 8 6 ), re se arc h on te a c h e r e f f ic a c y is

aimed a t a n a ly s is o f th e u n o b s e rv a b le , p s yc h o lo g ic a l

p rocesses t h a t u n d e r l ie m o tiv a te d te a c h in g b e h a v io r .

An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f re se arc h in th e a re a o f te a c h e r

e f f ic a c y is a s tu d y conducted by Ashton and Webb (1 9 8 6 )

w hich in v o lv e d an e th n o g ra p h ic com parison o f two m id d le

sch o o ls and a p ro c e s s -p ro d u c t s tudy o f 48 h igh school b a s ic

s k i l l s te a c h e rs . The s tudy was based on two Rand

C o rp o ra tio n e v a lu a t io n s tu d ie s (Armor e t a I . , 1976; Berman,

M c L a u g h lin , Bass, P au ly & Z e lIm a n , 1 9 7 7 ) , w hich re p o rte d a

s ig n i f ic a n t r e la t io n s h ip between te a c h e r e f f ic a c y and

s tu d e n t a ch ie ve m en t. F in d in g s by Ashton e t a l . (1 9 8 3 )

supported th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e Rand p r o je c t . The

re s e a rc h e rs p r im a r i ly aimed a t d e v e lo p in g a concep tua l

fram ework fo r u n d e rs tan d in g th e n a tu re , a n te ce d e n t

c o n d it io n s , and consequences o f e f f ic a c y a t t i t u d e s in

te a c h e rs . M a jo r f in d in g s in d ic a te d d if fe r e n c e s in th e

b e h a v io rs o f i d e n t i f i e d h igh and low s e l f - e f f i c a c y te a c h e rs

w ith re g a rd to t h e i r a t t i tu d e s tow ard s tu d e n ts and

e x p e c ta t io n s r e la te d to academ ic s ta n d a rd s . Ashton and

Webb (1 9 8 6 ) re p o rte d th a t “Teachers w ith a h igh sense o f

e f f ic a c y seemed to employ a p a t te r n o f s t r a t e g ie s th a t

m in im ize d n e g a t iv e a f f e c t , prom oted an e x p e c ta t io n o f


5 0

a ch ie ve m en t, and p ro v id e d a d e f i n i t i o n o f th e c lassroom

s i t u a t io n c h a r a c te r iz e d by warm in te rp e rs o n a l r e la t io n s h ip s

and academ ic w ork" (p . 1 2 5 ) . On th e o th e r hand, te a c h e rs

w ith a low sense o f e f f ic a c y em ployed s t r a t e g ie s th a t

h e ig h te n e d n e g a t iv e a f f e c t , more o f te n prom oted an

e x p e c ta t io n o f f a i l u r e fo r lo w -a c h ie v in g s tu d e n ts , and

d e fin e d c lassroom s i t u a t io n s in term s o f c o n f l i c t r a th e r

th a n warm in te rp e rs o n a l r e la t io n s h ip s .

In t h e i r s tu d y o f d is c ip l in a r y s t y le , B a r f ie ld and

B u rlin g a m e (1 9 7 4 ) s tu d ie d th e r e la t io n s h ip between te a c h e r

sense o f e f f ic a c y and "p u p il c o n tro l id e o lo g y " as m easured

on a c u s to d ia l-h u m a n !s t ic s c a le . They observed th a t

te a c h e rs r e p o r t in g an ave rag e to h igh sense o f e f f ic a c y

in d ic a te d a p re fe re n c e fo r h u m a n is tic c o n tr o l more o f te n

than d id te a c h e rs w ith a low sense o f e f f i c a c y . Cooper

(1 9 7 9 ) a ls o found th a t te a c h e r e x p e c ta t io n s in flu e n c e d

t h e i r p e rc e p tio n s o f th e c o n tro l th e y needed over s tu d e n t

perfo rm an ce in v a r io u s s i t u a t io n s .

An im p lic a t io n o f th e above f in d in g s is th a t th e

d is c i pi in a ry mode th a t a te a c h e r fa v o rs and e n fo rc e s is

r e la te d to th e s tre n g th o f th e in d iv id u a l 's s e l f - e f f i c a c y .

O s te n s ib ly , in cre a se d b e l i e f in o n e 's a b i l i t y to a f f e c t

s tu d e n t perform an ce w ould m a n ife s t i t s e l f in a w ill in g n e s s

to approach b e h a v io r management in a more broad -based way.

As a r e s u l t , th e p o s s i b i l i t y would in c re a s e th a t an


51

in s t r u c t io n mode such as s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g would be

re g ard e d as a v ia b le approach.

A cco rd ing to Denham and M ic h ae l (1 S S 1 ), te a c h e r sense

o f e f f i c a c y is an im p o rta n t e d u c a tio n a l v a r ia b le , and one

th a t can be m a n ip u la te d . Ashton (1 9 8 4 ) concurs th a t "A

p o w e rfu l paradigm can be deve loped on th e b a s is o f th e

c o n s t ru c t o f te a c h e r e f f ic a c y " (p . 2 8 ) and m a in ta in s th a t

"a te a c h e r e d u c a tio n program th a t has as i t s aim th e

developm ent o f te a c h e r e f f i c a c y , and w hich in c lu d e s th e

e s s e n t ia l components o f a m o tiv a t io n change program , should

d e ve lo p te a c h e rs who possess th e m o tiv a t io n e s s e n t ia l fo r

e f f e c t i v e c lassroom perform ance" (p . 2 8 ) . As i t a p p lie s to

th e d e l iv e r y o f s o c ia l s k i l l c u r r ic u la , i t is th e in te n t o f

t h is re s e a rc h to d eve lop and te s t a te a c h e r t r a in in g

approach th a t em ploys p r in c ip le s from c o g n it iv e psychology

and s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry .

T r a in in g in S e l f - E f f ic a c y fo r P r e s e rv ic e Teachers

Denham and M ich ae l (1 9 8 1 ) id e n t i f y te a c h e r p re p a ra t io n

as an im p o rta n t a n te c e d e n t c o n d it io n to a te a c h e r 's sense

o f e f f ic a c y and suggest s e v e ra l t r a in in g approaches. In

p a r t i c u l a r , two o f t h e i r s u g g es tio n s have re le v a n c y to t h is

s tu d y : (1 ) in c re a s in g a c tu a l e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f th e t r a in e e

in th e s p e c if ie d dom ain, e . g . , s o c ia l s k i l l s , and

( 2 ) engaging in s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g d i r e c t l y .


In r e fe r e n c e to th e f i r s t s u g g es tio n by Denham and

M ic h a e l, I t is th e in te n t o f t h is re se arc h p r o je c t to

p ro v id e a t r a in in g component fo r p ro s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs in

th e a re a o f s o c ia l s k i l l s program m ing. Research s u p p o rt

n o tw ith s ta n d in g , i n t u i t i v e l y , i t is e s s e n t ia l fo r p e o p le in

s e r v ic e r o le s to fe e l e f f ic a c io u s about th e i r a b i l i t y to

h e lp o th e r s . S k i l l In th e a re a o f p ro s p e c tiv e in s t r u c t io n

is a c r i t i c a l p r e r e q u is i t e .

W ith re g a rd to th e second recom m endation, t r a in in g in

s e l f - e f f i c a c y , a case has a ls o been p re se n te d fo r th e

in c lu s io n o f t h is component in a p r e p a ra t io n program . i t

p ro v id e s th e p ro s p e c tiv e te a c h e r w ith a le a rn in g e x p e rie n c e

com m ensurate w ith th a t o f h is o r her fu tu r e s tu d e n ts ,

encourages t r a in e e s to e x p lo re t h e i r own b e h av io r in term s

o f th e c o g n it iv e r e p e r to ir e each has e s ta b lis h e d , and

u l t im a t e ly s e rv e s as a term o f re fe re n c e fo r u n d e rs tan d in g

th e com plex b e h a v io r change p ro c es s . E lem ents o f t r a in in g

w hich co u ld com prise t h is component can be drawn from th e

l i t e r a t u r e in c o g n it iv e psychology and s o c ia l le a rn in g

th e o r y .

As Bandura (1 9 7 7 ) proposed, th e r e a re s e v e ra l sources

o f in fo rm a tio n by w hich e f f ic a c y e x p e c ta n c ie s a re d e r iv e d .

These in c lu d e : (a ) perform an ce accom plishm ents ,

(b ) v ic a r io u s e x p e r ie n c e , (c ) v e rb a l p e rs u a s io n , and (d )

e m o tio n a l a r o u s a l. How th e s e in fo rm a tio n sources a re

o p e r a t io n a l iz e d is th e key c o n s id e r a t io n . As p o s ite d ,


53

c o g n it iv e th e o r is t s advo c a te th e e x is te n c e o f "m ental

s tr u c tu r e s " upon w hich b e h a v io r is p r e d ic a te d . In a

dynam ic fa s h io n th e s e fram ew orks in te r a c t w ith

e n v iro n m e n ta l s t im u li and a re s e le c t iv e ly r e in fo r c e d

a c c o rd in g to th e r e p e r to ir e o f th e in d iv id u a l .

A c c o rd in g ly , i t is in c o n s id e ra t io n o f th e s e th e o r ie s th a t

th e fo l lo w in g t r a in in g e lem ents a re proposed:

1 . A s s is t in d iv id u a ls to id e n t i f y th e a t t i t u d e s ,

b e l i e f s , and o p in io n s w hich com prise t h e i r s e lf-s c h e m a ta

about s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g . N e c e s s a r ily t h i s in v o lv e s

(a ) some p re v ie w o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g and th e way in

w hich t h is approach is s im i la r to and d i f f e r e n t from

s ta n d a rd c lassroom management program m ing, and

(b ) r e c y c l in g o f th e s e l f - e x p lo r a t io n p rocess whenever new

in fo rm a tio n is in tro d u c e d .

2 . A s s is t t r a in e e s to a n a ly z e th e s tre n g th s o f t h e i r

a t t i t u d e s , b e l i e f s , and o p in io n s (Denham & M ic h a e l, 1981)

about s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g , and t h e i r p o te n t ia l fo r

le a rn in g o r re s is ta n c e to change based on th e s e c o g n it io n s .

3 . In tro d u c e a s k i l l b u i ld in g component d ir e c te d a t

ta p p in g th e sources o f e f f ic a c y e x p e c ta n c ie s a fo re m e n tio n e d

by Bandura (1 9 7 7 ) , w ith d i r e c t em phasis on perform ance

accom plishm ents and v ic a r io u s e x p e rie n c e in th e c o n te n t

a re a o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g fo r s tu d e n ts . As modes o f

in d u c tio n , u t i l i z e th e fo l lo w in g s t r a t e g ie s :

(a ) perfo rm an ce accom plishm ent— p a r t ic ip a n t m ode ling and


54

r o le - p la y in g o f a p p r o p r ia te resp o n ses, and (b ) v ic a r io u s

e x p e r ie n c e — o b s e rv in g o th e rs m ode ling a p p r o p r ia te responses

(B an d u ra , 1 9 7 7 ).

4 . C o m p a tib le w ith th e approach t y p i c a l l y ta k e n in

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g fo r s tu d e n ts , in t h i s proposed

t r a in in g fo r a d u lts , fo l lo w a g e n e ra l p a t te r n w hich

in c lu d e s : (a ) in tr o d u c t io n /d is c u s s io n o f new m a te r ia l ,

u t i l i z i n g schem atic in fo rm a tio n as a te rm o f r e fe re n c e ;

(b ) m o de ling and in s t r u c t io n s ; ( c ) p a r t ic ip a n t m ode ling and

r o le - p la y in g ; and (d ) some form o f feedback (B ouchard ,

W r ig h t , M a th ie u , LaLonde, B e rg ero n , & T o u p in , 1980; G a lv in ,

1985; G o ld s te in & G o ed h art, 1 9 7 3 ).

5 . As a means o f g e n e r a l iz in g and m a in ta in in g new

le a r n in g , in c lu d e exposure to c o g n it iv e s e l f - c o n t r o l m odels

id e n t i f i e d by E l l i s (1 9 6 2 ) and M a r t in (1 9 8 1 ) .

R e s p e c t iv e ly , th e s e in c lu d e (a ) r a t io n a l e m o tiv e th e ra p y ,

th e a l t e r a t i o n o f d y s fu n c t io n a l s e l f - s ta te m e n ts which

s u p p o rt i r r a t io n a l b e l i e f system s, and (b ) p ro b le m -s o lv in g ,

th e re c o g n it io n and use o f s y s te m a tic s e l f - h e l p s te p s to

i d e n t i f y problem s and o p e r a t io n a l iz e s o lu t io n s .

T h is s e t o f p rocedures r e f l e c t s th e g e n e ra l s t r u c tu r e

o f a te a c h e r t r a in in g component th a t in c o rp o ra te s a t te n t io n

to th e c o g n it iv e s tr u c tu r e s u n d e r ly in g p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e r

b e h a v io r , and m a n ip u la tio n o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y th rough

pe rfo rm an ce and v ic a r io u s modes o f in d u c tio n . As has been

d isc u s se d and s u pported th ro u g h o u t t h i s r e v ie w , s o c ia l


55

s k i l l t r a in in g is a com plex p ro c es s , and an in s t r u c t io n a l

c h a lle n g e w hich r e q u ire s te a c h e rs who a re both w e ll

p re p are d and d u ly m o tiv a te d . i t is th e c o n te n tio n o f t h is

r e s e a rc h e r th a t u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e o r ie s in th e a re a s o f

c o g n it iv e psychology and s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry can p ro v id e

an in te g r a t iv e and fa r - r a n g in g p e rs p e c tiv e to a d d res s in g

t h is p re p a r a t io n ta s k .

C au t ions

W h ile a c o n s id e ra b le p o r t io n o f t h is re v ie w has

addressed th e m e r i t o f em ploying t r a in in g procedures

a s s o c ia te d w ith th e concept o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y , th e ta s k

w ould be in co m p le te w ith o u t acknow ledging opposing v iew s

and a c a u t io n a r y concern about t h is a p proach . In te rm s o f

c r i t i c i s m , th e g is t o f o p p o s itio n is a r t ic u la t e d by B ig la n

(1 9 8 7 ) who e xpresses concern th a t s e l f - e f f i c a c y th e o ry

e x p la in s b e h a v io r in term s " th a t e x p l i c i t l y deem phasize th e

r o le o f th e environm ent in d e te rm in in g b e h a v io r" (p . 1 ) .

E s s e n t ia l ly , he argues fo r a reem phasis on e n v iro n m e n ta l

in f lu e n c e s and re c o g n it io n th a t c o g n it io n s a re not

b e h a v io rs , b u t o n ly h y p o th e tic a l c o n s tru c ts used to account

fo r r e la t io n s h ip s between th e environm ent and b e h a v io r . In

a s im i la r v e in , o th e r c r i t i c s pose th a t " s e l f - e f f i c a c y

e x p e c ta n c ie s a re s im p ly epiphenomena th a t o n ly r e f l e c t

b e h a v io r change, and a re in no sense i t s cause" (G o ld fr ie d

& R ob ins , 1982, p . 3 6 5 ) . These c r i t ic is m s a re r e fu te d by


56

Bandura (1 9 7 7 , 1982) who argues th a t e xp ec tan cy is

fundam enta l to an in d iv id u a l 's p e rc e p tio n o f in fo rm a tio n

and th e re b y a m e d ia tin g in f lu e n c e on th e b e h a v io r o f th a t

person in a g iv e n s i t u a t io n . In te r p r e t in g t h is p o in t

f u r t h e r , G ibson and Dembo (1 9 8 4 ) add , " in d iv id u a ls can

b e lie v e t h a t c e r t a in b e h a v io rs w i l l produce c e r ta in

outcom es, b u t i f th e y do not b e lie v e th a t th e y can perfo rm

th e ne ce s sa ry a c t i v i t i e s , th e y w M i no t i n i t i a t e th e

r e le v a n t b e h a v io r s ." (p . 5 7 0 ) .

The above concerns n o tw ith s ta n d in g , G o ld fr ie d &

Robins (1 9 8 2 ) , subm it th a t s e l f - e f f i c a c y th e o ry "seems to

possess a number o f advantages as a c o n c e p tu a liz a t io n o f

b e h a v io r change" (p . 3 6 5 ) . in t h e i r v ie w , th e th e o ry is

broad and in te g r a t iv e ; te s ta b le because i t s e p a ra te s th e

a sp e c t o f e xp e c tan cy from perfo rm an ce; and s p e c i f ic r a th e r

th a n g lo b a l abou t e x p e c ta n c ie s , thus p ro v id in g a means o f

c o g n it iv e -b e h a v io r a l assessm ent.

Another n o te o f c a u t io n is r e la te d to adequate

measurem ent o f th e c o n s tru c t o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y , and th e

m o d ifie d v e rs io n "te a c h e r e f f i c a c y ." Assessment o f s e l f -

e f f i c a c y has g e n e r a l ly been conducted in c l i n i c a l

e x p e rim e n ts a tte m p tin g th e r a p e u t ic fe a r re d u c tio n or

d e s e n s it iz a t io n o f an in d iv id u a l to p r e v io u s ly id e n t i f ie d

sources o f th e fe a r o r a n x ie ty (B andura e t a I . , 1977;

Bandura e t a l . , 1980; L a za ru s , 1964; P h are s , 1 9 8 4 ).

M ethodo logy has g e n e r a l ly in vo lv e d a s e r ie s o f perform ance


ta s k s r e q u ir in g in c r e a s in g ly th re a te n in g in te r a c t io n s w ith

th e i d e n t i f i e d so u rce o f fe a r o r a n x ie ty . A c c o rd in g ly ,

e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f th e tre a tm e n t c o n d it io n (s ) has been

assessed th roug h re p e a te d measurement o f th e s u b je c t on th e

g ra d u ated p e rfo rm an ce ta s k s . In term s o f th e e d u c a tio n a l

e n v iro n m e n t, how ever, measurement o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y is less

c le a r ly d e f in e d . O f concern a re th e ways re s e a rc h e rs can

c o n c e p tu a liz e and a d e q u a te ly m easure th e c o n s tru c t (G ibson

& Dembo, 1 9 8 4 ) . A cco rd ing to G ibson and Dembo, many

q u e s tio n s e x i s t :

What a r e th e d im ensions o f te a c h e r e f f ic a c y ? How do th e s e d im ensions r e la t e to B an d u ra 's th e o ry o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y ? What is th e in te r n a l c o n s is te n c y o f th e te a c h e r e f f ic a c y measure? Does e v id e n c e o f te a c h e r e f f i c a c y g a th e re d from d i f f e r e n t sources in d i f f e r e n t ways converge? Can te a c h e r e f f ic a c y be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from o th e r c o n s tru c ts ? Do h ig h - and lo w -e f f ic a c y te a c h e rs e x h ib i t d i f f e r e n t i a l p a tte r n s o f b e h a v io rs in th e c lassroom r e la te d to academ ic fo c u s , fe e d b ac k , and p e rs is te n c e in f a i l u r e s itu a t io n s ? (p p . 5 7 0 -5 7 1 )

As th e s ea rch c o n tin u e s fo r o b s e rv a b le sources o f

te a c h e r m o t iv a t io n , th e s e q u e s tio n s a l l p o in t to fu tu r e

re s e a rc h needs.

A f in a l n o te o f c a u t io n is p ro v id ed by Guskey (1 9 8 4 )

and is r e la te d to th e in f lu e n c e o f change s t r a t e g ie s and

th e a f f e c t i v e outcomes fo r in vo lv e d p a r t ic ip a n t s . Research

by Guskey s uggests th a t e xp e rien c e d te a c h e rs who undergo

le a rn in g e x p e rie n c e s may a c t u a l ly fe e l les s c o n fid e n t about

t h e i r te a c h in g a b i l i t i e s as a r e s u l t o f t r a in in g , not

because th e y lacked c o n fid e n c e to beg in w ith , b u t because


58

th e te a c h e rs p e rc e iv e d t h e i r fe e l in g s o f c o n fid e n c e to be

m isgu ided h av ing seen th e r e s u lts o f more e f f e c t iv e

m ethodo logy . Guskey a ls o p o in ts o u t th a t " in s e rv ic e

t r a in in g and th e im p lem e n ta tio n o f new s t r a t e g ie s a lo n e may

be in s u f f i c ie n t c o n d it io n s fo r a f f e c t i v e change In

te a c h e rs " (p . 2 5 6 ) . Accord ing to h is re s e a rc h , o n ly when

p o s i t iv e s tu d e n t outcomes w ere evid e n ce d d id a f f e c t iv e

changes r e s u l t fo r th e te a c h e rs in v o lv e d .

The a fo re m e n tio n e d l i s t o f c a u t io n s r e f l e c t s th e many

issues t h a t c o n tin u e to re q u ir e c o n s id e ra t io n and fu r t h e r

in v e s t ig a t io n r e la t i v e to th e c o n s tru c t o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y .

S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g fo r Teachers

In term s o f in v e s t ig a t iv e p r a c t ic e , e d u c a tio n a l

re s e a rc h e rs a re u t i l i z i n g th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n s tru c ts

advanced in c o g n it iv e psychology and s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry

l i t e r a t u r e to exam ine te a c h e r e d u c a tio n p r a c t ic e s .

N e v e r th e le s s , re v ie w o f c u r r e n t re s e a rc h r e v e a ls th a t th e

a p p l ic a t io n o f th e o ry as a model o f and fo u n d a tio n fo r th e

p r e p a r a t io n o f te a c h e rs is s t i l l in th e fo rm a tiv e s tage

(A shton e t a l . , 1983; M c E n tire & K itc h e n s , 1 9 8 4 ).

O p e ra tio n a l s t r a t e g ie s based on r ig o ro u s e x p e rim e n ta l

d esign a r e l im ite d and more p ro g re ss is needed tow ard

m e an in g fu l use o f c o g n it iv e psychology and s o c ia l le a rn in g

t h e o r ie s . As supported in t h is re v ie w , a p r e r e q u is it e

c o n s tru c t fo r in v e s t ig a t iv e s tu d y is th e one o f s e l f


e f f ic a c y . As noted by Bandura (1 9 7 7 ) , "The s tro n g e r th e

p e rc e iv e d s e l f - e f f i c a c y , th e more a c t iv e th e e f f o r t s "

(p . 1 9 4 ) . For p r e s e rv ic e te a c h e rs , invo lvem ent in t r a in in g

to address a p e rsona l sense o f e f f ic a c y may have th e

a dvan tage o f s tre n g th e n in g t h e i r s e l f - e x p e c ta t io n s and

in c re a s in g m o t iv a t io n . A t r a in in g program th a t can

in te g r a te th a t know ledge w ith p r o -s o c ia l b e h a v io ra l

t r a in in g fo r s tu d e n ts appears to have m e r i t— not o n ly fo r

s tre n g th e n in g te a c h e r s e l f - e f f i c a c y , b u t a ls o fo r p ro v id in g

a lo g ic a l , c o m p a tib le a p p l ic a t io n to th e b e h a v io r /a t t i tu d e

change p rocess a s s o c ia te d w ith s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g .

S e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g has a p p l ic a t io n to te a c h e rs and

te a c h in g . I t has re le v a n c e fo r u n d e rs ta n d in g persona l

b e h a v io r , and p o t e n t i a l ly , as an in f lu e n c e on m o tiv a t io n

r e p re s e n ts a p ow erfu l way o f in f lu e n c in g a c tu a l perfo rm an ce

in th e c la s sro o m .


CHAPTER I I I

METHOD

T h is c h a p te r c o n ta in s a d e s c r ip t io n o f th e tw o -p hase

s tu d y d eve loped to in v e s t ig a te th e e f f e c t o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y

t r a in in g on th e te a c h in g perform ance o f p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs

in th e in s t r u c t io n a l a re a o f s o c ia l s k i l l s . In c lu d e d in

t h i s d e s c r ip t io n a r e : (a ) th e des ig n o f th e s tu d y , (b ) th e

m ethodology used to d eve lop and v a l id a t e th e t r a in in g

program s and in s tru m e n ts , and (c ) th e m e th o d o lo g ic a l

p ro c ed u re s in v o lv e d in con d u c tin g th e s tu d y .

D esign o f th e S tudy

A m o d ifie d p o s t te s t o n ly c o n tro l group de s ig n was

u t i l i z e d to compare th e perfo rm an ce o f th re e groups:

( 1 ) a t re a tm e n t group exposed to s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g

p ro c e d u re s , (2 ) a tre a tm e n t group exposed to s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g c o n te n t in fo rm a tio n , and (3 ) a com parison group

r e p re s e n t in g th e s ta n d ard c lassroom management u n iv e r s it y

t r a in in g sequence. A com parison r a th e r than a c o n tro l

group was u t i l i z e d because random ized assignm ent was not

p o s s ib le w ith a l l s u b je c ts .


Hypotheses

Based upon th e th e o ry th a t s e l f - e f f i c a c y is a

s t r a t e g ic p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n s tru c t u n d e r ly in g b e h a v io r , th e

fo l lo w in g hypotheses w ere e s ta b lis h e d :

1 . P re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs who a re exposed to s e l f -

e f f i c a c y t r a in in g w i l l d em onstra te more w i l l in g n e s s to

i n i t i a t e and p e r s is t a t s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in t h e i r

s tu d e n t te a c h in g ass ignm ent than p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs

exposed to s o c ia l s k i l l s c o n te n t in fo rm a tio n .

2 . P r e s e rv ic e te a c h e rs who a re exposed to s e l f -

e f f i c a c y t r a in in g w i l l d em onstra te more w i ll in g n e s s to


s tu d e n t te a c h in g assignm ent than p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs who

e x p e r ie n c e th e s ta n d ard c lassroom management u n iv e r s it y

t r a in in g sequence.

3 . P re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs in p re p a ra t io n program s a t two

d i f f e r e n t u n iv e r s i t i e s w i l l dem onstra te equal w i ll in g n e s s

to i n i t i a t e and p e r s is t a t s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in t h e i r

r e s p e c t iv e te a c h in g ass ignm ents dependent upon th e t r a in in g

sequence to w hich th e y a re exposed.

O p e ra tio n a l D e f in i t io n s

Soc i a I sk I 11 t r a i n 1n g : In s t r u c t io n u t i l i z i n g a

com m ercial s o c ia l s k i l l s c u r r ic u lu m , d e liv e r e d a minimum o f

two tim e s per week to s tu d e n ts .


62

S o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g c o n te n t In fo r m a t io n : The

know ledge in fo rm a tio n p e r t in e n t to d e l iv e r y o f s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g by te a c h e rs ( i . e . , t r a in in g p ro c e d u re s ,

assessm ent, c u r r ic u la , s tu d e n t re s p o n s e s ).

S e l f - e f f I c a c y ; The b e l i e f th a t a p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r

can s u c c e s s fu lly conduct s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in th e

classroom as dem onstrated th roug h i n i t i a t i o n , e f f o r t

expended, and p e r s is te n c e .

I n i t i a t i o n : D em o n stra tio n s o f b e h a v io r th a t

i l l u s t r a t e a p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r 's w i ll in g n e s s to " ta k e th e

f i r s t s te p or m ove."

E f f o r t expended: D em o n s tra tio n s o f b e h a v io r th a t

i l l u s t r a t e “e f f o r t spen t o r used u p ."

P e r s Is te n c e : D em onstra tio ns o f b e h a v io r th a t

i l l u s t r a t e " re fu s a l to g iv e up, e s p e c ia l ly when fa c ed w ith

oppos i t i o n ."

M ode li ng: S ym bolic o r l i v e exposure to a d e s ire d

b e h a v io r to be le a rn e d .

R o le -p la y in g : P a r t ic ip a n t re h e a rs a l o f a new b e h a v io r

to be le a rn e d .

S e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a i n in g : T r a in in g designed to in c re a s e

pe rsona l s e i f - e f f i c a c y s p e c i f ic to s o c ia l s k i l l s

in s t r u c t io n th a t in c o rp o ra te s e lem ents o f c o g n it iv e

b e h a v io r m o d if ic a t io n (s e l f - s tu d y and s e lf-m an a g e m e n t) , and

s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry (m ode ling and r o le p la y in g ) .


63

The s ta n d a rd c lassroom management u n iv e r s it y t r a in in g

sequence; Course in s t r u c t io n p ro v id ed a t e i t h e r W estern

M ic h ig an U n iv e r s i ty (WMU), Kalam azoo, o r Grand V a l le y S ta te

U n iv e r s i ty (GVSU), A l le n d a le , aimed a t te a c h in g th e

d e c is io n m aking and management ta s k s on th e p a r t o f th e

te a c h e r w hich c r e a te an o r d e r ly c lassroom e n v iro n m e n t,

e . g . , m a n ip u la t in g tim e , d e te rm in in g in s t r u c t io n a l c o n te n t

and d e l iv e r y , managing s tu d e n t b e h a v io r , and d e te rm in in g

p h y s ic a l a rran g em en ts .

P re s e rv ic e te a c h e r ; A s tu d e n t a d m itte d In to th e

s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r t r a in in g program a t e i t h e r WMU or

GVSU c u r r e n t ly ass igned to a s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n c lassroom

fo r d ir e c te d te a c h in g .

S u p e rv is in g te a c h e r ; A te a c h e r in th e p u b lic

e d u c a tio n system c u r r e n t ly ass igned to d i r e c t l y s u p e rv is e

th e d ir e c te d te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e o f a p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r

from WMU o r GVSU.

Independent V a r ia b le s

Independent V a r ia b le * 1 — Type o f T ra in in g

I t was h y p o th e s ize d th a t in s t r u c t io n in th e a re a o f

s o c ia l s k i l l s is a s u f f i c ie n t l y new and c h a lle n g in g

approach as to r e q u ir e ’ in creased s e l f - e f f i c a c y on th e p a r t

o f th e p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e r to i n i t i a t e le a rn in g in t h is

a r e a , expend e f f o r t , and p e r s is t in th e fa c e o f s it u a t io n a l

v a r ia b le s p re s e n t in th e school s e t t in g . Thus, th e " ty p e


6 4

o f t r a in in g " u t i l i z e d to p re p a re th e p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e r to

d e l iv e r s o c ia l s k i l l s c u r r ic u la was i d e n t i f i e d as one o f

th e independent v a r ia b le s . For th e purposes o f t h is s tu d y ,

ty p e o f t r a in in g was o p e r a t io n a liz e d th roug h th re e

approaches: ( 1 ) s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g , ( 2 ) s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g c o n te n t in fo rm a tio n , and (3 ) th e s ta n d ard

c lassroom management u n iv e r s it y t r a in in g sequence.

Independent V a r ia b le »2— In s t i t u t io n

I t was a d d i t io n a l ly hy p o th e size d th a t th e r e would be

no d i f f e r e n c e between th e perform an ce o f u n iv e r s it y

s tu d e n ts from two d i f f e r e n t te a c h e r t r a in in g in s t i t u t io n s ,

W estern M ic h ig an U n iv e r s i ty and Grand V a l le y S ta te

U n iv e r s i ty , exposed to s im i la r p re p a ra to ry e x p e r ie n c e s ,

e . g . , one o f th e th re e types o f t r a in in g . A c c o rd in g ly ,

" i n s t i t u t io n " was chosen as th e second independent

v a r ia b le .

Dependent V a r ia b le s

The S e lf -R e p o r t M easure

As a means o f m easuring ge n era l s e l f - e f f i c a c y , "The

S e l f - E f f ic a c y S c a le ," c o n s tru c te d and v a l id a t e d by S h e re r ,

Maddux, M e rca n d a n te , P re n tic e -D u n n , Jacobs, and Rogers

(1 9 8 2 ) was used . For purposes o f t h is s tu d y , th e m easure

was t i t l e d , "The S e l f -R e p o r t M easure" (s e e Appendix A ) .

O th e r than th e t i t l e no o th e r m o d if ic a t io n s w ere made to


th e in s tru m e n t. The s c a le in c lu d e s 30 ite m s , 17 m easuring

g e n e ra l s e l f - e f f i c a c y , s ix m easuring s o c ia l s e l f - e f f i c a c y ,

and seven f i l l e r s . Of s p e c i f ic in te r e s t in t h is s tudy w ere

th e 17 item s a d d re s s in g genera l s e l f - e f f i c a c y . I t was o n ly

th o s e item s w hich w ere scored us in g a L ik e r t - t y p e s c a le .

As re p o rte d by S h ere r e t a l . (1 9 8 2 ) , " th e r e was te n t a t iv e

ev id e n c e t h a t G enera l S e l f - E f f ic a c y m ig h t be broken in to

two com ponents r e f le c t in g (a ) i n i t i a t io n /p e r s is t e n c e and

(b ) e f f i c a c y in th e fa c e o f a d v e r s ity " (p . 6 6 6 ) . A

Cronbach a lp h a r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t o f .8 6 was o b ta in e d

fo r th e G en era l S e l f - e f f i c a c y s u b sc a le (S h e re r e t a l . ,

1 9 8 2 ). E v id e n ce o f c o n s tru c t v a l i d i t y was p ro v id ed by

c o n f ir m a t io n o f s e v e ra l p re d ic te d co n ce p tu a l r e la t io n s h ip s

between s e l f - e f f i c a c y subsca les and o th e r p e r s o n a l i ty

m easures ( i . e . , Locus o f C o n tro l, Personal C o n tr o l, S o c ia l

D e s i r a b i l i t y , Ego S tre n g th , In te rp e rs o n a l Competence, S e l f

esteem , th e M inneso ta M u lt ip h a s ic P e r s o n a lity In v e n to ry ,

th e Rathus A s s e r tiv e n e s s S chedule , and th e Bern Sex R ole

In v e n to ry ) (S h e re r e t a l . , 1982; S herer & Adams, 1 9 8 3 ).

The S e l f - E f f ic a c y S ca le was des igned to measure s e l f -

e f f ic a c y no t t i e d to a s p e c i f ic s i t u a t io n o r b e h av io r

(S h e re r e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ) . However, as recommended by Bandura

(s e e Appendix B ) , s e l f - e f f i c a c y th e o ry a d v is e s use o f

e f f ic a c y m easures th a t a re domain s p e c i f ic ( in t h is case

s p e c i f ic to s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g ) . For th a t reason th e

fo l lo w in g m easure was a ls o em ployed.


C la s s ro o m S c e n a r io s

T h is s e l f - r e p o r t q u e s t io n n a ire is a s e r ie s o f 13

s it u a t io n s re g a rd in g s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g , w ith f i v e

a d d it io n a l f i l l e r item s (s e e Appendix C ) . A l I 18 item s

re p re s e n t p o s s ib le b e h av io r by a f i r s t y ea r te a c h e r in th e

c lassroom s e t t in g and a re in tended to m easure th e e x te n t o f

th e t e s t t a k e r 's w i ll in g n e s s to i n i t i a t e , expend e f f o r t ,

and p e r s is t in th e fa c e o f s i t u a t io n a l o b s ta c le s . S u b je c ts

w ere asked to express t h e i r agreem ent w ith each o f th e

s c e n a rio s t. n a L ik e r t - t y p e s c a le . Under t e s t - r e t e s t

c o n d it io n s w ith two d i f f e r e n t groups o f u n d e rg rad u ate

s tu d e n ts r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t s o f .8 4 and .6 2 w ere

o b ta in e d . Four te a c h e rs in s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n who ra te d

each item fo r i t s adequacy as a s i t u a t io n a l o b s ta c le

p ro v id e d e v id e n c e o f c o n te n t v a l i d i t y o f th e in s tru m e n t.

(The developm ent o f th e Classroom S ce n a rio s m easure by th e

re s e a rc h e r in t h is s tu d y and th e procedures in vo lv e d in

d e te rm in in g i t s r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y a re d iscussed in

g r e a te r d e t a i l in l a t e r s e c tio n s o f t h i s c h a p t e r . )

The S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g Knowledge In v e n to ry

The S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g Knowledge In v e n to ry (S S TK I)

( M i l l e r , 1987a) is com prised o f 20 q u e s tio n s des igned to

te s t th e know ledge o f th e s u b je c t in each o f th e fo l lo w in g

a re a s : B eg in n in g and advanced s o c ia l s k i l l s , t r a in in g

pro c ed u re s and approaches, assessm ent, m a te r ia ls , s tu d e n t


re sp o n s e s , s i t u a t io n a l v a r ia b le s , and te a c h e r b e h a v io rs

(s e e Appendix D ) , Each item on th e m easure is in th e form

o f a m u l t ip le c h o ic e q u e s tio n w ith f i v e p o s s ib le answ ers.

Under t e s t - r e t e s t c o n d it io n s w ith two d i f f e r e n t groups o f

u n d e rg ra d u a te s tu d e n ts r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t s o f .6 7 and

.53 w ere o b ta in e d . Three in d iv id u a ls id e n t i f i e d as e x p e r ts

in th e f i e l d o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g , fo u r te a c h e rs In

s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n , and 34 u n d e rg rad u ate s tu d e n ts in a

s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n t r a in in g program p ro v id e d e v id e n c e o f

c o n te n t v a l i d i t y o f th e in s tru m e n t. (The developm ent o f

th e SSTKI by th e re s e a rc h e r in t h is s tu d y and th e

p ro c ed u re s in vo lv e d in d e te rm in in g i t s r e l i a b i l i t y and

v a l i d i t y a re d iscussed f u r t h e r in la t e r s e c tio n s o f t h is

c h a p t e r . )

The P erform ance Measure

The P erform ance M easure ( M i l l e r , 1987b) c o n s is ts o f 10

item s th a t o p e r a t io n a l iz e a p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e r 's b e h a v io r

in th e a re a s o f i n i t i a t i v e , e f f o r t expended, and

p e r s is te n c e . A l l item s a re s i t u a t io n a l l y s p e c i f ic to

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in th e c lassroom (s e e Appendix E ) .

The w il l in g n e s s o f a p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r to engage in s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g is m easured by th e t o t a l number o f item s to

w hich th e in d iv id u a l responds " y e s ." The q u e s t io n n a ir e is

g ra d u ated and beg ins w ith item s th a t d e m o n stra te i n i t i a t i v e

on th e p a r t o f th e p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e r , i . e . , ASKS th e


s u p e rv is in g te a c h e r i f s o c ia l s k i l l s t r a in in g is co n d u c ted .

I t proceeds to item s th a t dem onstra te e f f o r t expended,

i . e . , OBTAINS lessons used by th e c lassroom te a c h e r in

ongoing in s t r u c t io n , and concludes w ith item s th a t

d e m o n stra te p e r s is te n c e , i . e . , DELIVERS a s o c ia l s k i l l

le s s o n (s ) from m a te r ia ls p ro v id e d in th e t r a in in g package,

even though s o c ia l s k i l l s t r a in in g is not conducted by th e

s u p e rv is in g te a c h e r as p a r t o f ongoing in s t r u c t io n . The

P erfo rm ance M easure was a d m in is te re d in an in te r v ie w fo rm a t

and re q u ire d th e s u b je c t to respond w ith a "yes" o r “no"

answer to each ite m . I n t e r r a t e r agreem ent between p a ir s o f

p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs and s u p e rv is in g te a c h e rs was o b ta in e d

to d e te rm in e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e responses from th e

p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs . T hree p r a c t ic in g te a c h e rs and two

in d iv id u a ls who had conducted t h e i r d ir e c te d te a c h in g in

th e f a l l o f 1987 p ro v id ed e v id e n ce o f th e c o n te n t v a l i d i t y

o f th e m easure. (D evelopm ent o f The Perform ance M easure by

th e re s e a rc h e r in th is s tu d y and procedures conducted to

e s t a b l is h i t s v a l i d i t y a re e x p la in e d fu r t h e r in la t e r

s e c tio n s o f t h is c h a p te r . )

S u b je c ts

The s u b je c ts in t h is s tu d y w ere a l l u n d e rg rad u ate

s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d in th e s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r t r a in in g

program s a t W estern M ic h ig an U n iv e r s i ty o r G rand V a l le y

S ta te U n iv e r s i ty . These u n iv e r s i t i e s have t o t a l s tu d e n t


6 9

p o p u la tio n s o f 2 3 ,0 0 0 and 6 ,5 0 0 , r e s p e c t iv e ly . W estern

M ic h ig an U n iv e r s i ty is lo c a te d in Kalam azoo, M ic h ig a n , and

Grand V a l le y S ta te U n iv e r s i ty in A l le n d a le , M ic h ig a n , two

com m unities in th e so u th w e ste rn p o r t io n o f th e s t a t e .

Kalam azoo is a la rg e urban c i t y w ith a p o p u la t io n o f

1 0 0 ,0 0 0 and A lle n d a le a s m a ll , r u r a l c i t y w ith a p o p u la tio n

o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 .

The s u b je c ts w ere a l l e n r o lle d in d ir e c te d te a c h in g

fo r th e w in te r s em e ster, 1988. However, as p re s e rv ic e

te a c h e rs a t GVSU g a in c e r t i f i c a t i o n in two a re a s o f

im p airm e n t, th e s e s tu d e n ts engage in two 10-week s tu d e n t

te a c h in g ass ignm ents . The s u b je c ts from WMU p a r t ic ip a t e in

one 15-week a ss ignm ent. F o llo w -u p o f th e s u b je c ts o c cu rre d

d u r in g week 8 fo r GVSU s tu d e n ts and week 14 fo r WMU

s tu d e n ts .

For th e m a jo r i ty o f s u b je c ts t h is was th e c u lm in a tin g

e x p e r ie n c e o f t h e i r u n iv e r s it y t r a in in g sequence. Each

person was ass igned to a s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n c lassroom in th e

M ic h ig an p u b lic e d u c a tio n system w here he o r she was d a i ly

su p e rv is e d by a te a c h e r c e r t i f i e d in an a re a o f

e x c e p t io n a l i t y . A t o t a l o f 61 s tu d e n ts w ere a v a i la b le fo r

th e s u b je c t pool from WMU (2 7 ) and GVSU ( 3 4 ) . O f t h is

number 34 fem ales and m ales v o lu n te e re d to p a r t ic ip a t e in

one o f th e two t r a in in g groups o r as a member o f th e

com parison group; 21 o f th e s u b je c ts were from WMU and 13

from GVSU (T a b le 1 ) .


7 0

S u b je c ts w ere p ro v id ed th e c h o ic e between t r a in in g

d a te s o f January 2 3 , 1988, o r January 3 0 , 1988, o r random

assignm ent to e i t h e r d a te . T h ir te e n o f th e 24 s tu d e n ts who

p a r t ic ip a te d in one o f th e two t r a in in g s es s io n s w ere

random ly ass igned to e i t h e r th e January 23 o r January 30

d a te . None o f th e s u b je c ts was inform ed o f th e ty p e o f

t r a in in g to be d e liv e r e d on e i t h e r d a te .

T a b le 1

D is t r ib u t io n o f S u b je c ts from WMU and GVSU

U n iv e r s i ty N Sex Type o f T r a in in g

Fem ale M a le aS et bSST cCG

WMU 21 20 1 8 7 6

GVSU 13 11 2 3 6 4

T o ta ls 34 31 3 11 13 10

aSET bSST c CG

S e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g C onten t Compar i son Group

In fo rm a t ion


Developm ent o f th e T ra in in g Programs

S e l f - E f f ic a c y T r a in in g

C o n ten t o f th e Program

S e l f - E f f ic a c y T ra in in g (SET) was c o n c e p tu a liz e d to

employ in te r v e n t io n and le a rn in g s t r a t e g ie s from two

th e o r e t ic a l p e rs p e c tiv e s , c o g n it iv e b e h a v io r m o d if ic a t io n

and s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry . A c c o rd in g ly , th e t r a in in g

merges both v iew s and in c lu d e s th e fo l lo w in g sequence o f

s t r a t e g ie s : S e l f - s t u d y , m ode ling , r o le p la y in g , and s e l f

management. U l t im a te ly th e in te n t was to b u i ld th e s e l f -

e f f ic a c y o f p re s e r v ic e te a c h e rs in th e b e h a v io ra l domain o f

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g (see Appendix F ) . Based on th e

prem ise th a t s e l f - e f f i c a c y is an im p o rta n t p re c u rs o r to

s u cc e ss fu l perfo rm an ce in th e s o c ia l s k i l l s a r e a , th e

purpose o f t r a in in g was to in c re a s e th e s u b je c t 's

e x p e c ta t io n s o f persona l m a ste ry and success.

H y p o th e t ic a l ly , th e s u b je c t would th e n d em o n stra te more

i n i t i a t i v e , e f f o r t , and p e rs is te n c e r e la t i v e to t h is ty p e

o f in s t r u c t io n in h is o r her d ir e c te d te a c h in g a ss ignm ent.

C o n s is te n t w ith th e th e o r e t ic a l fo u n d a tio n u n d e r ly in g

th is approach , th e fo l lo w in g u n its w ere developed fo r

p re s e n ta t io n to th e 11 s u b je c ts in th e t r a in in g group:

U n it * 1 : Id e n t i f y in g th e S e lf-S c h e m a ta . A cco rd ing to

G o ld f r ie d and Robins (1 9 8 3 ) , a p e rs o n 's s e lf-s c h e m a ta p la y s

an im p o rta n t s e l f - s e r v in g r o le in e s ta b l is h in g b ia s .


