The Educator’s Challenge: Developing a Relevant University

Curriculum

Bruce S Cadle

April 2012

Introduction

Designing a curriculum for a university programme is often fraught with

uncertainty regarding relevancy and determining where to begin the process.

Nowhere is this more of a current issue than in the higher education sector in

South Africa. Universities are faced with an edict from the National

Qualifications Framework (NQF) (National Qualifications Framework. n.d.;

Republic of South Africa 2007) to review all existing programmes and to

determine their status according to new qualification levels over the next three

years. The implication here is that few of the many hundreds of university

programmes, those at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU) included,

will remain unscathed during the course of this review process, and that most

will require some – or complete – re-curriculation before they can be re-

registered with the Department of Education. Consequently, curriculum

development and discourse around generating relevant programmes have become

significant factors driving how the review and re-curriculation process unfolds.

How will academics, mostly unschooled in the methodology of curriculum

development, make best-practice decisions regarding new programmes for their

discipline field? Are there existing models that can be applied to the design

of curricula that will streamline the process? These questions underscore that

which is foremost for many departments facing the crucial review of existing

programmes, the possibility of developing new ones, and the generating of

suitable subject content with which to populate such programmes.

Perspectives on curriculum and education are diverse. Kelly’s (2009:8)

view is that curriculum development should consider the (embedded) pedagogical

and methodological imperative of an “educational” curriculum. Curricula need to

“shift from specialising in one particular field […] to more flexibility, an

interdisciplinary approach and an open-minded attitude to the […] discipline as

a whole”, according to Naumann (in Spohr 2011:8). Glatthorn, Boschee and

Whitehead’s (2009:77) perspective is that a curriculum should allow for

educational experiences that achieve a desired goal but are also organised to

create a “maximum cumulative effect”. Clearly, there are many views about the

role and shape of curricula, upon which the premise in this article is built,

but no apparent guidelines regarding how to approach the ‘making’ of an

aspirational, best-practice curriculum. (At best there are tables, templates

and spreadsheets which can be used to plot content and broad subject fields, but

little else).

The author contends that there are two major competing issues that inform

curriculum development: the contextual reality of capacity, resources and

educational policy versus the aspiration to pursue the theoretical and

conceptual educational ideal. Consequently, all curricula are compromises,

tempered by the vision, mission and philosophy of individual programmes and

institutions, resource limitations, teaching capacity and political agendas.

Based upon a document study and the creation of a proposed curriculum

model, a strategy to address this difficult and complex activity is suggested.

A logical, sequential series of steps (guidelines) are proposed for developing a

generic, working model, able to be populated with appropriate content. The re-

curriculation of the Graphic Design (GD) programme (NMMU 2010d) at NMMU (NMMU

2011a), currently underway, is used as a case study to illustrate how the

guidelines can be applied. The intention is to provide momentum for a re-

curriculation process through procedural and structural guidance according to a

sequence of actions that will lead to the creation of a scaffold upon which to

build a curriculum.

Providing a generic model for the re-curriculation of a university

programme, which is focussed on best-practice ideals, including critical

thinking, human-centredness, sustainability, breadth of knowledge,

interdisciplinarity and other more discipline-specific ideals, could become a

benchmark for the provision of relevant university education in the immediate

future

Curriculum development

Curriculum development is informed by the desire to produce a curriculum that

achieves goals, considers the planned and unplanned aspects of the student’s

experience, defines a field of study, and views subject matter or content

according to the way in which it is ordered and how it is assimilated (Ornstein

and Hunkins 2009:11). The ‘hidden’ curriculum – that which addresses implicit

forms of learning, where social roles are learnt (Kelly 2009:10) – is a further

aspect of this process. Indeed, Kelly (2009:8) posits curriculum as something

more:

[It should be] concerned to provide a liberating experience by focussing onsuch things as the promotion of freedom and independence of thought, of socialand political empowerment, of respect for the freedom of others, of anacceptance of variety of opinion, and of the enrichment of the life of everyindividual in that society, regardless of class, race or creed.

Modelling a curriculum without considering the educational forces that drive

teaching and learning and the notion of what a university is would be a futile

exercise, as the resultant model would exist without contextual relevance. A

university curriculum should aim at building towards ‘producing’ graduates who

are world citizens, embodying the knowledge and values that aspire to making a

difference. In this regard Carr (2009:3) argues that a liberal education

supports this idea through exposure to knowledge for its own sake, because its

scope is broad and not vocationally specialised, and because students get to

make “meaningful connections between diverse forms of knowledge, explanation and

truth”. This view is supported by Giroux and Giroux (2003:13) who highlight the

importance of providing students with the critical capacities, literacies,

knowledge and skills that allow them to ‘read’ the world and then participate in

shaping it as a reaction to the informal mediated learning that takes place as a

result of pervasive media culture.