72

W hether th e p r e d is p o s it io n in a g iv e n a re a tends to be

p o s i t iv e o r n e g a t iv e In flu e n c e s th e subsequent process o f

s to r in g , o rg a n iz in g , in te g r a t in g , and r e t r ie v in g

in fo rm a tio n . A d d i t io n a l ly , re se arc h in d ic a te s th a t th e

c o g n it iv e p ro c es s in g o f l i f e e x p e rie n c e s is more l i k e l y to

c o n firm in fo rm a tio n c o n s is te n t w ith th e p r e d is p o s it io n

(M arku s, 1 9 7 7 ) . Thus, th e p r im a ry goal in t h is u n i t was to

i n i t i a t e th e p rocess o f s e l f - s t u d y and a s s is t each s u b je c t

to re c o g n iz e th e a t t i t u d e s , b e l i e f s , o r o p in io n s he o r she

h e ld about s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g . O p e r a t io n a l ly , i t was

n ecessary to e n a b le p a r t ic ip a n ts to i d e n t i f y th e s e t o f

a s s o c ia t io n s th e y had about them selves in th e s p e c i f ic

domain o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g .

To address th e a fo re m e n tio n e d g o a l, th e in tro d u c to ry

u n i t was o rg a n iz e d in th e fo l lo w in g w ay. F i r s t , to g a in

some in d ic a t io n o f p a s t e x p e rie n c e s u b je c ts w ere surveyed

v e r b a l ly to d e te rm in e t h e i r e x te n t o f exposure to s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g in c lassroom s e t t in g s . Second, a l l s u b je c ts

w ere shown an e ig h t -m in u te v id e o ta p e o f a te a c h e r

c o n d u c tin g s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in a c lassroom fo r

e d u ca b ie m e n ta lly im paired s tu d e n ts . T h is v id e o ta p e was

in te n d e d to p o r tr a y a t y p ic a l approach to s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g fo r those in d iv id u a ls who have had no p re v io u s

e x p e r ie n c e and s e c o n d a r ily to a c t as a prom pt to s t im u la te

th in k in g about persona l a t t i t u d e s , o p in io n s , and b e l ie f s on

th e p a r t o f a l l s u b je c ts . The te a c h e r in th e v id e o ta p e


73

c onducts a lesson from Ski I 1 s tream ing th e E lem entary School

Chi I d , a s o c ia l s k i l l s c u rr ic u lu m developed by M cG innis and

G o ld s te in (1 9 8 4 ) . The S kI I I s trea m !n g m a te r ia ls a re

I I l u s t r a t l v e o f recommended in s t r u c t io n a l p ro c ed u re s , e . g . ,

d is c u s s io n , m o d e lin g , r o le p la y in g , fe e d b ac k , and t r a n s fe r

o f le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s (S pence, 1 9 8 3 ) . (The v id e o ta p e was

f i lm e d by th e re s e a rc h e r w ith th e a s s is ta n c e o f a te a c h e r

in th e Kalam azoo P u b lic S c h o o ls .)

T h ir d , to p h y s ic a l ly o b ta in some e v id e n ce o f s e l f

schem ata a w orksheet c o n ta in in g fo u r empty boxes was

d is t r ib u t e d to each s u b je c t fo r t h e i r c o m p le tio n (s e e

Appendix G ) . S u b je c ts w ere in s t r u c te d as fo l lo w s : " In

each o f th e boxes on t h is page I w ould l i k e you to w r it e

o u t an a t t i t u d e , a b e l i e f , o r an o p in io n you ho ld about th e

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g approach to w o rk in g w ith k id s , based

on w hat you have seen to d ay and w hat you may have a lre a d y

read o r e x p e r ie n c e d . The more honest you can be about your

p e rc e p tio n s , th e b e t te r i t w i l l be as feedback to

y o u r s e l f . " The in fo rm a tio n p ro v id e d in th e s e boxes

c o n s t itu te d some measure o f s u b je c ts ' p re d is p o s it io n s

tow ard s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g . When a l l in d iv id u a ls

c om ple ted t h is w r i t t e n e x e r c is e , ensu ing d is c u s s io n

p ro v id e d th e o p p o r tu n ity to sh are in d iv id u a l p e rc e p tio n s .

U n it # 2 : O b je c t i f y in g th e S e if-S c h e m a ta . C o n tin u in g

th e process o f s e l f - s t u d y , th e second u n it focused on

f a c i l i t a t i n g s u b je c ts ' re v ie w o f th e a t t i t u d e s , b e l ie f s ,


and o p in io n s expressed on th e i r s e if-s c h e m a ta w o rks h e ets .

T h is s e lf - e x a m in a t io n was in tended to "p re s e n t e v id e n ce " to

th e s u b je c ts fo r t h e i r o b je c t iv e c o n s id e ra t io n (R aim y,

1 9 7 5 ) . S p e c i f ic a l ly th e fo l lo w in g to p ic q u e s tio n s w ere

advanced to h e lp in d iv id u a ls focus t h e i r d is c u s s io n o f a

s t r o n g ly h e ld p o s i t iv e o r n e g a tiv e b e l i e f (B a in , 1 9 8 7 ):

1. What is th e source o f your knowledge?

2 . Is your b e l i e f supported by w hat you c u r r e n t ly

know?

3 . Is th e r e c o n tra ry in fo rm a tio n ?

4 . What e ls e do you need to know to p ro v id e a

s tro n g e r base fo r p o s i t iv e b e l ie f s about s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g ?

Along w ith a s s is t in g each s u b je c t to o b je c t i f y h is or

her p r e d is p o s it io n s , t h is e x e rc is e a ls o served th e purpose

o f id e n t i f y in g b e l ie f s as an im p o rta n t in f lu e n c e on

b e h a v io r . To c a r r y t h is ta s k one s te p f u r t h e r , th e A -B -C

model was in tro d u c e d . The A-B-C model is an in te g r a l p a r t

o f R a tio n a l Em otive Therapy , a c o g n it iv e r e s t r u c tu r in g

p ro c ed u re th a t in v o lv e s s y s te m a tic e x a m in a tio n o f an

in d iv id u a l 's thou ght p a tte rn s and i r r a t io n a l b e l ie f s

( E l l i s , 1962; El I is & H a rp e r, 1975; G re ig e r & Boyd, 1980;

Iv e y & S im ek-D ow ning , 1980; Meichenbaum, 1 9 8 6 ). In th e

model A is th e o b je c t iv e f a c t , e v e n ts , o r b e h a v io rs w hich

an in d iv id u a l e n c o u n te rs , B th e p e rs o n 's b e l i e f about A,

and C th e em otional consequence, o r how a person fe e ls


7 5

about A ( Iv e y & S lm ek-Dow ning. 1 9 8 0 ). As p re s e n te d In t h is

u n i t , i t is s tre s s e d th a t i t is not th e e v e n t th a t r e a l l y

tro u b le s us , bu t th e way we th in k about th e e v e n t . S ev e ra l

exam ples w ere p ro v id ed to s t im u la te th in k in g and d is c u s s io n

In t h is d i r e c t io n as i t r e la te d to s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g .

U n it 3 ; S u cc e ss fu l M ode ling o f S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g

in th e C lassroom . A cco rd ing to B a n d u ra 's (1 9 7 7 ) s o c ia l

le a rn in g th e o ry , e f f i c a c y e x p e c ta n c ie s fo r a g ive n

in d iv id u a l a re e s ta b lis h e d most e f f e c t i v e l y th roug h

perfo rm an ce accom plishm ents . V ic a r io u s e x p e r ie n c e ,

a lth o u g h a less r e l i a b l e source o f e f f i c a c y e x p e c ta n c y , is

a ls o re co g n ize d to e x e r t c o n s id e ra b le in f lu e n c e on th e

le a r n e r . Among o th e r s t r a t e g ie s , th e modes o f in d u c tio n by

w hich th e s e sources o f e f f ic a c y a re o p e r a t io n a l iz e d in c lu d e

p a r t ic ip a n t m o d e lin g , s ym bo lic m o d e lin g , and l i v e m o d e lin g .

W h ile m odeling in and o f i t s e l f has v a lu e , th e

in f lu e n c e o f t h is approach is s ig n i f ic a n t l y in cre a se d when

c e r t a in s i t u a t io n a l v a r ia b le s e x is t (B andura , 1971;

Meichembaum, 1 9 7 7 ). E s s e n t ia l ly , th e c o n d it io n s under

w hich m odeling is o p tim iz e d in c lu d e th e fo l lo w in g : (a ) th e

s e x , ag e , and e x p e r ie n c e o f th e m o d e l( s ) a re s im i la r to

th a t o f th e le a r n e r ( s ) , (b ) m u l t ip le m odels a re employed

(d e m o n s tra tin g to th e le a rn e r th a t th e ta s k can be

a ccom plished by a v a r ie t y o f p e rs o n s ), and (c ) th e model is

not im m ed ia te ly com petent bu t dem onstra tes in cre a se d s k i l l

as more p r a c t ic e is conducted .


76

As o rg a n iz e d , U n it 3 c o n ta in e d two d e m o n s tra tio n s o f

s ym b o lic m o d e lin g , e . g . , v id e o ta p e d p re s e n ta t io n s o f

te a c h e rs c o n d u c tin g s o c ia l s k i l l les s o n s. The f i r s t

d e m o n s tra tio n was p ro v id e d by a fe m a le te a c h e r , 29 y ea rs

o ld , who has been te a c h in g in s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n fo r fo u r

y e a rs . She is a te a c h e r o f th e e d u ca b le m e n ta lly im paired

and Is in a s e l f - c o n ta in e d c lassroom a t th e e le m e n ta ry

l e v e l . She has a c as e lo a d o f 12 e le m e n ta ry school aged

c h i ld r e n . In th e v id e o ta p e she addresses th e lesson ,

“respond ing to te a s in g ," a s k i l l from Ski I I s trea m in g th e

E le m e n ta ry School C h ild (M cG inn is & G o ld s te in , 1 9 8 4 ) . The

second d e m o n s tra tio n was conducted by a fe m a le te a c h e r , 25

y e a rs o ld , in her second y ea r o f te a c h in g . She is a

te a c h e r o f th e e m o tio n a lly im paired and is a ls o in a s e l f -

c o n ta in e d c lassroom a t th e e le m e n ta ry le v e l . Her cas e lo a d

is a c r o s s -c a te g o r ic a l m ix o f s tu d e n ts id e n t i f i e d as

e m o tio n a lly im paired and le a rn in g d is a b le d . In th e second

v id e o ta p e she a ls o addressed th e les s o n , "respond ing to

t e a s in g ," bu t from Making B e tte r C h o ic es ; A C o g n it iv e -

B e h a v io ra l Approach fo r Teach ing S o c ia l S k i l l s and

C o g n it iv e P la n n in g (H a r r is , 1 9 8 7 ) . (T h is v id e o ta p e was

a ls o produced by th e re s e a rc h e r w ith th e a s s is ta n c e o f a

te a c h e r in th e Lansing P u b lic S c h o o ls .)

From th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e re s e a rc h e r i t seemed

im p o rta n t to focus th e a t te n t io n o f th e s u b je c ts on

s p e c i f ic te a c h in g b e h a v io rs dem onstrated by th e m odels so


7 7

th a t more d i r e c t i v e use co u ld be made o f th e m odeling

v ig n e t t e s . A c c o rd in g ly , th e "Teacher S e l f - E v a lu a t io n

M easure" was d is t r ib u t e d to each s u b je c t fo r h is o r her use

w h ile v ie w in g th e second v id e o ta p e (s e e Appendix H ) . T h is

e v a lu a t io n m easure i d e n t i f i e d a range o f b e h a v io rs and

s k i l l s n e cessary fo r good te a c h e r d e l iv e r y o f s o c ia l s k i l l s

in fo r m a t io n . I t was developed by th e re s e a rc h e r and is

l a r g e ly based on in fo rm a tio n g leaned from th e s o c ia l s k i l l s

and te a c h in g e f fe c t iv e n e s s l i t e r a t u r e (B ic k e l & B ic k e l ,

1986; K ib u rz e t a l . , 1984; Ladd & M iz e , 1 9 8 3 ).

F o llo w in g v ie w in g o f th e v id e o ta p e d d e m o n s tra tio n s ,

d is c u s s io n concerned e v a lu a t io n o f th e b e h a v io rs m odeled,

u s in g th e Teacher S e l f - E v a lu a t io n Measure as a p o in t o f

r e fe r e n c e . The re s e a rc h e r took t h is o p p o r tu n ity to o f f e r

both e v a lu a t iv e feedback (p r a is e , a p p ro v a l) and in fo rm a tiv e

feedback ( r e d e f i n i t i o n s , h ig h l ig h t in g im p o rta n t e lem e n ts o f

th e p e rfo rm an ce ) to th e p a r t ic ip a n ts as th e y d e s c rib e d

t h e i r assessm ents o f th e m odels (Ladd & M iz e , 1 9 8 3 ).

F i n a l l y , in t h is t h i r d u n i t , th e s u b je c ts w ere

in s t r u c te d to c o m p le te th e Teacher S e l f - E v a lu a t io n M easure

in th e c o n te x t o f t h e i r own s tr e n g th s . As a means o f

r e in f o r c in g p r a c t ic e from U n its 1 and 2 , th e purpose o f

t h is e x e r c is e was to prom ote c o n tin u e d s e l f - s t u d y .

U n it 4 ; L iv e M ode ling o f S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g /

P a r t i c i pan t R e h e a rs a I. R e la t iv e to v ic a r io u s e x p e rie n c e as

a source o f e f f i c a c y in fo rm a tio n , sym bo lic and l i v e


78

m odeling a re both id e n t i f ie d as im p o rta n t form s o f

in d u c tio n (B andura , 1 9 7 1 ). In U n it 4 , th e in te n t was to

add l i v e m ode ling as a second form o f d e m o n s tra tio n . As

b e fo re , i t is im p o rta n t th a t th e model appear s im i la r to

th e s u b je c ts in term s o f age and e x p e r ie n c e . The model

ro le -p la y e d a s o c ia l s k i l l lesson, in v o lv in g s e v e ra l o f th e

s u b je c ts as a c to r s . The model a ls o in c lu d e d d is c u s s io n o f

her s t r a t e g ie s , co n tin g e n cy management p la n , and g e n e ra l

p ro c es s in g o f th e s i t u a t io n . As a complement to p re v io u s

a c t i v i t y , fo l lo w -u p o f t h is d em o n stra tio n p ro v id ed th e

o p p o r tu n ity fo r s u b je c ts to q u e s tio n th e model re g a rd in g

elem ents o f her perfo rm an ce . A d d it io n a l ly o th e r q u e s tio n s

w ere p re se n te d by th e re s e a rc h e r th a t a llo w e d th e model to

v e r b a l ly persuade s u b je c ts o f th e im portance o f s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a i n in g , even in th e fa c e o f o b s ta c le s . V erb a l

p e rsu a s io n is id e n t i f i e d as a n o th e r u s e fu l source o f

e f f ic a c y in fo rm a tio n , a lth o u g h a source acknowledged to be

w eaker th a n e i t h e r perform ance accom plishm ent or v ic a r io u s

e x p e r ie n c e fo r s u s ta in in g b eh av io r in th e fa c e o f o b s ta c le s

(B andura , 1977, 1 9 8 2 ).

F i n a l l y , in U n it 4 s u b je c ts w ere p ro v id ed th e

o p p o r tu n ity to beg in re h e a rs a l o f an in tro d u c to ry s o c ia l

s k i l l les s o n . O v e rt re h e a rs a l is a s t r a te g y th a t serv es to

e s ta b l is h m atch ing responses between c u r r e n t perform ance

and a s ta n d a rd (B andura , 1971; Ladd & M iz e , 1 9 8 3 ). In t h is


79

c a s e , th e s ta n d a rd was th e d e m o n stra tio n p re se n te d by th e

mode I .

S u b je c ts w ere in s tru c te d to use a s e t o f m a te r ia ls

p ro v id ed a t th e o u ts e t o f t r a in in g . These m a te r ia ls

in c lu d e d : (a ) a l i s t o f 60 s k i l l s ta u g h t in S ki 11 s trea m in g

th e E le m e n ta ry School C h ild (M cG innis & G o ld s te in , 1 9 8 4 ), a

s c r ip t fo r an opening lesson in t h is c u r r ic u lu m , th e s c r ip t

fo r an i n i t i a l lesso n , a s c r ip te d o u t l in e fo r te a c h e r use

in l a t e r les s o n s , and th e s p e c i f ic s te p s to fo u r c lassroom

s u r v iv a l and seven fr ie n d s h ip -m a k in g s k i l l s , and (b ) a l i s t

o f 50 s k i l l s ta u g h t in SkI I I s trea m in g th e A d o lescen t

(G o ld s te in e t a I . , 1 9 8 0 ), th e s c r ip t fo r an opening

s tr u c tu r e d le a rn in g lesson , a s c r ip te d o u t l in e fo r te a c h e r

use in la t e r les s o n s , and th e s te p s to e ig h t b eg in n in g and

th r e e advanced s o c ia l s k i l l s (s e e Appendix I ) . The

rem ainder o f t im e in t h is sess ion was d ir e c te d to re h e a rs a l

o f th e les s o n . E q u a l-s iz e d groups o f fo u r o r f i v e w ere

o rg a n iz e d to conduct t h is a c t i v i t y . Both th e re s e a rc h e r

and th e model w ere a v a i la b le to p ro v id e e v a lu a t iv e and

in fo rm a tiv e feedback to th e s u b je c ts as th e y re h e a rs e d .

U n it * 5 : P a r t ic ip a n t M o d e lin g — Phase 1 . P erform ance

accom plishm ent is acknowledged to be a p a r t i c u l a r ly

in f l u e n t i a l source o f e f f ic a c y in fo rm a tio n because i t is

based on pe rso n a l m aste ry e xp e rien c e s (B andura , 1971, 1977,

1982; Bandura , Adams, & B eyer, 1977; G o ld fr ie d & R ob ins ,

1 9 8 2 ). A cco rd ing to Bandura (1 9 7 7 ) , “R e g a rd le s s o f th e


m ethods in v o lv e d , r e s u l ts o f c o m p a ra tiv e s tu d ie s a t t e s t to

th e s u p e r io r i t y o f p erfo rm an ce-based tre a tm e n ts " (p . 1 9 6 ) .

The p r in c ip a l sources th rough w hich d i f f e r e n t modes o f

tre a tm e n t a re o p e r a t io n a l iz e d in c lu d e : P a r t ic ip a n t

m o d e lin g , perfo rm an ce d e s e n s it iz a t io n , perfo rm an ce

e xp o s u re , and s e I f - in s t r u c t e d p e rfo rm an ce (B an d u ra , 1 9 7 7 ).

For purposes o f t h is s tu d y , p a r t ic ip a n t m ode ling was

o p e r a t io n a l iz e d fo r use in th e fo l lo w in g w ay. S u b je c ts

w ere re q u e s te d to model th e in tr o d u c to r y lesson th e y had

re h ea rse d In U n it 4 in f r o n t o f th e e n t i r e g ro u p . Each

d e m o n s tra t io n was v id e o ta p e d by th e re s e a rc h e r so th a t

e v a lu a t iv e and in fo rm a tiv e feedback c o u ld be p ro v id e d on an

in d iv id u a l b a s is fo llo w in g a l l d e m o n s tra t io n s . In each

m o deling d e m o n s tra t io n , one in d iv id u a l was d e s ig n a te d as

th e " te a c h e r" and th e re m a in in g p a r t ic ip a n ts as "c lassroom

s tu d e n ts ." (These d e c is io n s w ere made w ith in each g ro u p .)

S u b je c ts o b s e rv in g th e models w ere p ro v id e d w ith th e

T eacher S e l f - E v a lu a t io n Measure so t h a t s p e c i f ic b e h a v io ra l

feedback c o u ld be p ro v id ed to th e in d iv id u a l a c t in g in th e

te a c h e r r o l e . S u b se q u e n tly , q u e s tio n s to th e group from

th e re s e a rc h e r in c lu d e d th e fo l lo w in g :

1. What s p e c i f ic b e h av io rs in d ic a te s k i l l on th e p a r t

o f th e (m ode l)?

2 . What im provements m ig h t be c o n s id e red ?

3 . (To th e m ode l) What p a r t ic u la r th o u g h ts w ere go ing

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohib ted without permission.

81

on in your mind? Were th e s e th o u g h ts p o s i t iv e o r n e g a tiv e ?

What a re th e im p lic a t io n s o f p o s i t iv e or n e g a t iv e thou ghts?

F i n a l l y , m odeling o f th e I n i t i a l s t r u c tu r e d le a rn in g

lesson (s e e Appendix I ) was conducted by th e l i v e te a c h e r

m odel. The p rim a ry purpose o f t h i s d e m o n s tra tio n was to

p ro v id e s u b je c ts w ith a sequenced in tr o d u c t io n to th e

Ski I Is t r e a m in g c u r r ic u lu m . As recommended in th e t r a i n e r 's

g u id e (G o ld s te in e t a I . , 1 9 8 0 ), t h i s lesson fo llo w e d

p re p a r in g th e s tu d e n ts fo r s tr u c tu r e d le a rn in g (m odeled by

p a r t ic ip a n ts in t h is u n i t ) and p recedes th e " o u t l in e fo r

te a c h e rs in la t e r s tr u c tu r e d le a rn in g lessons" (p . 2 0 4 )

(s e e Appendix I ) . F o llo w -u p d is c u s s io n was conducted to

focus s u b je c ts on s p e c i f ic b e h a v io rs o f th e model as w e ll

as a s p e c ts o f th e m a te r ia l th a t would s ig n a l p o te n t ia l

problem s when p re se n te d in a c lassroom s e t t in g .

U n it * 6 ; P a r t ic ip a n t M o d e lin g — Phase 2 . In t h is u n i t

s u b je c ts c o n tin u e d th e a c t i v i t y o f U n it 5 , p a r t ic ip a n t

m o d e lin g . Once a g a in , u t i l i z i n g m a te r ia ls from th e

S k i I Is tre a m in g c u rr ic u lu m (M cG inn is & G o ld s te in , 1984) th e

p a r t ic ip a n ts w ere in s t ru c te d to p re s e n t a s k i l l lesson

u s in g th e o u t l in e fo r te a c h e rs in la t e r s tr u c tu r e d

le a rn in g les s o n s . (As noted p r e v io u s ly , t h is fo llo w e d th e

sequence recommended in th e t r a i n e r 's g u id e .)

S p e c i f i c a l l y , each o f th e fo l lo w in g b e g in n in g s o c ia l s k i l l

lessons w ere p re se n te d by one o f th e f o u r - t o - f iv e member

groups: (a ) l is te n in g (a s p re se n te d to e le m e n ta ry -a g e d


82

s tu d e n ts ) , (b ) l is te n in g (a s p re se n te d to secondary-aged

s tu d e n ts ) , ( c ) a sk in g fo r h e lp , and (d ) s ay in g thank you .

Time was p ro v id ed fo r s u b je c ts to re h e a rs e t h e i r m ode ling

d e m o n s tra t io n s . As b e fo r e , d e m o n stra tio n s by th e m odels

w ere v id e o ta p e d so e v a lu a t iv e and in fo rm a tiv e feedback

c o u ld be p ro v id ed to each s u b je c t a c t in g in a te a c h e r r o le .

O b se rv ers w ere in s tru c te d to use th e Teacher S e l f -

E v a lu a t io n Measure to re co rd t h e i r o b s e rv a tio n s . D u rin g

fo llo w -u p d is c u s s io n d i r e c t iv e q u e s tio n s from th e

re s e a rc h e r sought to prompt o b je c t iv e and o p e ra t io n a l

th in k in g on th e p a r t o f a l l s u b je c ts .

U n it * 7 ; S e lf-M a n ag e m e n t. The f in a l u n i t o f th e

S e l f - E f f ic a c y T r a in in g program in vo lv e d s u b je c ts in a

d is c u s s io n o f an im p o rta n t se lf-m anagem ent need, prob lem

s o lv in g s k i l l s . A cco rd ing to K a n fe r and G a e lic k (1 9 8 6 ) ,

What is lea rn ed in th e ra p y should in c lu d e a s e t o f g e n e r a l iz a b Ie s k i l l s such as copings t r a t e g ie s , a b i l i t y to assess s it u a t io n s and b e h a v io ra l outcom es, and developm ent o f r u le s o f conduct fc r common problem s it u a t io n s , a l l o f w hich a id th e c l i e n t in a v o id in g o r h a n d lin g f u t u r e problem s more e f f e c t i v e l y than in th e p a s t . (p . 284 )

A lth o u g h t h is r a t io n a le is o f fe r e d w ith in th e c o n te x t

o f a th e r a p e u t ic in te r v e n t io n , i t has a p p l ic a b i l i t y to th e

p re s e n t s tu d y . K an fer and G a e lic k (1 9 8 6 ) fu r th e r n o te th a t

se lf-m anagem ent methods h e lp an in d iv id u a l a c q u ire new

b e h a v io rs , a lth o u g h not n e c e s s a r ily as p a r t o f th e d a i ly

r e p e r t o i r e . R a th e r , in a fu tu r e sense self-m anagem ent

te c h n iq u e s a re u s e fu l when, and i f , problem s a r is e . The


83

g e n e r a l iz e d need fo r in d iv id u a ls in te a c h in g r o le s to a c t

as p ro b ie m -s o lv e rs is fu r t h e r supported by Tetenbaum and

Mu I keen (1 9 8 6 ) who e m p h a t ic a lly s u pport knowledge o f t h is

c o g n i t iv e p rocess by e ve ry p ro s p e c tiv e e d u c a to r .

In term s o f th e s e l f - e f f i c a c y c o n c e p t, s e l f

management methods have im p o rta n t a p p l ic a b i l i t y . Bandura

(1 9 7 7 ) s ta te s th a t "successes a re more l i k e l y to enhance

s e l f - e f f i c a c y i f perform ances a re p e rc e iv e d as r e s u l t in g

from s k i l l r a th e r than from f o r t u it o u s o r s p e c ia l e x te r n a l

a id s " (p . 2 0 1 ) . M a s te ry o f d i f f i c u l t ta s k s conveys

n o t ic e a b le e v id e n ce o f increased com petence. Problem

s o lv in g is a s k i l l and a sequence o f b e h a v io rs w hich a llo w

an in d iv id u a l to m a in ta in a measure o f c o n tro l In a

d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t io n , and th e r e fo r e enhance s e l f - e f f i c a c y .

As e v id e n c e o f success (o r f a i l u r e ) is acc u m u la ted , th e

in fo rm a tio n encoded in th e s e if-s c h e m a ta o f f e r s g r e a te r

c o n f ir m a t io n to th e le a rn e r th a t p ersona l m a ste ry is

a c h ie v a b le (o r not a c h ie v a b le ) in th a t s i t u a t io n .

U n it 7 was p r im a r i ly d ir e c te d tow ard d is c u s s io n o f th e

im portance o f and need fo r p ro b le m -s o lv in g s k i l l s in th e

a re a o f s o c ia l s k i l l s . F i r s t , s u b je c ts c o n s id e red th e ways

in w h ich t h e i r b e h av io r may be in flu e n c e d by n e g a t iv e

b e l i e f s , i . e . , a g re a te r s e n s i t i v i t y to b e h a v io ra l

p rob lem s, th e p ro v is io n o f less c h a lle n g in g les s o n s , o r

perhaps te r m in a t io n o f form al s o c ia l s k i l l s in s t r u c t io n

a lt o g e t h e r . Second, p a r t ic ip a n ts c o n s id e red a v a r ie t y o f


84

problem s w hich th e te a c h e r m ig h t en co u n ter in th e c lassroom

s e t t in g . T h ir d , s u b je c ts rev iew ed a s e t o f f i v e

recommended s te p s to p ro b le m -s o lv in g (M a r t in , 1981) and

c o n s id e re d th e ways th e s e s te p s may be a p p lie d to th e

id e n t i f i e d p rob lem s.

V a l id a t io n o f th e S e l f - E f f ic a c y T r a in in g Program

A c o n te n t v a l id a t io n approach ( K e r l in g e r , 1973;

Popham, 1975) was used to a s c e r ta in th e d e g ree to w hich th e

S e l f - E f f ic a c y T ra in in g program was grounded in re se arc h

th e o ry and p r a c t ic e . As K e r l in g e r (1 9 7 3 ) d e s c r ib e s i t ,

"C o n ten t v a l i d i t y is th e re p re s e n ta t iv e n e s s o r samp I i ng

adequacy o f th e c o n te n t— th e su b stan c e , th e m a tte r , th e

to p ic s — o f a m easuring in s tru m en t" (p . 4 5 8 ) . Of im port is

th e q u e s t io n , " Is th e substance o r c o n te n t o f t h i s m easure

r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f th e c o n te n t or th e u n iv e rs e o f c o n te n t o f

th e p ro p e r ty b e in g measured?" (K e r l in g e r , 1973, p . 4 5 8 ) .

To d e te rm in e th e r e p re s e n ta t iv e n e s s o f th e m easuring

in s tru m en t K e r l in g e r and Popham a d v is e th a t o th e r

"com petent" judges should judge th e c o n te n ts o f th e item s.

So th a t t h is process is b e s t f a c i l i t a t e d , th e judges must

be fu rn is h e d w ith s p e c i f ic d ir e c t io n s fo r m aking judgm ents,

as we I I as w ith s p e c i f ic a t io n o f w hat th e y a re ju d g in g .

A c c o rd in g ly th e fo llo w in g p rocedures w ere conducted in th is

s tu d y to m easure c o n te n t v a l i d i t y o f th e SET program .


85

In i t s o r ig in a l form th e program c o n s is te d o f 12 hours

o f t r a i n in g . F iv e " e x p e rt" ju d g e s , in d iv id u a ls a l l

p u b lis h e d in th e f i e l d o f s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry , c o g n it iv e

p syc h o lo g y , a n d /o r te a c h e r s e l f - e f f i c a c y , w ere asked to

e v a lu a te th e c o n te n t o f th e t r a in in g program and respond to

th e fo l lo w in g q u e s tio n s : (a ) A re p r in c ip le s from s o c ia l

le a rn in g th e o ry a n d /o r c o g n it iv e psychology a p p r o p r ia te ly

a p p lie d to t h is in s t r u c t io n a l program fo r t r a in in g in s e l f -

e f f ic a c y ? , and (b ) a c c o rd in g to re s e a rc h th e o ry and

p r a c t ic e , a re th e s t r a t e g ie s em ployed a p p r o p r ia te fo r

t r a in in g in s e l f - e f f i c a c y ? (See Appendix J fo r a copy o f

th e l e t t e r s en t to each e x p e r t . )

The th r e e e x p e rts who responded to t h i s re q u e s t

in c lu d e d : D r . A lb e r t Bandura, a p rom inen t s o c ia l le a rn in g

t h e o r is t from S ta n fo rd U n iv e r s i ty who has a u th o re d numerous

books and a r t i c l e s on s e l f - e f f i c a c y , D r . M a rv in G o ld f r ie d ,

a p rom inen t c o g n it iv e p s y c h o lo g is t from S ta te U n iv e r s i ty o f

New York a t S tony Brook who has a ls o a u th o re d many

p u b l ic a t io n s , and D r. P a t r ic ia A sh ton , a re s e a rc h e r from

The U n iv e r s i ty o f F lo r id a who has in v e s t ig a te d te a c h e r

e f f ic a c y and p u b lis h e d s e v e ra l a r t i c l e s on t h is to p ic .

Both D r . Bandura and D r. Ashton responded w ith form al

l e t t e r s th a t e v a lu a te d th e t r a in in g program r e la t i v e to th e

a fo re m e n tio n e d q u e s tio n s (s e e A ppendices B and K ) .

D r. G o ld f r ie d re tu rn e d th e copy o f th e t r a in in g program

s en t to him and reco rd ed h is recom m endations d i r e c t l y on


th e c opy. D r . Ashton d id not recommend any changes to th e

t r a in in g program and D r. G o ld fr ie d id e n t i f i e d o n ly m inor

c la r i f i c a t i o n s . However, D r . Bandura c a u tio n e d th a t th e

e f f ic a c y t r a in in g program seemed to r e ly h e a v ily on th e

v e rb a l p e rs u a s io n mode, e s p e c ia l ly E l l i s ' A -B-C m odel, and

th a t such v e rb a l approaches a lo n e o f te n have weak e f f e c t s

on p e rc e iv e d s e l f - e f f i c a c y . Thus, th e s e l f - e f f i c a c y

t r a in in g m ig h t have a weak im pact on s e l f - e f f i c a c y because

i t r e l i e d on a r e la t i v e l y weak mode o f e f f ic a c y in d u c tio n .

In s te a d he suggested more em phasis on m odeling o f th e

r e le v a n t s k i l l s , and gu ided p r a c t ic e under s im u la te d

c o n d it io n s to p e r fe c t th e s k i l l s . He a ls o recommended

in c lu s io n o f an a p p l ic a t io n phase to a llo w p r a c t ic e o f th e

newly a c q u ire d s k i l l s under n a tu ra l c o n d it io n s .

A lth o u g h D r. Ashton and D r. G o ld fr ie d approved th e

fo rm a t o f th e s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g as p re s e n te d , t h is

re s e a rc h e r e le c te d to make s e v e ra l m o d if ic a t io n s suggested

by D r . B andura . E s s e n t ia l ly t h is c h o ic e was made because

Bandura is w id e ly acknowledged to be th e concep tua l a r t i s t

o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y th e o ry (G ibson & Dembo, 1984; G o ld f r ie d &

R ob ins , 1982; P hares , 1 9 8 4 ). Phares (1 9 8 4 ) s ta te s ,

B a n d u ra 's work has had an im p o rta n t impact on both le a rn in g and p e r s o n a l i ty as w e ll as on th e t re a tm e n t o f c l i n i c a l prob lem s. In no sm all way t h is has been th e r e s u l t o f th e la rg e volume o f c a r e f u l l y e xecu ted re se arc h s t im u la te d by h is t h e o r e t ic a l approach . (p . 341 )

In d e fe re n c e to B an d u ra 's e v a lu a t io n o f th e program .


and to enhance c o n te n t v a l i d i t y o f th e t r a in in g , th e

fo l lo w in g changes w ere made in th e f in a l p ro d u c t:

1. An In tro d u c to ry u n i t in c lu d in g s o c ia l s k i l l

c o n te n t in fo rm a tio n was e lim in a te d . (B andura noted th a t

t h is e lem ent o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g m igh t confound

tre a tm e n t c o n d i t io n s .)

2 . Emphasis on th e A -B -C model was reduced . (T h is is

v iew ed by Bandura as a v e rb a l p e rsu a s io n mode. The

m o d ifie d t r a in in g addresses t h is concept in a more c o n c is e

fo r m .)

3 . Emphasis on s y m b o lic , l i v e , and p a r t ic ip a n t

m odeling was in c re a s e d . (T h is is c o n s is te n t ly acknowledged

to be th e most i n f lu e n t ia l source o f e f f ic a c y e xpec tan cy

i n fo rm a t i o n . )

4 . A t te n t io n to se lf-m anagem ent in fo rm a tio n in th e

f i n a l u n i t was a ls o a b b re v ia te d to a llo w more tim e fo r

gu ided p r a c t ic e and m o d e lin g .

Bandura a ls o ad v is ed a t r a n s fe r program designed to

a llo w a p p l ic a t io n o f th e newly a c q u ire d s k i l l s to n a tu ra l

c o n d it io n s . W h ile th e s ig n i f ic a n t v a lu e o f t h is

m ethodology is no t lo s t on t h is re s e a rc h e r , i t was not a

t r a in in g component th a t co u ld be r e a d i ly accommodated.

However, ta k in g o th e r recom m endations in to c o n s id e r a t io n ,

in i t s f in a l form S e l f - E f f ic a c y T ra in in g in c o rp o ra te d a

s tro n g e r sequence o f gu ided p r a c t ic e , m o d e lin g , and

c o g n it iv e b e h a v io r m o d if ic a t io n s t r a t e g ie s .


The need to e s ta b l is h v a l id in s tru m en ts and te s ts is a

w id e ly re c o g n ize d re s e a rc h g o a l. In t h is s tu d y th e method

used to e v a lu a te th e SET program was c o n te n t v a l id a t io n .

I t is w o rth n o tin g , how ever, th a t t h is approach does have

i t s w eaknesses. These a re noted by Brown (1 9 8 3 ) who

s uggests th r e e p o s s ib le l im i t a t io n s . F i r s t , th e r e is no

q u a n t i t a t iv e index e s ta b lis h e d to s e rv e as a s in g le

d e f i n i t i v e m easure, r a t h e r , i t is th e judgm ent o f th e

re v ie w e rs th a t s erv es as th e p o in t o f re fe r e n c e . Second, a

lac k o f c l a r i t y on th e p a r t o f th e re s e a rc h e r in d e f in in g

th e domain o r any o f th e s u b c a te g o rie s w i l l make judgm ent

by th e e x p e rts more d i f f i c u l t . And t h i r d , v a r io u s judges

may use d i f f e r e n t s ta n d a rd s and c r i t e r i a to judge th e te s t

o r in s tru m e n t. R egard ing th e SET program , a d iv e rg e n c e o f

o p in io n by th e ju d g e s , i . e . , Bandura v ers u s G o ld fr ie d and

A shton , was a p p a re n t. Tha t is , Bandura a d v is ed use o f a

s tro n g e r source o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y in fo rm a tio n w h i le both

G o ld f r ie d and Ashton e s s e n t ia l ly s u pported th e t r a in in g as

i t was o r i g i n a l l y d e s ig n e d . W hether t h is d iv e rg e n c e can be

a t t r ib u t e d to lack o f c l a r i t y o f th e domain a n d /o r

d if fe r e n c e s among th e judges is u n c le a r . However, in term s

o f e s ta b l is h in g c o n te n t v a l i d i t y o f th e SET, i t was th e

d e c is io n o f th e re s e a rc h e r in t h is s tu d y to in c o rp o ra te th e

changes recommended by Bandura.


8 9

S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g C o n ten t In fo rm a tio n

C o n ten t o f th e Program

U n lik e S e l f - E f f ic a c y T ra in in g w hich employed

m ethodology to f a c i l i t a t e s e l f - s t u d y , a c t iv e p a r t ic ip a n t

le a r n in g , and se lf-m an a g e m e n t, th e program in v o lv in g S o c ia l

S k i l l T r a in in g C o n ten t In fo rm a tio n (SST) ( M i l l e r , 1987c)

was c o n c e p tu a liz e d to address k n o w le d g e -ty p e in fo rm a tio n .

T h is academ ic c o n te n t approach is not u n l ik e th a t d e liv e r e d

in many te a c h e r e d u c a tio n program s (Pugach, 1 9 8 7 ).

How ever, as t r a in in g m anuals o r t e x ts d i r e c t l y a p p l ic a b le

to t h is purpose w ere not a v a i la b le , i t was necessary to

e x t r a p o la te th e s p e c i f ic e lem ents o f t r a in in g from th e

s o c ia l s k i l l s l i t e r a t u r e . O p e r a t io n a l ly , th e t r a in in g was

o rg a n iz e d in a l e c t u r e - s t y le fo rm at in v o lv in g d is c u s s io n

and l im ite d a c t iv e p a r t ic ip a t io n by th e s u b je c ts (see

Appendix L ) . E ig h t u n i ts o f in fo rm a tio n w ere id e n t i f i e d

fo r p re s e n ta t io n to th e s u b je c ts in t h i s group .

U n it » 1 : In tro d u c tio n to S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g .

B a s ic a l ly , th e purpose o f U n it 1 was to p ro v id e an

o v e rv ie w o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g . in t h is re v ie w th e

fo l lo w in g in tro d u c to ry c la r i f i c a t i o n s w ere p ro v id e d : (a ) a

d e f i n i t i o n o f s o c ia l s k i l l s by F o s te r and R ichey (c i t e d in

Jenson, S lo a n e , & Young, 1 9 8 8 ); (b ) a r a t io n a le fo r s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g ; (c ) th e s y s te m a t ic , in s t r u c t io n a l n a tu re o f

t h is t r a in in g ; (d ) th e “s k i I Is" approach o f t h is ty p e o f


90

in s t r u c t io n and id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e k in d o f s k i l l s th a t

may be addressed in c u r r ic u la ; ( e ) th e ways in w hich s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g d i f f e r s from classroom management; and ( f )

th e p o te n t ia l outcomes o f t h is in s t r u c t io n . I t was la r g e ly

th roug h d is c u s s io n th a t s u b je c ts e x p lo re d th e s e a re a s ,

a lth o u g h one hands-on e x e rc is e was conducted to f a c i l i t a t e

p a r t ic ip a n t s ' u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s k i l l s n a tu re o f th is

i n s tr u c t ion .

U n it * 2 : E xa m in a tio n o f th e S k i l l s . In t h is u n i t ,

th e re s e a rc h e r addressed th e two a rea s in to w hich s o c ia l

s k i l l s a re t y p i c a l l y d iv id e d in com m ercial c u r r ic u la .

A cco rd ing to th e l i t e r a t u r e t h is is u s u a lly in te rp e rs o n a l

s k i l l s and p ro b le m -s o lv in g s k i l l s (B re n d tro & Ness, 1983;

O sberg , 1982; Spence, 1 9 8 3 ) . A g e n e ra l d e s c r ip t io n was

p ro v id e d o f each approach and then s u b je c ts w ere asked in

work in sm all groups o f fo u r or f i v e to c o n s id e r s e v e ra l

r e le v a n t q u e s tio n s : (a ) Id e n t i f y s it u a t io n s in w hich k id s

must use in te rp e rs o n a l o r p ro b le m -s o lv in g s k i l l s ,

(b ) id e n t i f y ways in w hich k id s who a re d e f ic ie n t in s o c ia l

s k i l l s t y p i c a l l y respond when put in th e s e s i t u a t io n s , and

(c ) id e n t i f y th e advan tages to be ga in ed from use o f more

a p p r o p r ia te b e h a v io r . Ensuing d is c u s s io n focused on

s u b je c t responses to th e s e q u e s tio n s .

U n it #3: The C u rr ic u lu m . The goal o f U n it 3 was to

in tro d u c e s u b je c ts to s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g c u r r ic u la and

to id e n t i f y o b je c t iv e ways o f e v a lu a t in g program s in th is


91

a r e a . T h is is a p rocess advocated by Schumaker, P ederson,

H a z e l, and Meyen (1 9 8 3 ) . To beg in w ith , p a r t ic ip a n ts w ere

p ro v id ed w ith a p acke t o f in fo rm a tio n c o n ta in in g

d e s c r ip t io n s o f 10 c u r r ic u la . In t h is packe t each

c u rr ic u lu m was d e s c rib e d acc o rd in g to th e fo l lo w in g

c r i t e r i a : ( a ) t a r g e t p o p u la t io n , (b ) p h y s ic a l d e s c r ip t io n ,

(c ) a b i l i t y a n d /o r m o tiv a t io n a l com ponents, (d ) le a rn in g

c h a r a c t e r is t ic s a d d ressed , (e ) s k i l l s o r to p ic s c o ve red ,

( f ) approach ( s k i l l s o r s i t u a t io n ) , and (g ) te a c h in g

m ethodology (s e e Appendix M) (Schumaker e t a I . , 1983,

pp. 8 - 1 0 ) . As a fo llo w -u p to i d e n t i f i c a t io n o f th e s e

e le m e n ts , s u b je c ts w ere d iv id e d in to groups o f fo u r o r f i v e

to re v ie w f i r s t - h a n d one o f th e c u r r ic u la p ro v id ed by th e

r e s e a rc h e r , th r e e o f w hich a re d e s c rib e d in th e p a c k e t.

These c u r r ic u la in c lu d e : Thre sh o ld s to A d u lt L iv in g

(G r a ig , 1 9 8 2 ) , SkI Iis tre a m !n g th e E le m e n ta ry School

Chi Id (M cG inn is &. G o ld s te in , 1 9 8 4 ), Ski I I s tream ing th e

A d o le sc e n t (G o ld s te in , S p r a fk in , Gershaw, & K le in , 1 9 8 0 ),

The C ho ice (Roderm an, 1 9 8 0 a ), The Prom ise (Roderman,

1 9 8 0 b ), The B ig H a ss le (C a n a r io , 1 9 8 0 a ), The Put-Down

(C a n a r io , 1 9 8 0 b ), and Person to Person (S a ss e , 1 9 8 1 ). Each

group then d e s c rib e d th e m e r its o f th e program th e y

rev iew ed r e la t i v e to th e a fo re m e n tio n e d c r i t e r i a .

U n it * 4 : M eth o d o lo g y . In U n it 4 th e goal was to

a p p r is e s u b je c ts o f th e methods and s t r a t e g ie s used to

im plem ent s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g . As an o v e rv ie w , a


th r e e -s ta g e process d e s c rib e d by Schumaker e t a l . (1 9 8 3 )

was used to fram e d is c u s s io n . As Schumaker e t a l . id e n t i f y

i t , t h is process in v o lv e s aw areness, p r a c t ic e , and

a p p l ic a t io n . The v a r ie t y o f s t r a t e g ie s u t i l i z e d a t each

s ta g e to o p e r a t io n a l iz e in s t r u c t io n o f a s p e c i f ic s k i l l

was a ls o d e lin e a te d more f u l l y , e . g . , aw areness le v e l —

d is c u s s io n and m odeling o f th e s k i l l (B re n d tro & Ness,

1983; C a r te r & S u g a i, 1988; G a lv in , 1985; Gresham, 1982;

H a r r is , 1984; O sberg , 1 9 8 2 ); p r a c t ic e le v e l— r e h e a r s a l,

r o le p la y , and c o r r e c t iv e feedback (C a r te r & S u g a i, 1988;

Gresham, 1984; H a r r is , 1984 & 1987; Hops, 1983; Ladd &

M iz e , 1983; O sberg , 1 9 8 2 ); and a p p l ic a t io n le v e l— tr a n s fe r

o f le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s (G o ld s te in e t a l . , 1983; K ib u rz e t

a I . , 1984; Spence, 1 9 8 3 ).

U n it * 5 : A d a p ta tio n o f Com m ercial C u r r ic u la . The

p rim a ry purposes o f in s t r u c t io n in U n it 5 w ere :

1. To d isc u s s th e problem s c u r r e n t s o c ia l s k i l l

c u r r ic u la may p re s e n t (B a r g a r o z z i , 1985; H a r r is , 1984) and

th e a d a p ta t io n s t h is may r e q u ir e on th e p a r t o f th e

te a c h e r .

2 . To id e n t i f y a v a r ie t y o f cues th a t may s ig n a l a

poor m atch between c u rr ic u lu m and th e s tu d e n ts (G o ld s te in

e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 ).

3 . To id e n t i f y an o p e ra t io n a l s t r a te g y fo r a d d res s in g

c u rr ic u lu m problem s (M a r t in , 1 9 8 1 ).


93

E s s e n t ia l ly , th e s e o b je c t iv e s w ere f a c i l i t a t e d

th ro u g h d is c u s s io n , u s in g a v a r ie t y o f c o n c re te exam ples .

U n it * 6 : Assessm ent. The m a jo r goal o f U n it 6 was to

a c q u a in t s u b je c ts w ith ty p ic a l methods o f assessm ent, a

sam ple o f m easures used to e v a lu a te s o c ia l s k i l l , and

r e c o g n it io n o f th e im portance o f g a th e r in g o b je c t iv e

in fo rm a tio n . A cco rd ing to Gresham (1 9 8 2 ) , th e most

commonly used methods o f assessm ent in c lu d e : ( a ) te a c h e r

r a t in g s , ( 3 ) s o c io m e tr ic assessm ent, and (c ) n a t u r a l i s t i c

o b s e rv a t io n s . In t h i s u n i t th e focus was on in c re a s in g

awareness o f th e s e m ethods o f assessm ent, th e p ro c ed u re s

in v o lv e d , and sam ple in s tru m en ts c u r r e n t ly in use , e . g . ,

“The B e h a v io r R a tin g P r o f i l e " (Brown & HammiI I , 1983) and

th e "B eh av io r E v a lu a t io n S c a le " (M cCarney, L e ig h , &

C o r n b le e t , 1 9 8 3 ). The in s t r u c t io n a l fo rm a t in c lu d e d

d is c u s s io n and a “hands on" look a t In s tru m e n ta t io n .

U n it # 7 : S it u a t io n a l V a r ia b le s and S tu d e n t R esponses.

A cco rd ing to Ladd and Asher (1 9 8 5 ) , th e s i t u a t io n a l

v a r ia b le s th a t may o b s tru c t th e p ro v is io n o f s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g a re o f s ig n i f ic a n t im portance . In t h is u n i t , one

goal was to in fo rm s u b je c ts o f th e s e p o te n t ia l p ro b le m s .

Ladd and Asher (1 9 8 5 ) and G o ld s te in e t a l . (1 9 8 3 ) concur

t h a t s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g may not be v iew ed as a

le g i t im a te c ourse o f f e r in g , in com parison to o th e r academ ic

a re a s o f in s t r u c t io n . A d d i t io n a l ly , th e tim e i t ta k e s to

in c o rp o ra te t h is ty p e o f t r a in in g in to th e c u r r ic u lu m may


pose a p a r t ic u la r problem a t th e secondary le v e l w here

s tu d e n ts e n co u n ter s p e c i f ic g ra d u a tio n re q u ire m e n ts . As

noted p r e v io u s ly in U n it 3 , th e problem s a s s o c ia te d w ith

c u r r ic u la a ls o e x is t as a n o th e r d e te r re n t to a c t iv e use o f

s o c ia l s k i l l in s t r u c t io n . U t i l i z i n g a d is c u s s io n fo rm a t,

in t h i s p o r t io n o f U n it 7 s u b je c ts c o n s id e re d a v a r ie t y o f

s it u a t io n a l o b s ta c le s th a t may e x is t to in f lu e n c e t h e i r

perfo rm an ce in th e c lassroom s e t t in g .

For th e s u b je c ts U n it 7 a ls o in c lu d e d an e x a m in a tio n

o f s tu d e n t responses th a t may s erv e to d is c o u ra g e te a c h e r

e f f o r t in th e s o c ia l s k i l l s a re a . G o ld s te in e t a l . (1 9 8 3 ) ,

id e n t i f y s e v e ra l p o te n t ia l problem b e h a v io rs s tu d e n ts may

de m o n stra te in th e c lassroom , in c lu d in g : D e l ib e r a te

absence, a c t iv e a n d /o r p a ss ive re fu s a l to p a r t i c i p a t e , and

in a p p r o p r ia te p a r t ic ip a t io n . Schumaker e t a l . (1 9 8 3 ) , a ls o

n o te a v a r ie t y o f le a rn in g and s o c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s

a s s o c ia te d w ith th e m i ld ly handicapped th a t fu r t h e r

c h a lle n g e a te a c h e r in th is in s t r u c t io n a r e a . In

d is c u s s io n , th e s e fa c to r s w ere a ls o shared w ith th e

s u b je c ts .

U n it * 8 : Teacher B e h a v io rs . The f i n a l u n i t o f th e

SST approach focused on th e id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p e r t in e n t

te a c h e r b e h a v io rs necessary fo r s u cc e ss fu l in s t r u c t io n in

th e s o c ia l s k i l l s a re a . In th is re g a rd , Ladd and M ize

(1 9 8 3 ) o f f e r th a t "o v e r ly d id a c t ic and m e ch a n ica l"

in s t r u c t io n can s e r io u s ly underm ine even th e most w e l l -


designed and a l l - i n c l u s i v e o f t r a in in g program s (p . 1 5 3 ) ,

th u s m aking i t p a r t i c u l a r ly im p o rta n t th a t p re s e rv ic e

te a c h e rs re c o g n iz e th e s k i l l s th e y must possess in o rd e r to

m axim ize le a rn in g e xp e rien c e s fo r t h e i r s tu d e n ts .

A c c o rd in g ly , fo r purposes o f t h is in s t r u c t io n th e s o c ia l

s k i l l l i t e r a t u r e was review ed to id e n t i f y s p e c i f ic te a c h e r

s k i l l s necessary to e f f e c t i v e l y conduct s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g .

U n it 8 em phasized two c a te g o r ie s o f necessary te a c h e r

com petence— in te rp e rs o n a l s k i l l and m an ag e ria l s k i l l .

W ith in th e s e c a te g o r iz a t io n s s p e c i f ic s k i l l s needed by th e

te a c h e r w ere fu r t h e r d e lin e a te d , e . g . , p o s i t iv e

r e la t io n s h ip s w ith s tu d e n ts (Ladd & M iz e , 1 9 8 3 ); ro I e-mode I

c r e d i b i l i t y (Ladd & M iz e , 1 9 8 3 ); know ledge o f b e h a v io r

m o d if ic a t io n s t r a t e g ie s and s o c ia l le a rn in g th e o ry methods

(C a r te r & S u g a i, 1988; Gresham, 1984; H a r r is , 1984; Jenson,

S lo a n e , & Young, 1988; K ib u rz e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 ); and classroom

management s k i l l s (B ic k e l & B ic k e l , 1 9 8 6 ). Through

d is c u s s io n and use o f c o n c re te exam ples, s u b je c ts b r i e f l y

c o n s id e re d t h e i r s tre n g th s and w eaknesses as p o te n t ia l

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in e r s a cc o rd in g to th e a fo re m e n tio n e d s k i l l

a re a s .

V a l id a t io n o f th e S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g C o n ten t In fo rm a tio n Program

A c o n te n t v a l id a t io n approach (K e r l in g e r , 1973;

Popham, 1975) was u t i l i z e d to a s c e r ta in v a l i d i t y o f th e SST


9 6

program . As recommended by Borg and G a ll (1 9 7 9 ) , th e

“e x p e rts " In t h is process w ere p ro v id ed w ith a d e f i n i t i o n

o f th e u n iv e rs e to be sampled (s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g ) , th e

o b je c t iv e s o f t r a in in g , and a d e s c r ip t io n o f how th e

c o n te n t u n iv e rs e was sampled to d eve lop t r a in in g item s (s e e

Appendix N ) . The e x p e rts in th e v a l id a t io n o f t h is program

in c lu d e d 16 p ro fe s s io n a ls in th e f i e l d o f s p e c ia l

e d u c a tio n . The group was com prised o f 10 te a c h e rs , th r e e

a d m in is t r a to r s , and th re e te a c h e r c o n s u lta n ts (s e e T a b le 2

fo r a d d it io n a l dem ographic in fo r m a t io n ) .

The e x p e rts w ere re q u es te d to re v ie w th e s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g program and e v a lu a te I t a c c o rd in g to th e fo llo w in g

quest io n s :

1. C o n te n t— Does th e in fo rm a tio n have p o te n t ia l

u s e fu ln e s s fo r te a c h e rs in t r a in in g ? Does i t cover

im p o rta n t areas?

2 . Arrangem ent o f th e u n its and te a c h in g s t r a t e g ie s —

Do th e u n its proceed in a lo g ic a l o rd e r? Are th e re

a p p r o p r ia te te a c h in g s t r a t e g ie s employed fo r d e l iv e r in g th e

in fo rm a tio n ?

The fo l lo w in g breakdown p ro v id e s an o v erv iew o f th e

feedback re c e iv e d from th e re v ie w e rs :

U n it » 1 : In t r o d u c t io n , (a ) D iscuss more f u l l y what

i t means fo r a s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n s tu d e n t to be

" s u c c e s s fu l," e . g . , t h is may mean g ra d u a tio n in some cases

o r som ething less in o th e r s ; (b ) in th e summary s e c t io n ,


97

em phasize th a t s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g is supp lem enta l to

b e h a v io r management in th e c lassroom ; (c ) s t r e s s t h a t s e l f

m o n ito r in g b e h a v io r on th e p a r t o f s tu d e n ts is a p o te n t ia l

and im p o rta n t outcom e; and (d ) e x p la in th a t v a lu a b le

g e n e r a l iz a t io n a c t i v i t y can be conducted in th e f u l l school

s e t t in g (lunchroom , p la y g ro u n d , e t c . ) .

U n it » 2 : E xa m in a tio n o f th e S k i l l s . ( a ) Under th e

h e ad in g , In te rp e rs o n a l S k i l l s , in c lu d e " g iv in g and

a c c e p tin g POSITIVE AND n e g a t iv e fe e d b ac k "; (b ) under th e

h e ad in g , P ro b le m -S o lv in g S k i l l s , add item f to th e s e t o f

s te p s p ro v id e d , "check to see i f th e response w o rke d "; (c )

in p a r t (2 ) m o d ify s te p 2 to re a d , " Id e n t i f y ways in w hich

k id s WHO ARE DEFICIENT IN SOCIAL SKILLS t y p i c a l l y respond

when pu t in th e s e s i t u a t io n s " ; and (d ) as a summary

s ta te m e n t, in d ic a te th a t s o c ia l s k i l l e x p e r t is e can add to

th e s e lf - im a g e o f a y o u n g s te r .

U n it * 3 ; The C u rr ic u lu m . (a ) Use as many sam ple

m a te r ia ls as p o s s ib le fo r f i r s t - h a n d e x a m in a tio n by th e

s u b je c ts .

U n it # 4 ; M e th o d o lo g y . (a ) R egard ing th e a p p l ic a t io n

phase o f t h is u n i t , in c lu d e "use o f c o n fe d e ra te s " as a

s tr a te g y fo r g e n e r a l iz in g le a rn in g ; (b ) a ls o , in d ic a te th a t

a program l ik e S k i I I s trea m in g th e E le m e n ta ry School C h ild

(M cG inn is & G o ld s te in , 1984) has a p p l ic a t io n e x e rc is e s

b u i l t in to i t s sequence o f t r a in in g .


98

T a b le 2

Dem ographics o f P r o fe s s io n a ls R eview ing th e SST Program

1. SEX:

Fem aIe 12M a le 4

2 . TYPE OF EXCEPTIONALITY WITH WHOM PROFESSIONALS WORK:

E m o tio n a lly im paired 7E m o tio n a lly im p a ir e d /le a r n Ing d is a b le d 4 L e a rn in g d is a b le d 2More than two e x c e p t io n a l i t ie s 3

3 . LEVEL OF EXCEPTIONALITY WITH WHICH PROFESSIONALS WORK:

E le m e n ta ry 5J u n io r h igh 3S e n io r h igh 3More th a n one le v e l 5

4 . SITE OF EMPLOYMENT:

Pub I i c school 12R e s id e n t ia l f a c i l i t y 3Pub I i c agency 1

5 . INSTRUCTIONAL SETTING:

S e lf - c o n ta in e d c lassroom 8Resource room 3More than one in s t r u c t io n a l s e t t in g 2S u p e rv is o ry r o le 3

6 . AVERAGE YEARS OF TEACHING OR EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCE:

Teaching 9 .3 9E d u c a tio n a l 1 5 .5 0


99

Un i t » 5 :_______A d a p ta tio n o f Commercial C u r r ic u la .

(a ) Em phasize to s u b je c ts th a t as te a c h e rs th e y may need to

p u ll from many program s to c r e a te a s u i t a b le c u rr ic u lu m ;

(b ) n o te th a t a d a p tin g c u rr ic u lu m may be d i f f i c u l t to

accom plish because s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g is g e n e r a l ly

d e liv e r e d to a group o f s tu d e n ts ; (c ) o f f e r s p e c i f ic

s t r a t e g ie s fo r d e a lin g w ith problem s it u a t io n s ; and (d )

h e lp p a r t ic ip a n ts to understand th a t m isb e h a v io r by

s tu d e n ts may a ls o s ig n a l th a t th e s o c ia l s k i l l in s t r u c t io n

is h i t t i n g "on ta r g e t" and a d d res s in g b e h av io rs th a t

s tu d e n ts know th e y lack o r perfo rm p o o r ly .

U n it » 6 ; Assessm ent, (a ) U t i l i z e more p o p u la r ly used

sam ple assessm ent in s tru m en ts fo r d e m o n stra tio n to th e

s u b je c ts , e .g . The B ehavio r E v a lu a t io n S ca le (M cCarney,

L e ig h , & C o rn b le e t , 1983) and The B e h a vio r R a tin g P r o f i l e

(Brown & H am m ill, 1 9 8 3 ), and (b ) e x p la in to s u b je c ts th a t

n a t u r a l i s t i c o b s e rv a tio n can be v ery tim e-consum ing .

U n it * 7 : S it u a t io n a l V a r ia b le s and S tuden t Responses,

(a ) When d is c u s s in g s i t u a t io n a l v a r ia b le s , em phasize th e

im portance o f th e tim e fa c to r , th a t is : When can s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g be f i t in to th e c u rr ic u lu m ? What g e ts throw n

out? How can t r a in in g be accommodated when th e re a re o th e r

g ra d u a tio n re q u ire m e n ts to m eet? , and (b ) in th e summary

p o r t io n , s tr e s s th a t s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g may c r e a te more

work fo r th e te a c h e r who is a lre a d y a tte m p tin g to le a rn

o th e r m a t e r ia l , and th a t i t may p u t th e te a c h e r in


100

s it u a t io n s w hich r e q u ir e c o n s id e ra b le group management

sk I l l .

U n it » 8 : Teacher B e h a v io rs , ( a ) In th e summary, add

th a t te a c h e rs must be a b le to m a in ta in r e a l i s t i c

e x p e c ta t io n s o f t h e i r s tu d e n ts .

In i t s f i n a l fo rm , th e SST program in c o rp o ra te d th e

m a jo r i t y o f c o n te n t in fo rm a tio n recom m endations p ro v id e d by

th e e x p e r t re v ie w e rs . O u ts id e o f feedback from th e

e x p e r ts , th e o n ly m a jo r m o d if ic a t io n made by th e re s e a rc h e r

was to e l im in a te fo u r hours o f p r a c t ic e o r i g i n a l l y

schedu led in th e t r a in in g . T h is change was necessary to

reduce th e p o s s i b i l i t y th a t th e SST program and th e SET

program w ould u t i l i z e s im i la r procedures and th e re b y

confound o b ta in e d r e s u l ts .

Developm ent o f th e Dependent Measures

The Classroom S ce n a rio s

D evelopm ent o f th e Instrum ent

Popham (1 9 7 5 ) s ta te s , " th e f i r s t th in g to re c o g n iz e is

th a t th e c r e a t io n o f v a l id a f f e c t iv e m easuring d e v ic e s is a

d i f f i c u l t and in g e n u ity - ta x in g e n te r p r is e " (p . 1 7 4 ). T h is

is g e n e r a l ly acknowledged to be t r u e fo r two reasons: (1 )

th e m easurem ent e x e rc is e does not t r u l y r e p l ic a t e th e

s i t u a t io n o f in t e r e s t , th e r e fo r e th e ty p ic a l perfo rm an ce o f

th e in d iv id u a l in a g iven s i t u a t io n is d i f f i c u l t to


101

d is c e r n , and (2 ) a t t i t u d e s , v a lu e s , e t c . , do n o t lend

th em selves e a s i ly to o b s e rv a t io n ; in s te a d re s e a rc h e rs a re

o b lig e d to deal w ith dem onstrated b e h a v io r b e lie v e d to be

r e f l e c t i v e o f th e in f lu e n c e o f unseen fa c t o r s . F u r th e r ,

"The term s ' a t t i t u d e , ' 'o p in io n , ' and ' b e l i e f ' a l l r e f e r

to p s y c h o lo g ic a l s ta te s th a t a re in p r in c ip le u n v e r i f i a b le

e x c e p t by th e r e p o r t o f th e in d iv id u a l" (Sudman & B rad b u rn ,

1982, p . 1 2 0 ) . Thus th e im portance o f u t i l i z i n g a

s y s te m a t ic , r ig o ro u s approach to developm ent o f a s e l f -

r e p o r t m easure in c re a s e s d i r e c t l y .

The C lassroom S c e n a rio in s tru m en t was in te n d e d to

m easure th e b e l i e f s o f p r e s e rv ic e te a c h e rs r e la te d

s p e c i f i c a l l y to s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g , and to a s c e r ta in th e

s tr e n g th o f th e s e b e l ie f s in a v a r ie t y o f c lassroom

s it u a t io n s . Popham (1 9 7 5 ) a d v is e s th a t th e f i r s t r e q u is i t e

s te p in such a p rocess must be th e g e n e ra t io n o f an

ad eq u a te domain d e f i n i t i o n so th a t a c le a r u n d e rs ta n d in g

can be ga in ed o f e x a c t ly w hat is in v o lv e d in th e

m easurem ent in s tru m en t b e in g c o n s tru c te d . As he

recommends, th is means th a t th e key s tim u lu s e le m e n ts ,

response o p tio n s , and c r i t e r i a o f c o r re c tn e s s must a l l be

i d e n t i f i e d . In th e p re s e n t s tu d y t h i s was th e p rocess

fo llo w e d by th e re s e a rc h e r in c r e a t io n o f th e C lassroom

S ce n a rio s m easure. The fo l lo w in g domain d e s c r ip t io n was

d e ve loped fo llo w in g a model proposed by Popham:


102

1. E s ta b lis h th e o b je c t iv e . The p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e r

w i l l respond to h y p o th e tic a l s it u a t io n s in such a way as to

in d ic a te agreem ent w ith th e b e h a v io r o f h y p o th e s ize d

persons w hich r e f l e c t b e l i e f in h is /h e r a b i l i t y to d e l iv e r

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g (SST) in a d i r e c t s e r v ic e c o n te x t ,

and d isa g re em e n t w ith b e h a v io r r e f le c t in g d i s b e l i e f .

2 . S tim u lu s 1 im it s . S y n ta c t ic a l s t r u c tu r e : In

s i t u a t io n (A ) , a person (P 1 ) w ith b e l i e f ( B l ) en co u n ters

a n o th e r person (P 2 ) e x p re s s in g b e l i e f (B 2 ) . ( P1) e x h ib i ts

b e h a v io r (C ) tow ard (P 2 ) . Do you a g re e w ith th e b e h av io r

o f (P I )?

3 . Replacem ent s e t s .

A *= any h y p o th e tic a l s i t u a t io n judged to be w i th in th e

re a lm o f e x p e r ie n c e o r com prehension o f a m a jo r i ty o f

p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs in s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n .

B = B e l ie f o r d is b e l i e f in o n e 's a b i l i t y to d e l iv e r

SST in a d i r e c t s e r v ic e c o n te x t , such t h a t th e b e l i e f is

not in v io la t io n o f g e n e r a l ly agreed upon e d u c a tio n a l and

s o c ia l s ta n d a rd s .

C = P o s it iv e and n e g a t iv e in s ta n c e s o f th e fo llo w in g

b e h a v io ra l in d ic a to r s o f b e l i e f : (a ) i n i t i a t e s perform ance

o f a b e h a v io r , (b ) expends e f f o r t to m a in ta in b e h a v io r , and

( c ) p e r s is ts in b e h a v io r in th e fa c e o f adverse

c i rc u m sta n c es .

P 1 = A h y p o th e tic a l person respond ing p o s i t iv e ly or

n e g a t iv e ly to P2 e x p re s s io n o f b e l i e f .


103

P2 - A h y p o th e tic a l person e x p re s s in g d iv e rg e n t

o p in io n , e i t h e r v e r b a l ly o r n o n v e rb a lly .

4 . Response l i m i t s . P o s s ib le responses: Agree

s t r o n g ly , a g re e m o d e ra te ly , n e ith e r a g ree nor d is a g re e ,

d is a g re e m o d e ra te ly , d is a g re e s t r o n g ly . S u b je c ts w i l l

s e le c t one response per s i t u a t io n to in d ic a te th e e x te n t to

w hich th e y a g re e w ith th e b e h a v io r o f th e c lassroom

te a c h e r .

5 . S co rin g c r i t e r i a , (a ) For item s r e f le c t in g b e l i e f

( p o s i t iv e in s tan c e s o f th e v a r ia b le in s e t C ) , responses

w i l l be sco re d : S tro n g ly a g re e — 5 , a g ree m o d e ra te ly — 4 ,

n e ith e r a g ree nor d is a g re e — 3 , d is a g re e m o d e ra te ly — 2 , and

d is a g re e s tr o n g ly — 1, and (b ) fo r item s r e f le c t in g

d i s b e l i e f (n e g a tiv e in s tan c e s o f th e v a r ia b le s in s e t C ) ,

th e responses w i l l be sco re d : S tro n g ly a g re e — 1, ag ree

m o d e ra te ly — 2 , n e ith e r a g ree nor d is a g re e — 3 , d is a g re e

m o d e ra te ly — 4 , and d is a g re e s t r o n g ly — 5 .

F o llo w in g id e n t i f i c a t io n o f th e domain d e f in i t io n

Popham (1 9 7 5 ) proposes th a t th e second s te p o f t e s t

developm ent in v o lv e s th e g e n e ra tio n o f measurement item s.

For t h is purpose he suggests a process in v o lv in g fo u r

s p e c i f ic s te p s . I t is t h is approach w hich was employed to

id e n t i f y item s fo r th e C lassroom S c e n a rio s m easure. The

s te p s in c lu d e th e fo l lo w in g :

1. Id e n t i f y an im ag inary person who possesses th e


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d e s ire d a f f e c t i v e a t t r i b u t e ( b e l i e f in th e im portance o f

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g ) .

2 . Id e n t i f y an im ag inary person who does no t possess

th e d e s ire d a f f e c t i v e a t t r i b u t e .

3 . G en e ra te p o te n t ia l b e h a v io r -d i f f e r e n t ia t in g

s it u a t io n s .

4 . C ons ider w hether th e s it u a t io n s g e n era te d a re

p r a c t ic a l and u s a b le . Using t h is fo u r -s te p g u id e , 13 item s

s p e c i f ic to s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g w ere g e n e ra te d , p lu s f i v e

f i l l e r item s. A l l item s w ere w r i t t e n acc o rd in g to th e

a fo re m e n tio n e d model in th e domain d e s c r ip t io n . As fu r th e r

a d v is ed by Popham, as a means o f re d u cin g th e s o c ia l

d e s i r a b i l i t y o f some responses, th e item s w ere w r i t t e n from

a t h i r d person p e rs p e c tiv e ( th e c lassroom te a c h e r ) and w ere

p re se n te d in a p a s t te n s e r a th e r than p re s e n t te n s e form .

To g a in some in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g i t s

d is c r im in a b i I i t y and c l a r i t y , th e Classroom S ce n a rio s

measure was a d m in is te re d to 62 s tu d e n ts in th e s p e c ia l

e d u c a tio n t r a in in g programs a t WMU. F o llo w in g th e s e

a d m in is tr a t io n s , th e r e s u lts and any recom m endations

o f fe r e d w ere c o n s id e red in fu r th e r developm ent o f th e

m easure.

V a l id a t io n P rocedures

C o n ten t v a l i d i t y is u s u a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith

ach ievem en t t e s ts , b u t not e x c lu s iv e ly . Accord ing to Brown


1 05

(1 9 8 3 , p . 1 3 5 ) , “C o n ten t v a l i d i t y can be in v e s t ig a te d

w henever th e bo u n d a ries o f th e domain be in g measured can be

a d e q u a te ly s p e c if ie d and th e te s t designed to sam ple t h i s

d om ain ." In term s o f a p p ly in g t h is s ta n d ard to th e

Classroom S c e n a rio s m easure th e f i r s t s te p o f th e c o n te n t

v a l id a t io n p rocess re q u ire d d e f i n i t i o n o f th e c o n te n t

domain “s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g " and a s ubcategory in t h is

dom ain, " s i tu a t io n a l v a r ia b le s ." A s y n th e s is o f

d e s c r ip t io n s from prom inen t a u th o rs in th e s o c ia l s k i l l s

a re a w ere u t i l i z e d to c o n s tru c t th e fo l lo w in g d e f in i t io n s :

SOCIAL SKILL TRAINING is a b e h a v io ra I I y - o r ie n t e d ,

in s t r u c t io n a l approach to te a c h in g in d iv id u a ls

in te r p e r s o n a l, c o p in g , and p la n n in g b e h a v io rs ; t r a in in g is

based on th e assum ption th a t s o c ia l b e h av io r is lea rn e d and

can be ta u g h t u s in g s tr u c tu r e d te a c h in g methods (G o ld s te in ,

S p r a fk in , G ershaw, & K le in , 1983; Spence, 1 9 8 3 ). "The

goal is t y p i c a l l y to t r a i n in d iv id u a ls in more a p p r o p r ia te

in te rp e rs o n a l s k i l l s in o rd e r to deve lop more a d a p t iv e

in te r a c t io n p a t te r n s w ith o th e rs " (O sberg , 1982, p . 5 8 ) .

The te a c h in g o f in te rp e rs o n a l s k i l l s can a ls o be

supplem ented by te a c h in g s p e c i f ic s te p s w hich h e lp an

in d iv id u a l to m e n ta lly exam ine th e consequences o f c h o ic e s

b e fo re th e y a re perform ed (H a r r is , 1 9 8 4 ).

SITUATIONAL VARIABLES a re o b s ta c le s a n d /o r

c irc u m s ta n c e s w hich may e x is t in a school s e t t in g to


106

e ncourage o r d is c o u ra g e th e d e l iv e r y o f s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g (Ladd & A sher, 1 9 8 5 ).

The second s te p was to id e n t i f y e x p e r t judges to

re v ie w th e m easure. As th e C lassroom S c e n a rio s m easure is

in te n d e d to d e s c r ib e s i t u a t io n s th a t may occur in a

c lassroom s e t t in g i t was th e d e c is io n o f th e re s e a rc h e r to

seek th e inp u t o f c lassroom te a c h e rs fo r t h is r e v ie w .

A c c o rd in g ly , fo u r te a c h e rs in s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n s erv ed as

e x p e r t ju d g e s . (See T a b le 3 fo r more d e ta i le d d e s c r ip t io n

o f t h is g ro u p .)

T a b le 3

Dem ographics o f Teachers R eview ing th e Classroom S c e n a rio s M easure

TeacherY ears o f

Exper ienceD e s ig n a tio no f C lassroom S e t t in g Le ve l

#1 4 .0 EMI S e lf -c o n ta in e d El

#2 5 .0 LD S e lf -c o n ta in e d El

#3 1 2 .0 El Resource room Jr

#4 6 .5 El Dep' t a 1 i zed Sr

The re v ie w by th e s e te a c h e rs addressed th e fo l lo w in g

a re a s : (a ) adequacy o f th e domain d e f i n i t i o n , " s o c ia l

s k i i I t r a i n in g ," (b ) adequacy o f th e s u b categ o ry d e f i n i t i o n

" s i t u a t io n a l v a r ia b le s ," and (c ) adequacy o f th e te s t item s

to m easure th e sub ca te g o ry " s i tu a t io n a l v a r ia b le s ." There


was s tro n g agreem ent among th e judges th a t th e d e f in i t io n s

and th e measurement item s w ere adequate (s e e T a b le 4 ) , thus

p ro v id in g s u p p o rt fo r c o n te n t v a l i d i t y o f th e C lassroom

S c e n a rio s m easure.

T a b le 4

J u d g e 's R a tin g o f th e Classroom S ce n a rio s Measure

Item # 1 : Adequacy o f th e d e f in i t io n o f th e dom ain , s o c ia l

s k i I I t r a in in g .

4 Adequate

0 Not adequate

Item # 2 : Adequacy o f th e c a te g o ry " s i tu a t io n a l v a r ia b le s " .

4 Adequate

0 Not adequate

Item # 3: Adequacy o f th e fo l lo w in g t e s t item s to measure

th e c a te g o ry " s i tu a t io n a l v a r ia b le s " .

Q uest ion Yes, adequate No, in ad eq u ate

2 4 03 4 04 4 06 4 08 4 09 4 0

10 4 011 4 013 4 015 4 016 4 017 4 018 3 1

NOTE: Q u es tio n s 1, 5 , 7 , 12, and 14 a re f i 1 le r i terns.


108

T e s t -R e te s t R e l i a b i l i t y

T h is a s p e c t o f th e s tu d y in vo lv e d a d m in is te r in g th e

Classroom S c e n a rio s measure to p r e s e r v ic e in d iv id u a ls on

two o c ca s io n s to d e te rm in e th e e x te n t to w hich t h e i r scores

rem ained s ta b le ov er tim e .

The 45 s u b je c ts who w ere a d m in is te re d th e te s t

in c lu d e d two s e ts o f u n d e rg rad u ate s , Group 1— 21 s tu d e n ts

in th e b e g in n in g s ta g e o f t h e i r s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n program s,

and Group 2 — 24 s tu d e n ts a t more advanced s tages o f t h e i r

program s. AI I s tu d e n ts w ere p a r t o f th e WMU s p e c ia l

e d u c a tio n t r a in in g program , but not p a r t o f th e s u b je c t

pool i d e n t i f i e d fo r th e SET o r SST program m ing.

The p ro c ed u re s invo lved in c o n d u c tin g th e te s t in g w ere

th e same fo r each group. The re s e a rc h e r met w ith each

group d u r in g a r e g u la r ly scheduled c la s s and a d m in is te re d

th e f i r s t t e s t . One week la t e r d u rin g th e same c la s s th e

process was re p e a te d . S tuden ts w ere o n ly inform ed th a t th e

re s e a rc h e r was in vo lv e d in t e s t developm ent as p a r t o f a

re s e a rc h p r o je c t . The same amount o f t im e was a v a i la b le to

s u b je c ts on each occasion to com ple te th e t e s t . The tim e

in te r v a l between te s t in g (one w eek) was chosen to m in im ize

th e o p p o r tu n ity fo r o th e r t r a in in g o r r e le v a n t e x p e rie n c e s

to in f lu e n c e responses on th e second te s t in g .

R e s p e c t iv e ly , .84 and .67 re I i a b i I i t y c o e f f ic ie n t s

w ere o b ta in e d from t e s t - r e t e s t w ith s u b je c ts in Groups 1

and 2 . M i tc h e l l (1 9 8 5 ) re p o r ts th a t o th e r s e l f - r e p o r t


109

m easures , u t i l i z i n g t e s t - r e t e s t m ethodology, have o b ta in e d

r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t s o f .9 2 (The I r r a t io n a l B e l ie fs

T e s t , M i t c h e l l , 1 9 8 5 ), .8 7 to .92 (The C oopersm Ith S e l f -

Esteem In v e n to ry , M i t c h e l l , 1 9 8 5 ) , and .7 5 to .8 7 (Bern S e x -

R ole In v e n to ry , S h ere r & Adams, 1 9 8 3 ). One o f th e

dependent m easures u t i l i z e d in t h is s tu d y , The S e l f -

E f f ic a c y S c a le (S h e re r e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ), is a s e l f - r e p o r t

m easure w hich I t s a u th o rs re p o r t o b ta in e d a Cronbach a lp h a

r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t o f .8 6 .

The .8 4 r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t o b ta in e d from t e s t -

r e t e s t o f Group 1 s u b je c ts , s tu d e n ts in th e b e g in n in g phase

o f t h e i r program , compares fa v o ra b ly w ith th e s t a b i l i t y

index o b ta in e d by o th e r s e l f - r e p o r t m easures. How ever, th e

.6 7 o b ta in e d t e s t - r e t e s t o f s u b je c ts from Group 2 does not

compare fa v o r a b ly . T h is d i f fe r e n c e may be c o n s id e re d from

one im p o rta n t p e r s p e c t iv e . Whereas s u b je c ts in Group 1 had

not been exposed p re v io u s ly to th e C lassroom S c e n a rio s

m easure, as i t tu rn e d o u t many s u b je c ts in Group 2 had been

in v o lv e d in p r io r p r a c t ic e te s t s ess ions o f th e m easure.

A lthou gh a lo g ic a l argum ent is th a t p r io r exposure should

have r e s u lte d in s p u r io u s ly in f la te d s c o re s , i t is a ls o

p o s s ib le th a t in te r e s t and th e r e fo r e c o n s c ie n tio u s n e s s in

c o m p le tin g th e m easure may have been in flu e n c e d n e g a t iv e ly .

E ith e r w ay, i t is th e case th a t Group 2 s u b je c ts w ere

confounded by p r io r e x p e r ie n c e . The end r e s u l ts , .8 4 and

.6 7 r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t s , suggest th a t th e C lassroom


110

S ce n a rio s measure may be a s ta b le m easure o v er t im e ,

a lth o u g h more re s e a rc h is in o rd e r to make t h i s s ta te m e n t

more d e f i n i t i v e l y .

The S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g Knowledge In v e n to ry

Developm ent o f th e In s tru m en t

The S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g Knowledge in v e n to ry (S S TK I)

is an ach ievem ent t e s t designed to m easure know ledge

de ve loped in th e c o n te n t domain o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g .

I t was c o n s tru c te d by th e re s e a rc h e r in t h i s s tu d y

a c c o rd in g to s te p s recommended by Brown (1 9 8 3 ) , K e r l in g e r

(1 9 7 3 ) , and Popham (1 9 7 5 ) . The p rocedures in v o lv e d a re

d e s c rib e d fu r t h e r .

S tep o n e . A re v ie w o f th e s o c ia l s k i l l s l i t e r a t u r e

was conducted to id e n t i f y recommended a re a s o f s k i l l o r

in fo rm a tio n a c q u is i t io n fo r p ro s p e c tiv e te a c h e r t r a in e r s .

The in fo rm a tio n o b ta in e d in t h is re v ie w was o rg a n iz e d in to

seven g e n era l c a te g o r ie s co m p ris in g th e c o n te n t dom ain:

1 . Knowledge o f s o c ia l s k i l l s . Knowledge o f th e

r a t io n a le f o r , and d iv e r s i t y and sequence o f s o c ia l s k i l l s

found in c o m m erc ia lly packaged c u r r ic u la (Schumaker e t a I . ,

1 9 8 3 ) .

2 . Knowledge o f t r a in in g p rocedures and a p proaches.

Knowledge o f b e h a v io r m o d if ic a t io n m ethodology, e . g . ,

m o d e lin g , r o Ie p la y in g , perfo rm an ce fe e d b ac k , t r a n s fe r o f


111

le a r n in g , and ta s k a n a ly s is (DeLuke & K noblock , 1 9 8 7 ) , and

th e s k i l l ve rs u s p ro b le m -s o lv in g approach (S p e n ce r, 1 9 8 3 ).

3 . Knowledge o f assessm ent. Knowledge o f common

methods o f assessm ent and th e a p p l ic a b i l i t y o f o b ta in e d

d a ta to s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g (Gresham , 1 9 8 2 ).

4 . Knowledge o f m a te r ia ls . Knowledge o f th e s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g c u r r ic u la a v a i la b le fo r use w ith s p e c ia l

e d u c a tio n s tu d e n ts and th e p o s s ib le need fo r a d a p ta t io n o f

m a te r ia ls (Schumaker e t a I . , 1 9 8 3 ).

5 . Knowledge o f s tu d e n t responses. Knowledge o f th e

k in d s o f re s is ta n c e to s o c ia l s k i l l in s t r u c t io n s tu d e n ts

may d e m o n stra te (G o ld s te in e t a I . , 1 9 8 3 ).

6 . Knowledge o f s it u a t io n a l v a r ia b le s . Knowledge o f

th e o b s ta c le s a n d /o r c irc u m s tan ce s w hich may e x is t in th e

school s e t t in g to encourage o r d is c o u ra g e th e d e l iv e r y o f

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g (Ladd & A sher, 1 9 8 5 ).

7 . Knowledge o f te a c h e r b e h a v io rs . Knowledge o f th e

b e h a v io rs and s ty le s o f te a c h in g most l i k e l y to enhance

le a rn in g fo r s tu d e n ts (Ladd & M iz e , 1 9 8 3 ).

S te p tw o . Item s fo r th e te s t w ere fo rm u la te d from th e

a fo re m e n tio n e d seven c a te g o r ie s . Two to 5 q u e s tio n s were

g e n e ra te d fo r each c a te g o ry as p a r t o f th e t o t a l 20

q u e s tio n s (s e e Appendix 0 fo r a breakdown o f th e c a te g o ry

i te m s .) The q u e s tio n s w ere w r i t t e n in m u l t ip le c h o ic e form ,

f i v e c h o ic e s per q u e s t io n .


112

S tep th r e e . To g a in some measure o f i t s

d is c r im in a b i I i t y and c l a r i t y , SSTKI p r a c t ic e te s ts w ere

a d m in is te re d to 51 s tu d e n ts in th e s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n

t r a in in g program a t WMU. F o llo w in g th e s e a d m in is tr a t io n s ,

th e r e s u l ts and any recom m endations p ro v id e d w ere

co n s id e re d In fu r t h e r developm ent o f th e m easure.

V a l id a t io n Procedures

"As most ach ievem ent te s ts a re designed to measure

command o f a s p e c if ie d c o n te n t a n d /o r s k i l l s dom ain, and as

th e te s t item s a re s e le c te d to re p re s e n t t h is dom ain, in

most s it u a t io n s th e a p p ro p r ia te method o f v a l id a t io n is

c o n te n t v a l id a t io n " (Brown, 1983, p . 2 1 3 ) . For th e SSTKI

t h is in v o lv e d th e fo l lo w in g p rocedures :

S te p o n e . The same d e f in i t io n c o n s tru c te d to id e n t i f y

th e c o n te n t dom ain, “s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g " fo r th e

C lassroom S c e n a rio s measure was u t i l i z e d , a lo n g w ith th e

d e f in i t io n s c o n s tru c te d fo r each o f th e seven knowledge

s u b c a te g o r ie s . In a d d it io n to th e s e d e f in i t io n s , th e

q u e s tio n s on th e t e s t th a t p e r ta in e d s p e c i f i c a l l y to each

su b ca te g o ry w ere i d e n t i f i e d .

S tep tw o . A l e t t e r was s en t to f i v e e x p e rt judges

seeking t h e i r re v ie w o f th e SSTK I. These w ere in d iv id u a ls

who have c o n tr ib u te d to th e l i t e r a t u r e in th e s o c ia l s k i l l s

a r e a . S p e c i f ic a l ly t h e i r a s s is ta n c e was re q u es te d fo r one

ta s k : To re v ie w th e measure and r a te i t a g a in s t th e


113

id e n t i f i e d c o n te n t domain and seven s u b c a te g o r ie s . They

w ere asked to respond us in g th e "J u d g e 's R a tin g " s h ee t (s e e

Append Ix P ) .

S tep t h r e e . The in p u t o f fo u r te a c h e rs in s p e c ia l

e d u c a tio n was a ls o s o l ic i t e d to Judge th e c o n te n t v a l i d i t y

o f th e S S TK I. These w ere th e same te a c h e rs who review ed

th e C lassroom S ce n a rio s m easure. A i l fo u r te a c h e rs w ere

known to have p a s t o r c u r r e n t e x p e rie n c e w ith s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g in th e c lassroom . These in d iv id u a ls w ere asked to

judge w h eth er th e q u e s tio n s in th e measure w ere c le a r ly

s ta te d .

S tep f o u r . To g a in th e in p u t o f in d iv id u a ls

r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f th e p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r p o p u la tio n

addressed in t h is s tu d y , 34 u n d e rg rad u ate s tu d e n ts in th e

s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n t r a in in g program a t WMU w ere asked to

respond to two q u e s tio n s :

1 . I f you w ere p ro v id ed w ith th e s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g in fo rm a tio n , cou ld you answer th e q uestio n?

2 . Is th e q u e s tio n c le a r ly s ta te d ? The p a r t ic ip a n ts

in t h is component o f th e s tudy w ere a l l s tu d e n ts in an

in tr o d u c to r y c o u rse to s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n .

Three e x p e rt judges responded w ith a re v ie w o f th e

SSTK I, W a lte r H a r r is , a u th o r o f M aking B e tte r C hoices

(1 9 8 7 ) , a s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g program ; L a rry B re n d tro ,

c o -a u th o r w ith Ness o f R e -e d u c atin g T ro u b le d Youth (1 9 8 4 );

and Joanne Mi I bu rn , noted re s e a rc h e r in th e s o c ia l s k i l l s


114

a r e a . A l l th r e e in d ic a te d th a t th e d e f in i t io n s o f s o c ia l

s k i l l t r a in in g and th e seven s u b c a te g o r ie s w ere a d eq u a te .

However, th e r e w ere many recom m endations expressed

co n ce rn in g th e measurement ite m s . B re n d tro in d ic a te d th a t

s ix o f th e Item s w ere in ad eq u a te , H a r r is r a te d th r e e o f th e

item s in a d e q u a te , and M i(b u rn r a te d tw e lv e item s

in a d e q u a te . in most c as es , th e e x p e r ts in d ic a te d th e r e

co u ld be s e v e ra l c o r r e c t answ ers to th e g iv e n q u e s t io n .

The judges re c o g n iz e d , how ever, t h a t th e q u e s tio n s w ere

s p e c i f ic to t r a in in g and d i f f i c u l t to judge w ith o u t

s p e c i f ic know ledge o f t h is component (see Appendix Q fo r

response l e t t e r from Joanne M i Ib u r n ) .

The fo u r te a c h e rs who judged th e SSTKI fo r c l a r i t y o f

th e q u e s tio n s a i l responded fa v o r a b ly . The 34

u n d e rg rad u ate s who ra te d th e in s tru m e n t fo r i t s c l a r i t y and

a n s w e r a b i l i ty (g iv e n t r a in in g ) a ls o responded fa v o r a b ly .

T e s t -R e te s t R e l i a b i l i t y

The SSTKI was a d m in is te re d on a t e s t - r e t e s t b a s is to

th e same s u b je c t group to whom th e C lassroom S c e n a rio s

m easure was g iv e n , e . g . , 22 s tu d e n ts in th e b e g in n in g

sequence o f t h e i r s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n program s, and 24

s tu d e n ts a t more advanced s ta g es o f t h e i r program s.

R e s p e c t iv e ly , .6 2 and .5 3 r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t s

w ere o b ta in e d from t e s t - r e t e s t w ith s u b je c ts in th e s e two

g roups . These indexes f a l l w e ll below th e o b ta in e d indexes


115

from o th e r ach ievem ent m easures ( M i t c h e l l , 1 9 8 5 ) . The

concerns expressed by th e e x p e rt judges re g a rd in g th e

q u a l i t y o f s e v e ra l o f th e q u e s tio n s appears to be th e

r e le v a n t is s u e . As e v a lu a te d by th e ju d g e s , s e v e ra l o f th e

item s seemed to have more than one c o r r e c t answ er. W ith o u t

b e n e f i t o f th e SST t r a in in g e x p e rie n c e (w hich em phasized

s p e c i f ic " c o r r e c t" answ ers) u n tra in e d t e s t ta k e rs cou ld

re a s o n a b ly choose from s e v e ra l seem ing ly c o r r e c t responses.

The ach ievem en t o f s u b je c ts r e la t i v e to know le d g e -ty p e

in fo rm a tio n was not th e p r im a ry focus o f t h is s tu d y .

How ever, in s o fa r as knowledge in a s p e c i f ic domain

in f lu e n c e s s e l f - e f f i c a c y in th a t domain t h is a sp e c t o f a

s u b je c t 's perform an ce does have im p o rta n ce . A lthou gh

numerous changes w ere made in many item s based on inpu t

from th e e x p e r ts , fu r t h e r t e s t developm ent and item

a n a ly s is is re q u ire d i f th e SSTKI is to be c o n s id e re d a

v a l i d , re I i a b l e m easuring t o o l .

The P erform ance Measure

Developm ent o f th e In s tru m en t

The Perform ance M easure was developed by the

re s e a rc h e r in t h is s tudy to measure th e d i f f e r e n t i a l

e f f e c t s o f t r a in in g o n ’ s u b je c ts ' fo l lo w -u p perfo rm an ce in

th e c lassroom (s e e Appendix E ) . I t was h y p o th e s ize d th a t

th o s e s u b je c ts exposed to SET would d e m o n stra te more

w ill in g n e s s to i n i t i a t e and p e r s is t a t s o c ia l s k i l l


t r a in in g in t h e i r d ir e c te d te a c h in g assignm ent than those

s u b je c ts exposed to SST o r th e s ta n d ard c u r r ic u lu m . The

P erform ance Measure is a 1 0 - item in s tru m en t in tended to

e v a lu a te th e m agnitude and s tre n g th o f a s u b je c ts s e l f -

e f f ic a c y r e la te d to s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g based on

d e m o n s tra tio n s o f i n i t i a t i v e , e f f o r t expended, and

p e rs is te n c e in th e c lassroom s e t t in g .

S u b je c ts in vo lv e d in e i t h e r SET o r SST re c e iv e d

s tim u lu s m a te r ia ls a t th e o u ts e t o f t h e i r t r a in in g , e . g . ,

p a ck e ts o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g m a te r ia ls from th e

Sk i I I s tream i ng (M cG inn is & G o ld s te in , 1984) c u rr ic u lu m (see

Appendix I ) . T h is packe t p ro v id ed s u b je c ts w ith th e b a s ic

m a te r ia ls to conduct s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in s it u a t io n s

o u ts id e th e SET o r SST s tr u c tu r e d t r a in in g com ponents. The

p ro ced u res in th e developm ent o f t h is in s tru m en t in vo lv e d

th e fo l lo w in g s te p s :

S tep o n e . For purposes o f g e n e ra tin g item s fo r th e

P erform ance M easure, th r e e b e h a v io ra l c a te g o r ie s were

d e fin e d : i n i t i a t i v e , e f f o r t expended, and p e r s is te n c e .

These c a te g o r ie s were based on B an d u ra 's (1 9 7 7 ) prem ise

t h a t , “th roug h e x p e c ta t io n s o f e ve n tu a l success, [p e rc e iv e d

s e l f - e f f i c a c y ] can a f f e c t cop ing e f f o r t s once th e y a re

i n i t i a t e d . . . d e te rm in e how much e f f o r t p eop le w i l l

expend and how long th e y w i l l p e r s is t in th e fa c e o f

o b s ta c le s " (p . 1 9 4 ). W e b s te r 's d ic t io n a r y (G u r a ln ik , 1982)

p ro v id e d th e b a s is fo r d e f in i t io n s . These in c lu d e d : (a )


117

i n i t i a t i v e — ta k in g th e f i r s t s te p o r move, (b ) e f f o r t

expended— e f f o r t spen t o r used up, and (c ) p e r s is te n c e — to

r e fu s e to g iv e up, e s p e c ia l ly when faced w ith o p p o s it io n .

S tep tw o . R e la t iv e to th e d e f i n i t i o n o f each

c a te g o ry , in te r v ie w item s w ere g e n era te d th a t e x p lic a te d

each d e f i n i t i o n w ith in th e c o n te x t o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g

and s p e c if ie d p e r t in e n t b e h a v io ra l d e m o n s tra t io n s . For th e

f i r s t c a te g o ry , “ i n i t i a t i v e , " th is in vo lv e d g e n e ra tin g

item s th a t o p e r a t io n a l iz e d " ta k in g th e f i r s t s te p o r move".

The item s id e n t i f i e d in c lu d ed th e fo l lo w in g : (a ) ASKS th e

s u p e rv is in g te a c h e r i f SST is conducted in th e c lassroom ;

(b ) ASKS th e s u p e rv is in g te a c h e r i f SST is conducted by a

te a c h e r o r o th e r p ro fe s s io n a l in th e b u i ld in g ; (c ) ASKS to

conduct a SST lesson (u s in g th e lessons p ro v id ed in th e

[SET o r SST] t r a in in g p a c k e t); and (d ) ASKS to conduct a

SST lesson (u s in g lessons p ro v id ed by th e te a c h e r ) . For

th e second and t h i r d p a r ts , " e f f o r t expended" and

" p e r s is te n c e ," p e r t in e n t b e h a v io ra l d e m o n stra tio n s w ere

a ls o id e n t i f i e d .

S tep t h r e e . A "y e s -v e rs u s -n o " response fo rm a t was

s p e c if ie d fo r s e l f - r e p o r t by th e s u b je c ts . I t was in tended

t h a t a "yes" r a th e r than “no" response to item s numbered

h ig h e r in th e q u e s t io n n a ire would dem onstra te th e m agnitude

o f a s u b je c t 's s e l f - e f f i c a c y r e la te d to s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g .


118

V a l id a t io n P rocedures

The p ro c ed u re employed to d e te rm in e th e v a l i d i t y o f

th e Perform ance Measure was c o n te n t v a l id a t io n . Two

te a c h e rs o f s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n and two p re s e rv ic e

in d iv id u a ls who had com pleted th e i r d ir e c te d te a c h in g

assignm ents in th e f a l l o f 1987 w ere asked to judge th e

in s tru m e n t. The te a c h e rs w ere in th e Kalam azoo P u b lic

School system . They had both served as a s u p e rv is in g

te a c h e r fo r p r e s e rv ic e in d iv id u a ls and had 19 and 13 y ea rs

o f te a c h in g e x p e r ie n c e . One te a c h e r w orked w ith

e m o tio n a lly im paired ( E l ) s tu d e n ts and th e o th e r w ith

p h y s ic a l ly im paired (PO HI) and educab le m e n ta lly im paired

(E M I) s tu d e n ts . The te a c h e r o f El s tu d e n ts was s it u a t e d in

a s e l f - c o n ta in e d upper e le m e n ta ry c lassroom , and th e second

te a c h e r in a c e n te r -b a s e d program w ith 1 9 -26 aged s tu d e n ts .

The te a c h e r o f El conducted s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g w ith her

s tu d e n ts tw ic e w eek ly us in g th e M aking B e tte r Choices

program (H a r r is , 1 9 8 7 ). The second te a c h e r d id not conduct

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g fo r m a lly .

The two p re s e rv ic e in d iv id u a ls who re v ie w e d th e

m easure had both com pleted 15-week d ir e c te d te a c h in g

assignm ents in s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n . One s erved in a s e l f -

c o n ta in e d EMI c lassroom w ith 1 9 - to -2 6 - y e a r -o ld s , and th e

o th e r in a re so u rc e room w ith s e v e re ly El and le a rn in g

d is a b le d c h ild r e n , 11 to 12 y ea rs o ld . The in d iv id u a l in

th e EMI c lassroom had e xp e rien c e d in fo rm a l s o c ia l s k i l l


119

t r a in in g , e . g . , in s t r u c t io n on a s i t u a t io n a l b a s is w ith o u t

use o f a s p e c i f ic c u rr ic u lu m . The o th e r in d iv id u a l

re p o rte d th a t s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g had no t been conducted

in her ass ig n m en t, a lth o u g h th e re had been a s tro n g system

o f b e h a v io r management.

AI I fo u r s u b je c ts w ere p ro v id ed w ith th e p re v io u s ly

id e n t i f i e d d e f i n i t i o n o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g and then

asked to re v ie w th e Perform ance M easure a g a in s t th e

fo l lo w in g c r i t e r i a : (a ) th e b e h a v io r is f e a s ib le w ith in

th e ty p ic a l c lassroom s e t t in g , (b ) th e b e h a v io r is f u l l y

s ta te d , and (c ) th e o rd e r o f b e h a v io rs is a p p r o p r ia te .

S u b je c ts w ere a ls o asked w hether th e r e w ere o th e r b e h a v io rs

th a t would be more p e r t in e n t to th e issu e o f s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a i n i ng .

The p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs responded p o s i t iv e ly to

c r i t e r i a 1 and 3 and d id not id e n t i f y any o th e r

i l lu s t r a t i o n s o f b e h a v io r . They su g g es te d , however, th a t

item 1B in th e in s tru m en t be expanded to re a d , "Asks

s u p e rv is in g te a c h e r i f SST is conducted by any te a c h e r in

th e b u i ld in g OR OTHER PROFESSIONAL IN THE BUILDING. In

t h e i r re v ie w , th e two te a c h e rs a ls o responded fa v o ra b ly to

th e item s and d id not suggest fu r th e r a d d it io n s or changes.

I n t e r r a t e r R e l i a b i l i t y

The P erform ance M easure was des igned to o b ta in s e l f -

re p o r t responses from s u b je c ts in th e th r e e groups s p e c i f ic


120

t o t h e i r c la s s r o o m b e h a v io r in t h e c a t e g o r ie s o f

i n i t i a t i v e , e f f o r t expended, and p e r s is te n c e . The

s u p e rv is in g te a c h e r was a ls o in te rv ie w e d us in g th e same

in s tru m en t and th e responses o b ta in e d from th e i r

c o rres p o n d in g p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r to d e te rm in e th e e x te n t o f

a greem ent. A cco rd ing to Brown (1 9 8 3 , p . 9 2 ) , “Whenever

more than one person . . . judges a p erfo rm an ce , th e

q u e s tio n o f in te r s c o r e r (o r i n t e r r a t e r ) r e l i a b i l i t y a r is e s .

That is , do th e s c o re rs a ss ig n th e same score to each

in d iv id u a l 's perform ance?" Brown s ta te s th a t a common

p ro c ed u re is to c a lc u la te th e p e rc e n ta g e o f scores th a t

a g re e . For th e Perform ance Measure th e p ro c ed u re in vo lv e d

c a lc u la t in g scores on 10 in d iv id u a l item s and d e te rm in in g

th e e x te n t o f e x a c t agreem ent between th e p re s e rv ic e

te a c h e r and s u p e rv is in g te a c h e r . The a ve rag e p e rc e n t o f

agreem ent o b ta in e d among th e 34 p re s e r v ic e te a c h e rs and

t h e i r co rres p o n d in g s u p e rv is in g te a c h e r was 96%.

P rocedures

Four m a jo r components com prised t h is re s e a rc h p r o je c t .

These in c lu d e d : (a ) developm ent o f th e t r a in in g programs

and in s tru m e n ts , (b ) id e n t i f i c a t io n o f s u b je c ts , (c ) d a ta

c o l le c t io n — phase 1, and (d ) d a ta c o l le c t io n — phase 2 .

F ig u re 1 i l lu s t r a t e s th e tim e lin e s under which th e s tudy

was conducted and th e o v e r la p o r e x te n s io n o f c e r ta in

a c t i v i t i e s beyond th e id e n t i f ie d phase . The fo llo w in g


i tellabLllty

allOSJ

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Research Procedures and Time Lines


122

a ccount d e t a i ls more s p e c i f i c a l l y th e range o f p rocedures

in v o lv e d in each o f th e fo u r com ponents:

(1 ) Developm ent o f T ra in in g Program s and In s tru m en ts

1. The S e l f - E f f ic a c y T r a in in g and S o c ia l S k i l l

T r a in in g components w ere d e ve lo p ed . Based upon e x te n s iv e

l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w in both c a s e s , th e i n i t i a l p roducts

in c lu d e d two 12-hour t r a in in g program s.

2 . F o llo w in g developm ent o f th e SET and SST program s,

v a l id a t io n procedures w ere begun. The SET program was s en t

to f i v e e x p e rts fo r t h e i r re v ie w and th e SST program was

d is t r ib u te d to 21 s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n p r o fe s s io n a ls .

R e v is io n s in th e t r a in in g programs w ere made dependent upon

re v ie w e r feed b ack .

3 . A v id e o ta p e was produced fo r use in th e SET

program i l lu s t r a t i n g th e perfo rm an ce o f two te a c h e rs

c o n d u c tin g s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g in th e c lassroom s e t t in g .

4 . Id e n t i f i c a t io n a n d /o r deve lopm ent o f th e te s t in g

in s tru m en ts was com p le te d . In term s o f o b ta in in g e x is t in g

in s tru m e n ta t io n , D r . Mark S h ere r was c o n ta c te d about use o f

th e S e l f - E f f ic a c y S ca le deve loped by S h ere r e t a l . (1 9 8 2 ) .

The th r e e measures developed by th e re s e a rc h e r w ere a ls o

c om pleted (C lassroom S c e n a rio s , th e S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g

Knowledge In v e n to ry , and th e P erform ance M e a su re ).

5 . P r a c t ic e v e rs io n s o f th e C lassroom S ce n a rio s

m easure and th e S o c ia l S k i l l s Knowledge In v e n to ry were


123

a d m in is te re d to v a r io u s p o p u la tio n s o f u n d e rg rad u ate s in

WMU's s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n program .

6 . V a l id a t io n p ro c ed u re s fo r th e C lassroom S c e n a r io s ,

SSTK I, and P erfo rm ance M easure w ere c o n d u c ted . In a l l

cases te a c h e rs and p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs w ere in v o lv e d In th e

p ro c e s s . Research e x p e r ts w ere a ls o s o l i c i t e d fo r re v ie w

o f th e S S TK I.

7 . T e s t - r e t e s t was conducted fo r bo th th e C lassroom

S c e n a rio s and SSTKI m easures .

(2 ) Id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f S u b je c ts

1. To c o n tro l fo r a number o f p o s s ib ly c on found ing

s e le c t io n v a r ia b le s , th e sam ple was l im ite d to p re s e r v ic e

te a c h e rs in s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n t r a in in g program s. The

C o o rd in a to r o f th e D ir e c te d Teach ing O f f ic e a t WMU and th e

C h a irp e rs o n o f th e S p e c ia l E d u ca tio n D epartm ent a t GVSU

w ere c o n ta c te d to e n l i s t t h e i r a s s is ta n c e in th e

id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s sam ple . The two a d m in is tr a to r s

in d ic a te d th e y had p o p u la tio n s o f 33 and 37 p r e s e rv ic e

te a c h e rs , r e s p e c t iv e ly , scheduled fo r d ir e c te d te a c h in g in

w in te r , 1988, and a greed to make th e s e groups a v a i la b le fo r

in c lu s io n in th e s tu d y .

2 . A l e t t e r was s e n t , re q u e s tin g p a r t ic ip a t io n in

form al t r a in in g , to a I I 37 in d iv id u a ls a t GVSU and 22 o f

th e s tu d e n ts a t WMU schedu led fo r an on-campus d ir e c te d

te a c h in g sem inar (s e e Appendix R ) . In response , n in e


124

in d iv id u a ls from GVSU and 15 from WMU re q u es te d to

p a r t ic ip a t e in th e t r a in in g . In term s o f random

ass ig n m en t, f i v e s tu d e n ts from GVSU and n in e s tu d e n ts from

WMU in d ic a te d th e y w ere a v a i la b le fo r assignm ent to e i t h e r

th e January 23 o r 30 t r a in in g d a te . The re m a in in g 10

s tu d e n ts expressed p re fe re n c e fo r one d a te o r th e o th e r ,

a lth o u g h none was aware o f th e ty p e o f t r a in in g scheduled

fo r e i t h e r t im e .

3 . The com parison group o f 10 s u b je c ts was id e n t i f i e d

d u rin g th e l a t t e r p a r t o f January , 1988. T h is was

accom plished throug h a l e t t e r re q u es t to th e re m a in in g

p o p u la tio n o f p re s e rv ic e in d iv id u a ls in vo lv e d in d ir e c te d

te a c h in g a t both GVSU and WMU who had not p a r t ic ip a te d in

e i t h e r SET or SST t r a in in g (s e e Appendix S ) . The 10

s u b je c ts who responded in c lu d e d fo u r s tu d e n ts from GVSU and

s ix from WMU. These in d iv id u a ls w ere o n ly re q u es te d to

c om ple te th e th re e measurement in s tru m e n ts , C lassroom

S c e n a r io s , SSTKI, and th e P erform ance M easure.

4 . Once th e sample was id e n t i f i e d and th e groups

e s ta b lis h e d , th e fo l lo w in g c o n t r o l l in g v a r ia b le s w ere

s p e c if ie d : (a ) grade p o in t a ve rag e , (b ) m ajor a re a o f

c e r t i f i c a t i o n , (c ) accum ulated number o f hours in th e

u n iv e r s it y t r a in in g sequence, (d ) ty p e o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n to

be g ra n te d (e le m e n ta ry o r s e c o n d a ry ), and (e ) number o f

weeks in th e d ir e c te d te a c h in g ass ignm ent when tre a tm e n t

a n d /o r th e dependent m easures w ere a d m in is te re d .


125

S t a t i s t ic a l procedures were employed r e s p e c t iv e to th ese

v a r ia b le s to d e te rm in e w hether th e th r e e groups were

e q u iv a le n t . (The r e s u lts o f t h is a n a ly s is a re re p o rte d in

C hapter I I I . )

(3 ) D a ta C o l le c t io n ; Phase 1

1. The SST program was p ro v id ed to 13 s u b je c ts on

January 2 3 , 1988 a t P in e Rest P s y c h ia tr ic H o s p ita l in Grand

R ap id s , M ic h ig a n . S u b je c ts w ere p ro v id ed w ith a

co m plim entary pa ck e t o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a in in g m a te r ia ls

d e s c rib e d on page 8 0 . The t r a in in g began a t 9 :0 0 a .m . and

concluded a t 4 :0 0 p .m ., u t i l i z i n g th e te a c h in g c u rr ic u lu m

p re v io u s ly d e s c rib e d and developed by th e re s e a rc h e r in

t h is s tu d y . S u b je c ts were g ive n a h a lf -h o u r lunch and

f iv e -m in u te b reak tim es th roug hout th e d a y . Im m ed ia te ly

fo llo w in g th e c o n c lu s io n o f t r a in in g , s u b je c ts w ere then

re q u es te d to com ple te th re e m easures: The S e lf -R e p o r t

M easure , C lassroom S c e n a rio s , and th e S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g

Knowledge In v e n to ry . They were a ls o asked to com plete a

10- i te m e v a lu a t io n o f th e t r a i n e r 's perform an ce ( th e

re s e a rc h e r in t h is s tu d y ) (see Appendix T ) . F o llo w in g a l l

t e s t in g and c o m p le tio n o f th e e v a lu a t io n s , s u b je c ts were

then p re se n te d w ith a c e r t i f i c a t e v a l id a t in g t h e i r

p a r t ic ip a t io n in th e d a y -lo n g t r a in in g (s e e Appendix U ) .

At th e c o n c lu s io n o f a l l a c t i v i t i e s , s u b je c ts w ere reminded

th e y had p a r t ic ip a te d in a re se arc h p r o je c t and w ere asked


126

to m a in ta in c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y about th e s p e c if ic s o f t h e i r

t r a in in g .

2 . The SET program was p re se n te d to 11 s u b je c ts on

January 3 0 , 1988, a ls o a t th e P in e Rest s i t e . O th er than

th e t r a in in g em phasis and c o n te n t, a l l o th e r d e t a i ls o f th e

day w ere th e same.

I t was th e d e c is io n o f th e re s e a rc h e r to conduct SST

th e week b e fo re SET fo r one p rim ary re as o n . The S o c ia l

S k i l l T r a in in g program re p res en ted a f a i r l y s ta n d a rd

approach to in s t r u c t io n , th a t is , le c tu r e , d is c u s s io n and

l im ite d p a r t ic ip a t io n by group members. The re s e a rc h e r

guessed t h a t i t m ig h t be th e approach s u b je c ts would

e x p e c t. As SET re p re s e n te d th e e x p e rim e n ta l approach i t

seemed ne ce s sa ry to m in im ize any advance w arn ing o r

p o s s ib le b reach o f c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y by th e s u b je c ts .

(4 ) D a ta C o l le c t io n : Phase 2

1. Phase 2 d a ta c o lle c t io n in v o lv e d a fo l lo w -u p

in te r v ie w o f a l l s u b je c ts u t i l i z i n g th e Perform ance

M easure . As noted p r e v io u s ly , GVSU p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs

engage in two 10-week d ir e c te d te a c h in g ass ig n m en ts . Thus,

i t was th e d e c is io n o f th e re s e a rc h e r to c o n ta c t th e 13

in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d in th e th re e groups d u rin g th e n in th

week o f t h e i r f i r s t ass ignm ent, a p p ro x im a te ly two weeks

b e fo re th e assignm ents would co n c lu d e . S u b je c ts w ere

c o n ta c te d by te le p h o n e a t home and asked to respond to th e


127

1 0 - ite m q u e s t io n n a ir e . D uring th e fo llo w in g w eek, o r week

# 10 , th e c o rres p o n d in g s u p e rv is in g te a c h e r o f each

p re s e r v ic e te a c h e r was c o n ta c te d to respond to th e 10 item s

on th e P erform ance Measure r e la t i v e to th e perfo rm an ce o f

h is o r her a ss igned p re s e rv ic e te a c h e r . The te a c h e rs w ere

c o n ta c te d a t t h e i r s c h o o ls , a ls o by te le p h o n e .

2 . To m a in ta in th e same p ro p o r t io n o f t im e in th e

d ir e c te d te a c h in g ass ignm ent, s u b je c ts from WMU w ere a ls o

c o n ta c te d a p p ro x im a te ly two weeks b e fo re th e c o n c lu s io n o f

t h e i r a ss ig n m en ts , o r week #15 . The corres p o n d in g

s u p e rv is in g te a c h e rs w ere c o n ta c te d d u rin g week # 16 . The

a fo re m e n tio n e d procedures d e s c rib e d fo r s u b je c ts from GVSU

were a ls o conducted fo r th e WMU p a r t ic ip a n ts and t h e i r

s u p e rv is in g te a c h e rs .

Summary

D e sc rib ed in t h is c h a p te r was th e m ethodology used to

in v e s t ig a te th e e f f e c t o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g on th e

te a c h in g perfo rm an ce o f p re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs in th e

in s t r u c t io n a l a re a o f s o c ia l s k i l l s . T h is in c lu d e d a

d e s c r ip t io n o f th e fo l lo w in g : (a ) th e des ign o f th e

s tu d y , (b ) th e m ethodology used to de ve lo p and v a l id a t e th e

SET and SST t r a in in g program s, (c ) th e m ethodology used to

deve lo p and v a l id a t e th e Classroom S c e n a rio s m easure, th e

SSTK I, and th e Perform ance M easure, and (d ) th e p rocedures

in v o lv e d in c o n d u c tin g th e s tu d y .


CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

T h is c h a p te r w i l l id e n t i f y th e s t a t i s t i c a l p ro ced u res

used to a n a ly z e th e o b ta in e d d a ta and r e p o r t th e r e s u l ts o f

t h i s d a ta a n a ly s is s p e c i f ic to th e fo l lo w in g hypo theses :

1. P r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs who a re exposed to

s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g w i l l dem onstra te more w i l l in g n e s s to

i n i t i a t e , expend e f f o r t , and p e r s is t a t s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g in t h e i r d ir e c te d te a c h in g ass ignm ent than

p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs exposed to s o c ia l s k i l l s c o n te n t

i n fo rm a t io n .

2 . P re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs who a re exposed to

s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a in in g w i l l d e m onstra te more w i l l in g n e s s to


d ir e c te d te a c h in g assignm ent than p r e s e r v ic e te a c h e rs who

e x p e r ie n c e th e s ta n d a rd classroom management u n iv e r s i t y

t r a in in g sequence.

3 . P re s e rv ic e te a c h e rs in p re p a ra t io n program s a t two

d i f f e r e n t u n iv e r s i t i e s w i l l d e m onstra te equal w i l l in g n e s s

to i n i t i a t e , expend e f f o r t , and p e r s is t a t s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a in in g in t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e te a c h in g ass ignm ents dependent

upon th e t r a in in g ty p e to w hich th e y a re exposed.

The fo l lo w in g r e s u lts a re re p o rte d s p e c i f ic to th e

h y p o th e s e s :

128


129

1 . The s t a t i s t i c a l e q u iv a le n c e o f th e th re e groups in

t h i s s tu d y — S e l f - E f f ic a c y T ra in in g (S E T ), S o c ia l S k i l l

T r a in in g C o n ten t In fo rm a tio n (S S T ), and th e Com parison

Group (C G ), a c c o rd in g to s p e c if ie d c o n t r o l l in g v a r ia b le s .

2 . The s t a t i s t i c a l com parison o f th e groups on th e

Classroom S c e n a r io s , th e S e lf -R e p o r t M easure , and The

S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g Knowledge In v e n to ry (S S TK I) fo l lo w in g

t r e a tm e n t .

3 . The s t a t i s t i c a l com parison o f th e groups on th e

Perfo rm ance M easure a t th e fo l lo w -u p s ta g e o f d a ta

c o I Ie c t io n .

4 . The s t a t i s t i c a l e q u iv a le n c e o f th e s u b je c ts from

W estern M ic h ig an U n iv e r s i ty (WMU) versus Grand V a lle y S ta te

U n iv e r s i ty (GVSU) r e la t i v e to t r a in in g ty p e and subsequent

c lassroom pe rfo rm an ce .

C o n s id e ra tio n s In f lu e n c in g S t a t i s t ic a l A n a ly s is

The s t a t i s t i c a l te s ts employed in t h is study w ere used

to d e te rm in e w hether th e d a ta c o lle c t e d from th e th r e e

sam ples w ere e q u iv a le n t and, fu r t h e r , to d e te rm in e th e

p o s s i b i l i t y th a t any d if fe r e n c e s between th e sam ples w ere

due to chance. As a means o f im proving th e p r o b a b i l i t y

th a t s ig n i f ic a n t d i f fe r e n c e s c ou ld be d e te c te d th rough use

o f th e a p p r o p r ia te t e s t s t a t i s t i c s , Tuckman (1 9 7 8 ) a d v is e s

c o n s id e r a t io n o f s e v e ra l e lem ents o f th e re se arc h d e s ig n .

As i t a p p lie d to t h is s tu d y , th e s e in c lu d e d th e fo l lo w in g :


Independent and Dependent V a r i a b le s

130

Two independent v a r i a b l e s were i d e n t i f i e d fo r

i n v e s t i g a t i o n : ( a ) ty p e o f t r a i n i n g , i . e . , s e l f - e f f i c a c y

t r a i n i n g , s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g c o n te n t in fo r m a t i o n , and

s ta n d a rd u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g sequence, and (b ) i n s t i t u t i o n ,

i . e . , WMU versus GVSU.

To measure the e f f e c t o f the independent v a r i a b l e ,

fo u r dependent v a r i a b l e s were i d e n t i f i e d : (a ) Classroom

S c e n a r io s (a s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g b e l i e f measure) ; (b ) th e

S e l f - R e p o r t Measure (a measure o f genera l s e l f - e f f i c a c y ) ;

( c ) th e S oc ia l S k i l l T r a in i n g Knowledge In v e n to ry (S S TK I );

and (d ) th e Per formance Measure .

Measurement S ca le

Both independent v a r i a b l e s , ty pe o f t r a i n i n g and

i n s t i t u t i o n , were cons ide red nominal s in c e th e y r e p res en ted

d i s c r e t e c o n d i t i o n s or c a t e g o r i e s .

The four dependent v a r i a b l e s y ie l d e d i n t e r v a l d a ta .

Th at i s , th e Classroom Sce na r io s and th e S e l f - R e p o r t

Measure invo lv ed use o f r a t i n g s c a l e s , and th e SSTKI and

Per fo rmanc e Measure prov id ed a d i s c r e t e range o f c o r r e c t

a nsw e rs .

The S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures Employed

Acco rd ing t o Tuckman (1 9 7 8 ) , t e s t s such as t - t e s t and

a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e (ANOVA) a r e a p p r o p r i a t e fo r use when


131

th e independent v a r i a b l e is nominal and th e dependent

v a r i a b l e is i n t e r v a l . In t h i s s tu dy the tw o -g ro up and

t h r e e group compar isons ge nera te d by th e hy potheses and th e

l ev e l o f measurement re p r e s e n te d by th e inde pendent and

dependent v a r i a b l e s a l low e d use o f th e t - t e s t and ANOVA

procedures f o r s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f th e d a t a . Fr equency

d i s t r i b u t i o n s were a ls o u t i l i z e d in some cases t o p e r m i t

compar isons o f th e raw d a ta .

S t a t i s t i c a l E qu iva lenc e o f th e Sample Across Groups

In an e f f o r t t o c o n t r o l a number o f p o s s i b l y

confo unding s e l e c t i o n v a r i a b l e s , th e sample was l i m i t e d to

p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s in s p e c ia l e du c a t io n t r a i n i n g programs.

However, as random assignment t o e i t h e r an SET or SST group

was conducted f o r o n ly 38% o f th e s u b j e c ts (13 o f 3 4 ) and

not a t a l l f o r the CG, v a r i o u s pr oced ures were employed to

a n a l y z e th e d a ta ga th ered on s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s t o d e te r m in e

th e e q u iv a le n c y o f th e t h r e e groups once th e groups were

e s t a b l i s h e d . The c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e s in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n

inc luded th e f o l l o w i n g : ( a ) grade p o i n t a ve rage (G P A);

( b ) m ajor a r e a , e . g . , e m o t i o n a l l y im pa ired ( E l ) , m e n t a l l y

im pa ired ( M l ) ; (c ) accumulated number o f hours in th e

u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g sequence; (d ) ty pe o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n to

be g ra n te d (e le m e n ta r y or s e c o n d a r y ) ; and ( e ) number o f

weeks in th e d i r e c t e d te a c h in g assignment when t r e a t m e n t

a n d /o r the dependent measures were a d m in i s te r e d .


132

V a r i a b l e * 1 : GPA

An ANOVA was computed t o d e te r m in e th e s t a t i s t i c a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e s in GPA among th e t h r e e groups.

T a b le 5 p re se n ts th e d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s ; T a b le 6

c o n t a in s summary t a b l e in fo r m a t io n and i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e

d i f f e r e n c e among groups was not s i g n i f i c a n t .

Ta b le 5

D i f f e r e n c e Among Groups Based on GPA: Means and Sta ndard D e v i a t i o n s

Group N SD Mean

SET 1 1 .51 3 .1 8

SST 13 .35 3 .4 0

CG 10 .43 3 .0 9

T a b le 6

D i f f e r e n c e Among Groups Based ANOVA Summary T a b le

on GPA:

SOURCE SS DF MS F P

Tota I 6 .3 9

Treatm ent 0 .5 9 2 .30 1 .59 .22

E r r o r 5 .8 0 31- .19

k\


133

V a r i a b l e # 2 : M a j o r a r e a

A f requency count o f the i d e n t i f i e d m ajor a rea s was

conduc ted f o r s u b j e c ts in each group. T a b le 7 i l l u s t r a t e s

th e d i s t r i b u t i o n by t r e a t m e n t group . O v e r a l l , i t appears

t h a t l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s were not s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p r e s e n t .

Ta b le 7

Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n Based on M a jo r Area

M ajor Area SET

Group

SST CG

El 2 4 2

POH I 2 1 3

VI 0 1 0

Ml 4 1 1

HI /E l 0 2 0

Ml /E l 3 4 2

POHI/EI 0 0 2

11 13 10

N o t e ; The major a r e a a b b r e v i a t io n s in c lu d e th e fo l l o w i n g :

El - e m o t i o n a l l y impa ired , POH I - p h y s i c a l l y and otherw i se

h e a l t h im paired , VI - v i s u a l l y im pa ire d , Ml - m e n ta 1ly

im pa ire d , and HI - h e ar ing impa i r e d .


134

V a r i a b l e * 3 : Accumulated number o f semester hours In

th e u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g sequence

An ANOVA was computed t o de te rm in e the s t a t i s t i c a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e s among th e th r e e t r e a t m e n t

groups . T a b le 8 p re se n ts the d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s and

T a b le 9 th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s . As Tab le 9 d e p i c t s ,

th e d i f f e r e n c e among groups was not s i g n i f i c a n t .

Tab le 8

D i f f e r e n c e Among Groups Based on Number o f Semester Hours in th e U n i v e r s i t y T r a in i n g Sequence:

Means and Standard D e v i a t i o n s

Group N SD Mean

SET 1 1 12 .60 131 .64

SST 13 20 .91 134.31

CG 10 2 3 .7 5 129 .70

Table 9

D i f f e r e n c e Among Groups Based on Number o f Semester Hours in th e U n i v e r s i t y T r a in i n g Sequence - ANOVA Summary T a b le

SOURCE SS DF MS F p

To ta l 12030 .74

T reatm ent 123 .32 2 6 1 . 6 6 .16 .25

E r r o r 11907.41 31 384 .11


135

V a r i a b l e * 4 ; Type o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n t o be gra n te d

( e l e m e n ta r y or seconda ry)

P r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s in s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n o b t a i n e i t h e r

e le m e n ta ry or secondary c e r t i f i c a t i o n upon co m p le t io n o f

t h e i r t r a i n i n g programs. In t h i s s tu d y , 100% o f th e

s u b j e c ts were t o r e c e i v e e le m e n ta ry c e r t i f i c a t i o n .

V a r i a b l e * 5 ; Number o f weeks in t h e d i r e c t e d te a c h in g

ass ignm ent when t r e a t m e n t a n d /o r t h e dependent

measures were a d m in is te r e d

The t im e frame in which th e de pendent measures were

a d m in i s te r e d was not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r s u b j e c ts

in any o f t h e t h r e e groups. S u b je c ts in th e SST group were

t e s t e d im m ed ia te ly f o l l o w i n g t h e i r t r a i n i n g s e s s io n , two

weeks in t o t h e i r t e a c h in g ass ig nm ents . S u b j e c ts in th e SET

group were t e s t e d im m edia te ly f o l l o w i n g t h e i r t r a i n i n g

s e s s io n , t h r e e weeks in to t h e i r t e a c h in g ass ignm ent .

S u b je c ts in th e c o n t r o l group were p r o v id e d th e measures

tw o - a n d - o n e - h a I f weeks in to th e ass ignm ent .

Comparison o f Groups a t Phase I Da ta C o l l e c t i o n

Both t h e SET and SST groups were a d m in is te r e d t h r e e

t e s t measures im m edia te ly f o l l o w i n g t r a i n i n g . The CG was

prov id ed th e s e measures a t a p p r o x im a te ly th e same t im e .

These ins t rum ents inc luded th e Classroom S c e n a r io s , the

S e l f - R e p o r t Measure , and the SSTKI.


136

C la s s ro o m S c e n a r io s

T h i s In s t rum ent was in te nded to measure t h e b e l i e f s o f

s u b j e c t s s p e c i f i c t o s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in th e

c la s sroom . An ANOVA was computed to d e te r m in e th e

d i f f e r e n c e s among gr oups. T a b le 10 r e p o r t s th e d e s c r i p t i v e

s t a t i s t i c s , and T a b le 11 i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e

among groups was no t s i g n i f i c a n t on t h i s measure.

T a b le 10

Classroom S c e n a r io s : Comparison o fMeans and S ta ndard D e v i a t i o n s

Group N SD Mean

SET 11 4 . 8 9 5 2 .9 1

SST 13 4 .9 1 4 8 .3 1

CG 10 5 .2 0 5 0 . 8 0

T a b le

Classroom S ce n a r io s :

1 1

ANOVA Summary Ta b le

SOURCE SS DF MS F P

T o ta l 8 9 8 .4 7

T reatm ent 127 .19 2 6 3 . 6 0 2 .5 6 .09

E r r o r 7 7 1 .2 8 31 2 4 .8 8


137

The S e l f - R e p o r t Measure

An ANOVA was computed to measure the d i f f e r e n c e among

groups on g e nera l s e l f - e f f i c a c y . T a b le 12 c o n t a in s

d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s r e g a r d in g t h i s comparison and Ta b le

13 r e p o r t s th e r e s u l t s o f a n a l y s i s . As th e summary t a b l e

in T a b le 13 i n d i c a t e s , th e d i f f e r e n c e s among groups was

s i g n i f i c a n t . To de te rm ine f u r t h e r which o f th e compar isons

were s i g n i f i c a n t , a Tukey m u l t i p l e comparison t e s t was

computed. T a b le 14 i d e n t i f i e s t h a t t h e r e were s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e s between two groups: ( 1 ) SET versus CG, and (2 )

SST v ersus CG.

Ta b le 12

S e l f - R e p o r t Measure: Comparison o fMeans and Sta ndard D e v i a t i o n s

Group N SD Mean

SET 11 5 .3 8 6 9 .8 2

SST 13 6 .7 5 6 8 .5 4

CG 10 8 .0 3 61 .70

S e I f - R e p o r t

T a b le 13

Measure: ANOVA Summary Table

SOURCE SS DF S F P

T o ta l 1815 .88

Tre a tm e nt 3 98 .92

E r r o r 1416 .97

2 199 .46

31

4 .3 6 .02


138

SSTKI

An ANOVA was computed to d e te rm in e th e d i f f e r e n c e

among groups based on knowledge o f s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g

c o n te n t in fo r m a t i o n . T a b le 15 c o n ta in s t h e d e s c r i p t i v e

s t a t i s t i c s and T a b le 16 th e ANOVA summary t a b l e . As

i n d i c a t e d in T a b le 16, th e d i f f e r e n c e was s i g n i f i c a n t ;

T a b le 17 i n d i c a t e s t h a t two o f th e compar isons were

s i g n i f i c a n t : ( 1 ) SET versus SST, and ( 2 ) SST versus CG.

T a b le 14

S e l f - R e p o r t Measure: Tukey M u l t i p l e Comparisons

Comparison Q - S t a t i s t i c C r i t i c a l V a lue Co nc lu s io n

SET vs SST .63 2 .8 8 Not s i gn i f ica nt

SET vs CG 4 .0 2 2 .8 8 S i gn i f i c a n t *

SST vs CG 3 .3 9 2 .8 8 S ign i f ic a n t *

*p < .0 5 , 3 1 - d f

T a b le 15

S STK I : Comparison o f Means and S tandard Dev i a t ions

Group N SD Mean

SET •11 2 .6 8 9 .8 2

SST 13 2 . 7 0 1 3 .1 5

CG 10 2 .3 2 8 . 4 0


139

T a b le 16

SSTKI: ANOVA Summary Ta b le

SOURCE SS DF MS F P

T o ta l 3 47 .44

Treatment 139.71 2 6 9 .8 6 1 0 .4 2 .01

E r r o r 207 .73 31

T a b le 17

S STK I: Tukey M u l t i p l e Compar isons

Comparison Q - S t a t i s t i c C r i t i c a l V a lue Cone I us ion

SET V S SST 4 .3 2 2 .8 8

S i g n i f i c a n t * SET vs CG 1 .84 2 .8 8

Not s i g n i f i c a n t SST vs CG 4 .7 5 2 .8 8

S i g n i f i c a n t * *p < .0 5 , 3 1 - d f

(Comparison o f ) Groups a t Phase I I Da ta C o l l e c t i o n

Hypotheses #1 and #2 o f th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n

A l l t h r e e gr oups, SET, SST, and CG, were a d m in is te r e d

t h e Performanc e Measure two weeks p r i o r to th e end o f t h e i r

r e s p e c t i v e d i r e c t e d te a c h in g ass ignm ents . Th is inst rum ent

was in te nded to measure th e i n i t i a t i v e , e f f o r t expended,


140

and p e r s i s t e n c e o f s u b je c ts in a l l t h r e e groups s p e c i f i c to

a p p l i c a t i o n o f s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in th e c la s sroom .

ANOVA S t a t i s t i c a l Comparison

The 10 q u e s t io n s on the Performanc e Measure were

o r g a n iz e d on an i n t e r v a l s c a l e , w i t h 0 r e p r e s e n t i n g th e

lowest l e v e l o f a p p l i c a t i o n ( i n i t i a t i v e a c t i o n ) and 10 th e

h ig h e s t le v e l o f a p p l i c a t i o n ( p e r s i s t e n t a c t i o n ) . The

ave rage scores o f each group were compared by means o f an

ANOVA. T a b le 18 p r e s e n ts th e means and s ta n d ard d e v i a t i o n s

and Ta b le 19 th e r e s u l t s o f a n a l y s i s . As in d i c a t e d in

T a b le 19, th e d i f f e r e n c e among groups was s i g n i f i c a n t . The

Tukey m u l t i p l e compar isons p resente d in T a b le 20 i d e n t i f y

s p e c i f i c a l l y t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d between

two gr oups: ( a ) SET versus CG, and (b ) SST v ersus CG.

T ab le 18

The Per fo rmanc e Measure: Comparison o fMeans and Sta ndard D e v i a t i o n s

Group N SD Mean

SET 1 1 4 .0 9 6 .2 0

SST 13 3 .1 5 5 .9 2

CG 10 3 .3 4 1 .70


141

T a b le 19

The Per fo rmanc e Measure: ANOVA Summary Ta b le

SOURCE SS DF MS F P

T o ta l 5 2 0 .1 2 2

T reatment 1 33 .50 31 6 6 .7 3 5 .4 0 .01

E r r o r 3 8 6 . 7 0

Ta b le 20

The Performanc e Measure: Tukey M u l t i p l e Comparisons

Compar i son Q - S t a t i s t i c C r i t i c a l V a lu e Conc lus ion

SET vs SST .24 2 .8 8 Not s i g n i f i c a n t

SET vs CG 4 .2 5 2 .8 8 ^ S i g n i f i c a n t

SST vs CG 4 .0 1 2 .8 8

*S i gn i f ic a n t *p < . 0 5 , 3 1 - d f

Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n Comparison

A fr equency count o f th e number o f "yes" o b s e r v a t io n s

by each group f o r each item on th e q u e s t io n n a i r e was a ls o

t a b u l a t e d . A "yes" response i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e s u b j e c t

engaged in th e b e h av io r d e sc r ibed by th e item w h i l e in th e

classroom s e t t i n g . Ta b le 21 i l l u s t r a t e s the r e s u l t s o f

t h i s a n a l y s i s and in d i c a t e s t h a t both th e SET and SST


groups were more i n i t i a t i v e , expended more e f f o r t , and were

p e r s i s t e n t a t s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g tha n th e CG s u b j e c t s .

Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Responses on th e Performance Measure

Group SET SST

I N I T 1 AT I V E ;

“TAKING THE FIRST STEP OR MOVE”

ASKS th e s u p e r v i s i n g te a c h e r i f 5

SST is conducted in th e c lassroom .

ASKS the s u p e r v i s i n g te a c h e r i f 3

SST is conducted by a t e a ch e r or

o th e r p r o f e s s i o n a l in th e b u i l d i n g .

ASKS to CONDUCT an SST lesson 6

(u s in g th e lesson prov id ed in th e

t r a i n i ng p a c k e t ) .

ASKS TO CONDUCT an SST lesson 1

(u s in g le s s o n (s ) prov id ed by th e t e a c h e r ) .

S u b t o t a I : 15

EFFORT EXPENDED: "EFFORT SPENT OR USED UP"

SHOWS p re pare d lessons o b ta in e d 4

from t r a i n i n g to th e s u p e r v i s i n g

t e a c h e r .


143

T a b le 2 1 — C o n t in u e d

Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Responses on th e Performance Measure

GroupQ uestion SET SST CG

1 1 2

1 2 0

1 1 2

S u b t o t a l : 7 12 4

C. PERSISTENCE: "TO REFUSE TO GIVE UP, ESPECIALLY

WHEN FACED WITH OPPOSITION"

9 . OBSERVES a noth er te a che r in the 1 0 O

b u i l d i n g or r e l a t e d program,

i f SST is not conducted in th e

s u p e r v i s i n g t e a c h e r ' s c lassroom.

OBTAINS lessons used by th e

s u p e r v i s i n g te a che r in ongoing

c la ssroom i n s t r u c t i o n .

PURCHASES s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g

m ate r i a l s .

DELIVERS a SST les s o n (s ) used by

t h e c lassroom te a che r in ongoing

cla ssroom i n s t r u c t i o n .


144

T a b le 2 1 — C o n t in u e d

Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Responses on th e Per fo rmanc e Measure

GroupQ ues tion SET SST CG

10. DELIVERS SST le s s o n (s ) from 4 3 0

m a t e r i a l s p ro v id ed in th e t r a i n i n g

package , even though SST is not

conduc ted by th e s u p e r v i s i n g

t e a c h e r as p a r t o f ongoing i n s t r u c t i o n .

S u b t o t a l : 5 3 0

TOTALS: 27 27 8

(Comparison o f ) S u b je c ts from WMU and GVSU

Hy poth e s is * 3 o f th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n

To d e te r m in e th e e q u iv a le n c y o f s u b j e c t s from th e two

u n i v e r s i t y te a c h e r t r a i n i n g programs, WMU and GVSU, t - t e s t s

were computed on th e fo ur dependent measures used in t h i s

s tu d y . I t was hy po th e s ize d t h a t p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s in

p r e p a r a t i o n programs a t two d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s i t i e s would

d em onstra te equal w i l l i n g n e s s to i n i t i a t e , expend e f f o r t ,

and p e r s i s t a t s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in th e c lassroom

s e t t i n g de pendent upon th e t r a i n i n g sequence to which they

had been exposed. The r e s u l t s o f com par ison o f th e two


145

groups on each o f th e de pendent measures a r e pre se n te d in

t h e f o l l o w i n g s i x t a b l e s : T a b les 22 and 23— the SET group ,

Ta b le s 24 and 25 — th e SST group, and T a b les 26 and 27— th e

Comparison Group. For each t r a i n i n g group, th e mean

perfo rm ance o f s u b j e c ts from WMU was compared t o th e mean

perfo rm ance o f s u b j e c ts from GVSU. A t o t a l o f 12 t - t e s t s

were computed. Of t h i s number o n ly one compar ison

i n d i c a t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e , th e CG comparison on

th e SSTKI (know ledge m e as u re ) . S tu d e n ts from WMU o b ta in e d

a h ig h e r mean score on t h i s measure.

Summary o f R e s u l t s

P resen te d in t h i s c h a p t e r were th e s t a t i s t i c a l

procedures u t i l i z e d t o a n a ly z e th e o b ta in e d d a ta and th e

r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . S p e c i f i c to th e

e s t a b l i s h e d hypotheses, the f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s were

o b ta i ne d :

1. P r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s who were exposed t o s e l f -

e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g de monstra ted equal w i l l i n g n e s s t o

i n i t i a t e , expend e f f o r t , and p e r s i s t a t s o c i a l s k i l l

t r a i n i n g in t h e i r d i r e c t e d te a c h in g assignment as

p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s who were exposed t o s o c ia l s k i l l s

c o n te n t in f o r m a t i o n . S t a t i s t i c a l l y t h e r e was no

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between th e pe r fo rm ance o f these two

t r e a t m e n t gr oups. The hy p o th e s is t h a t s e l f - e f f i c a c y


146

T a b le 22

C o m p a ris o n o f WMU and GVSU S u b je c t s in t h eSET G ro u p on t h e D e p e n d e n t M e a s u re s :

M eans and S ta n d a r d D e v ia t io n s

Measure N SD Mean

SSTKI

WMU 8 3 .0 9 1 0 .1 2

GVSU 3 1 .00 9 .0 0

Classroom S c e n a r io s

WMU 8 5 .4 0 5 2 .6 2

GVSU 3 4 .0 4 5 3 . 6 7


WMU 8 4 .8 5 7 0 .1 2

GVSU 3 7 .8 1 6 9 . 0 0

Per formance Measure

WMU 8 3 . 8 0 6 .0 0

GVSU 3 5 .7 7 6 .6 7


147

SET Group

Ta b le 23

Compar i s ons: ANOVA, Summary T a b le

SOURCE SS DF MS t P

SSTKI

T o ta l 71 .64

Tre atment 2 .7 6 1 2 .7 6 .60 .25

E r r o r 6 8 .8 7 9 7 .6 5

Classroom S ce na r io s

T o ta l 238 .91

Tre atment 2 .3 7 1 2 .3 7 .30 .25

E r r o r 2 3 6 .5 4 9 2 6 .2 8

S e l f - R e p o r t

T o ta l 2 8 9 .6 4

Tre atment 2 .7 6 1 2 .7 6 .29 .25

E r r o r 2 8 6 .8 7 9 31 .88

P er formance

T ota l 167 .64

Treat ment .97 1 .97 .23 .25

E r r o r 166 .67 9 1 8.52


T a b le 24

C o m p a ris o n o f WMU an d GVSU S u b je c t s in t h eSST G ro u p on t h e D e p e n d e n t M e a s u re s :

M eans and S ta n d a r d D e v ia t io n s

Measure N SD Mean

SSTKI

WMU 7 1 .98 13.71

GVSU 6 3 .4 5 1 2 .5 0


WMU 7 5 .1 2 48 .7 1

GVSU 6 5 .0 8 4 7 .8 3

S e 1f - R e p o r t

WMU 7 7 .9 5 6 7 . 8 6

GVSU 6 5 .6 8 6 9 .3 3

P er fo rmanc e Measure

WMU 7 2.41 4 . 8 6

GVSU 6 3 .6 6 7 .1 7


T a b le 25

149

SST Group Comparisons: ANOVA Summary T a b le

SOURCE SS DF MS t P

SSTKI

T o ta l 8 7 . 6 9

Treatm ent 4 . 7 6 1 4 .7 6 .80 .25

E r r o r 8 2 .9 3 1 1 7 .5 4

Classroom Scenari ios

T o ta l 2 8 8 .7 7

Treatm ent 2 .51 1 2 .5 1 .31 .25

E r r o r 2 8 6 .2 6 11 2 6 .0 2


T o ta l 5 4 7 .2 3

Treatment 7 .0 4 1 7 .0 4 .38 .25

E r r o r 5 4 0 .1 9 11 49 . 11

Per fo rmanc e

T o ta l 118 .92

Treatm ent 17 .23 1 17 .23 1 .36 .20

E r r o r 101 .69 1 1 9 .2 4


1 50

T a b le 26

C o m p a r is o n o f WMU and GVSU S u b je c t s in t h e C o m p a r is o n G ro u pon t h e D e p e n d e n t M e a s u re s : M eans and S ta n d a r d D e v ia t io n s

Measure N SD Mean

SSTKI

WMU 6 1 .51 9 .6 7

GVSU 4 2 .0 8 6 . 5 0

Classroom S ce n a r io s

WMU 6 3 .9 9 4 8 . 5 0

GVSU 4 5 .3 2 5 4 . 2 5

S e l f - R e p o r t

WMU 6 5 .71 6 5 . 17

GVSU 4 8 .8 9 5 6 . 5 0

Per fo rmanc e Measure

WMU 6 3.2 1 1 .50

GVSU 4 4 .0 0 2 .0 0


151

T a b le 27

CG Comparisons: ANOVA Summary T a b le

SOURCE SS DF MS t P

SSTKI

T o ta l 4 8 .4 9

Treatment 2 4 .0 7 1 2 4 .0 7 2.8 1 . 0 2 *

E r r o r 2 4 .3 3 8 3 .0 4


T o ta l 2 43 .69

Treatment 7 9 .3 5 1 7 9 .3 5 1 .97 .08

E r r o r 164 .25 8 2 0 .5 3


T o ta l 5 80 .19

Treatment 180 .27 1 1 80 .27 1 .90 .09

E r r o r 3 99 .83 8 4 9 . 9 8

Per fo rmanc e

T o ta l 100 .19

Treatment .60 1 .60 .22 .25

E r r o r 9 9 .5 0 8 12.44

* p < . 0 5 , 3 1 - d f


152

t r a i n i n g would produce more i n i t i a t i v e , more e f f o r t

expended, and more p e r s i s te n c e was not suppor te d .

2 . P r e s e r v i c e te a ch e rs who were exposed t o s e l f -

e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g demonst ra ted more w i l l i n g n e s s t o

i n i t i a t e , expend e f f o r t , and p e r s i s t a t s o c ia l s k i l l

t r a i n i n g in t h e i r d i r e c t e d te a c h in g ass ignment than

p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s who expe r ienc e d th e s ta ndard c lassroom

management u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g sequence. S t a t i s t i c a l l y

th e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between th e c lassroom

perfo rm an ce o f th e S e l f - E f f i c a c y T r a in i n g group and th e

Comparison Group. T h is hypo th esis was suppor te d .

3 . P r e s e r v i c e te a c h e rs in p r e p a r a t i o n programs a t two

d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s i t i e s , Western M ich igan U n i v e r s i t y and

Grand V a l l e y S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , demonst ra ted equal

w i l l i n g n e s s t o i n i t i a t e , expend e f f o r t , and p e r s i s t a t

s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in th e c lassroom c o n te x t c o n t i n g e n t

upon th e t r a i n i n g to which th e y were exposed.

S t a t i s t i c a l l y th e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between

th e pe r fo rm ance o f s u b je c ts from WMU and GVSU. The

hy p o th e s is was suppor ted t h a t t h e r e would be no d i f f e r e n c e

in th e c la ssroom pe rfo rm an ce o f s u b j e c ts from two d i f f e r e n t

u n i v e r s i t i e s dependent upon t h e i r t r a i n i n g ty p e , i . e . , SET,

SST, or CG.


CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

The purpose o f t h i s s tu dy was to i n v e s t i g a t e th e

e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n c lu d in g s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g in th e

p r e p a r a t i o n o f te a c h e r s t o d e l i v e r s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in

th e c la ssroom s e t t i n g . I t was hy po the s iz e d t h a t

i n d i v i d u a l s who were exposed t o t h i s t y p e o f t r a i n i n g would

d em onstra te more w i l l i n g n e s s t o engage in s o c i a l s k i l l

t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t y than t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s exposed to s o c i a l

s k i l l t r a i n i n g c o n te n t i n fo r m a t io n or th e s ta n d a r d

u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g c u r r ic u lu m focused on c lassroom

management.

S e l f - e f f i c a c y is th e b e l i e f t h a t one can s u c c e s s f u l l y

pe r fo rm a b e h a v i o r . Acco rd ing t o Bandura (1 9 7 7 , 1 9 8 2 ) , i t

is d i s t i n g u i s h e d from outcome e xpec ta n cy in t h a t i t is a

s i n g u l a r p e r s o n 's b e l i e f in h is or her a b i l i t y to succeed .

Hence, w h i l e an i n d i v i d u a l may r e c o g n iz e t h a t s p e c i f i c

b e h a v io r s can r e s u l t in a p a r t i c u l a r outcome, p e r s o n a l i z e d

b e l i e f t h a t one can perfo rm thos e b e h a v io r s is l a r g e l y

in vo lv e d w i t h sense o f e f f i c a c y in t h a t domain. Thus,

s e l f - e f f i c a c y is a c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e t h e o r i z e d to m e d ia te

b e h av io r r e l a t i v e to i n i t i a t i v e , e f f o r t expended, and

p e r s i s t e n c e demonst rat ed (Bandura , 1 9 7 7 ) .

The sources o f i n fo r m a t io n i n f l u e n c i n g s e l f - e f f i c a c y

e x p e c t a t i o n is a v a r i a b l e t h a t Bandura (1 9 7 7 , 1982)

153


e x p l a i n s can be m a n ip u la te d through v a r i o u s modes o f

t r e a t m e n t . In de scending o r d e r o f s t r e n g t h , th e s e in c lu d e :

Performance accom pl ishm ent , v i c a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , v e r b a l

p e r s u a s io n , and emotional a r o u s a l . These approaches have

been u t i l i z e d as modes o f in d u c t io n in s e v e r a l e m p i r i c a l

e f f o r t s t o a s s i s t i n d i v i d u a l s t o e s t a b l i s h a n d /o r in cre a se

s e l f - e f f i c a c y in a s p e c i f i c b e h a v io r a l domain. In t h i s

s tu dy bo th per fo rm an ce accompl ishment and v i c a r i o u s

e x p e r ie n c e m eth odolog ies were employed in t r a i n i n g .

T r a i n i n g in s e l f - e f f i c a c y , as i t was de ve loped fo r

t h i s s tu d y , a ls o inc luded s p e c i f i c a t t e n t i o n to th e b e l i e f

s t r u c t u r e or “schema" o f each s u b j e c t . As noted by Markus

( 1 9 7 7 ) and by G o l d f r i e d and Robins (1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 3 ) , t h i s

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n a l s e t serv es as a h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l

m e d ia to r o f b e h a v i o r . The e xpe c tan cy , or b e l i e f , t h a t one

has th e power to produce an e f f e c t is th e essence o f s e l f -

e f f i c a c y th e o r y and th e fundamenta l r e f l e c t i o n o f a

p e r s o n 's s e l f - s c h e m a ta in a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a o f f u n c t i o n i n g .

G o l d f r i e d and Robins (1 9 83 ) i n d i c a t e t h a t re s e a rc h has

suppor te d a r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - s c h e m a ta and the

inc re a se d l i k e l i h o o d o f f i n d i n g e v ide nce c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

t h a t schemata. T h is f i n d i n g had r e le v a n c e to th e p re se n t

s tudy as i t i d e n t i f i e d an a r e a o f focus in te a c h e r

p r e p a r a t i o n a p p ly in g to the s o c i a l s k i l l s a r e a .

S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g f o r c h i l d r e n is grounded in a

sel f- m anagement prem is e , an o r i e n t a t i o n p o t e n t i a l l y


inc o m p a t ib le w i t h the s t a t u s o f p r o s p e c t iv e te a ch e rs who

have not y e t e s t a b l i s h e d themselves as a u t h o r i t i e s in th e

c la ssroom . I t fo l lo w e d t h a t p r e s e r v i c e te a che rs needed to

c o n s id e r t h e i r personal b e l i e f s and a t t i t u d e s about

c o l l a b o r a t i n g w i th s tu d e n ts in the m a t te r o f be hav ior

management, and c o n c o m i ta n t ly , to a cq u a in t themselves

p e r s o n a l l y w i t h the behav io r change process t h a t is th e end

goal o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g . In t h i s s tu dy , i t was

a r g u a b l e t h a t p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s , l a r g e l y u n f a m i l i a r w i th

t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n a l a r e a , would r e q u i r e e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e i r

p r e v i o u s l y formed o p in ions and p r e d is p o s i t i o n s to d e te rm ine

t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s to a c q u i r e and r e t a i n new le a r n in g in th e

s o c i a l s k i l l s a r e a . As s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g r e p r e s e n ts a

broa der focus than s t r i c t classroom management and more

o f t e n than not is a v o lu n t a r y c u r r ic u lu m a d d i t i o n on the

p a r t o f the te a c h e r , i t was hy poth esized t h a t t h i s ty pe o f

c u r r ic u l u m would r e q u i r e th e p r e s e r v i c e teacher to f e e l

p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f i c a c i o u s about h is or her a b i l i t y to

d e l i v e r e f f e c t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n .

The s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g designe d fo r t h i s study

employed in d uc t ion modes i d e n t i f i e d by Bandura (1 9 77 ) and

schemata c o n s i d e r a t io n s discus sed by both Markus (1 9 77 ) and

G o l d f r i e d and Robins (1 9 82 , 1 983) . A d isc u s s io n fo rmat was

used to c o n s id e r the b e l i e f aspect o f th e s u b j e c t s '

e x p e r ie n c e and a com bin at io n o f pe rformance accomplishment

and v i c a r i o u s e x pe r ienc e m eth odo logies to enhance s e l f


156

e f f i c a c y . Th is t r a i n i n g was compared a g a i n s t a l e c t u r e

fo r m a t - s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g c o n te n t i n fo r m a t io n approach

and th e s ta n d a r d u n i v e r s i t y c lassroom management t r a i n i n g

app roach. Of s p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t was th e f o l l o w - u p

perform ance o f each group in t h e i r d i r e c t e d te a c h in g

ass i gnments .

Assumptions and L i m i t a t i o n s

Inc lude d in t h i s s tu dy were th e f o l l o w i n g assumptions

and I im i t a t ions:

1. I t was assumed t h a t th e s u b je c ts in vo lv e d in t h i s

stu dy were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s in s p e c ia l

e d u c a t io n u n i v e r s i t y p r e p a r a t i o n programs. Al th ough random

s e l e c t i o n and ass ignm ent was o n ly conducted on a l i m i t e d

b a s i s , s t a t i s t i c a l e q u iv a le n c y o f th e groups was

e s t a b l i s h e d on s ev e r a l c o n t r o l l i n g v a r i a b l e s once the

groups were formed.

2 . Another assumption concerned independence o f

t r e a t m e n t s . S u b je c ts invo lv ed in th e two t r a i n i n g groups,

i . e . , S e l f - E f f i c a c y T r a in i n g (SET) and S o c ia l S k i l l

T r a i n i n g C onten t In fo r m a t io n (S ST) , were r equeste d to

m a in t a i n c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y re g a r d in g t h e i r t r a i n i n g c o n t e n t .

As w e l l , t h e i r i n s t r u c t o r s in a seminar c l a s s were

re ques te d t o r e s p e c t and encourage t h i s c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y

when s u b j e c t s were brought to g e th e r fo r th e w ee k ly c l a s s .


157

3 . A t h i r d assumption r e l a t e d t o th e inst rum ents

u t i l i z e d in t h i s s tu dy and t h e i r v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y

as measures o f knowledge, s i t u a t i o n a l b e l i e f , ge nera l s e l f -

e f f i c a c y , and perfo rm an ce s p e c i f i c to s o c i a l s k i l l

t r a i n i n g . W h i le the t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f th e

Classroom S ce n a r io s measure and th e S o c ia l S k i l l T r a i n i n g

Knowledge In v e n to ry (SSTKI) were less than th ose o b ta in e d

by com parab le , s ta n d a r d iz e d measures , s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s

in d i c a t e d t h a t th e SSTKI was a b l e to d i s c r i m i n a t e

d i f f e r e n c e s among groups . Tha t th e Classroom S ce na r io s

measure d id not r e f l e c t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s does not

n e c e s s a r i l y imply a t e s t weakness, but perhaps more

a c c u r a t e l y th e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s I s e t o f p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s .

4 . A l i m i t a t i o n was the r e l a t i v e l y small s i z e o f th e

sample o f p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s from each o f th e u n i v e r s i t y

t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , Western M ich igan U n i v e r s i t y ( 2 1 ) and

Grand V a l l e y S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ( 1 3 ) , and th e small number o f

i n d i v i d u a l s in each t re a t m e n t group from WMU and GVSU.

P o t e n t i a l l y , the small sample s i z e l i m i t s the s t a b i l i t y o f

th e f i n d i n g s o b ta in e d .

5. A second l i m i t a t i o n in vo lv e d th e d e l i v e r y o f both

S e l f - E f f i c a c y T r a i n i n g (SET) and S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in i n g

Conten t In fo r m a t io n (SST) by th e re s e a r c h e r in vo lv e d in

c o nduc t ing t h i s s tu d y . P o t e n t i a l l y t h i s served as a t h r e a t

to i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y in th e form o f e xp e r im e n ta l b i a s . To

d e te r m in e whet her b ia s was de m onstra ted , each s u b j e c t in


158

t h e SET and SST t r a i n i n g groups e v a l u a t e d th e t r a i n e r ' s

pe rfo rm ance a g a i n s t s e v e r a l s p e c i f i e d c r i t e r i a . A

s t a t i s t i c a l comparison d i d not i n d i c a t e t h a t a d i f f e r e n c e

in d e l i v e r y e x i s t e d between th e two groups .

6 . A t h i r d l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e s tu dy was th e s p e c i f i c

a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e i f - e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g t o p r e s e r v i c e

t e a c h e r s . The t r a i n i n g was deve lo ped f o r use w i t h t h i s

group and w i t h i n t h e c o n te x t o f t e a c h e r p r e p a r a t i o n . W h i le

t h e t r a i n i n g components may g e n e r a l i z e to p r a c t i c i n g

t e a c h e r s , t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n has not been i n v e s t i g a t e d and

v a I i d a t e d .

7 . A f o u r t h l i m i t a t i o n concerned th e t im e and

o p e r a t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s r e l a t e d to t h e SET component.

I n i t i a l l y t h i s t r a i n i n g was des igne d f o r 12 ho urs . In i t s

f i n a l form, however, i t was reduced to s i x ho urs . Both th e

l o g i s t i c s o f th e s i t u a t i o n , e . g . , s u b j e c ts in two

g e o g rap h ic a l l o c a t i o n s , and th e d i f f i c u l t y o f i d e n t i f y i n g a

m u t u a l l y a g r e e a b le t im e p e r io d served t o decrease th e

a c t u a l t im e a v a i l a b l e fo r m aste ry t r a i n i n g . As i t was not

f e a s i b l e f o r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r to e x tend t r a i n i n g t o o n s i t e

p r a c t i c e in th e c lassroom , t r e a t m e n t was r e s t r i c t e d to

s im u la te d p r a c t i c e . In t h i s regard th e t im e c o n s t r a i n t s

d id pose a l i m i t a t i o n as not a l l s u b j e c ts had the

o p p o r t u n i t y to engage in d i r e c t and leng th y p r a c t i c e o f th e

t e a c h e r t r a i n e r r o l e . P o t e n t i a l l y , t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n served


159

t o in f l u e n c e th e outcomes o f th e SET t r e a t m e n t by

p r o h i b i t i n g f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e t r a i n i n g methodo logy .

Cone I us ions

In c o n s i d e r a t io n o f the s t a t e d purpose o f the s tu d y ,

th e hypotheses e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e assumptions and

l i m i t a t i o n s , and th e r e s u l t s o f d a ta c o l l e c t i o n , th e

f o l l o w i n g co n c lu s io n s were drawn:

1. C o n t r a r y t o h y po the s is # 1 , p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s

exposed t o s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g do not dem onst rate more

w i l l i n g n e s s t o i n i t i a t e , expend e f f o r t , and p e r s i s t a t

s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in t h e i r d i r e c t e d te a c h in g assignment

tha n t h e i r c o u n te r p a r t s exposed t o s o c i a l s k i l l s c o n te n t

i n fo r m a t i o n a lo n e . I t appears t h a t expos ur e t o e i t h e r ty p e

o f t r e a t m e n t r e s u i t s in a w i l l i n g n e s s t o engage in s o c i a l

s k i l l t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s in th e c lassroom s e t t i n g .

Bandura 's (1 9 77 ) c o n te n t io n t h a t e f f i c a c y e x p e c tan c ie s a r e

a major d e te r m in a n t o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s c h o ice o f a c t i v i t i e s

was not suppor te d . However, Bandura a ls o acknowledges t h a t

s k i l l competence is an im porta nt e le m ent o f pe r forman ce in

any b e h a v io r a l domain. In th e case o f p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s

who have l i m i t e d e x p e r ie n c e and l i t t l e awareness o f

s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s , s k i I I - b u i Id ing may be s u f f i c i e n t to

i n i t i a l l y m o t i v a t e pe rform ance , as was demonst ra ted w i t h

th e SST group in t h i s s tu dy .


160

2 . In s upport o f hy p o th e s is #2, p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s

who a r e exposed to s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g do de m onstra te

more w i l l i n g n e s s t o i n i t i a t e , expend e f f o r t , and p e r s i s t a t

s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in th e c lassroom c o n te x t than

p r e s e r v i c e p eers who e x p e r ie n c e the s ta ndard u n i v e r s i t y

t r a i n i n g sequence. S u b je c ts invo lved in s e l f - e f f i c a c y

t r a i n i n g were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more a c t i v e in a l l th e

a fo re m e n t io n e d a rea s in th e cla ssroom s e t t i n g . I t must be

no te d , however, t h a t th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu dy suggest t h a t

s e n s i t i z a t i o n t o th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l a rea o f s o c i a l s k i l l

t r a i n i n g a lo n e may be s u f f i c i e n t to g a in s h o r t - t e r m

perform ance from t r a i n e e s . As r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu dy

sugges t, th e ty p e o f t r a i n i n g is les s a f a c t o r than

exposur e t o a p r e v i o u s l y u n f a m i l i a r c o n te n t a r e a .

3 . In sup port o f hy p o th e s is #3, p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s

in p r e p a r a t i o n programs a t d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s i t i e s

dem onstra ted com parable perfo rm an ce in th e classroom

dependent upon the t r e a t m e n t approach to which they were

exposed. Th is suggests t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n s which in c o rp o r a te

s t r u c t u r e d s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in to t h e i r p r e p a r a t i o n

c u r r ic u l u m s have a b e t t e r chance o f prom pting t h i s k in d o f

i n s t r u c t i o n from t h e i r g raduates once they e n te r th e

te a c h in g f i e l d .

4 . Ac co rd ing to r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

o f th e Classroom Sce na r io s measure, i t appears t h a t

p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s a r e f a v o r a b l y pred isposed t o conduct


161

s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g . In terms o f s e l f - r e p o r t , th e y

e xpre ss a b e l i e f in th e impor tance o f s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g

f o r c h i l d r e n and see themselves as implementors o f t h i s

k in d o f i n s t r u c t i o n in th e c la ssroom . In s p i t e o f th e f a c t

t h a t the s e p r o s p e c t i v e te a c h e rs a r e l a r g e l y u n f a m i l i a r w i t h

th e c o n c r e te a spec ts o f s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g , t h e i r b i a s

is a p p a r e n t . Th is f i n d i n g is c o m p a t ib le w i t h c o g n i t i v e

th e o r y which m a in t a i n s t h a t th e c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s o f

i n d i v i d u a l s e n t e r i n g new l e a r n in g s i t u a t i o n s a l r e a d y ho ld a

s t o r e o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n c lu d in g b e l i e f s t h a t may

r e f l e c t n a i v e t e , b i a s , and d i s t o r t i o n ( N e l s s e r , 1 9 6 7 ) . As

s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g f o r c h i l d r e n is a h i g h l y d e f e n s i b l e

p r a c t i c e , i t is not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e rs

suppor t th e e f f i c a c y o f t h i s app roach, even w i t h o u t f u l l

knowledge o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l c h a l l e n g e s in v o lv e d .

5 . R e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu dy suggest t h a t methodology

employed in S e l f - E f f i c a c y T r a in i n g has m e r i t where t r a i n i n g

of i n d i v i d u a l s in new areas o f l e a r n i n g is concerne d.

W h i le th e S e l f - E f f i c a c y T r a in i n g t r e a t m e n t approach d id not

r e s u l t in s i g n i f i c a n t l y more a c t i v e per forman ce from

s u b j e c t s than d id th e S oc ia l S k i l l T r a in i n g Co ntent

I n fo r m a t io n approach, th e SET approach was comparably

e f f e c t i v e in g a in in g d i f f e r e n t i a l b e h a v io r a t th e fo l l o w - u p

phase . In f a c t , as th e d a ta c o l l e c t e d on th e Performance

Measure i l l u s t r a t e d , s u b je c ts in th e SET group were more

w i l l i n g to pe rs e v e re in the fa c e o f o b s ta c l e s than t h e i r


162

c o u n t e r p a r t s In e i t h e r o f th e o th e r t r e a t m e n t groups . F i v e

o f th e 11 members o f th e SET group (45%) p e rse ve re d even

when th e te a c h e r d id not o f f e r s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g as a

formal p a r t o f th e c u r r ic u l u m . in th e SST group o n l y t h r e e

o f 13 (23%) demonst rated t h i s p e r s i s t e n c e . None o f t h e

s u b j e c t s in th e comparison group dem onstra ted such

p e r s e v e r a n c e . Th is f i n d i n g o f f e r e d suppor t f o r B a ndura 's

( 1 9 7 7 , 1982) c o n te n t i o n t h a t per forman ce accom pl ishment and

v i c a r i o u s e x p e r ie n c e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n t i a l sou rces

o f b e h a v i o r , e s p e c i a l l y where s i t u a t i o n a l o b s t a c l e s e x i s t

and p e r s i s t e n c e is r e q u i r e d . I t was o n ly th e SET approach

t h a t u t i l i z e d these s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g s t r a t e g i e s .

I m p l ic a t i o n s and Recommendations

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tudy i n d i c a t e t h a t p r e s e r v i c e

t e a c h e r s can be i n f l u e n c e d , throug h t r a i n i n g , t o pursue

s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in the c la ssroom . Even when

im por ta n t o b s ta c l e s e x i s t , e . g . , th e c lassroom te a c h e r does

no t f o r m a l l y d e l i v e r t h i s ty pe o f i n s t r u c t i o n , t r a i n e e s can

be m o t i v a t e d to pe r fo rm r e l e v a n t a c t i v i t i e s . G iven th e

high lev e l o f i n i t i a t i v e s o c i a l s k i l l i n s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r e s ,

and th e b e l i e f s t r u c t u r e i t s uggests , i t is im p o r ta n t to

r e c o g n iz e t h a t per fo rm an ce can be in f lu e n c e d th rough

d i f f e r e n t i a l t r a i n i n g . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu dy i n d i c a t e

t h a t th e s ta ndard p r e p a r a t i o n program does no t m o t i v a t e


163

e q u a l l y i n i t i a t i v e and p e r s i s t e n t b e h av io r on th e p a r t o f

i t s p r e s e r v i c e te a c h e r s .

The ty p e o f t r a i n i n g u t i l i z e d to g a in pe r fo rm ance in

th e c lassroom may no t be a c e n t r a l issue; i t is p o s s i b l e

t h a t a th r e s h o ld o f expos ur e t o s o c i a l s k i l l i n fo r m a t i o n is

s u f f i c i e n t . However, i t is im porta nt t o note t h a t th e

s e l f - e f f i c a c y model o f t r a i n i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d in t h i s s tudy

ach ie ve d an e q u a l l y succ e ss fu l r a t e o f per fo rm ance by i t s

s u b j e c t s as t h a t produced by th e in fo r m a t i o n , l e c tu r e -b a s e d

approach. The SET approach u t i l i z e d l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s

t h a t have been v a l i d a t e d e m p i r i c a l l y , i . e . , per fo rm an ce

a ccompl ishm ent , v i c a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , and v erba l

pe r s u a s io n . The e x p e r i e n t i a l , hands-on approach to

le a r n i n g which t h i s model promotes sugges ts t h a t even when

f i e l d - b a s e d m a ste ry o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r e not f e a s i b l e ,

i n f l u e n t i a l modes o f l e a r n i n g can s t i l l be o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d ,

an outcome t h a t in cre a se s i t s v e r s a t i l i t y as an

i n s t r u c t i o n a l app roach.

In a d d i t i o n t o s im u la te d , e x p e r i e n t i a l l e a r n i n g , th e

SET approach in c o rp o r a te d a t t e n t i o n to the p r e d i s p o s i t i o n a I

frameworks o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e te a c h e r s . The im porta nce o f

conduc ting t h i s ty p e o f s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t is i n t u i t i v e l y

l o g i c a l . P r o s p e c t i v e te a c h e r s hold many b ia s e s and

e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t may or may not be a c c u r a t e and

p r o d u c t i v e . As Ashton and Webb (1 9 8 6 ) a d v i s e , "When

s tu d e n ts e n t e r a te a c h e r e d u c a t io n program, th e g e n e r a l i t y ,


164

magnitude , and s t r e n g th o f t h e i r sense o f e f f i c a c y in

te a c h in g should be assessed and reassessed i n t e r m i t t e n t l y

as they p a r t i c i p a t e in e xp e r ie n c e s t h a t a r e l i k e l y to

a f f e c t t h e i r sense o f e f f i c a c y " (p . 1 5 3 ) . Th is im p l ie s

t h a t i t is im por ta n t t o address t h i s a spec t o f in d i v i d u a l

fu n c t i o n i n g and t h a t s p e c i f i c a t t e n t i o n can be d i r e c t e d

toward inc re a s in g sense o f e f f i c a c y .

F u r th e r re se arc h in th e a rea o f t e a c h e r s e l f - e f f i c a c y

is c l e a r l y a need, not o n l y as i t a p p l ie s t o s o c i a l s k i l l

t r a i n i n g bu t to te a c h e r p r e s e r v i c e and in s e r v ic e t r a i n i n g

in g e n e r a l . As r e se arc h in t h i s a r e a has l a r g e l y oc curred

in th e c l i n i c a l , th e r a p y s e t t i n g , th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s o c ia l

l e a r n in g t h e o r i e s and c o g n i t i v e psychology p r i n c i p l e s to

th e e d u c a t io n a l s e t t i n g is a broad a rea f o r s tu d y . In t h i s

a r e n a , many q u e s t io n s e x i s t . For exa mple, how can sense o f

e f f i c a c y be measured? Which modes o f i n d u c t io n a r e most

i n f l u e n t i a l in s p e c i f i c l e a r n in g c on te x ts ? How do th e

proposed dimensions o f sense o f e f f i c a c y — s t r e n g t h ,

m agn itude , and genera I i z a b i I i t y — r e l a t e to teacher

performance? Are t h e r e o th e r r e l e v a n t dimensions?

L o n g i t u d i n a l l y , what importance does sense o f e f f i c a c y p la y

in job s a t i s f a c t i o n ?

C l e a r l y , th e s tudy o f in d i v i d u a l s e l f - e f f i c a c y is a

t o p i c t h a t has many f a c e t s . From th e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h i s

r e s e a r c h e r , however, i t is a s u b j e c t worth i n v e s t i g a t i n g ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y i f i t means t h a t te a c h e r s can o p e r a t i o n a l l y


165

become more a d a p t iv e and more In c o n t r o l o f t h e i r own

outcomes.


APPENDICES

166


Appendix A

The S e l f - R e p o r t Measure (Genera l S e l f - E f f i c a c y S c a l e )

167


SELF-REPORT MEASURE

INSTRUCTIONS:

T h is q u e s t io n n a i r e I s a s e r i e s o f s t a t e a e n t s a b o u t you r p e rs o n a l a t t i t u d e s and t r a i t s . E ach s t a t e a e n t r e p r e s e n t s a commonly h e ld b e l i e f . Read e ac h s ta te m e n t and d e c id e to w hat e x t e n t i t d e s c r ib e s you . T h e re a r e no r i | h t o r w rong a n s w e r s . You w i l l p ro b a b ly a g re e w ith some o f th e s ta te m e n t s and d is a g r e e w ith o t h e r s . P l e a s e i n d i c a t e yo u r own p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s a b o u t e ac h s ta te m e n t be low by m a rk in g th e l e t t e r t h a t b e s t d e s c r ib e s y o u r a t t i t u d e o r f e e l i n g . P l e a s e be v e ry c a r e f u l and d e s c r ib e y o u r s e l f a s you r e a l l y a r e , n o t a s you w ould l i k e to b e .

Mark:

A = I f you AGREE STRONGLY w ith th e s t a t e m e n t .B = I f you AGREE MODERATELY w ith th e s ta te m e n t .C = I f you n e i t h e r a g re e n o r d is a g r e e w ith th e s ta te m e n t . D = I f you DISAGREE MODERATELY w ith th e s ta te m e n t .E = I f you DISAGREE STRONGLY w ith th e s ta te m e n t .


169

1. | l i k e to crow ho u se p l a n t s .2 . When I la k e p l a n s , 1 a s c e r t a i n I c an aake th e a w ork.3 . One o f ay p r o b le a s i s t h a t 1 c a n n o t g e t down to w ork when I sh o u ld .4 . I f 1 c a n ' t do a Job th e f i r s t t l a e , I keep t r y in g u n t i l I c a n .5 . H e r e d i ty p la y s th e a a j o r r o l e in d e te r a i n in g o n e 's p e r s o n a l i t y .

6 . I t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r a e t o s a k e new f r i e n d s .7 . When I s e t l a p o r t a n t g o a ls f o r B y s e lf , I r a r e l y a c h ie v e th e n .8 . 1 g iv e up on th in g s b e fo r e c o a p le t ln g th e n .9 . 1 l i k e to cook .

10. I f I s e e so a eo n e I w ould l i k e t o a e e t , 1 go to t h a t p e rso n I n s te a d o f w a i t in g f o r h ln o r h e r t o cone to a e .

11. 1 a v o id f a c in g d i f f i c u l t i e s .12 . I f s o n e th in g lo o k s to o c o n p l i c a t e d , I w i l l n o t even b o th e r to t r y i t .13. T h ere i s sone good in e v e ry b o d y .14. I f 1 a e e t so a e one I n t e r e s t i n g who i s v e ry h a rd t o a ak e f r i e n d s w ith , I

soon s to p t r y i n g to a ak e f r i e n d s w ith t h a t p e rs o n .15. When I have s o c e th in g u n p le a s a n t to do , 1 s t i c k t o i t u n t i l I f i n i s h i t .

16. When 1 d e c id e t o do s o a e th in g , I go r i g h t to work on i t .17. I l i k e s c i e n c e .18. When t r y in g to le a r n s o o e th in g new, I soon g iv e up i f 1 an n o t I n i t i a l l y

s u c c e s s f u l .19. When I 'n t r y in g to b e co a e f r i e n d s w ith soaeone who s e e a s u n in t e r e s t e d a t

f i r s t , I d o n 't g iv e v e ry e a s i l y .20 . When u n e x p e c te d p r o b le a s o c c u r , I d o n 't h a n d le t h e s w e l l .

21 . I f I w ere an a r t i s t , I w ould l i k e to draw c h i ld r e n .22 . I a v o id t r y in g to le a r n new th in g s when th e y look to o d i f f i c u l t f o r a e .23 . F a i l u r e J u s t n a k e s ne t r y h a rd e r .2 4 . I do n o t h a n d le a y s e l f w e ll in s o c i a l g a th e r in g s .2 5 . 1 v e ry nuch l i k e to r i d e h o r s e s .

26 . I f e e l in s e c u r e a b o u t ay a b i l i t y to do th in g s .27 . I a a a s e l f - r e l i a n t p e rs o n .2 8 . I h a v e a c q u i r e d ay f r i e n d s th ro u g h ay p e rso n a l a b i l i t i e s a t Baking

f r i e n d s .2 9 . 1 g iv e up e a s i l y .30 . I do n o t se en c a p a b le o f d e a l in g w ith a o s t p r o b le a s t h a t cone up in ay

l i f e .


Appendix B

Response from D r . A l b e r t Bandura: Conten t V a l i d i t y o f S e l f - E f f i c a c y T r a in i n g


171

S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y . S t a n f o r d . C a l i f o r n i a ©4303

ALHF.RT BANDfRA David Stark -Iordan P rofessor oi- Son.M. Science in Psychoi.oc.y B fii.msi! -»ao. ..Iordan Hall

January 5 .1988

Ms. Linda M iller Department o f Special Education Western Michigan University Kalamazoo. M l 49008-3899

Dear Ms. M iller

Your letter arrived while I w as away on sabbatical leave. Because of the large volume of correspondence that has accumulated, my comments will have to be brief.

Self-efficacy beliefs can be induced in principal ways: (1) mastery performance experiences. (2) modeling, (3) social persuasion, and (4) modification of physiological states.

The most powerful way o f enhancing self-efficacy beliefs is by modeling the relevant skills, providing guided practice under simulated conditions to perfect the skills, followed by a transfer program designed to provide succession applying the newly acquired skills under natural conditions.

Your efficacy training program seems to rely heavily on the verbal persuasion mode, especially Ellis' ABC model. Such verbal approaches alone often have weak effects on perceived self-efficacy. See the study by B iran & Watson, Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psy chology, 1981.886- 899, demonstrating the greater pow er o f mastery modeling. In short, your self-efficacy training may have a weak im pact on self-efficacy because it relies on a relatively weak mode o f efficacy induction.

Since the efficacy training program also has some elements of social skill training, critics would argue that your treatment conditions are confounded. You will do better to compare social skill training alone against social skill training combined with cognitive procedures designed to enhance self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy theory prescribes that efficacy measures be used that are tailored to the domain o f functioning being studied (i.e., social skills training). The Sherer and Maddux scale is probably too insensitive to reveal differences. See page 397 in the book described in the enclosed flier for a discussion o f this issue.

I hope these comments have been helpful.

Sincerely.

Albert Bandura


Appendix C

Classroom Sce na r io s Measure


173

CLASSROOH SCENARIOS

I n s t r u c t i o n s ?

T h is q u e s t io n n a i r e i s a s e r i e s o f s i t u a t i o n s r e g a rd in g s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g (S S T ). Each i t e a r e p r e s e n t s p o s s ib l e b e h a v io r by a f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r in th e c l a s s r o o o s e t t i n g . Read e ac h s ta te m e n t and d e c id e t o w hat e x t e n t you a g re e w ith th e b e h a v io r d e s c r ib e d in th e s i t u a t i o n . You w i l l p ro b a b ly a g re e w ith some o f th e s ta te m e n t s and d is a g r e e w ith o t h e r s . P le a s e i n d i c a t e y o u r own p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s a b o u t e ac h s i t u a t i o n below by m ark ing th e l e t t e r t h a t b e s t d e s c r ib e s y o u r o p in io n . P l e a s e be v e ry t r u t h f u l a n d d e s c r ib e y o u r o p in io n a s i t e x i s t s now, e v en th o u g h you a r e n o t a te a c h e r y e t .

H ark :

A = I f you AGREE STRONGLY w ith th e b e h a v io r B = I f you AGREE MODERATELY w ith th e b e h a v io r C = I f you n e i t h e r a g re e n o r d is a g r e e w ith th e b e h a v io r D = I f you DISAGREE MODERATELY w ith th e b e h a v io r E = I f you DISAGREE STRONGLY w ith th e b e h a v io r


174

1 . In a d i s c u s s io n w ith th e te a c h e r c o n s u l t a n t , th e new te a c h e r e x p re s s e s b e l i e f t h a t s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n k id s need l o t s of lo v e and a t t e n t i o n . The TC a n s w e rs , "Y es, b u t i t ' s J u s t a s n e c e s s a r y to have a good s y s te o o f b e h a v i o r m anagem en t." The new te a c h e r d e c id e s to se e th e k id s f i r s t and g e t a " f e e l " f o r them b e fo r e com ing up w ith t i g h t r u l e s and r e g u la t io n s .

2 . In h e r new te a c h in g s i t u a t i o n , th e f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r t h in k s s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g sh o u ld be p a r t o f he r i n s t r u c t i o n . The p r e v io u s t e a c h e r b e l ie v e d k id s need e d b a s ic a c a d em ic s and a good sy ste m of b e h a v io r m anagem ent. N e v e r th e le s s th e new te a c h e r p la n s t o make s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g p a r t o f h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s t a r t i n g se co n d s e m e s te r .

3 . S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g (SST) in v o lv e s te a c h in g k id s i n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d /o r p r o b le m -s o lv in g s k i l l s . The f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r b e l i e v e s he may n o t have th e s k i l l to do t h i s w e ll and d o e s n 't w ant to make th e e x p e r ie n c e a bad one f o r h i s k id s . H is te a c h e r c o n s u l t a n t s a y s , "B u t you le a r n by tr y in g and m aking m is ta k e s " . The f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r s t i l l d e c id e s to p o s tp o n e SST u n t i l much l a t e r when he i s more e x p e r ie n c e d w ith te a c h in g .

4 . In t a l k i n g a b o u t h e r c u r r ic u lu m , th e f i r s t y e a r t e a c h e r e x p re s s e s b e l i e f t h a t SST i s v a lu a b le i n s t r u c t i o n f o r k id s . The p r in c i p a l t h in k s th e r e i s l i t t l e v a lu e in SST and t i n e s h o u ld n ' t be ta k e n away from a r e a s l ik e r e a d in g and m ath . The f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r t r i e s to c o n v in ce h e r p r in c i p a l t o l e t h e r t r y i t .

5 . When p la n n in g f o r a f i e l d t r i p , th e new te a c h e r b e l i e v e s t h a t c l e a r c u t c o n se q u e n c e s sh o u ld be s e t in adv an c e f o r th e k id s who m isb eh a v e . B u t, th e o th e r te a c h e r t h in k s t h i s i s u n n e c e s s a r y . The k id s w i l l be g r e a t ! T h e y 'r e n o t in s c h o o l a f t e r a l l . The new te a c h e r c h o o ses to s e t r u l e s anyway.

6 . T h ere a r e few , u p d a te d s o c i a l s k i l l m a te r i a l s in th e c la s s ro o m f o r th e new te a c h e r t o u se , so he goes to th e d i s t r i c t ' s m edia c e n t e r . D isc o v e r in g th e r e i s n o th in g a p p r o p r i a t e , he s t i l l b e l ie v e s he c an te a c h w ith whathe has u n t i l he g e ts b e t t e r m a t e r i a l s . A f e l lo w t e a c h e r b e l i e v e s th a t good m a t e r i a l s a re e s s e n t i a l f o r good te a c h in g . H ow ever, th e new te a c h e r d e c id e s to u se h i s c o l l e c t i o n of m a te r i a l s and b e g in some s o c i a l s k i l l i n s t r u c t i o n .

7. One of th e s tu d e n ts a sk s to b r in g in c u p ca k es f o r ev e ry o n e in c l a s s fo r h i s b i r t h d a y . A n o the r te a c h e r sa y s t h a t a " su g a r f i x " may le a d to bad b e h a v io r . The new te a c h e r b e l ie v e s th e o p p o r tu n i ty to s h a re i s w orth th e r i s k . The new te a c h e r p e rm i ts th e s tu d e n t to b r in g in t r e a t s .

8 . S e e in g h e r c la s s ro o m budge o f *350, th e f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r b e l ie v e s t h a t *50 f o r an SST package i s d e f i n i t e l y w o rth th e e x p e n se . A no the r f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r b e l ie v e s t h a t money s p e n t f o r good aca d em ic m a te r i a l s sh o u ld be th e p r i o r i t y . The f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r goes ah ea d w ith h e r o r d e r anyway.

9 . In a d i s c u s s io n o f c u r r i c u l a , th e f i r s t y e a r t e a c h e r e x p re s s e s b e l i e f t h a t SST i s n ' t w o rth d o in g i f i t ' s n o t r e q u i r e d . The o th e r s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n te a c h e r th in k s t h a t even though SST i s a v o lu n ta r y o f f e r i n g , i t has p o s i t i v e p a y o f f s . S t i l l , th e new te a c h e r d e c id e s to c o n c e n t r a t e more on h is b e h a v io r management sy s te m .


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10. H aving found some s o c i a l s k i l l p rogram m a t e r i a l s , th e new te a c h e r b e l i e v e s t h a t c o n s id e r a b le a d a p ta t i o n and p ie c e m e a lin g from th e d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s w i l l be n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i r u se w ith h is k id s . The e x p e r ie n c e d te a c h e r n e x t doo r s a y s , " I n th e s o c i a l s k i l l a r e a , a d a p ta t i o n i s an a b s o lu te n e c e s s i t y . " The new t e a c h e r d e c id e s t o do so m e th in g e l s e .

11. Knowing t h a t she has s ix k id s in h e r c la s s ro o m , th e f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r d o e s n o t b e l ie v e s h e ' l l be a b l e to manage them in a g ro u p SST s i t u a t i o n . The o th e r s p e c ia l e d u c a t io n te a c h e r e x p re s s e s b e l i e f t h a t a t e a c h e r i s w a s t in g a v a lu a b le te a c h in g o p p o r tu n i ty i f sh e d o e s n 't u se g ro u p s . The new t e a c h e r s t i l l d e c id e s to p o s tp o n e SST u n t i l n e x t y e a r when s h e 's b e t t e r a b le to manage th e b e h a v io r o f k id s in g ro u p s .

12. When h e r s tu d e n ts m isb eh a v e , th e new te a c h e r b e l i e v e s a w a rn in g , a t im e o u t , and th e n r e tu r n to th e g roup a r e good d i s c i p l i n a r y p r o c e d u re s . The o th e r te a c h e r b e l i e v e s a d i s c u s s io n of " b e h a v io r o p t io n s " sh o u ld a lw ay sbe p a r t o f th e r o u t i n e . The new t e a c h e r w o r r ie s t h i s i s to o tim e consum ing and c h o o se s to s t i c k t o h e r b e h a v io r management p r a c t i c e s .

13. T h ere a re th r e e boys who o b v io u s ly a r e g o ing to be b ig p ro b lem s d u r in g th e y e a r . The f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r b e l i e v e s he w o u ld n 't be a b l e to manage th e s e bo y s i f he t r i e s SST. The o th e r te a c h e r s a y s , "Then th e y r e a l l y need t h i s k in d o f i n s t r u c t i o n " . E u t, th e f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r d e c id e s to sa v e SST u n t i l l a t e r when th e boys have g a in e d a b i t more s e l f - c o n t r o l .

14. In th e r e s o u r c e room, th e s tu d e n t s in th e c l a s s a sk to have a f r e e day .The new te a c h e r th in k s t h i s i s a good rew ard and c o u ld m o tiv a te le a r n in g l a t e r . The o th e r s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n t e a c h e r th in k s i t i s to o u n s t r u c tu r e d f o r k id s to h a n d le . The new t e a c h e r d e c id e s t o t r y i t anyw ay.

15. V o lu n ta ry s t a f f i n s e r v i c e r e l a t e d to SST i s p la n n e d l a t e r in th e m onth.The f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r th in k s t h i s c o u ld be a v a lu a b le tim e to c a tc h up on r e p o r t s home to p a r e n ts sh e b e l i e v e s a re long u v e rd u e . A no the r t e a c h e r b e l i e v e s th e ch an c e to le a r n more a b o u t SST s h o u ld n o t be w a s te d . The new t e a c h e r e l e c t s to u se th e tim e to w r i te th e r e p o r t s .

16. A f t e r w ork ing w ith h e r s t u d e n t s f o r o n ly a s h o r t tim e , th e new te a c h e rc o o es to b e l ie v e t h a t a s s e s s in g th e s o c i a l s k i l l s n e ed s o f h e r s t u d e n t si s a b ig jo b . Her te a c h e r c o n s u l t a n t s a y s th e tim e i t ta k e s i s r e a l l y w o rth th e e f f o r t in th e long r u n . S t i l l , th e new te a c h e r c h o o se s to c o n c e n t r a t e more on a s s e s s in g aca d em ic s k i l l s .

17. A f t e r lo o k in g a t a s o c i a l s k i l l s c u r r ic u lu m , th e f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r s e e s t h a t I t w i l l r e q u i r e u se of many p ro c e d u re s ( l i k e d i s c u s s io n , m o d e lin g , r o l e p la y , and c o r r e c t i v e f e e d b a c k ) . He b e l ie v e s th e s e s te p s sh o u ld be e f f e c t i v e . A nother t e a c h e r th in k s k id s t r e a t th e s e a c t i v i t i e s to o much l i k e p ia y tim e and th e y d o n 't a p p ly u h a t th e y le a r n in r e a l l i f e . The new t e a c h e r d e c id e s to go a h ead w ith SST w hich u s e s th e s e p r o c e d u re s anyw ay.

1£. In an d is c u s s io n w ith h e r c o o r d in a to r , th e f i r s t y e a r te a c h e r s a y s sheb e l i e v e s she i s a v e ry good r o l e model fo r h e r k id s in th e a re a o f s o c i a l s k i l l s . However, th e c o o r d in a to r s a y s , "you have good p e rs o n a l q u a l i t i e s , b u t s t i l l a g r e a t d e a l to le a r n t o be c o n s i s t e n t a s a m o d e l" . N e v e r th e l e s s , th e new te a c h e r d e c id e s to b e g in s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g anyway.


Appendix D

S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in i n g Knowledge In v e n to ry

176


177

SOCIAL SKILL TRAINING KNOWLEDGE INVENTORY

DIRECTIONS: CIRCLE THE LETTER OF THE. HOST APPROPRIATE ANSWER.

1 . S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g I s p rom o ted f o r u s e w ith h a n d ic a p p e d c h i ld r e n and y o u th b e c a u s e :a . They a l l have a ne ed to le a r n a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r a c t i o n s w ith o th e r sb . I t i s t y p i c a l l y recom m ended in t h e I n d iv id u a l i z e d E d u c a t io n P la n <IE P )c . I t i s a s y s t e m a t i c a p p ro a c h to te a c h in g a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n sd . B e h a v io r m anagem ent s t r a t e g i e s a r e n o t e f f e c t i v e w i th o u t t h i s s u p p o r te . P a r e n t s a r e i n s i s t i n g more and m ore on t h i s ty p e o f c u r r i c u l a

2 . T y p ic a l l y , th e tw o a r e a s m ost o f t e n a d d re s s e d by s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g c u r r i c u l a a r e :a . L i s t e n in g and r e s p o n d in gb . I n t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s and p rob lem s o lv in gc . R e c o g n iz in g f e e l i n g s and a p p r o p r i a t e l y e x p r e s s in g themd. D e c is io n m aking and tim e m anagem ente . P e r s o n a l a d ju s tm e n t and goa l s e t t i n g

3 . The o r d e r o f s t e p s g e n e r a l l y recom m ended f o r c o n d u c tin g s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n in g a r e :

a . M o d e lin g , r e h e a r s a l , r o l e p la y , d i s c u s s i o n , and fe e d b a c kb . D is c u s s io n , m o d e lin g , r e h e a r s a l , r o l e p la y , and fe e d b a c kc . M o d e lin g , r e h e a r s a l , d i s c u s s i o n , r o l e p la y , and fe e d b a c kd . Any o f th e a b ove s e q u e n c e s a r e a p p r o p r i a t ee . None o f th e a b o v e s e q u e n c e s a r e a d v is e d

A. The " s k i l l a p p ro a c h ” and th e " s i t u a t i o n - s p e c i f i c " a p p ro a c h to te a c h in g s o c i a l s k i 1 I s a r e :

a . A p p ro a ch e s w hich a r e b e t t e r s u i t e d to s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n s tu d e n t sb . A pp ro a ch e s w hich work b e t t e r f o r o ld e r c h i l d r e nc . T y p ic a l a p p ro a c h e s to th e d e l iv e r y o f s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n gd . A p p ro a ch e s w h ich u se d i f f e r e n t t r a i n i n g s e q u e n c e s and p ro c e d u re se . S m oo th ly i n t e g r a t e d in m ost s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g p rog ram s

5. A c c o rd in g to r e s e a r c h e r s , an im p o r ta n t com ponent o f s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n gw h ich i s to o o f t e n a b s e n t from t r a i n i n g p a c k a g e s i s :a . T e a c h e r i n s t r u c t i o n sb . A w areness p r o c e d u re sc . P r a c t i c e s t r a t e g i e sd . A p p l ic a t i o n e x e r c i s e se . S u f f i c i e n t m a t e r i a l s f o r la r g e g ro u p s

6 . The need f o r a d a p t a t i o n o f s o c i a l s k i l l c u r r i c u l a FIRST r e q u i r e s a t e a c h e rto :a . Look f o r b e t t e r , more a p p r o p r i a t e m a te r i a l sb . Employ a p r o b le m -s o lv in g s t r a t e g yc . R e c o n s id e r th e f e a s i b i l i t y of t e a c h in g s o c i a l s k i l l sd. Im prove th e b e h a v io r m anagem ent sy ste me . Seek h e lp from th e p r i n c i p a l o r s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n s u p p o r t p e rso n


178

7 . An exam ple o f a b e g in n in g le v e l s o c i a l s k i l l i s :a . A sk ing f o r h e lpb . R esp o n d in g to t e a s i n gc . D e a lin g w ith e m b a rra s sm e n td . D e a lin g w ith g ro u p p r e s s u r ee . H aving a c o n v e r s a t i o n

8 . A sse ssm e n t o f s o c i a l s k i l l n e e d s i s m ost commonly done by t h r e e m e th o d s , t e a c h e r r a t i n g s , s o c io m e t r l c a s s e s s m e n t , anda . P a r e n t r a t i n g sb . P r o j e c t i v e t e s t s l i k e th e R o rsc h ac hc . D i r e c t o b s e r v a t io nd . S e l f - r e p o r t by s tu d e n t se . Review of a c c u m u la te d sc h o o l f i l e s

9 . To c o n d u c t s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g e f f e c t i v e l y in th e c la s s ro o m , w h ich o f th e f o l lo w in g te a c h e r b e h a v io r s i s NOT a n e c e s s a r y p r e - c o n d i t i o n ?a . Good r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith s tu d e n t sb . C lass ro o m m anagem ent s k i l l sc . A s u p p o r t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith p a r e n t sd . K now ledge and u se o f b e h a v io r m o d if ic a t io n p r i n c i p l e se . A b i l i t y to p a ce m a t e r i a l s

10. S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g d i f f e r s from b e h a v io r m anagem ent s y s te m s in one im p o r ta n t r e s p e c t :a . I t in v o lv e s s t e p - b y - s t e p i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e d u re sb . I t r e q u i r e s a sm a ll g ro u p of s tu d e n t sc . I t t a k e s m ore tim e to im p lem en t and m o n ito rd . I t i s more l i k e l y to r e s u l t in p o s i t i v e b e h a v io re . I t d o e s n o t r e q u i r e th e u se o f r e in f o r c e m e n t and c o n se q u e n c e s

11. U hich o f th e f o l lo w in g i s a c om m erc ia l c u r r i c u l a a v a i l a b l e f o r te a c h in g s o c i a l s k i l l s to c h i l d r e n o r a d o le s c e n t s ?a . G row ing Upb . S o c ia l C o n se q u e n ce sc . M aking B e t t e r D e c is io n sd . S u c c e s s f u l M a in s tre a m in ge . I t ' s Your C h o ice

12. C i rc u m s ta n c e s e x i s t i n g in th e s c h o o l s e t t i n g w h ich e i t h e r p rom o te o r d is c o u r a g e th e u s e o f s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g a r e known a s :a . C o n se q u e n ce sb . C o r r e c t iv e f e e d b a c kc . S i t u a t i o n a l v a r i s o l e sd . O b s ta c le se . Time c o n s t r a i n t s

13. U hich o f th e f o l lo w in g i s NOT a c om m erc ia l in s t ru m e n t u se d f o r a s s e s s i n g th e s o c i a l s k i l l s o f c h i l d r e n :a . V in e la n d S o c ia l M a tu r i ty S c a leb . Q u a y -P e te rs o n B e h a v io r P rob lem Check L is tc . C ooper S e l f - R e p o r t B e h a v io r S c a le sd . U a lk e r P rob lem B e h a v io r I d e n t i f i c a t i o n Check L i s te . B e h a v io r E v a l u a t i o n S c a le


179

14. G r e e t in g , a s k in g a q u e s t io n , c o o p e r a t i n g , c o m p lim e n tin g o t h e r s , s a y in g th a n k you , and a p o lo g iz i n g a r e a l l ex am p le s o f :a . A dvanced le v e l s o c i a l s k i l l sb . S k i l l s found in s o c i a l s k i l l c u r r i c u l ac . S k i l l s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r a d o le s c e n t sd . P roblem s o lv i n g s k i l l se . S k i l l a r e a s i n w h ich th e h a n d ic a p p e d a r e d e f i c i e n t

15. A cc o rd in g to r e s e a r c h , w h ich o f th e f o l lo w in g MUST accom pany a w e l l - d e s ig n e d s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g c u rr ic u lu m ?a . P a r e n t s u p p o r tb . A m in im in le v e l o f b a s i c r e a d in g s k i l l s on th e p a r t o f s t u d e n t sc . A d m in is t r a t iv e s u p p o r t from th e s c h o o l p r i n c i p a ld . I n s t r u c t i o n by an i n d iv i d u a l w ith good t e a c h in g s k i l l se . M a te r ia l s s p e c i a l l y d e v e lo p e d f o r th e h a n d ica p p ed

16. C o n tin g e n c y c o n t r a c t s , homework a s s ig n m e n ts , and games a r e s t r a t e g i e s u se d in th e ______________ p h a se o f a s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m .a . a p p l i c a t i o nb . p r a c t i c ec . a w a re n es sd . b e g in n in ge . f i n a l

17. U n lik e o th e r i n s t r u c t i o n a l a r e a s , s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g i s d i f f i c u l t f o r many t e a c h e r s to a c c e p t and a d o p t b e c a u sea . The m a te r i a l s may r e q u i r e a d a p ta t i o nb . I t may n o t be r e c o g n iz e d a s a l e g i t i m a t e a c h ie v e m e n t a r e ac . S tu d e n ts o f t e n have d i f f e r e n t s k i l l l e v e l sd . P a r e n ts a r e n o t s u p p o r t i v e o f t h i s a p p ro a c he . S tu d e n ts a r e n o t a c c e p t in g o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n

18. A t e a c h e r w is h in g to c o n d u c t s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g f o r m i ld ly E l , LD, and EMI s tu d e n ts w i l l c o n f r o n t w h ich o f th e fo l lo w in g o b s t a c l e s ?a . I n a b i l i t y o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s to work in g ro u p sb . G re a t e r need o f th e s tu d e n t s f o r a c a d e m ic a l ly - o r i e n t e d i n s t r u c t i o nc . L arge c l a s s s i z e sd . Below a v e ra g e i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e se . D i s i n t e r e s t by th e s t u d e n t s

19. S o c io m e tr lc a s s e s s m e n t r e q u i r e s th e te a c h e r to :a . O bserve s tu d e n t b e h a v io r a s i t o c c u r s n a t u r a l l y in th e c la s s ro o mb. D eve lop in fo rm a l c h e c k l i s t sc . O b ta in in fo rm a l s e l f - r e p o r t s from s tu d e n tsd . Time sam ple a p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t ye . M easure th e g ro u p in g p a t t e r n s of s tu d e n t s

20 . U h in ln g , c h a l le n g in g th e t e a c h e r , r e f u s in g , la u g h in g , u n e x c u se d a b s e n c e , and d e l i b e r a t e l y m ls re s p o n d in g a l l a r e :a . E xam ples o f p o s s i b l e s tu d e n t r e s p o n s e s to s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n gb . B e h a v io rs w hich w i l l o c c u r w ith y o u n g s te r s who a r e e m o t io n a l ly im p a ire dc . B e h a v io rs w hich w i l l n o t o c c u r w ith s tu d e n t s who a r e l e a r n in g d i s a b l e dd . Problem s i t u a t i o n s s p e c i f i c to s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n ge . R easons to d i s c o n t in u e s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g


Appendix E

The Per fo rmanc e Measure


THE PERFORMANCE MEASURE

A. INITIATIVE - "TAKING THE FIRST STEP OR MOVE"! DEMONSTRATIONS OF INITIATIVE UILL INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

1 . ASKS s u p e r v i s in g te a c h e r i f SST i s c o n d u c te d in th e c la s s r o o o .

2 . ASKS s u p e rv i s in g te a c h e r i f SST i s c o n d u c te d by a te a c h e r o r o th e r p r o f e s s io n a l in th e b u i I d ln g .

3 . ASKS TO CONDUCT a SST le s s o n ( u s in g th e le s s o n p r o v id e d in th e t r a i n i n g p a c k e t)

4 . ASKS TO CONDUCT a SST le s s o n ( u s in g le s s o n ( s ) p r o v id e d by th e t e a c h e r ) .

B. EFFORT EXPENDED - "EFFORT SPENT OR USED UP"; DEMONSTRATIONS OF EFFORT EXPENDED UILL INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

5 . SHOWS p r e p a re d le s s o n s o b ta in e d from t r a i n i n g Y N___to th e s u p e r v i s in g te a c h e r .

OR

6 . OBTAINS le s s o n s u se d by th e s u p e r v i s in g Y____ N_____t e a c h e r in ong o in g c la s s r o o o in s t r u c t i o n

7 . PURCHASES s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g n a t e r i a l s Y____ N_____(H aking B e t t e r C h o ic e s , S k i 11 s tr e a m in g ,o r o th e r )

8 . DELIVERS a SST le s s o n ( s ) u se d by th e c l a s s - ________ Y____ N_____ro o o te a c h e r in ong o in g c la s s r o o oin s t r u c t i o n

C. PERSISTENCE-"TO REFUSE TO GIVE UP, ESPECIALLY WHEN FACED WITH OPPOSITION";DEMONSTRATIONS OF PERSISTENCE UILL INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

9 . OBSERVES a n o th e r te a c h e r in th e b u i ld i n g o r Y_____ N_____r e l a t e d p rog ram , i f SST i s n o t c o n d u c te d in th e s u p e r v i s in g t e a c h e r 's c la s s ro o m

10. DELIVERS a SST l e s s o n ( s ) from a a t e r l a l s p ro - Y_____ N_____v id e d In th e t r a i n i n g p a ck a g e , even though SST i s n o t c o n d u c te d by th e s u p e r v i s in g te a c h e r a s p a r t o f ongo ing in s t r u c t i o n


Appendix F

The S e l f - E f f i c a c y T r a in i n g Program


183

.Unit 41: Identifying the Self-Schemata.

(1 ) I n t r o d u c t io n

a . S u rvey th e c l a s s t o d e te r m in e who h a s o b se rv e d an a c tu a l d e m o n s tr a t i o n o f s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in th e c la s s ro o m .

b . C onduct a " d ra w in g e x e r c i s e " t o make th e p o in t t h a t we n e ed t o s t a r t w ith a common fra m e o f r e f e r e n c e . ( I n s t r u c t e ac h p a r t i c i p a n t t o draw a p e r s o n ; com pare t h e d i v e r s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . )

(2) V id e o ta p e ex am p le o f a s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g l e s s o n .

F o r th o s e o f you who h a v e n 't p a r t i c i p a t e d in SST o r s e e n a t e a c h e r d e l i v e r SST le s s o n s , i t seem s w o rth w h i le t o s e e an a c tu a l d e m o n s tr a t i o n o f w hat t h i s k in d o f i n s t r u c t i o n i s l i k e . In th e v id e o I am a b o u t t o show y ou , a t e a c h e r , C indy G re en , i s d e l i v e r i n g a re v ie w le s s o n f o r h e r s i x s t u d e n t s . C indy i s in h e r l a t e 2 0 's ; h e r s t u c e n t s a r s i d e n t i f i e d a s EMI p r i m a r i l y , a l th o u g h s h e h a s TMI s tu d e n t s a l s o . (Show 10 m in u te s o f t h i s v id e o ta p e . )

(3) I d e n t i f y i n g t h e s e l f - s c h e m a ta

H aving s e e n t h i s v id e o ta p e d e m o n s tr a t i o n , i t i s im p o r ta n t t o g e t some id e a o f th e a t t i t u d e s , b e l i e f s , and o p in io n s you ha v e a b o u t t h i s k in d o f t r a i n i n g f o r k id s . S o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g d o e s r e p r e s e n t a d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n on th e p a r t o f th e te a c h e r and f o r you a s p r o s p e c t iv e t e a c h e r s i t i s w o rth c o n s id e r in g th e p e r c e p t i o n s you h a v e a b o u t t h i s a p p ro a ch b e f o r e you h a v e t o ta k e t n a t b ig s te F in to t h e c la s s ro o m .

Utilizing the schemata worksheet

(a) In s t r u c t io n s - I am h a n d in g o u t a s h e e t o f p a p e r t o e ac h o f you w hich h a s a c o n f ig u r a t io n o f f o u r b o x e s ( d i s t r i b u t e h a n d o u t ) . In e ac h o f th e b o x e s on t h i s p a g e I w ould l i k e you to w r i t e c u t a- an a t t i t u d e , b) a b e l i e f , o r c ) an o p in io n you h o ld a b o u t th e s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g a p p ro a c h to w ork ing w ith k id s , b a se d on w hat you h ave s e e n to d a y and w hat you may h a v e a l r e a d y re a d o r e x p e r ie n c e d . The m ore h o n e s t you can be a b o u t y o u r p e r c e p t i o n s , th e b e t t e r i t w i l l be a s fe e d b a c k t o y o u r s e l f . D o n 't w orry a b o u t m aking y o u r s t a t e m e n t s t o od e t a i l e d — b u t do t r y t o c a p tu r e y o u r th o u g h t c o m p le t e ly e n o u g h .

For e xsn p le , som eone m ig h t th in k :

- T h is means w o rk in g w ith k id s in a group and t h a t ' s to u g h .

- I th in k i t ' s g r e a t b u t maytje i t t a k e s an e x p e r ie n c e d te a c h e r to c a r r y i t o f fw e l l . (Check f u r t h e r f o r u n d e r s t a n d in g .)

(b) When a l l i n d i v i d u a l s ha v e co m p le ted th e a s s ig n m e n t . . . s e e k in d iv i d u a l r e s p o n s e s , how ever e n c o u ra g e o th e r g roup members to p a r t i c i p a t e r e g a rd in g t h e i r a g re e m e n t o r d i s a g r e e m e n t w ith th e o p in io n s e x p r e s s e d .


184

_____________________ U n it # 2 : O b je c t i f y in g th e S e lf - S c h e m a ta _______________________

(1) Now, I w ould l i k e t o lo o k a t som e o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s in a l i t t l e more d e t a i l and e x p lo r e t h e s o u r c e s o f y o u r know ledge a l i t t l e more f u l l y .

(a) ( S e l e c t one i n d iv i d u a l who h a s p r e s e n te d a f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d b e l i e f : ) E x am p les: - S tu d e n t i n t e r e s t may b e h a rd t o h o ld .

-B e h a v io r p ro b le m s by s t u d e n t s w i l l make SST h a rd t o d o . -G ro u p s a r e h a rd t o work w i th .

(b) U t i l i z i n g th e f o l lo w in g t o p i c q u e s t io n s d i s c u s s s t r o n g ly h e ld p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t iv e b e l i e f s e x p re s s e d by th e i n d iv i d u a l s e l e c t e d a b o v e .

WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF YOUR KNOWLEDGE?

IS YOUR BELIEF SUPPORTED BY WHAT YOU CURRENTLY KNOW?

IS THERE CONTRARY INFORMATION?

. WHAT ELSE DO YOU NEED TO KNOW TO PROVIDE A STRONGER BASE FOR POSITIVE BELIEFS ABOUT SST?

(c) (When t h i s e x e r c i s e i s c o m p le te d ) What i s t h e v a lu e o f lo o k in g a t b e l i e f s in t h i s way? What h a v e we g a in e d by “d i s s e c t i n g " w hat t h i s p e r s o n th in k s ?

( d . l . ) D e s i re d r e s p o n s e s :- I t h e lp s t o know why s h e t h in k s th e way s h e d o e s- I s th e r e a so u n d b a s i s f o r h e r t h in k i n g ?-We b e l i e v e w hat we w an t to b e l i e v e -W hat we th in k CAN b e c h anged

(2) A cc o rd in g to some v e ry p ro m in e n t t h e o r i s t s , i f we d o n 't look a t o u r b e l i e f s , and t r y to d e f i n e w hat th e y a r e , how th e y came to b e , and w h e th e r th e y a r e p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t iv e , we h a v e n e g le c t e d c o n s id e r a t i o n o f a v e ry im p o r ta n t in f lu e n c e on o u r b e h a v io r . How c an b e l i e f s in f lu e n c e o u r b e h a v io r ? L e t me g iv e you a s i t u a t i o n to c o n s id e r . (U se th e b o a rd — b e g in a t th e l e f t end to show th e A-B-C model ( E l l i s ' s R a t io n a l E m otive T h era p y a p p ro a c h )

I w i l l b e g in h e re a t (A ). W e 'l l c a l l t h i s t h e A c t iv a t i n g E x p e r ie n c e .

At (A)— We h a v e a new t e a c h e r who i s h a v in g r e a l t r o u b l e m a in ta in in g c o n t r o lo f h e r s t u d e n t s when s h e d e l i v e r s a s o c i a l s k i l l l e s s o n . The k id sa r e up and dawn and h a rd t o m anage.

At <C), w hich we s h a l l c a l l C o n se q u e n ce s t h i s i s w hat h a p p e n s : The t e a c h e r b e l i e v e s s h e i s a f a i l u r e and f e e l s h e l p l e s s ana u n s k i l l e d .

Too o f t e n , p e o p le go d i r e c t ' l y from (A) to (C ) , p e r c e iv i n g t h a t t h e a c t i v a t i n ge x p e r ie n c e i t s e l f i s th e c a u s e o f t h e i r b e h a v io r , o r th e c o n se q u e n c e . We don o t c o n s c io u s ly t h in k a b o u t w hat m ig h t be in f lu e n c in g o u r b e h a v io r , w hat I w i l l c a l l (B) o r b e l i e f .


185

B u t, a lo n g tim e a g o , a G reek p h i lo s o p h e r s a i d , " P e o p le a r e n o t d i s t u r b e d by t h in g s (A ), b u t by th e v ie w s w hich th e y t a k e o f th e m " . S o , I w ould s u g g e s t to you t h a t t h i s i s w hat m ig h t b e h a p p e n in g :

At (B) a B e l i e f t h a t m ig h t be a t work f o r t h i s p e r s o n i s A good t e a c h e rs h o u ld b e a b l e t o m a in ta in c o n t r o l o f s t u d e n t s a t a l l t im e s . I f I was a good t e a c h e r , I w ould d e m o n s tr a te t h i s k in d o f c o m p e te n ce .

( I n i t i a t e some d i s c u s s io n a b o u t th e f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h i s l o g i c . )

I n s t e a d o f th e (B) I h a v e p r o p o se d to you h e r e , w hat i f t h i s t e a c h e r 's b e l i e f w as: L ik e e v e r y o t h e r k in d o f i n s t r u c t i o n , so m e tim es s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g w i l l b e to u g h to m anage. S o . . .a l t h o u g h I d o n ' t w ant t o f a i l i n t e n t i o n a l l y , i f i t h a p p e n s som ew here a lo n g th e l i n e , i t d o e s n 't mean I am a t o t a l f a i l u r e .

What m ig h t be th e (C) (C onsequence) f o r t h i s p e r s o n ?(Ask e v e ry o n e to w r i t e a r e s p o n s e . )

D e s i re d r e s p o n s e : (C )— The t e a c h e r i s d i s a p p o in t e d in th e r e s u l t s and th in k s a b o u t how to do b e t t e r n e x t t im e .

What i s th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw ee n th e f i r s t e x am p le and t h e s e c o n d ? How d id t h i s c h an g e in b e l i e f i n f lu e n c e h e r b e h a v io r ?

1 s t — dem an d in g , r e s u l t i n g in low s e l f - e s t e e m 2nd— more r e a s o n a b l e , l e s s dam aging t o th e p e rs o n

(3) To r e i n f o r c e t h i s c o n c e p t , p r o v id e one more e x a m p le . (HANDOUT)

a . T e a c h e r in t r o d u c e s a s o c i a l s k i l l l e s s o n . S t u d e n ts re s p o n d w ith :"Do we h a f t a do t h i s . . . w e KNOW how to s a y th a n k y o u ."

b . G iven b o th p o s i t i v e and n e g a t iv e c o n se q u e n c e e x a m p le s , d e te r m in e th e b e l i e f s w hich may be i n f lu e n c in g b e h a v io r .

(4 ) The p u rp o s e o f t h i s e x e r c i s e and w hole l i n e o f t h in k i n g i s to s e t u s up f o r th e d a y , b e c a u se we a r e n o t o n ly g o in g to b e " d o in g " s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g , b u t lo o k in g a t and e x am in in g w nat i s g o in g on " in o u r h e a d s" t h a t c an in f lu e n c e o u r b e h a v io r .


186

_______________Unit #3: Symbolic Modeling of SST in the Classroom____________

Cl) in in actionNow t h a t we have some u n d e rs t a n d in g o f t h e im p o r ta n c e o f o u r b e l i e f s in i n f lu e n c in g o u r b e h a v io r , l e t ' s go back t o th e c la s s ro o m and s e e th e l a s t p a r t o f C indy G r e e n 's le s s o n . (INDICATE THAT SHE IS USING THE SKILLSTREAMIN6 Th£ ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILD CURRICULUM.)

Now, l e t ' s look a t a t e a c h e r in a d i f f e r e n t c la s s ro o m . The te a c h e r in t h i s c la s s ro o m i s C a ro l W il l ia m s . C a ro l i s 25 and h a s a c t u a l l y ta u g h t f o r a y e a r and a h a l f . H er s t u d e n t s a r e i d e n t i f i e d a s E l and LD. She i s a l s o t e a c h in g th e le s s o n , " re s p o n d in g to t e a s i n g " , b u t u s in g a c u r r ic u lu m c a l l e d MAKING BETTER CHOICES. As we w atch t h i s d e m o n s t r a t io n , I w ould l i k e you to pay c lo s e a t t e n t i o n to v e ry s p e c i f i c b e h a v io r s w hich a r e d e m o n s tr a te d (HANDOUT LISTING THESE BEHAVIORS):

E xam ples o f :

1. c a r in g , r e s p e c t f o r s tu d e n t s2 . th e a b i l i t y t o m odel good s o c i a l s k i l l s5 . know ledge o f p r i n c i p l e s o f b e h a v io r m o d i f ic a t io n4 . c la s s ro o m m anagem ent s k i l l s

(2! V io a s ta p e d d e m o n s tr a t i o n c f a s o c i a l s k i l l l e s s o n (20 m in u te s )

(3) H avino s e e n t h i s d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f a s o c i a l s k i l l l e s s o n , w hat b e h a v io r s d id vou o b s e rv e in th e f o u r i d e n t i f i e d a re a s* ' D is c u s s io n and f e e d b a c k .

a . I t i s v e ry im p o r ta n t t h a t you look a t y o u r s e l f in te rm s o f t h e s e a r e a s a s w e l l . The g o a l i s n o t f o r you to a c t e x a c t l y a s C a ro l d o e s , b u t t o r e c o g n iz e t h a t c e r t a i n b e h a v io r s c an le a d t o a s u c c e s s f u l p e rf o rm a n c e .

b . N ext i t i s im p o r ta n t t o look a t y o u r s e l f and th e b e l i e f s you h o ld a c o u t y o u r own b e h a v io r a l s t r e n g t h s . As we d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , th e k .inos o f b e l i e f s you h o ld a b o u t y o u r s e l f and y o u r s k i l l s w i l l in f lu e n c e th e k in d o f e f f o r t you p u t i n t o s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g . (H a v e-e ac h p a r t i c i p a n t c o m p le te th e s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t p o r t i o n o f th e h a n d o u t . ) D is c u s s .


187

J J n i t * 4 : L iv e M ode ling o f S S T /P a r t i c ip a n t R e h e a r s a l .

(1 ) I n t r o d u c t io n o f t h e l i v e m o d e lin g d e m o n s tr a t i o n

(a) I n t r o d u c e C a r o l W il l ia m s .

<b) R a le p lay by C a ro l o f a s o c i a l s k i l l le s s o n ( t h e r o l e p l a y w i l l in c lu d e d i s c u s s io n o f h e r s t r a t e g i e s , c o n tin g e n c y m anagem ent p l a n , a nd g e n e r a l p r o c e s s in g o f th e s i t u a t i o n ) (1 5 -2 0 m in u te s )

( b . l . ) R espond to t h e - fo llo w in g q u e s t io n s -from th e i n s t r u c t o r and q u e s t io n s -from th e p a r t i c i p a n t s :

-Why do you b e l i e v e SST i s im p o r ta n t?-W hat i s th e s o u r c e o f y o u r b e l i e f ?-W hat e v id e n c e do you h a v e t o s u p p o r t i t s v a lu e ?-W hat c i r c u m s ta n c e s make SST to u g h to im p lem e n t?-G iv e n to u g h c ir c u m s ta n c e s , why do you p e r s i s t ?-Why i s t h e r e a ne ed f o r a t e a c h e r t o b e a p ro b le m -

s o l v e r in t h i s a r e a o f i n s t r u c t i o n ?

(2 ) R e h e a r s a l by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s

F i n a l l y , i t i s t im e t o g e t you in v o lv e d in a c tu a l p r a c t i c e o f s o c i a l s k i l l d e l i v e r y . In y o u r p a c k e t s o f in f o r m a t io n you w i l l f i n d some m a t e r i a l s w h ich c o n ta in a s c r i p t f o r c a r r y i n g o u t an i n t r o d u c to r y l e s s o n to S k i l l s t r e a m i n g . th e E le m e n ta ry S c h o o l C h i ld and S k i l l s t r e a m i n g th e A d o le s c e n t . ( D iv id e i n t o t h r e e g ro u p s o f 4 and o ne g ro u p o f 5 ) .

a . In e ac h g ro u p , "d raw " to s e e who p l a y s th e r o l e o f t e a c h e r . O th e r g ro u p members w i l l p l a y th e r o l e s o f s t u d e n t s . Look o v e r t h e s c r i p t and b e p r e p a r e d to d e m o n s t r a te a s e c t i o n o f th e i n t r o d u c to r y l e s s o n to t h i s SST c u r r ic u lu m . (Remind s tu d e n t s t h a t t h i s le s s o n a ssu m e s t h a t SST i sa new i n s t r u c t i o n a l a r e a f o r s tu d e n t s in t h i s c la s s r o o m .)

b . INSTRUCTIONS: U se th e c u r r ic u lu m , " S k i l l s t r e a m in g th e E le m e n ta ry S c h o o l C h i l d " . . .P r e p a r in g th e S t u d e n ts f o r S t r u c tu r e d L e a r n in g . A ss ig n th e s e g m e n ts f o r r o l e p l a y i n g a s f o l lo w s :

G roup 1 - F a r t s A and B G roup 2 - F a r t CG roup 3 - P a r t DGroup 4 - P a r t E

c . A long w ith th e s o c i a l s k i l l m ode l, C a ro l W il l ia m s , p r o v id e fe e d b a c k tog ro u p m em bers a s th e y r e h e a r s e .


JJnit #5: Participant Modeling of the Opening Skill Lesson.

(1) Modeling an in troductory lesson

(a ) In f r o n t o f t h e e n t i r e g ro u p , r o l e p l a y th e s e q u e n c e o f an in t r o d u c to r y le s s o n r e h e a r s e d in th e s m a ll g r o u p s . (FIRST HAV^ ALL GROUPS PRESENT THEIR RuLEFLmV, TrCN SHOW TIC VIDEO OF EACH ONE). D is c u s s e a c h w ith th e r o l e p l a y e r s and c l a s s p a r t i c i p a n t s . ) (U se th e t e a c h e r e v a lu a t i o n form u t i l i z e d p r e v io u s ly — g iv e th e s e t o t h e i n d iv i d u a l who p la y e d th e t e a c h e r r o l e . )

( a . l ) What s p e c i f i c b e h a v io r s i n d i c a t e s k i l l on th e F a - t o f th e t e a c h e r ?

( a . 2) What im p ro v e m en ts m ig h t b e c o n s id e r e d ?

( a . 3) (To th e t e a c h e r ) What p a r t i c u l a r th o u g h ts w ere g o in g on in y o u r m ind? W ere t h e s e p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t iv e ? Wr.at a r e tr .e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t iv e b e l i e f s ?

(2) V e rb a l d e m o n s tr a t io n o f th e i n i t i a l s k i l l le s s o n b y th e t e a c h e r model

(a) Ask C a ro l to d e m o n s tr a te th e " I n i t i a l S t r u c tu r e d L e a rn in g L e s so n " . O ut loud h av e h e r p r o c e s s th e s e q u e n c e o f t e a c h in g s t e p s th ro u g h w hich sh e i s p r o c e e d in g .

(b) D is c u s s io n and fe e d b a c k .

a . What s p e c i f i c b e h a v io r s on th e p a r t o f t h e te a c h e r a r e n e c e s s a r y '

b . What p o t e n t i a l p ro b le m s m ust th e t e a c h e r be p r e p a re d to h a n d le " '


189

J J n i t # 6 : P a r t i c i p a n t M ode ling o f a G e n e ra l S k i l l L e s so n .

(3) M odeling by. p a r t i c i p a n t s o f a s k i l l le s s o n

(a) C o n d u c tin g an a c t u a l s k i l l l e s s o n i s th e b e s t way to le a r n a b o u t SST so l e t ' s lo o k a t t h e " O u t l in e f o r T e a c h e r s i n L a t e r S t r u c t u r e d L e a rn in g L e s s o n s - E le m e n ta ry L e v e l" .

(b ) INSTRUCTIONS: O ur f o u r g ro u p s w i l l p r e s e n t t h r e e s k i l l s :G roup 1 - l i s t e n i n g

g ro u p 2 - a s k in g f o r h e lp

g ro u p 3 - l i s t e n i n g

g ro u p 4 - s a y in g th a n k you

(c ) J u s t a s you w ould do f o r y o u r own s t u d e n t s when te a c h in g them , i t i s im p o r ta n t t h a t y ou h a v e tim e to know w hat you h a v e to do and t o r e h e a r s e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t e p s . L e t 's ta k e tim e now to r e h e a r s e in o u r sm a ll g r o u p s . Then we w i l l come to g e t h e r t o r o l e p l a y f o r th e group and p r o v id e fe e d b a c k to th e p a r t i c i p a n t s . ( S e t up o n e p e r s o n t o b e a r e a l r e s i s t o r . )

(d) R e h e a r s a l .

(e) R o le p la y in f r o n t o f th e l a r g e g ro u p . P r o v id e fe e d b a c k t o th e p a r t i c i p a n t s r e g a r d i n g s p e c i f i c b e h a v io r s o f th e r o l e p l a y e r s a f t e r t h e v id e o i s show n s o t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s c a n s e e i t t o o . (C o m p le te th e te a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n fo rm .)

( e . l . ) What s p e c i f i c b e h a v io r s i n d i c a t e s k i l l on th e p a r t o f th e t e a c h e r ?

( e . 2 . ) What m ig h t h e lp t h i s t e a c h e r b e e v en m ore e f f e c t i v e ?

( e . 3 . ) What p o t e n t i a l p ro a le m s s h o u ld th e t e a c h e r b e p r e p a re d to m anage?


1 9 0

Unit 7: Self-Management________________________

(1) R a t io n a le f o r u s e o f. p rob lem s o lv i n g s k i l l s

We h a v e s p e n t some t im e to d a y c o n s id e r in g th e k in d s o f a t t i t u d e s , b e l i e f s and o p in io n s you h a v e a b o u t s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g and th e k in d s o f s k i l l s i t t a k e s t o d e l i v e r t h i s k in d o f i n s t r u c t i o n . We h a v e lo o k e d a t t h e s o u r c e o f th e b e l i e f s we h a v e and th e e v id e n c e you h a v e o r d o n 't h a v e f o r m a in ta in in g them . A lso , w e 'v e lo o k e d a t th e i n f lu e n c e b e l i e f s c an h a v e on b e h a v io r , in e i t h e r a p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t iv e way.

C ) When t a l k i n g a b o u t SST. and from y o u r p e r s p e c t iv e a s a f i r s t y e a rt e a c h e r , in w hat s p e c i f i c w avs c o u ld v o u r b e h a v io r be in f lu e n c e d bv n e c a - t i v e b e l i e f s ?

D e s i re d r e s p o n s e s : a ) L es s f r e q u e n t le s s o n sb) More s e n s i t i v e t o b e h a v io r p ro b le m sc ) L es s c h a l l e n g in g l e s s o n sd> L es s e f f o r t a t g e n e r a l i z in g e ) P e rh a p s t e r m in a t io n a l t o g e t h e r

(3) To d e a l w ith n e g a t iv e c o n s e g u e n c e s . w hat e l s e m ust we know?

(a) H aving a w a re n e s s o f th e th o u g h ts w hich in f lu e n c e o u r b e h a v io r i s v e ry im p o r ta n t and i s a n e c e s s a r y f i r s t s t e p , p a r t i c u l a r l y when th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f o u r th o u g h ts may b e n e g a t iv e o n e s . What i s i t we h a v e t o b e a b l e to do when th e g o in g g e t s to u g h and p ro b lem s seem to c r e a t e s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e s ? Even th o u g h we may o f f e r o u r s e l v e s a m i l l i o n p o s i t i v e s e l f - s t a t e m e n t s and b e l i e v e t h a t w hat we w an t t o do i s u l t i m a t e l y r i g h t , we ne ed some s t r a t e g i e s f o r g e t t i n g s o l u t i o n s t o th e s e p r o b le m s . T h is i s c a l l e d p ro b le m s o lv i n g .

(b) L e t 's p u t t h i s i n t o a fram e o f r e f e r e n c e r e l a t i v e t o SST. F o r e x am p le , g iv e me some p ro b le m s w hich you m ig h t e x p e c t o n c e you g e t o u t t h e r e i n t o th e r e a l t e a c h in g w o rld r e l a t e d to s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g :

E x am p les : - l a c k o f SST m a t e r i a l s- t h e o th e r te a c h e r d o e s n 't b e l i e v e SST i s w o rth

t h e tim e i t ta k e s

( b . l . ) Have c l a s s d e v e lo p lo n g l i s t o f p o t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n a l p ro b le m s

( b .2 . ) No m a t t e r how s t r o n g ly we b e l i e v e in SST, som e o f t h e s e p r o b lem s may seem to p r e s e n t in s u rm o u n ta b le o b t a c l e s , th u s th e n e ed f o r p r o b le m -s o lv in g s k i l l s .


191

(4) What g e n e r a l s t e p s d o e s p ro b lem s o lv i n g in c lu d e " '

S te p 1 : General o r ie n ta t io n

The f i r s t s te p in p r o b le m -s o lv in g i s t o r e c o g n iz e t h a t when we f e e l " u p s e t a b o u t s o m e th in g " , we m ust r e f o c u s o u r a t t e n t i o n from o u r e m o tio n a l s t a t e s t o th e s i t u a t i o n s c r e a t i n g th e u p s e t s . I t m ust b e r e c o g n iz e d t h a t p ro b le m s a r e a no rm al a s p e c t o f l i v i n g and c an be d e a l t w ith by m aking a c t i v e a t te m p ts t o c o p e w ith them .

Step 2 : Problem d e f in i t io n and fo rm u la t io n

Once a p ro b lem s i t u a t i o n h a s be en r e c o g n iz e d , i t m ust b e a n a ly z e d and s p e c i f i e d so t h a t we becom e aw are o f th e t r u e n a tu r e o f th e p ro b lem and o u r p r e s e n t r e a c t i o n s t o i t . When, and w h ere , th e p ro b lem s i t u a t i o n a r i s e s , how we r e a c t to i t , w hat we th in k and f e e l , and how o th e r s r e a c t a r e a l l a s p e c t s o f th e p ro b lem s i t u a t i o n w h ich m ust be e x am in e d .

Step 3 : G enera tion o f a l te r n a t iv e s

D u rin g th e t h i r d s t e p , we g e n e r a t e a v a r i e t y o f a l t e r n a t i v e r e s p o n s e s t o th e p ro b lem s i t u a t i o n . T h is c an be done th r o u g h a c t iv e b r a in s to r m in g , e i t h e r in d e p e n d e n tly o r w ith som eone e l s e . The m ore a l t e r n a t i v e s p ro d u c e d , th e g r e a t e r th e l i k e l ih o o d t h a t "good" o n e s w i l l be in c lu d e d in th e l i s t . No e v a lu a t io n o f th e q u a l i t y o f th e a l t e r n a t i v e i s a l lo w e d .

Step 4 : D ec is ion -m a k in g

Now t h a t a ra n g e o f a l t e r n a t i v e s h a s b e en g e n e r a te d , e ac h o n e m ust be c o n s id e r e d to d e te r m in e w hich one i s th e m ost p r o m is in g . A p r o c e s s o f " r e a l i t y t e s t i n g " i s begun d u r in g w hich we c o n s id e r th e l i k e l y p e r s o n a l , s o c i a l , s h o r t te rm , and lo n g - te rm c o n se q u e n c e s o f e n g a g in g in e ac h a l t e r n a t i v e . Once we d e c id e upon a s p e c i f i c c o u r s e o f a c t i o n , a t t e n t i o n i s d i r e c t e d to w a rd th e f o r m u la t io n o f a r e a l i s t i c p la n t o im p lem en t th e p ro p o se d p ro b lem s o l u t i o n . C om plete m a s te ry o r r e s o l u t i o n may n o t a lw a y s be p o s s i b l e .

Step 5 : V e r i f ic a t io n and M aintenance

The f i n a l s te p in t h e p ro b le m -s o lv in g s t r a t e g y c o n s i s t s o f im p lem e n tin g and m a in ta in in g th e p ro b lem s o l u t i o n d e c id e d upon . The c o n se q u e n c e s o f t h i s c h o ic e s h o u ld b e c a r e f u l l y m o n ito re d . I f th e d e c id e d s o l u t i o n p ro d u c e s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n s e q u e n c e s , th e p r o b le m -s o lv in g p r o c e d u re i s begun a g a in and o th e r a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s a r e t r i e d and t e s t e d .


(a) “Schem ata C heck" - D is c u s s io n : What t h o u g h ts a r e g o in g th ro u g h y o u rm ind now a b o u t s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g ? ( p o s i t i v e and n e g a t iv e )

(b) FIRST, i t i s v i t a l l y im p o r ta n t t h a t we r e c o g n iz e th e im p o r ta n c e o f o u r own th o u g h ts . AS WITH OUR STUDENTS, o u r b e h a v io r i s i n f lu e n c e d by th ep o s i t i v e and n e g a t iv e b e l i e f s w h ich d e te r m in e o u r le v e l o f s e l f -e>:pec t a t i o n s .

SECOND, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t we h a v e some s k i l l . We need to model to k id s w hat we w ant from them .

THIRD, i t i s a l s o v i t a l l y im p o r ta n t t h a t we h a v e a se lf -m a n a g e m e n tp l a n . . . a way t o ke ep o u r s e l v e s g o in g when th e g o in g g e t s d i f f i c u l t . B e ing a b le t o m in im iz e e m o tion a s much a s p o s s i b l e , and a c t i v e l y s e e k a s o l u t i o n i s th e b e s t way I know.


Appendix G

S e l f -S c h e m ata Worksheet


194

SOCIAL SKILL TRAINING ( A t t i t u d e s , B e l i e f s , O p in io n s )


Appendix H

Teacher S e l f - E v a l u a t i o n Measure

195


1 9 6

TEACHER SELF-EVALUATION MEASURE

S k i) I D e m o n s tra te d ( ♦ i f y e s )

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

a ) R e la t i o n s h ip s w ith s tu d e n t s t h a t a r e :

1-C a r in g 12 - M u tu a lly r e s p e c t f u l 23 - C le a r - c u t in te rm s o f r o l e s 34 -H e lp fu I to th e s tu d e n t in th e

m a in te n a n c e o f h i s / h e r d i g n i t y 4 and s e l f - r e s p e c t

b> A good model of s o c i a l s k i l l s :

1 - D e m o n s tra tin g in t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l 12 -D e m o n s t ra t in g p r o b le m -s o lv in g

s k i l l 2

Q u a l i ty o f D e m o n s tra tio n

(E x , Gd, Av, P r)

NANACERIAL SKILLS

a ) S k i l l in u se o f b e h a v io r m o d i f ic a t io n te c h n iq u e s :

1 - D is c u s s io n2 -M o d e lin g new l e a r n in g3 - R o le p la y in g4 -G u id ed p r a c t i c e5 - C o r r e c t iv e fe e d b a c k and

r e in f o rc e r .e n t6 -S h a p in g

b) C lass ro o m m anagem ent s k i l l s :

1 -G r g a n iz a t io n o f an o r d e r ly 1 e n v iro n m e n t

2-T im e m anagem ent 23 - A b i l i t y t o p a ce a s s ig n m e n ts 34 - O r g a n iz a t io n and d e l iv e r y of 4

c u r r ic u lu m5 - E v a lu a t io n s k i l l s to m o n ito r 5

s tu d e n t p r o g r e s s

Cocisents:

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

EIe m enta ry th e Ski

Appendix I

and Secondary Lessons from l l s t r e a m in g C u r r ic u lu m

197


PLEASE NOTE:

Copyrighted materials in this document have not been filmed a t the request of the author. They are available for consultation, however, in the author's university library.

These consist of pages:

P. 198-239

P. 263-272

UniversityMicrofilms

International300 N. ZEEB RD.. ANN ARBOR. Ml 48106 (313) 761-4700


L e t t e r

Appendix J

E xperts Regarding C onten t V a l i d i t y o f the S e l f - E f f i c a c y T r a i n i n g Program


241

Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008-3899

November 3 , 1987

D r. P a t r i c i a A sh ton F o u n d a tio n s o f E d u c a tio n 280 G r l n t s r H a ll U n iv e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a G a i n s v l l l a , FL 32611

D ear D r. A sh to n ,

Hy n a ae i s L in d a H i l l e r and I a s a d o c to ra l s tu d e n t a t W estern M ich igan U n iv e r s i t y in th e s p e c ia l e d u c a t io n c u rr ic u lu m . P r e s e n t ly , I am in th e p r o c e s s o f v a l i d a t i n g th e t r a i n i n g p rog ram s d e v e lo p e d to c a r r y o u t ay r e s e a r c h . The to p i c a r e a o f my d i s s e r t a t i o n i s s o c i a l s k i l l s , w ith e m p h as is on th e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g a s p e c t . Hy I n t e r e s t , how ever, i s n o t in s k i l l d e v elo p m e n t p e r s e , b u t in e x a m in a t io n o f th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l p r o c e s s e s w hich u n d e r l i e a t e a c h e r 's b e h a v io r r e l a t e d to s o c i a l s k i l l d e l i v e r y . In p a r t i c u l a r , I am c o n ce rn e d w ith th e I n f l u e n c e o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y on a t e a c h e r 's b e l i e f in h i s / h e r a b i l i t y to i n i t i a t e s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g and p e r s is t w ith t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n a l a p p ro a c h ev en in th e f a c e a t o b s t a c l e s . I am w r i t in g to you b e c a u se I c r i t i c a l l y need th e i n p u t o f a n e x p e r t . T our c o n t r i b u t io n to th e l i t e r a t u r e in th e a r e a o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y and te a c h e r b e h a v io r d e f i n i t e l y p la c e s y o u , in t h i s c a te g o ry I b e l i e v e .

S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g i s an a p p ro a ch to b e h a v io r management w h ich i s g row ing in u s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n c la s s ro o m s . H owever, th e r e i s some c o n c e rn t h a t t e a c h e r s a r e n o t b e in g p r o p e r ly t r a i n e d to c o n d u c t t h i s ty p e o f I n s t r u c t i o n . Hy r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t a t te m p ts to look a t t h i s i s s u e . The s tu d y I w i l l c o n d u c t com pares th r e e a p p ro a ch e s to t r a i n i n g u n d e rg r a d u a te s tu d e n t s in th e a r e a o f s o c i a l s k i l l s . U l t im a te ly , I w ish to se e w hich of t h e s e a p p ro a c h e s m ost s i g n i f i c a n t l y in f lu e n c e s s e l f - e f f i c a c y , t h a t i s , a p r e s e r v i c e t e a c h e r 's b e l i e f and com m itm ent to s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n in g in th e c la s s ro o m . B r i e f l y , th e s e a p p ro a c h e s a r e :

(1 ) C lass ro o m management - I n s t r u c t i o n in c la ss ro o m m anagem ent, w ith e m p h asis on e s t a b l i s h i n g a sy stem o f s p e c i f i c r u l e s and c o n c r e te ways o f r e in f o r c in g and c o n s e q u a tin g b e h a v io r . T h is a p p ro a ch r e p r e s e n t s th e s ta n d a r d a e th o d t y p i c a l l y u se d in u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n in g p ro g ra m s.

(2 ) S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g - I n s t r u c t i o n in th e s p e c i f i c a re a o f s o c i a l s k i l l s , w ith m a jo r e m p h as is on p r o c e d u re s , c u r r i c u l a , and o th e r a s s o c i a t e d s tu d e n t and c la s s ro o m v a r i a b l e s .

(3) S e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g - I n s t r u c t i o n d i r e c t e d a t e x am in ing and s t r e n g t h e n in g th e b e l i e f system u n d e r ly in g a p r e s e r v i c e t e a c h e r 's w i l l i n g n e s s and m o t iv a t io n to d e l i v e r s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in th e c la s s ro o m .

As p a r t o f a p p ro a ch number th r e e , s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g <SET), I have

College of Education Department of Special Education 16161 383-1680


242

d e v e lo p e d a 12 -h o u r I n s t r u c t i o n a l p ro g ra e t o be d e l iv e r e d to a g roup o f u n d e rg r a d u a te n a jo r s in s p e c ia l e d u c a t io n . The t r a i n i n g i s b a se d on a r e v ie w o f p a s t and p r e s e n t l i t e r a t u r e in th e a r e a s o f s o c i a l l e a r n in g th e o ry and c o g n i t i v e p sy c h o lo g y and a c c o rd in g ly i s a s y n th e s i s o f t h i s r e v ie w , a s a p p l i e d to t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g in th e a re a o f s o c i a l s k i l l s . To a l a r g e e x t e n t , y o u r work i s an i n p o r t a n t fo u n d a tio n o f ey l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w and s e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g p rogram d e v e lo p m e n t. In p a r t i c u l a r , y o u r a r t i c l e , " T e a c h e r E f f i c a c y : aM o tiv a t io n a l P a rad igm f o r E f f e c t i v e T ea ch e r E d u c a t io n " , and th e a r t i c l e p ro d u ce d by y o u r s e l f , O r. Uebb, and D r. Doda, "A S tu d y o f T e a c h e r s ' S e n se o f E f f i c a c y " , w ere e x t r e a e ly v a lu a b le and ia a e n s e ly h e lp f u l in g u id in g ey s tu d y . T hese w ere two o f th e v e ry few p ie c e s o f work w h ich a p p l i e d th e p r i n c i p l e s o f th e s e l f - e f f i c a c y c o n c e p t to te a c h e r p e r f o ra a n c e and t r a i n i n g . In f a c t , u n t i l I r e a d t h i s work I had lo c a te d no o th e r l i t e r a t u r e w h ich a ad e th e c o n n e c t io n o r s tu d i e d th e i a p l l c a t i o n s o f such a l i n k .

As I have l a r g e ly had to s y n th e s iz e in f o r m a tio n f r o a many a r e a s , and th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s o c i a l le a r n in g th e o ry i s r e l a t i v e l y new to t e a c h in g p r a c t i c e ,1 a n r e q u e s t in g y o u r h e lp to e s t a b l i s h th e r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f t h i s t r a i n i n g com ponen t. S p e c i f i c a l l y , y o u r a s s i s t a n c e i s r e q u e s te d f o r one t a s k : to r e v ie w th e e n c lo se d t r a i n i n g p rog ram . T h is I n v o lv e s r e a d in g e ac h i n s t r u c t i o n a l u n i t and m aking any c o r r e c t i o n s o r s u g g e s t io n s d i r e c t l y on th e copy w hich r e l a t e to th e fo l lo w in g q u e s t io n s :

Cl) A re p r i n c i p l e s from s o c i a l l e a r n in g th e o ry a n d /o r c o g n i t i v e p sy c h o lo g y a p p r o p r i a t e ly a p p l ie d in t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g ra n f o r t r a i n i n g in s e l f - e f f i c a c y ?

(2 ) A cc o rd in g to r e s e a r c h th e o ry and p r a c t i c e , a r e th e s t r a t e g i e s em ployed a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t r a i n i n g in s e l f - e f f i c a c y ?

I f p a s s i b l e , 1 am hoping to im plem ent t h i s s tu d y th e f i r s t week in D ecem ber, 1987. I have e n c lo s e d a s e l f - a d d r e s s e d , s ta m p e d , l a r g e - s l z e e n v e lo p e f o r r e t u r n o f th e m a te r i a l s .

I t r u l y a p p r e c i a t e yo u r c o n s id e r a t i o n of my r e q u e s t . 1 r e c o g n iz e you m ust have In n u m era b le r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s to a d d r e s s , and th u s a p p r e c i a t e any tim e you can g iv e to t h i s r e q u e s t . However, to a c t u a l l y r e c e iv e c o r r e c t i v e fe e d b a c k from you d i r e c t l y w ould be ve ry g r a t i f y i n g and a c o n t r i b u t i o n w hich would g iv e immense c r e d i b i l i t y to ay p r o j e c t . I f you would f i n d i t m ore c o n v e n ie n t I c a n c a l l and t a l k w ith you d i r e c t l y .

Thank you f o r you r a t t e n t i o n . I g e n u in e ly a p p r e c i a t e any c o l l a b o r a t i v e e f f o r t you c an p r o v id e . I f you have f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s , p l e a s e do n o t h e s i t a t e to c o n ta c t me. Hy a d d re s s and te le p h o n e num bers a r e on th e e n c lo s e d m a t e r i a l .

S i n c e r e ly y o u rs ,

■vL-nda- nus&fcvjL in d a H i l l e r


Appendix K

Response L e t t e r from Dr . P a t r i c i a Ashton : C o n ten t V a l i d i t y o f th e S e l f - E f f i c a c y T r a i n i n g Program


244

¥ COLLEGE OF EDUCATIONGtimrtLk, Fla. 32611

of Florida

Mb' 1907

Ms. Linda Mi Her 3509 Sangren Hall Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Ml <*9008

Dear Linda:I have read with interest your social skills training

program. Your copy is enclosed, although you will find that I have not made any corrections or suggestions. I believe the program adequately incorporates the principles and strategies of social learning theory and cognitive psychology.

My one concern is that in spite of the excellent program you have developed, teachers’ self-efficacy may not increase and, in fact, could decrease. Although I am hopeful that your program will be successful, I want to alert you to the possibility of negative effects. Thomas Guskey found such an effect in his study entitled "The Influence of Change in Instructional Effectiveness upon the Affective Characteristics of Teachers." published in the American Educational Research Journal in 198A, Volume SI, pp. a<*5-£59. Perhaps his program did not adequately capture social learning principles and strategies.

You may also be interested to learn that Rod Webb and I have published a monograph on our work entitled Making a Difference: Teachers* Sense of Efficacy and Student Achievement, now in paperback from Longman Publishers. It should be available in your university library.

I wish you success with your research, and I hope you will share your results with me when they are available. Your program seems very promising as a model for teacher training.

Sincerelyi

AsntonProfessorEduc;rational Psychology


Appendix L

S oc ia l S k i l l T r a in i n g Program

245


.Hour *1: Introduction to S o c ia l S k i l l Training.

(1) What a r e s o c i a l s k i 11a?

USE OVERHEAD FOR DEFINITION

" S o c ia l s k i l l s a r e th o s e com ponen ts o f b e h a v io r t h a t a r e im p o r ta n t f o r a p e r s o n to b e s u c c e s s f u l in t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s , in a m anner w n icn d o e s n o t c a u s e p h y s ic a l o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l harm to o t h e r s " . (Ask s t u d e n t s w hat t h i s s t a te m e n t m eans t o th e m .) In o t h e r w ords t h e s e a r e s p e c i f i c i n t e r p e r s o n a l and p r o - s o c i a l b e h a v io r s w hich h e lp a p e rs o n to g e t a lo n g s u c c e s s f u l l y in t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s w ith o t h e r s . (Make s u r e th e y u n d e rs t a n d t h a t p r o - s o c i a l means p o s i t i v e s o c i a l b e h a v io r s . )

K now ledge and u s e o f s o c i a l s k i l l s i s n o t j u s t s p e c i f i c t o k id s , i t i s g e n e r ic to a l l a g e s and g r o u p s o f p e o p le , b u t i t i s an a r e a w hich h a s p a r t i c u l a r r e le v a n c e f o r th e h a n d ic a p p e d p o p u la t i o n . (Ask s tu d e n t s t o e x p la in w hy.)

(1) E x a c t ly w hat is . s o c i a l s k i l l s k i l l t r a i n i n g ?

(a) S o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g i s a s u p p le m e n ta l a p p ro a c h to c la s s ro o m m anagem ent and i s b e in g h ig h ly prom o ted f o r u s e w ith h a n d ic a p p e d k id s . In a b ro a d s e n s e , s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g w ith h a n d ic a p p e d c h i l d r e n i s a s y s t e m a t i c a p p ro a c h to te a c h in g k id s w ays t o b e h av e a p p r o p r i a t e l y . I t i s b a s e d on r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t h a n d ic a p p e d c h i ld r e n la c k th e s k i l l t o b u i ld r e l a t i o n s h i p s , h a n d le i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t s , and manage t h e i r own e m o tio n s in c o n s t r u c t i v e w ays.

(b) T h is i s p a r t i c u l a r y a c o n c e rn b e c a u s e m a in s tre a m in g i s becom ing common p o l i c y in th e s c h o o ls . S tu d e n ts who h a v e o e en in s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n p ro g ra m s and a r e e n t e r in g m a in s tre a m s e t t i n g s h a v e a m a jo r a d ju s tm e n t to make: th e y m ust l e a r n to i n t e r a c t w ith a new p e e r g ro u p .

(c) S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in v o lv e s t e a c h in g k id s a v a r i e t y o f s k i l l s , f o r e x am p le : a s k in g a Q u e s t io n , a p o lo g iz i n g , l i s t e n i n g to o t h e r s , g iv in g a c o m p lim e n t, d e a l in g w ith c r i t i c i s m , p r o b le m -s o lv in g , e t c . T h e re a r e c u r r i c u l a w hich t e a c h e r s t y p i c a l l y u se w hich i d e n t i f y a r a n g e o f s k i l l s so b e ta u g n t . j u s t a s i f you w ere t e a c h in g r e a d in g o r some o th e r s u b j e c t a r e a .

C heck f o r im d o rs ta a d ia q t What o t h e r k in d s o f s k i l l s , l i k e th e o n e s j u s tm e n tio n e d , w ould i t b e im p o r ta n t f o r k id s t o know? Why’ ( D iv id e s t u d e n t s upin to s m a ll g ro u p s t o c o n s id e r s k i l l s k id s s h o u ld know. When a s k e d , h a v e themr o l e - p l a y them so t h a t o th e r s c an g u e s s w hat i s b e in g d e m o n s t r a te d .)

A nsw ers d e s i r e d : 1) g iv in g n e g a t iv e fe e d b a c k to a n o th e r s tu d e n t , 2) r e s i s t i n g p e e r p r e s s u r e , 3) i n i t i a t i n g o r j o in i n g a c t i v i t i e s , 4) g r e e t in g o t h e r s , 5)m aking r e g u e s t s , d e a l in g w ith e m b a r a s s e m e n t .)

(d) When t h i s a c t i v i t y i s c o m p le te , show s tu d e n t s th e l i s t o f s k i l l s w hicn th e S t r u c tu r e d L e a rn in g c u r r ic u lu m a d d r e s s e s t o p r o v id e a w a re n e s s o f tn e r a n g e o f s k i l l s w hich may be a d d re s s e d . (HANDOUT)


(a) T hink a b o u t w hat t e a c h e r s do t o manage th e b e h a v io r o f t h e i r k id s in th e c la s s ro o m . Good t e a c h e r s g e n e r a l l y d e v e lo p a s y s te m a t ic way o f d e a l in g w ith b e h a v io r . F a r e x am p le , th e y h a v e a sy s te m w hich s p e l l s o u t r u l e s , and th e w ays k id s can be rew ard e d f o r good b e h a v io r ( th ro u g h p o i n t s o r c h e c k s o r some fe e b a c k m e a s u r e ) , and th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f in a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v io r . T e a c h e rs make i t c l e a r w hat i s e x p e c te d o f s t u d e n t s in th e c la s s ro o m .

Check f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g : What h a v e you s e e n good t e a c h e r s do to manage th e b e h a v io r o f s tu d e n t s in th e c la s s ro o m ? ( s o l i c i t s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t i e s o r p r o c e d u re s )

What was th e p u rp o s e o f t h e s e e f f o r t s ? ( to m a in ta in an o r d e r l y e n v iro n m e n t, to a l lo w le a r n in g to o c c u r , t o h e lp k id s u n d e rs t a n d th e r e a r e r u l e s , e t c . )

(3) What k in d o f ou tc o m es d o e s s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g h a v e t h a t a r e d i f f e r e n t from w hat t e a c h e r s n o rm a l Iv g e t from a b e h a v io r m anagem ent sy s te m ?

From w hat h a s be en d e s c r ib e d , you s h o u ld be a b l e t o t h in k o u t some o f th e d i s t i n c t i o n s y o u r s e l v e s , ( s o l i c i t a n sw e rs from s tu d e n t s )

Chock f o r un d e rs ta n d in g : (USE OVERHEAD) 1) k id s a r e ta u g h t t o b e t h e i r own b e h a v io r m a n ag e rs , i t i s n ' t j u s t a m a t te r o f “k e e p in g t h e l i d o n " ; 2) h o p e f u l l y k id s a r e p r o v id e d s k i l l s th e y c an u se in o th e r s i t u a t i o n s w hich w i l l h e lp them g e t a lo n g b e t t e r w ith o t h e r s ; 3) a t th e l e a s t , k id s a r e t a u g h t s k i l l s w hich w i l l h e lp them s u c c e e d in th e c la s s ro o m — a p r im a ry e n v iro n m e n t in w hich th e y w i l l sp e n d many y e a r s o f t h e i r l i f e ; 4) s p e c i a l e d . k id s n a v e t r o u b l e g e t t i n g a lo n g w ith o th e r s and know ing th e r i g h c th in g to do— t h i s h e lp s them d e v e lo p more a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v io r s and s k i l l s .

Summary; What i s u n ig u e a b o u t th e s o c i a l s k i 11 a p e ro a c h ? (OVERHEAD)

1. Can r e s u l t in g r e a t e r s o c i a l a c c e p ta n c e f o r th e c h i l d .2 . C h i ld - c e n t e r e d3 . A s y s t e m a t i c i n s t r u c t i o n a l a p p ro a c h , a c t u a l l y t e a c h e s a v a r i e t y o f s k i l l s4 . S u p p le m e n ta l to b e h a v io r m anagem ent sy s te m s5 . S ho u ld be g e n e r a l i z a b l e t o o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s6 . R e c o g n iz e s an im p o r ta n t need o f h a n d ic a p p e d k id s


248

______________________ Hour *2: Examination of thm Skills______________________

(1) H o rs s p e c i f i c a l l y , w hat k in d s o f s k i l l s a r e ta u g h t?

The k in d s o f s k i l l s t a u g h t in s o c i a l s k i l l s c u r r i c u l a g e n e r a l l y f a l l i n to two c a t e g o r i e s : a ) i n t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s , and b) p r o b le m -s o lv in g s k i l l s . T ry to f i g u r e o u t w h at t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s e i g h t b e and w hat k in d s o f s k i l l s a r e in v o lv e d in e a c h a r e a ? (A d d re ss e ac h a r e a i n d i v i d u a l l y t o i d e n t i f y th e f o l lo w in g in f o r m a t io n - e n c o u ra g e r e s p o n d e n ts t o c o n s id e r t h e i r own b e h a v io r s a s a s o u r c e o f r e f e r e n c e in th e s e a r e a s )

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS - (OVERHEAD) The k in d s o f s k i l l s t h a t r e q u i r e one p e rso n t o e n g ag e w ith a n o th e r o r o t h e r s in su c h a way t h a t p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s a r e p ro d u c e d f o r t h e in d iv i d u a l and o th e r in v o lv e d p a r t i e s in a g iv e n s i t u a t i o n ,e . g . , g r e e t i n g , s e e k in g in f o r m a t io n , l i s t e n i n g , g iv in g and a c c e p t in g p o s i t i v e and n e g a t iv e f e e d b a c k , c o n v e r s in g , s h a r i n g o r c o o p e r a t i n g w ith o th e r s , c o m p lim e n tin g o t h e r s , jo in i n g p e e r a c t i v i t i e s , m aking e y e c o n t a c t .

PRaBLEN-S0LVIN6 SKILLS - (OVERHEAD). The k in d s a f s k i l l s r e q u i r e d to p ro d u ce sam e d e c i s i o n . The k in d s o f s k i l l s in v o lv e d in c lu d e : a ) i d e n t i f y i n g a d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n , b) i d e n t i f y i n g a r a n g e o f a l t e r n a t i v e s , c ) m aking p r e d i c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g th e a l t e r n a t i v e s , d) s e l e c t i n g a r e s p o n s e , e ) c a r r y i n g o u t th e r e s p o n s e , a nd f ) c h e c k in g t o s e e i f i t w o rk e d .

(2) In, t h e c o n te x t o f th e c la s s ro o m , w hat o t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n s c an we make be tw ee n th e s e tw o a r e a s o f s k i l l s ?

(a ) D iv id e t h e c l a s s i n t o s e v e r a l s m a ll g r o u p s o f f o u r o r f i v e . I d e n t i f y h a l f t h e g r o u p s a s I n t e r p e r s o n a l S k i l l s (IP S) and th e o t h e r h a l f a s P rob lem s o lv i n g (P S ). From t h e i r d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s : (OVERHEAD)

- I d e n t i f y s i t u a t i o n s in w hich k id s m ust u s e th e IPS o r PS s k i l l s

- I d e n t i f y w ays in w hich k id s who a r e d e f i c i e n t in s o c i a l s k i l l s t y p i c a l l y r e sp o n d when p u t in t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s

- I d e n t i f y t h e a d v a n ta g e s to b e g a in e d from u s e o f m ore a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v io r

(b) Have e ac h g ro u p r e p o r t back to th e f u l l g ro u p . D is c u s s t h e s e a r e a s r e l a t i v e t o eac h g r o u p 's p e r c e p t i o n . ( I n s t r u c t o r p r o v id e s c o r r e c t i v e o r r e i n f o r c i n g fe e d b a c k r e l a t i v e t o th e p e r c e p t i o n s )

Summary: What i s in v o lv e d in s o c i a l s k i 11 t r a i n i n g ? (OVERHEAD)

1. An in t e r p e r s o n a l a n d /o r p r o b le m -s o lv in g f o c u s2 . A w areness o f th e num erous s i t u a t i o n s in w m ch s t u d e n t s m ust u s e i n t e r

p e r s o n a l o r p r o b le m -s o lv in g s k i l l s3 . A w areness o f th e i n a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e r e p e r t o i r e s s t u d e n t s may dem

o n s t r a t e4 . The a d v a n ta g e s t o b e g a in e d from d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f s o c i a l s k i l l , s o c i a l

a c c e p ta n c e , p o s s i b l e s e l f - c o n t r o l l e d b e n a v io r , im proved s e l f - im a g e .


_Hoor *3: TTw Curriculum.

(1) How i s s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g c a r r i e d o u t?

As w as i n i t i a l l y n o te d , s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g i s u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t th r o u g h an i n s t r u c t i o n a l a p p ro a c h , l i k e r e a d in g . C u r r i c u l a a r e a v a i l a b l e w hich i d e n t i f y a te a c h in g p la n r e l a t i v e t o i n t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s a n d /o r p ro b lem s o lv i n g s k i l l s . An e x a m in a tio n o f th e key e le m e n ts o f s e v e r a l t r a i n i n g p a c k a g e s w i l l p r o v id e a b e t t e r u n d e rs t a n d in g o f th e way th e s e c u r r i c u l a a r e o r g a n iz e d .

(HANDOUT) U t i l iz in g the c h a r t handou t, examine the fo llo w in g c r i t e r i a fo r e v a lu a tin g com m ercial packages a v a i la b le f o r ad o le scen t and m ild ly handicapped s tu d e n ts .

1) t a r g e t p o p u la t io n - I n fo r m a tio n r e g a rd in g a g e o f th e t a r g e t e d l e a r n e r s , and th e d i s a b i l i t y a re a a d d re s s e d ( f o r ex am p le , b e h a v io r d is o r d e r e d , l e a r n in g d i s a b l e d , e d u c a b ly m e n ta l ly im p a i r e d .)

2) p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n - I n fo r m a tio n r e g a rd in g th e c o n te n t s o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p a c k a g e , w hat i s in c lu d e d f o r t h e t e a c h e r t o u se ( f o r e x am p le , t e a c h e r s m a n u a l, w orkbooks , v i d e o t a p e s / f i l m s , gam es, d u p l i c a t i n g m a s te r s )

3) a b i l i t y a n d /o r m o t i v a t i o n a l com p o n en ts -

( c . l . ) The a b i l i t y a s p e c t i s s t r e s s e d i f s t u d e n t s a r e t a u g h t s p e c i f i c s o c i a l s k i l l s e q u e n c e s o r i f th e b e h a v io r a l com ponen ts o f s o c i a l s k i l l s a r e s p e c i f i e d .

( c . 2 . ) M o tiv a t io n i s s t r e s s e d th ro u g h p r o v id in g s tu d e n t s w ith r a t i o n a l e s and r e in f o r c e m e n t f o r a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v io r .

4) l e a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a d d re s s e d - The e x t e n t to w hich r e a d in g i s e m p h as ize d and w r i t i n g i s r e q u i r e d ; th e e m p h a s is on r i g h t o r wrong a n sw e rs , c u e s o r s t i m u l i u s e d .

5) s k i l l s o r t o p i c s c o v e r e d - The s p e c i f i c s k i l l s o r s u b j e c t a r e a s a d d re s s e d in th e p ro g ra m .

6) a p p ro a c h ( s k i l l s o r s i t u a t i o n ) -

( f . l . ) S k i l l s a p p ro a c h : s p e c i f i c b e h a v io r a l s t e p s a r e g iv e n f o r eac hs k i l l in c lu d in g v e r b a l and n o n v e rb a l b e h a v io r s . Each s k i l l i s p r a c t i c e d to c r i t e r i o n in v a r io u s s i t u a t i o n s .

( f . 2 . ) S i t u a t i o n a p p ro a c h : T h ere i s an e m p h a s is on s i t u a t i o n s in w hich s p e c i f i c s k i l l s a r e u s e d .


250

7) tM C tiin g m e th o d o lo g y - T h e re i s 1) an a w a re n e s s p h a s e , 2) a p r a c t i c e p h a se ( in c l u d in g b o th v e r b a l r e h e a r s a l and b e h a v io r a l r e h e a r s a l c o m b in ed w ith fe e d b a c k ) , and 3 ) an a p p l i c a t i o n p h a s e ( t o n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g s i t u a t i o n s o u t s i d e th e c la s s ro o m b o th a t s c h o o l and o u t s i d e o f s c h o o l ) .

D iv id e up i n t o f o u r g ro u p s and a sk g ro u p s t o r e p o r t on th e a b o v e com ponen ts o f th e f a l l o w in g p ro g ra m s . P a s s o u t t h e s a m p le m a t e r i a l s w h ich a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r :

1. ( I n s t r u c t o r ) Show T h r e s h o ld s t o A d u lt L iv in g ( o n ly o n e c h a p te r )2 . S k i l l s t r e a n i n g th e E le m e n ta ry S c h o o l C h i ld ; S k i l l s t r e a m i n g th e A d o le sc e n t3 . T r a n s i t i o n s4 . The P ro m ise /T h e B ig H a s s le /T h e Put-D ow n P ro /T h e C h o ice5 . P e r so n to P e r so n ( n o t on th e c h a r t )

Chtek f a r u n de rs tan d in g : What a r e th e i m p l i c a t i o n s , f o r th e t e a c h e r , o f n o t h a v in g an e le m e n t c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e d ? (HANDOUT: a s a m p le d e s c r i p t i o n o f two s o c i a l s k i l l p ro g ra m s a s th e y w ould a p p e a r in a c a t a l o g u e . )

Summary: What a r e th e e le m e n ts o f c u r r i c u l a , w hich may o r may n o t b e p r e s e n t in t r a i n i n g p a c k a g e s ? (OVERHEAD)

1. T a r g e t p o p u la t i o n .2 . P h y s ic a l d e s c r i p t i o n3 . A b i l i t y a n d /o r m o t i v a t i o n a l com ponen ts4 . L e a rn in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a d d re s s e d5 . S k i l l s o r t o p i c s c o v e re d6 . A pproach ( s k i l l s o r s i t u a t i o n s )7. T ea ch in g m e thodo logy


.Hour 94: Methodology.

(1) What a r e t h e m e thods a n d /o r s t r a t e g i e s t h a t t e a c h e r s u s e t o im plem ent s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g ?

As n o te d by a r e v ie w o f th e 10 c u r r i c u l a , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l s t e p s w hich a r e recom m ended f a r u s e in s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g . B a s i c a l l y t h e s e a r e : a w a re n e s s , p r a c t i c e , and a p p l i c a t i o n . (OVERHEAD)

A w aren e ss - W hethe r w o rk in g w ith i n d iv i d u a l s o r g r o u p s , t h i s p h a s e in v o lv e s m aking th e s tu d e n t aw a re o f t h e s k i l l ( e i t h e r th ro u g h l e c t u r e - d i s c u s s i o n o r th r o u g h w r i t t e n / v i s u a l m a t e r i a l s ) . The f o l lo w in g s t r a t e g i e s may be em ployed:(As an i l l u s t r a t i o n , u s e t h e s k i l l " s a y in g th a n k you" t o h e lp th e g ro u p fo c u s and p a r t i c i p a t e )

(a ) d e s c r ib e t h e s k i l l(b) g iv e r a t i o n a l e s f o r u s in g th e s k i l l(c) d e s c r ib e t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s i t u a t i o n s i n v o lv in g th e s k i l l(d) p r o v id e ex am p le s i t u a t i o n s in w hich th e s k i l l c a n b e u se d(e) s p e c i f y t h e b e h a v io r a l com p o n en ts o f t h e s k i l l( f ) p r e s e n t a m odel o f th e s k i l l to t h e s tu d e n t

P r a c t i c e - T h is in v o lv e s t h e c h a n c e to a c t u a l l y do th e s k i l l . U s u a l ly two ty p e s o f p r a c t i c e a r e u s e d : ( a g a in , u s e t h e s k i l l " s a y in g th a n k you" t o i l l u s t r a t e v e r b a l r e h e a r s a l and b e h a v io r a l r e h e a r s a l ; a s k s t u d e n t s in th e c l a s s t o r o l e - p l a y g iv e n a s i t u a t i o n )

v e r b a l r e h e a r s a l - b a s i c a l l y t h i s i s m e m oriz ing th e s t e p s o f th e s k i l l so t h a t t h e s tu d e n t c a n do i t " c o ld " . K id s ne ed to b e a b le t o i n s t r u c t th e m s e lv e s on w hat to do n e x t . T y p ic a l l y th e y p r a c t i c e in g ro u p s o f tw o.

b e h a v io r a l r e h e a r s a l - m ost s u c c e s s f u l s o c i a l s k i l l s t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m s in c lu d e a b e h a v io r a l r e h e a r s a l c om ponent in w hich th e s t u d e n t s p r a c t i c e th e s k i l l in r o l e - p l a y s i t u a t i o n s . They r o l e p la y in f r o n t o f th e e n t i r e g ro u p .

a) m a s te ry c r i t e r i o n i s a d v is e d (b e in g a b l e t o do th e s k i l l to some s p e c i f i e d le v e l )b) f e e d b a c k i s n e c e s s a r y t o l e t th e l e a r n e r know how h e / s h e i s d o in g . Both p o s i t iv e coaaants and c o r r e c t i v e coaaents and sug ge s tion s a r e a d v is e d

A p p l i c a t i o n - T h is i s n o t e m p h as ize d in a l l t r a i n i n g p a c k a g e s a s we d is c o v e r e d in o u r e x a m in a t io n o f th e 10 c u r r i c u l a , b u t i t i s an im p o r ta n t a r e a f o r f o c u s . In t h i s p h a se t h e s t u d e n t s a r e e n c o u ra g e d to u s e th e s k i l l s o u t s i d e th e t r a i n i n g s i t u a t i o n in n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g s i t u a t i o n s , e v a l u a t e haw th e y d id , and re w a rd th e m s e lv e s f o r c a r r y i n g th ro u g h a p p r o p r i a t e l y . S t r a t e g i e s w hich may be u se d in c lu d e : ( d i s c u s s th e u s e o f e a c h s t r a t e g y r e l a t i v e t= " s a y in g tha n k y o u " ; a l s o c o n s id e r o t h e r w ays t o h e lp g e n e r a l i z e l e a r n i n g ) .

a) gam es ( S k i l l s t r e a m in g i s an e x am p le o f a c u r r ic u lu mb) home a s s ig n m e n ts w hich u s e s t h e s e t e c h n iq u e s . )c ) g o a l s h e e t sd) c o n t in g e n c y c o n t r a c t se) u s e o f c o n f e d e r a t e s


Chock f o r m d o rs tm d in q t How do th e s e te a c h in g p r o c e d u r e s co m p are t o th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e thods a te a c h e r m ig h t u s e when in t r o d u c in g a r e a d in g le s s o n ? (R e sp o n ses sh o u ld i n c lu d e : n o t v e ry d i f f e r e n t , o r th e y r e f l e c t good s ta n d a r d

p r a c t i c e )

Summary: Mhat s t e p s a r e s u g g e s te d f o r im p lem e n tin g s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g and w hat s t r a t e g i e s b e s t c a r r y o u t e ac h s t e p ? (OVERHEAD)

1. A w aren e ss , p r a c t i c e and a p p l i c a t i o n p h a s e s2 . S t e p s r e l a t e d to e ac h p h a s e :

A w areness .d i s c u s s io nm ode ling

P r a c t i c eR e h e a r s a lR o le p la yC o r r e c t iv e fe e d b a c k

A p p l ic a t i o n

3 . S t e p s a r e u se d t h a t t e a c h e r s w ould t y p i c a l l y a p p ly when in t r o d u c in g new m a t e r i a l .


253

___________________H our «Si A d a p ta t io n o f Co— r c i a l C u r r ic ~ ila ____________________

(1) What a b o u t s o c i a l s k i l l c u r r i c u l a t h a t d o n ' t seem t o "w ork" w ith v o u r s t u d e n t s ?

I t i s acknow ledged in th e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t few s o c i a l s k i l l s c u r r i c u l a h ave b e en d e s ig n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r a i l d l y h a n d ic a p p e d p e r s o n s . A ls o , a c c o rd in g to s o u r c e s in th e l i t e r a t u r e , o f a l l th e y o u n g s te r s i d e n t i f i e d a s h a n d ic a p p e d , 80 to 90Z o f them a r e a i l d l y h a n d ic a p p e d . F o r t e a c h e r s in t h e s e a r e a s , E I-L D -Q 1I, t h e r e i s p r o b a b ly g o in g to b e need f o r th e t e a c h e r t o b e p r e p a re d to a d a p t th e c u r r ic u lu m to th e s p e c i f i c n e e d s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s in h i s o r h e r c la s s ro o m . T h is i s n ' t u n l ik e th e s i t u a t i o n th e t e a c h e r f a c e s w ith o t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s w hich m ust a l s o b e a d a p te d f o r th e s p e c i f i c g ro u p o r i n d iv i d u a l w ith whom th e t e a c h e r i s w o rk in g .

(2) i f a d a p ta t i o n is , n e c e s s a r y , w hat d o e s t h a t mean?

A d ap tin g s ta n d a r d o r p u b l i s h e d c u r r i c u l a m eans c h a n g in g th e m a t e r i a l s somehow to g e t t h e m essage a c r o s s to y o u n g s te r s in w ays th e y w i l l u n d e rs t a n d and w i th in t h e i r a b i l i t i e s t o re s p o n d . I f m a te r i a l i s to o d i f f i c u l t < e i th e r a c a d e m ic a l ly o r c o n c e p tu a l l y ) , o r d e l iv e r e d a t to o q u ic k a p a c e , th e n th e a p p o r t u n t i e s f a r le a r n in g a r e r e d u c e d . The s k i l l e d t e a c h e r r e c o g n iz e s t h i s p ro b lem and a l t e r s th e m a te r i a l a c c o r d in g l y , so m etim es f o r t h e w ho le g roup o r f o r p a r t i c u l a r i n d iv i d u a l s .

Chock f a r u a da rs tan d in g i You h ave p r o b a b ly s e e n o r e x p e r ie n c e d th e r e s u l t s o f c u r r i c u l a t h a t d i d n ' t f i t . What h a p p en s f o r th e le a r n e r ? How d o e s t h a t p e rso n f e e l ?

(3) What c u e s a r e t h e r e from y o u n g s te r s to s ig n a l t h a t t h e r e mav n o t be a f i t be tw een th e s tu d e n t and th e m a te r i a l ?

a) N ot p a y in g a t t e n t i o n ( t a l k i n g , d a y d re a m in g , s q u irm in g )b) R e p ea te d i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e sc ) C h a lle n g e s

(4) What c an you s p e c i f i c a l l y do to a d a p t m a te r i a l ?

A d ap tin g m a te r i a l a c t u a l l y r e q u i r e s a p r o b le m -s o lv in g e f f o r t on th e p a r t o f th e t e a c h e r . F o r some re a s o n th e m a te r i a l i s " n o t w o rk in g " and t h a t p rob lem m ust be p r o c e s s e d by th e t e a c h e r and a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s c o n s id e r e d and im p lem e n te d . S p e c i f i c a l l y , w hat can b e d o n e ? C o n s id e r th e f o l lo w in g w ith th e g ro u p : (BOARD)

a) I d e n t i f y c u e s w hich s ig n a l th e r e i s a p ro b lem .- o b s e r v e d b e h a v io r s o f b o th s tu d e n t s and te a c h e r -n o n v e r b a l b e h a v io r s

b) S p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f y th e p ro b lem .- g e t i t to a m a n ag e ab le s z a g e


c ) G e n e ra te sam e p o s s ib l e s o l u t i o n s .- i s t h e r e a n e ed f o r m ore group m anagem ent s k i l l ?- i s t h e r e a ne ed f a r im proved b e h a v io r m anagem ent?- i s i t n e c e s s a r y t o draw from s e v e r a l c u r r i c u l a t o d e v e lo p th e m ost ap

p r o p r i a t e c u r r ic u lu m ?

d) D e c id e w hich i s t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n .-w h a t i s w i th in y o u r c a p a b i l i t y t o d o ?- w h a t i s p o s s i b l e , r e a s o n a b le , m a n ag e ab le ?

e) T ry o u t a s o lu t io n and e v a lu a t e i t .- d i d i t w ork?-how do you know?

f . I f i t d o e s n 't w o rk , s t a r t th e p r o c e s s a g a in .-how do you know i t d i d n ' t w ork?-WHAT can you t r y n e x t?

C heck f o r w d a rs ts n d in q :

In s m a ll g ro u p s , a sk th e p a r t i c i p a t o r s t o c o n s id e r p o t e n t i a l p ro b lem s r e l a t e d t o s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in th e c la s s ro o m . C o n s id e r e a c h p h a s e o f th e p ro b lem s o lv i n g m odel a g a i n s t s e v e r a l o f th e p ro b le m s d e s c r ib e d . (OVERHEAD)

Summary - What c an th e te a c h e r do in , t h e e v e n t a d a p t a t i o n o f th e m a te r i a l is , n e c e s s a r y ? (OVERHEAD)

1. TRY to m in im iz e em o tio n and a c t i v e l y s e e k a s o l u t i o n .2 . Be f a m i l i a r w ith c u e s t h a t s i g n a l a p ro b lem e x i s t s .3 . F o llo w th ro u g h an s t e p s o f th e p r o b le m -s o lv in g m o d e l.


255

____________________________Hour «6 - A isH H fn t_______________________________

(1 ) Wh£ s h o u ld o ne go a b o u t a s s e s s in g s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g n e e d s?

i t i s n o t u n u s u a l f o r te a c h e r s t o d e l i v e r s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g to e v e ry o n e a t t h e s a n e t im e , j u s t a s th e y Mould a s c i e n c e l e s s o n o r some s i m i l a r c o n te n t a r e a . B u t , a s in o t h e r a r e a s o f s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n , i t i s im p o r ta n t t h a t s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g i s a im ed a t th e i n d i v i d u a l —-and t h a t t h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f a p r e s e n t in g p ro b lem i s d e te rm in e d f o r t h a t p e r s o n . In t h i s w ay, s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g i s m ore l i k e l y t o h av e th e g r e a t e s t v a lu e and a d d r e s s th e p r e s s i n g n e e d s o f t h a t p e r s o n .

(2) How d o e s o n e go a b o u t a s s e s s in g s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g n e e d s?

The t h r e e m o s t commonly u se d m e thods o f a s s e s s in g s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g n e e d s a r e : a ) te a c h e r r a t i n g s , b) s o c io m e tr i c a s s e s s m e n t , a nd c ) n a t u r a l i s t i c o b s e r v a t io n s .

a ) T e a c h e r r a t i n g s - T h ese i n c lu d e a w ide v a r i e t y o f te c h n iq u e s :

C om m ercial in s t r u m e n ts su c h a s The B e ha v ior E v a lu a tio n S ca le , and The B e ha vior R a tin g P r o f i le (show e x am p le s o f t h e s e i n s t ru m e n ts )

T e a c h e r -d e v e lo p e d in fo rm a l c h e c k l i s t s . The t e a c h e r d e c id e s on th e im p o r ta n t s k i l l s t o b e in c lu d e d in th e c h e c k l i s t , and th e n u s e s a " y e s - n o " , o r as c a l e fo rm a t ( n e v e r , so m e tim es , e t c . ) (show exam ple )

b ) S o c io a e tr ic assessm ent - S tu d e n ts a r e a sk e d to name tw o o r t h r e e o t h e r s t u d e n t s in t h e c l a s s w ith whom th e y w ould l i k e t o e a t , go o u t , spend tim e on th e b r e a k , w ork on a p r o j e c t , e t c . The a n sw e rs a r e r e c o rd e d on a w r i t t e n form by e a c h s t u d e n t , in c o n f id e n c e . The te a c h e r c a n th e n r e c o rd a l l r e s p o n s e s on a t a l l y s h e e t o r on a s o c io g ra m (show ex am p le ) to s e e w hat k in d o f p a t t e r n s em erg e . Such a v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n may h a v e im p l i c a t i o n s f o r r e m e d ia t io n i f i t show s up t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r y o u n g s t e r ( s ) i s n o t s e l e c t e d by a n yone b u t i s s e l e c t i n g o t h e r s . (A lso show th e r a t i n g s c a l e down by s t u d e n t s .

c ) N a t u r a l i s t i c o b s e r v a t io n - D i r e c t o b s e r v a t io n o f t h e s t u d e n t ( s ) in a s e t t i n g ( c la s s r o o m , p la y g ro u n d , s p e c i a l a c t i v i t y , e t c . ) . T h is m ethod r e q u i r e s t h e te a c h e r t o b e a b l e to i d e n t i f y p ro b lem b e h a v io r s a s : (OVERHEAD)

s p e c i f i c / o b s e r v a b 1e /m e a s u r e a b 1e - f o r e x am p le , i n s t e a d o f r e p o r t i n g t h a t a y o u n g s te r i s a g g r e s s iv e , d e s c r ib e th e b e h a v io r ( s ) o f th e y o u n g s te r - “h i t " , “k ic k e d " , " s t r u c k - . ( T r a n s l a t e " la c y " and " im m a tu re - i n to m ore b e h a v io r a l te rm s)

th e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w hich th e b e h a v io r o c c u r s - in o t h e r w ords , when and w here

th e f re q u e n c y o f th e b e h a v io r s - how o f t e n d o e s i t o c c u r


i n t e n s i t y and m a g n itu d e - w hat e x t e n t o f r e d i r e c t i o n d id i t t a k e ?

To docum en t th e r e s u l t s o f o b s e r v a t io n s , th e t e a c h e r may u s e a lo n g , n a r r a - iv e fo rm , a t a l l y s h e e t t o i n d i c a t e how o f t e n t h e t a r g e t b e h a v io r o c c u r s o r a fa rm w hich in c o r p o r a t e s t h e b e h a v io r , d u r a t i o n , s i t u a t i o n , e t c . (a sk tw o s t u d e n t s to r o l e p la y a p ro b lem in t h e c la s s ro o m — a te a c h e r w ork ing w ith an " u n m o tiv a te d '' s t u d e n t — ? r e q u e s t a l l t h e o b s e r v e r s t o d e s c r ib e th e p ro b le m in b e h a v io r a l t e r m s ) .

C hick f o r u a d trs ta n d in g : Why w ould you g u e s s t h a t n a t u r a l i s t i c o b s e r v a t io n i sbecom ing a p o p u la r fo rm o f a s s e s s in g s o c i a l s k i l l n e e d ? (OVERHEAD)

a) I t o c c u r s r i g h t in t h e c la s s ro o m o r o t h e r n a t u r a l e n v iro n m e n t ( a l th o u g h c an b e tim e-co n su m in g )

b) S t u d e n t s p e c i f i cc ) I s m e a s u re a b le and o b j e c t i v e , and p r o v id e s i n t e r v e n t i o n d i r e c t i o n

SUMMARY: WHY IS ASSESSMENT A CRITICAL PART OF THE PROCESS?(OVERHEAD)

1. P r o v id e s d i r e c t i o n f a r t h e s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g e f f o r t th r o u g h th e c o m p ila t i o n o f m e a n in g fu l in f o r m a t io n a b o u t a s tu d e n t .

2 . P r o v id e s s p e c i f i c t e c h n iq u e s w hich th e t e a c h e r c a n u s e t o p r o b le m -s o lv e th e d i f f i c u l t i e s a s tu d e n t may be h a v in g .


Hear #7: S itu a tio n a l Variables and Student Responses.

(1) What a r e th e k in d s o f -o b s t a c l e s o r s o u r c e s o f r e s i s t a n c e w hich a te a c h e r a a v -face when a t te m p t in g to im plem ent s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g ?

I m p le m en tin g s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g c a n b e made d i f f i c u l t on two l e v e l s : a) s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s , and b) s tu d e n t r e s p o n s e s .

S itu a t io n a l v a r ia b le s - T hese a r e o b s t a c l e s p r o v id e d in t h e s c h o o l s e t t i n g . T hey c an ta k e s e v e r a l fo rm s: (WRITE CN BOARD)

(a ) S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g may n o t b e s e e n a s a l e g i t i m a t e c o u r s e o f f e r i n g , in c o m p a riso n to th e a ca d em ic a r e a s o f r e a d in g , m a th , s c i e n c e , s o c i a l s t u d i e s , e t c . . WHEN DO YOU FIT IT IN? T h is may b e a p a r t i c u l a r p ro b le m a t th e se c o n d a ry l e v e l w here g r a d u a t io n may be a c o n fo u n d in g f a c t o r . W ith th e em p h as is in t o d a y 's s c h o o ls on e x c e l l e n c e , s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g may n o t b e s e e n a s a l e g i t i m a t e a c h ie v e m e n t a r e a . T h u s, t e a c h e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y new o n e s , w i l l f e e l g u i l t y t h a t th e y a r e n o t co n fo rm in g to w hat i s e x p e c te d and w i l l n o t f e e l c o n f id e n t enough to p ro c e e d w ith s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g when t h e r e i s n ' t o b v io u s s u p p o r t .

(b ) D epending on th e v a lu e p la c e d on s o c i a l s k i l l p ro g ram m ing , t h e d i s t r i c t may o r may n o t h a v e a p p r o p r i a t e m a t e r i a l s f a r t h e new t e a c h e r t o u s e . As we n o te d back when we lo o k e d a t c u r r ic u lu m , f o r t h e m ost p a r t , m a t e r i a l s in t h i s a r e a h a v e n o t b e en d e v e lo p e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h e m i ld ly h a n d ic a p p e d . In f a c t , t e a c h e r s o f th e m i ld ly h a n d ic a p p e d a t th e m id d le s c h o o l o r s e c o n d a ry l e v e l m a s t f r e q u e n t ly m e n tio n s o c i a l s k i l l s m a t e r i a l s a s t h e i r h ig h e s t c u r r i c u l a r n e e d . T h is m eans two th i n g s — 1) m a t e r i a l s may n o t a l r e a d y b e a v a i l a b l e in th e c la s s ro o m , o r 2) th e m a t e r i a l s w hich e x i s t w i l l e i t h e r n e ed to b e r e p la c e d o r a d a p te d .

Check -for un d e rs ta n d in g : What a r e th e im p l i c a t i o n s f o r y o u , a s new te a c h e r s , i f you d o n ' t f e e l e n c o u ra g e d o r s u p p o r te d to im p lem en t s o c i a l s k i l l s t r a i n in g in y o u r new c la s s ro o m s , e i t h e r b e c a u s e i t i s n o t a c c e p te d a s a v a l id c u r r i c u l a r a r e a o r t h e r e a r e few o r no m a t e r i a l s ? ( r e s p o n s e s sh o u ld i n d i c a t e t h a t 1) im p lem e n tin g s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g w i l l b e d i f f i c u l t , o r 2) l i k e l y to n o t o c c u r a t a l l )

Check f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g : What o t h e r k in d s o f s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s may e x i s t t o o b s t r u c t t h e im p le m e n ta t io n o f s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g ? (R e sp o n ses may i n c l u d e : )

a ) H aving to le a r n a l l t h e o t h e r m a t e r i a l s r e l a t e d t o a c a d e m ic sb) Age o f th e s t a f fc ) A d m in is t r a t iv e s u p p o r td) Number o f s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n p e r s o n n e le ) S i z e o f c l a s sf ) E x te n t o f d i s c i p l i n a r y c o n t r o lg) P e r s o n a l (so m e tim e s u n e x p e c te d ) s i t u a t i o n s


S t u d e n t R e sp o n se s - (OVERHEAD) The r e s p o n s e o f y o u r s t u d e n t s t o t h e m a te r ia lyou f e s e n t , and th e way you p r e s e n t i t , i s a s e c o n d , h ig h ly c r i t i c a lv a ria b le .

W hat k in d s o f r e s i s t a n c e c an y o u n g s te r s p r e s e n t ?

a) a c t i v e r e f u s a l t o p a r t i c i p a t e (w h in in g , c h a l l e n g in g t h e t e a c h e r , r e f u s in g , b e in g a b u l ly )

b) p a s s iv e r e f u s a l t o p a r t i c i p a t e ( j u s t s i t t i n g t h e r e , d o in g n o th in g , o r s im p ly p a r r o t i n g w hat o th e r s h a v e s a id )

c ) i n a p p r o p r i a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n ( la u g h in g , d e l i b e r a t e l y a i s r e s p o n d in g to g e t a la u g h )

d) u n e x cu se d a b s e n c ee ) t a r d i n e s s

Y o u n g s te rs may d e m o n s tr a te r e s i s t a n c e t o any a ca d e m ic a r e a ; ho w ev e r, why m ig h t th e y b e ev en m ore in c l in e d to o f f e r r e s i s t a n c e t o p rog ram m ing d e a l in g w ith b e h a v io r ?

a ) W ith E l y o u n g s te r s , b e h a v io r i s t h e g i s t o f t h e p ro b le m ; t h i s i s th e a r e a w h ere th e y ne ed th e m ost h e lp ; th e y may b e e m b a ra s se d when s im p le s k i l l s l i k e " g r e e t in g " o r " a s k in g a q u e s t io n a p p r o p r i a t e ly " a r e p r e s e n te d , th e y o f te n do n o t p e r c e iv e t h e i r own p ro b le m s .

b) E l , LD, and EMI y o u n g s te r s t y p i c a l l y h a v e be low a v e r a g e i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y ; th e y s im p ly may n o t u n d e rs t a n d w h at i s b e in g p r e s e n te d and lo s e i n t e r e s t a s a r e s u l t . O fte n c u r r i c u l a m u st b e b ro k e n down i n t o v e ry s m a l l , s e q u e n c e d , and s t r u c t u r e d u n i t s t o b e e f f e c t i v e .

c ) T e a c h e rs f r e q u e n t ly work w ith s t u d e n t s in g ro u p s when te a c h in g s o c i a l s k i l l s . M ild ly h a n d ic a p p e d s tu d e n t s f r e q u e n t ly h a v e t r o u b l e d e a l in g w ith t h e i r p e e r s in j u s t t h i s k in d o f s i t u a t i o n .

d) T hese y o u n g s te r s a r e o f te n im p u ls iv e and p o o r p r o b le m - s o l v e r s , th u s n o t g iv in g c a r e f u l th o u g h t to f e e d b a c k . T h is c an becom e f r u s t r a t i n g f o r t h e t e a c h e r .

e ) M ild ly h a n d ic a p p e d y o u n g s te r s o f t e n e x p e c t t o f a i l , and th e y may g iv e up e a s i l y .

Check f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g : A gain , w hat a r e t h e im p l i c a t i o n s f o r you , a s new t e a c h e r s , to m eet r e s i s t a n c e from s t u d e n t s when p r e s e n t in g s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g ?

a ) A t e a c h e r may g iv e u p , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g i s v o l u n t a r i l y p ro v id e d

b) Time w i l l h a v e to b e s p e n t t o r e v i s e and a d a p t c u r r i c u l a a n d /o r i d e n t i f y r e s o u r c e h e lp

c ) G r e a t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y c o n t r o l may h a v e to b e e s t a b l i s h e d th ro u g h a more s y s t e m a t i c and e f f e c t i v e b e h a v io r m anagem ent sy s te m


259

Summary; G iven th e b e s t o f i n t e n t i o n s on th e p a r t o f new t e a c h e r s , how can s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e and s tu d e n t r e s p o n s e s a c t g s o b s t a c l e s tcj th e im p le m e n ta t io n o f s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g ? (OVERHEAD)

a) U nderm ine th e c o n f id e n c e o f th e t e a c h e rb ) Create s o r e work fa r the t e a c h e r who i s already a ttea tp in g to learn other

a a te r ia lsc ) Put th e teacher in s itu a t io n s which requ ire considerab le group aanageent

s k i l ld) P u t m ore c o n t r o l in th e h a n d s o f th e y o u n g s te r s


2 6 0

_________________ Hour *S: Tmachmr B e h a v i o r s _____

(1) What t e a c h e r b e h a v io r s a r e im p o r ta n t f o r soc ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g tg . h a v e a c h a n c e f o r s u c c e s s in . new t e a c h e r s 1 c la s s ro o m s ?

I t i s s a id in th e l i t e r a t u r e , "Even th e m o st w e l l-d e s ig n e d a n d a l l - i n c l u s i v e t r a i n i n g p rog ram may b e r e n d e re d i n e f f e c t i v e i f i t i s c o n d u c te d in an o v e r ly d i d a c t i c ( l e c t u r e - s t y l e ) , m e c h a n ic a l , and u n in v i t i n g m a n n e r" . I t i s a l s o s a i d , "T he i n s t r u c t o r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p may w e l l i n f lu e n c e e v e r y a s p e c t o f th e t r a i n i n g p r o c e s s " .

F o r new te a c h e r s w hat d o e s t h i s m ean? I t m eans t h a t th e t e a c h e r n e e d s s k i l l an two l e v e l s , i n t e r p e r s a n a l l y and m a n a g e r i a l l y .

Interpersonal s k i l l

a ) A te a c h e r n e e d s t o h a v e good r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith s t u d e n t s t h a t a r e :- C a r in g- M u tu a lly r e s p e c t f u l- C l e a r - c u t in te r ra s o f r o l e s- H e lp fu l t o t h e s tu d e n t in t h e m a in te n a n c e o f h i s d i g n i t y / s e l f - r e s p e c t

b) The te a c h e r m ust b e a good m odel o f t h e b e h a v io r s p r e s e n t e d in a s o c i a l s k i l l c u r r ic u lu m ( o th e r w is e an i n c r e d i b l y v a lu a b le r e s o u r s e i s l o s t , and t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f th e t e a c h in g i s d im in is h e d )- D e m o n s tra tin g in t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l- D e m o n s tra tin g p r o b le r a - s o lv in g s k i l l

M a n a g e r ia l s k i l l

a ) The t e a c h e r n e e d s t o know and b e a b l e to u s e th e p r i n c i p l e s o f b e h a v io r m o d i f ic a t io n- D is c u s s io n- M ode ling new l e a r n in g- R o le p la y in g- G uided p r a c t i c e- C o r r e c t iv e f e e d b a c k and r e in f o r c e m e n t- " S u c c e s s iv e a p p ro x im a tio n s " th r o u g h sh a p in g

b) The t e a c h e r n e e d s good c la s s ro o m m anagem ent s k i l l s- O rg a n iz a t io n o f an o r d e r l y e n v iro n m e n t- Tim e m anagem ent- A b i l i t y t o p a c e a s s ig n m e n ts- S t r u c t u r e and d e l i v e r y o f c u r r ic u lu m- E v a lu a t io n s k i l l s to m o n ito r s t u d e n t p r o g r e s s

C heck f o r u a d a rs tm d in q : As new t e a c h e r s , how do th e f a c t o r s i d e n t i f i e d —i n t e r p e r s o n a l and m a n a g e r i a l— h a v e im p l i c a t i o n s f o r you a s a s o c i a l s k i l l s t r a i n e r ?

R e sp o n se s may in c lu d e :a ) w i l l weaken my c o n f id e n c eb) w i l l make me r e a l i z e how much I h a v e to le a r nc ) w i l l s t r e n g th e n my r e s o l v e t o work h a r d e r


261

Summary: What t e a c h e r b e h a v io r s a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r p r e s e r v i c e t e a c h e r s to be m ore e f f e c t i v e im p le m e n to rs o f s o c i a l s k i l l p rog ram m ing? (OVERHEAD)

a ) I n t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l sb) M a n a g e ria l s k i l l sd) R e c o g n i t io n t h a t th e t e a c h e r i s t h e key f i g u r e in th e c la s s ro o m who s e t s

th e mood, s t r u c t u r e , e x p e c t a t i o n s , and g e n e r a l e n v iro n m e n t in su c h a way t h a t i t i s c o n d u c iv e to r i s k - t a k i n g and l e a r n in g on th e p a r t o f s t u d e n t s .


Append ix M

Areas f o r E v a l u a t io n o f Socia l S k i l l C u r r i c u l a


A p p e n d ix N

L e t t e r t o Teache rs Re viewing th e S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in i n g Program

273


274

Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008-3899

O cto b er 26, 1987

Ton Nob l e t 1A24 G ulI Road K alam azoo , HI 49008

D ear H r. Nob l e t ,

Hy name i s L inda H i l l e r and I am a d o c to r a l s t u d e n t a t W este rn M ich igan U n iv e r s i ty in th e s p e c ia l e d u c a t io n c u r r i c u i u a . I a a w r i t i n g to r e q u e s t y o u r h e lp w ith a s p e c i f i c c o n p o n en t o f ey d i s s e r t a t i o n r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t . The to p i c a r e a o f ay p r o j e c t i s s o c i a l s k i l l s , w ith e a p h a s is on th e te a c h e r t r a i n i n g a s p e c t .

S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g i s a n a p p ro a c h to b e h a v io r a a n a g e a e n t w hich i s g row ing in u s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n c l a s s r o o a s . However, t h e r e i s so a e c o n c e rn t h a t te a c h e r s a r e n o t b e in g p r o p e r ly t r a i n e d to c o n d u c t t h i s ty p e o f i n s t r u c t i o n . Hy r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t a t t e a p t s to lo o k a t t h i s i s s u e . The s tu d y I w i l l c o n d u c t c o a p a re s t h r e e a p p ro a c h e s to t r a i n i n g u n d e rg ra d u a te s t u d e n t s in th e a re a of s o c i a l s k i l l s . U l t l a a t e l y , I w ish to se e w hich o f th e s e a p p ro a c h e s e s t a b l i s h e s a s t r o n g e r b e l i e f and c o a a i t a e n t b a se to s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g . B r i e f l y , th e s e a p p ro a c h e s a r e :

(1> C lassro o m a a n a g e a e n t - I n s t r u c t i o n in c l a s s r o o a a a n a g e a e n t , w ith e a p h a s ison e s t a b l i s h i n g a sy stem o f s p e c i f i c r u l e s and c o n c r e te ways o f r e in f o r c in g and c o n s e q u a tln g b e h a v io r . T h is a p p ro a c h r e p r e s e n t s th e s ta n d a r d a e th o d t y p i c a l l y u se d in u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g p r o g ra a s .

(2 ) S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g - I n s t r u c t i o n in th e s p e c i f i c a r e a o f s o c ia l s k i l l s , w ith m a jo r e a p h a s is on p r o c e d u re s , c u r r i c u l a , and o th e r a s s o c i a t e d s tu d e n t and c l a s s r o o a v a r i a b l e s .

(3 ) S e l f - e f f i c a c y t r a i n i n g - I n s t r u c t i o n d i r e c t e d a t e x am in in g and s t r e n g t h e n in g th e b e l i e f s y s te a u n d e r ly in g a p r e s e r v i c e t e a c h e r 's w i l l i n g n e s s and a o t l v a t i o n to d e l iv e r s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g in th e c l a s s r o o a .

As p a r t o f a p p ro a ch n u a b er tw o, s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g (SST), I haved e v e lo p e d a 1 2 -hou r i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g ra a to be d e l iv e r e d to a g roup o fu n d e rg r a d u a te e a jo r s in s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n . The t r a i n i n g i s b a sed on a r ev ie w o f c u r r e n t s o c i a l s k i l l l i t e r a t u r e and a c c o rd in g ly i s c o m p rised of to p i c a l in f o r m a tio n in t h i s a r e a , i . e . , t r a i n i n g p ro c e d u re s , c u r r i c u l a u sed w iths tu d e n t s in s p e c ia l e d u c a t io n c l a s s r o o a s , s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s , e t c . . Tof u r t h e r s t r e n g th e n th e r i g o r o f ay s tu d y , how ever, and more a d e q u a te ly e n s u re t h a t th e SST program i s r e l i a b l e and v a l i d , 1 need y o u r h e lp . S p e c i f i c a l l y , yo u r a s s i s t a n c e i s r e q u e s te d to r e v ie w th e e n c lo s e d s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g p rogram and p ro v id e fee d b ac k r e g a rd in g i t s (1 ) c o n te n t and (2 ) a r r a n g e a e n t and d e l iv e r y of u n i t s . Of n e c e s s i t y , th e s e a s p e c t s o u s t be s t r i n g e n t l y e v a lu a te d o r th e v a lu e of th e in f o r m a tio n g a in e d f r o a th e t r a i n i n g p ro g ra a i sd im in is h e d .

College or Education Department of Special Education 16I61 383-1680


In p a r t i c u l a r , I a a r e q u e s t in g y o u r a s s i s t a n c e a s a r e v ie w e r to b r in g a p r a c t i o n e r ' s p o in t o f view to t h i s t r a i n i n g com ponen t. W ith o u t such a p e r s p e c t iv e , th e r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f t h i s in f o r m a t io n f o r f u tu r e a p p l i c a t i o n in th e f i e l d i s s e r i o u s l y r e d u c e d .

Y our a s s i s t a n c e , th e n , i s r e q u i r e d f o r one s p e c i f i c t a s k : t o rev ie w th e e n c lo s e d t r a i n i n g p r o g ra e . T h is in v o lv e s r e a d in g eac h i n s t r u c t i o n a l u n i t and a a k ln g a ny c o r r e c t io n s o r s u g g e s t io n s d i r e c t l y on th e copy w hich r e l a t e t o :

(1 ) C o n te n t - Does th e l n f o r a a t l o n h ave p o t e n t i a l u s e f u l n e s s f o r te a c h e r s in t r a i n i n g ? Does i t c o v e r i a p o r t a n t a r e a s ?

(2 ) A rrangem en t o f th e u n i t s and te a c h in g s t r a t e g i e s - Do th e u n i t s p ro ce ed in a lo g i c a l o r d e r ? Are t h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e te a c h in g s t r a t e g i e s em ployed f o r d e l i v e r i n g th e in fo rm a tio n ?

I f p o s s ib l e , I am h o p in g to im p lem en t t h i s s tu d y th e f i r s t week in D ecem ber, 1987. T hus, y o u r r e s p o n s e i s n eeded a s soon a s p o s s ib l e so t h a t r e v i s i o n s can be made to th e o r i g i n a l p ro g ra m . To f a c i l i t a t e a sp e ed y r e t u r n ,I h av e e n c lo s e d a s e l f - a d d r e s s e d , s ta m p e d , l a r g e - s l z e e n v e lo p e . O u ts id e o f a few ite m s o f dem ograph ic i n f o r m a t io n , I an n o t r e q u e s t in g p e r s o n a l ly i d e n t i f i a b l e In fo r m a tio n . The SST p r o g ra a i s c o d ed , b u t t h a t i s la r g e ly so I c an m o n ito r th e r e tu r n o f r e s p o n s e s .

I t r u l y a p p r e c i a t e y o u r c o n s id e r a t io n o f ay r e q u e s t . W hile t h e r e a r e no d i r e c t b e n e f i t s to you from p a r t i c i p a t i o n , h o p e fu l ly i t c an be r e c o g n iz e d you may be p a r t o f d e v e lo p in g im proved t r a i n i n g f o r s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n p r a c t lo n e r s in th e f u tu r e .

I f you have f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s , p l e a s e do n o t h e s i t a t e t o c o n ta c t me. Hy a d d re s s and te le p h o n e num bers a r e :

L in d a N i l l e r 3S09 S a n g ren H all

W este rn H ic h ig a n U n iv e r s i ty K alam azoo, M ic h ig a n 49008

WHU: 8 1 6 -3 8 3 -1 6 8 0 Home: 6 1 6 -3 8 8 -3 8 8 2

S i n c e r e ly y o u r s ,

L inda N i l l e r


A p p e n d ix O

D e f i n i t i o n o f S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in i n g Domain and S o c ia l S k i l l T r a i n i n g Subset Areas


27-7

The C o n ten t D onain : S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in in g

D e f in i t io n

SOCIAL SKILL TRAINING I s a b e h a v io r a l l y - o r i e n t e d , i n s t r u c t i o n a l a p p ro a ch to te a c h in g in d iv i d u a ls i n t e r p e r s o n a l , c o p in g , and p la n n in g b e h a v io r s ; t r a i n in g i s b a se d on th e a s s u a p t lo n t h a t s o c i a l b e h a v io r i s l e a r n e d and c an be ta u g h t u s in g s t r u c t u r e d te a c h in g n e th o d s ( G o l d s te in , S p r a f k l n , G ershaw , k K le in , 1963; S p e n c e , 1 9 8 3 ). "The goal i s t y p i c a l l y to t r a i n i n d iv i d u a l s in a o re a p p r o p r i a t e i n te r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s in o r d e r t o d e v e lo p a o r e a d a p t iv e I n t e r a c t io n p a t t e r n s w ith o t h e r s ” (O sberg , 1982. p . 5 8 ) . The t e a c h in g o f i n te r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s c an a ls o be su p p le e e n te d by te a c h in g s p e c i f i c s t e p s w hich h e lp an in d iv i d u a l to a e n t a l l y exam ine th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f c h o ic e s b e fo r e th e y a r e p e r f o ra e d ( H a r r i s , 1984 ).

la p lam en ta tion o f S o c ia l S k i l l T ra in in g

S o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n i n g f o r c h i ld r e n and a d o le s c e n t s i s an i n s t r u c t i o n a l p ro c e s s w hich r e q u i r e s aany s k i l l s and in f o r n a t io n on th e p a r t o f th e te a c h e r o r t r a i n e r . The fo llo w in g c a t e g o r i e s I n d i c a t e s e v e r a l recommended a r e a s :

K now ledge o f s o c i a l s k i l l s - K nowledge o f th e r a t i o n a l e f o r , and d i v e r s i t y and se q u en c e o f s o c ia l s k i l l s found in c o a a e r c i a l l y pa ck a g ed c u r r i c u l a (S c h u a a k e r , P e d e rso n , H az e l , k H eyen, 1 9 83 ). (Q u e s t io n s 1, 2 , 7 , 10, 14)

Know ledge o f t r a i n i n g p r o c e d u re s and a p p ro a c h e s - K now ledge of b e h a v io r a o d l f i c a t i o n a e th o d o lo g y , e . g . , m o d e lin g , r o l e - p l a y , p e r f o ra a n c e fe e d b a c k , ■ t ra n s fe r o f le a r n in g , and ta s k a n a l y s i s (DeLuke & K nob iock , 1 9 8 7 ), and th e - S k il l v s . p r o b le a - s o lv in g ap p ro a ch ( S p e n c e r , 1 9 83 ). ( Q u e s t io n s 3 , 4 , 16)

Know ledge o f a s se s s m e n t * Knowledge o f c o aa o n s e th o d s o f a s se s s m e n t and th e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f o b ta in e d d a ta to s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g (G re sh a a , 1 9 82 ). (Q u e s t io n s 8 , 13, 19)

Know ledge o f a a t e r l a l s - K nowledge o f th e s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g c u r r i c u l a a v a i l a b l e f o r u se w ith s p e c ia l e d u c a t io n s tu d e n t s a nd th e p o s s ib l e need fo r a d a p ta t i o n o f n a t e r i a l s (S c h u aa k er e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 ) . ( Q u e s t io n s 5 , 6 , 11)

Knowledge o f s tu d e n t r e s p o n s e s - K now ledge o f th e k in d s o f r e s i s t a n c e to s o c i a l s k i l l i n s t r u c t i o n s tu d e n ts aay d e a o n s t r a t e , e . g . , u n e xcused a b se n c e , a c t i v e o r p a s s iv e r e f u s a l to p a r t i c i p a t e , and i n a p p r o p r i a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n (G o ld s te in e t a l . , 1 9 83 ). (Q u e s tio n s 18, 20)

Know ledge o f s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s - K now ledge o f th e o b s t a c l e s a n d /o r c i r c u a s t a n c e s w hich aay e x i s t in a s c h o o l s e t t i n g to e n c o u ra g e o r d is c o u ra g e th e d e l iv e r y of s o c ia l s k i l l t r a i n in g (L add k A sh er, 1 9 8 5 ) . (Q u e s tio n s 12, 17)

Know ledge o f te a c h e r b e h a v io r s - K now ledge o f th e b e h a v io r s and s t y l e s o f te a c h in g n o s t l i k e ly to enhance ( e a rn in g f o r s tu d e n t s (Ladd k M ize, 1983). ( Q u e s t io n s 9 , 15)


A p p e n d ix P

Judge 's R a t in g Shee t Used by E x p e r ts in Conten t V a l i d a t i o n o f th e S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in i n g Knowledge In v e n to ry

278


279

Ju d g e

1 . A dequacy o f th e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e d o a a ln , s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g .

a d e q u a te

_______ n o t a d e e u a te

2 . A dequacy o f th e c a te g o ry " s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s * .

_ _ _ _ _ a d e q u a te

n o t a d e q u a te

3 . A dequacy o f th e f o l lo w in g t e s t l t e a s t o a e a s u r e t h e c a t e g o r y " s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s ” .

Y es, a d e q u a te No, I n a d e q u a te R e cc m a en d a tio n

*15 __ __*16 ______*17 ______ ______*18 ______

N o te : D is r e g a rd l t e a s *1 , 5 , 7 , 12, and 14


Appendix Q

Response L e t t e r from Dr . Joanne M i l b u r n : Co ntent V a l i d i t y o f th e S o c ia l S k i l l

T r a in i n g Know lege In v e n to ry


HANNAH NEIL CENTER FOR CHILDREN

Deceaber 22, 1987

Linda Millar 3509 Sancran Ball Kalaoaxoo, MI 49008

Daar Ma. Millari

Thank you for firin g mm an opportunity Co look ae your inacruaanc asasurlng the valid ity of aoelal akllla knovledje. I 'a aorry Co ba ao lata In gatclng chi* back to you. I Kara baan swsaped. Aa you can aaa Iron ay raaponaaa, Ihad d iff ic u lty with a nuabar of cba Icaaa. Good aulciple-cholce eaaca art axcraaaly d iff ic u lt to conacrucc, aa you know. Toura la a good baginnlng, buc i f this lnatnannt la to hart ralldlcy aa a aaaaura of socia l akllla knowladga,you alghc want to look at aoaa of cha Icaaa aora eloaaly.

Many of cha itaaa aaaa to aa to ba dabatabla bacauaa cha anawar you aatk aaaas to ba baaad on an opinion rathar chan aoplrlcal daca, and ona could argua dlffaranc ways. lecas 9 and IS ara axaoplaa of th is.

I aasuae Chat tha training isaslons and reading aacarlala w ill provide cha daslrad answers to a l l chase quaadons, and you w ill be aaaaurlng cha subjects' ab ility co llscan , taka nocaa, acudy, and caka aultipla-choiea cases. Perhaps ay problea la chac I hava not bad the advances* of cha training sessions, donoc hava e lse Co review Che reading nacarlal, and Charafore do noc know cha

I f you gac a poslelva consensus froa ochar ravlavars you should probably go wlch cha lcaas In cha lncarasc of d a* , buc I did wane you co know ay reaction.

Base wishes wlch your endeavor.

Sincerely,

Director

301 Oben Rd.. Columbui. Ohio 43207-4092 (614) 491-3784


Appendix R

L e t t e r t o P r e s e r v i c e Teachers R equest in g t h e i r P a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e Study


283

W ESTERN M IC H IG A N U N IV E R S ITY |_________COLLEGE Of EDUCATION I KALAMAZOO. MICHIGANOmnrrni of SokiqI Educahon (616) 383-1680 I ' 900«

S t u d e n t T e a c h e rs in W in te r , 1988:

T h la l e t t e r I s an i n v i t a t i o n , r e q u e s t in g yo u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a r e s e a r c hp r o j e c t in th e w in te r o f 1988. The t o p i c o f t h i s p r o j e c t i s s o c i a l s k i l lt r a i n i n g and in v o lv e s th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f p r e s e r v i c e s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n t e a c h e r s to c o n d u c t t h i s ty p e o f p r o g ra a e ln g . C u r r e n t l y , s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g i s n o t o f f e r e d in u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g p r o g ra a s a s p a r t o f th e s ta n d a r d c u r r i c u l a .How ever, i t I s an i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o a p o n e n t w hich i s b e in g h ig h ly p rom oted f o ru se w ith h a n d ica p p ed s tu d e n t s . P a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h i s p r o j e c t w ould o f f e r you th e o p p o r tu n i ty to g a in fo rm al t r a i n i n g In th e s o c i a l s k i l l s a r e a .

What uduld be required o f you?

F i r s t , th e t r a i n i n g c o n s i s t s o f 10 h o u rs o f i n s t r u c t i o n . Two com ponentso f t r a i n i n g w i l l be o f f e r e d , one a p p ro a c h o c c u r r in g on S a tu r d a y , J a n u a ry 23and a se co n d a p p ro a c h on S a tu r d a y , J a n u a ry 3 0 . H ow ever, I t w ould o n ly be n e c e s s a r y f o r you to p a r t i c i p a t e i n one o f t h e s e s e s s io n s to c o m p le te th epro g ra m .

S e cond , i t w ould be n e c e s s a r y f o r in d iv i d u a l s to t r a v e l to a c e n t r a lm e e tin g s i t e . As e ac h day o f t r a i n i n g w i l l be p r o v id e d to a m ixed group o f s tu d e n t te a c h e r s from G rand V a l le y S t a t e U n iv e r s i ty and W este rn M ich igan U n iv e r s i t y , a lo c a t i o n m ost c o n v e n ie n t f o r b o th g ro u p s w i l l be a r r a n g e d .T ra v e l re im b u rse m e n t would be p r o v id e d to th o s e t r a v e l i n g 15 m ile s o r m ore.

What bene fits would you gain from p a rt ic ip a tio n in th is p ro ject?

Most I m p o r ta n t ly , th e r e w i l l be th e o p p o r tu n i ty t o g a in fo rm al t r a i n i n g in th e s o c i a l s k i l l s a r e a . As n o te d ab o v e , u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g p rogram s a r en o t c u r r e n t l y in c lu d in g t h i s com ponent in t h e i r s ta n d a r d p r e p a r a t io ns e q u e n c e s . At th e c o n c lu s io n o f t r a i n i n g , you w i l l r e c e iv e a c e r t i f i c a t e o f c o m p le t io n , ack n o w le d g in g yo u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n . P a r t i c i p a n t s w i l l a l s o be p r o v id e d w ith a p a c k e t o f m a te r i a l s r e l a t e d to s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g . As ar e l a t e d b e n e f i t , p a r t i c i p a n t s g a in th e o p p o r tu n i ty to s u p p o r t r e s e a r c h in e d u c a t io n and p o t e n t i a l l y add to e x i s t i n g p r a c t i c e in o u r f i e l d .

P l e a s e c o n s id e r p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h i s t r a i n i n g . I n c lu d e d in t h i s l e t t e r a r e a r e s p o n s e form and a s e l f - a d d r e s s e d stam ped e n v e lo p e . My name, a d d re s s , and te le p h o n e number a r e a l s o in c lu d e d i f you have f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s . THANK ro u FOR TOUR CONSIDERATION of t h i s o p po r t u n it y .

S i n c e r e ly ,

M jJULu u

L in d a Ml I l e rD o c to ra l S tu d e n tW este rn M ic h ig a n U n iv e r s i ty


284

SOCIAL SKILL TRAINING PARTICIPATION

P a r t ic ip a t io n

I c a n p a r t i c i p a t e on e i t h e r J a n u a ry 23 o r J a n u a ry 30

I c an o n ly p a r t i c i p a t e on J a n u a ry 23

I c a n o n ly p a r t i c i p a t e on J a n u a ry 30

S ite o i t r a in in g

I w ould be w i l l i n g to d r iv e to a c e n t r a l lo c a t i o n

I c a n o n ly p a r t i c i p a t e i f t r a i n i n g i s co n d u c te d in th e K alam azoo a re a

I c a n o n ly p a r t i c i p a t e I t t r a i n i n g i s c o n d u c te d in th e G rand V a l le y a re a

Naae Da te

A d d re ss________________________________________________

T eIe p h o n e ______________________________________________

U n iv e r s i t y _____________________________________________

I f you a r e i n t e r e s t e d and a b le to p a r t i c i p a t e in t r a i n i n g , p le a s e u se th e e n c lo s e d s e l f - a d d r e s s e d s tam ped e n v e lo p e to r e tu r n t h i s co m p leted form . If th e r e a r e o th e r q u e s t io n s o r c o n c e rn s , p le a s e c o n ta c t me a t e i t h e r :

L inda M i l l e r L inda M i l le r3509 S a n g ren H all 4110 Lake F o r e s t LaneD e p a r ta e n t o f S p e c ia l E d u c a tio n K alam azoo, Ml 49008W este rn M ich igan U n iv e r s i ty (H) 6 1 6 -3 8 8 -3 8 8 2K alam azoo. HI 49008 (U) 6 1 6 -3 8 3 -1 6 8 0

THANK YOU FOR YOUR SUPPORT!


A p p e n d ix S

L e t t e r t o S o l i c i t P a r t i c i p a n t s f o r th e Comparison Group

285


286

WESTERN M ICH IG AN U N IV E R S ITYCOURSE Of EDUCATIONOeoonmum of Spacial Education (616) 383-1680

J a n u a ry 26 , 1988

Ms. S a ra h S c h o e n d o rf 2406 E. P in e S t r e e t E l s i e , Ml 48831

D ear S a ra h ,

On b e h a l f o f L inda M i l l e r , a d o c to r a l s tu d e n t in th e S p e c ia l E d u c a tio n D e p a r t a e n t a t W este rn M ich igan U n iv e r s i t y , I a a r e q u e s t in g yo u r a s s i s t a n c e w ith a com ponent o f h e r r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t . L in d a 's t o p i c r e l a t e s to th e a r e a of s o c i a l s k i l l t r a i n i n g . Your p a r t i c i p a t i o n u o u ld in v o lv e c o m p le t io n o f th r e e I n s tr u m e n t s ( in c lu d e d in t h i s p a c k a g e ) and w ould r e q u i r e a p p r o x in a te ly 30 -4 0 a in u t e s o f y o u r t i a e . In c lu d e d in t h i s p a c k e t i s a s tam ped e n v e lo p e f o r r e tu r n o f th e a a t e r i a l s t o L in d a . Ue a l s o r e q u e s t t h a t you in c lu d e th e in f o r a a t io n s h e e t w hich h a s y o u r n a a e , a d d re s s , e t c . . Your r e s p o n s e a s soon a s p o s s ib l e u o u ld be a p p r e c ia te d !

Thank you f o r c o n s id e r in g t h i s r e q u e s t . L in d a and I b o th a p p r e c i a t e you r a s s i s t a n c e w ith r e s e a r c h in t h i s im p o r ta n t a r e a . I hope a l l i s go ing w e ll w ith you in y ou r te a c h in g a s s ig n a e n t !

S i n c e r e ly ,

A lonzo H annafo rd Ed.D . C h a ir p e r s o n


W1STEWH M IC H IG A N UNIV E R S ITY |_________COUEGE OF EDUCATION I «»l»MAJOO, MICHIGANO«portm«fii of Sp«ciol Educonon (6161 383-1680 I 4,00<

J a n u a r y 2 6 , 1988

D ear S tu d e n t T ea ch e r .

Thank you f o r a g re e in g to a s s i s t w ith t h i s t a s k . I t i s p a r t o f a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t I an c o n d u c tin g th ro u g h W estern M ich igan U n iv e r s i t y . The t o t a l tim e in v o lv e d to re sp o n d to a l l t h r e e ite m s s h o u ld be a p p ro x im a te ly 30 -4 0 a in u t e s . When you have c o m p le ted th e in s t ru m e n ts p le a s e r e t u r n them to me, L inda M i l l e r , in th e stam ped e n v e lo p e . A lso in c lu d e t h i s s h e e t w hich h a s your name, a d d r e s s , e t c . . Tour r e s p o n s e a s soon a s p o s s ib l e w ould be a p p r e c ia te d !

IT IS VERT IMPORTANT th a t you c o m p le te eac h in s t ru m e n t b a se d s o l e ly on w hat you know o r t h in k . P l e a s e do n o t se ek h e lp from o th e r s o r from w r i t t e n r e s o u r c e s . S im ply p r o v id e you r b e s t gu e ss o r m ost h o n e s t o p in io n .

I g e n u in e ly a p p r e c i a t e y o u r a s s i s t a n c e . I f you ha v e any q u e s t io n s , p le a s e c o n ta c t me a t th e fo l lo w in g a d d r e s s e s : ( p le a s e c a l l c o l l e c t )

L inda M i l le r3509 S a ng ren H all OR 4110 Lake F o r e s t LaneKalam azoo, HI 49008 K alam azoo , Ml 490081-3 8 3 -1 6 8 0 1 -3 8 8 -3 8 8 2

N am e:_____________________ D a t e :____A d d re s s : __________________________________________________________U n i v e r s i t y : _______________________________________________Pho n e :,


E v a l u a t io n Form Completed by S u b je c ts in S e l f - E f f i c a c y T r a in i n g and S o c ia l S k i l l T r a i n i n g Tre a tm e nt Groups


289

SOCIAL SKILL TRAINING EVALUATION

P le a s * c i r c l e th e n u a b e r w hich i n d i c a t e s y o u r r e s p o n s e to th e q u e s t io n . On th e s c a l e , 1 « p o o r ; S = e x c e l l e n t .

1. The I n s t r u c t o r h a s a th o ro u g h know ledge o f th e c o n te n t o f t h i s t r a i n in g .

1 2 3 4 S

2 . The p r e s e n ta t i o n was w e ll o rg a n iz e d .

1 2 3 4 S

3 . The I n s t r u c t o r p r o v id e s c l e a r e x p la n a t io n s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f In fo rm at i o n and a a t e r i a l s .

1 2 3 4 5

4 . The I n s t r u c t o r p r o v id e s a n sw e rs o r s o u r c e s o f a n sw e rs to q u e s t io n s from p a r t i c i p a t o r s .

1 2 3 4 5

5 . The I n s t r u c t o r p r o v id e s e x a a p le s and I l l u s t r a t i o n s .

1 2 3 4 5

6 . The i n s t r u c t o r e a p h a s iz e s key p o in ts in p r e s e n t a t i o n s .

1 2 3 4 5

7 . The i n s t r u c t o r u s e s c l a s s t i n e w e l l.

1 2 3 4 5

8 . The I n s t r u c t o r e n c o u ra g e s p a r t i c i p a n t s to e x p re s s id e a s and a sk q u e s t io n s .

1 2 3 4 5

9 . The I n s t r u c t o r i s a t t e n t i v e to and I n t e r e s t e d in th e p a r t i c i p a n t s .

1 2 3 4 5

10. The i n s t r u c t o r p r o v id e s fe e d b a c k to s tu d e n t s .

1 2 3 4 5

C o n n e n ts :


Appendix U

S o c ia l S k i l l T r a in i n g C e r t i f i c a t e


291


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