The curriculum development process should be a strategic planning

activity; a total curriculum, that is not limited merely to considering a body

of knowledge to be transmitted or a list of subjects to be taught (Kelly

2009:9), but is cognisant of the issues addressed above and contemplates

MacIntyre’s (2009:353) question, “What is an educated mind?”. In his view being

able to answer the question will reveal precisely what it is that universities

should be doing in their quest for teaching and learning relevance. Here he

cites the fifth discourse of John Henry Newman from his seminal work, The Idea of a

University (1874):

...that the end of education is the achievement of [the perfection of theintellect], that ‘true enlargement of mind which is the power of viewing manythings as one whole, of referring them severally to their place in the universalsystem, of understanding their respective values, and determining their mutualdependence’ (Newman in MacIntyre, 2009:353).

Arising from this viewpoint is the contention that, although individual

disciplines exist, and are taught as such at universities, an educated person

results, not from the knowledge contained within the (artificially constructed)

discipline boundaries, but rather from the “understanding of the various ways in

which the findings of those disciplines bear upon each other and so contribute

to a larger understanding than any of them by themselves can contribute”

(MacIntyre 2009:354). Mulcahy (2009:484) adds that an educated person means one

who is formed intellectually; “possesses knowledge in depth and breadth, one who

possesses the knowledge and skills of citizenship, and who is respectful of

others and caring towards them, and who is able to engage in thoughtful action”.

Essentially, an educational philosophy that focusses on developing a broad range

of knowledge and a skill set that is flexible and transferable is known as a

liberal education (the curriculum development process outlined in this article

uses this notion as its foundational basis). Liberal education emphasises

social responsibility, values and humanity as key tenets of an informed world

citizen and are critical to making sense of globalisation (Humphreys 2006:3)

along the path to becoming an educated person. Curriculum therefore should

embrace this multitude of influences. Marsh and Willis (2007:10–12) encapsulate

the meaning of ‘curriculum’ so:

Curriculum is those subjects that are most useful for living in contemporarysociety.

…is planned learning for which the school is responsible.…is all the experiences [students] have under the guidance of the

[university].…is the totality of learning experiences provided to students so that theycan attain general skills and knowledge at a variety of learning sites.…is all the experiences that [students] have in the course of living.

In summary therefore, the process whereby a curriculum is developed should

include consideration of a range of values and principles such that it is a

structured flexible plan of study with goals, objectives and subject matter;

guides a student humanistically through formal education; and especially has as

its focus the aspiration to be an enriching experience and an educational

encounter. Acknowledging the importance of a liberal education as a key aspect

of 21st century learning and the paradigmatic shift away from narrowly defined,

discipline specific programmes is an equally important aspect.

The process of curriculum development: creating guidelines

Achieving the values ascribed to a good curriculum and the educational goals

described above is the intent of this article. Curriculum development can be

viewed as a methodical sequence of actions or processes that generate findings

upon which to create guidelines for a new curriculum into which discipline-

specific subject content can be introduced.

The following steps outline the process:

• Identify top-ranked universities that are running similar programmes to that for

which a curriculum needs to be developed, and select examples.

• Generate a definition of the discipline or discipline area that requires

curriculation/re-curriculation.

• Determine the defining characteristics of the discipline from the definition so as

to establish criteria for best-practice content.

• Review the selected curricula according to the criteria thus established.

• Use the Proposed Model for an Ideal Curriculum (Cadle 2012:195-206) to review the

selected examples’ curriculum philosophy, credits and structure to

determine whether it represents best practice within the discipline or

discipline area.

• Correlate the two reviews to determine what mix represents an ideal best-

practice curriculum.

• Populate the programme with subject fields based on institutional context,

resources, space, teaching capacity, required credits and articulation,

and adjust the ideal best-practice curriculum accordingly.

At this point it is possible to introduce syllabus content and detail specific

to the department and institution.

Identify top-ranked universities

The initial point of departure is international university ranking tables1

(fraught as they are with controversy and questions about their accuracy and

efficacy) as they provide the only quantitative measure of a

1 • Webometrics Ranking of World Universities is generated by the Cybermetrics Lab research group based at the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas in Spain and is available from http:// www .webometrics.info .

• Academic Ranking of World Universities which is published by the Center for World-Class Universities and the Institute of Higher Education of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China, uses six objective indicators to determine their rankings list. http://www.arwu.org.

• Eduroute evaluates university websites specifically, without considering actual academic performance and is accessible via http://www.eduroute.info.

• QS Topuniversities website, run by Quacquarelli Symonds Ltd., London, is perhaps the resource that presents a more academic and people-centred perspective, and not only considers quantitative data acquired from websites using complex algorithms. This is available from http://www.topuniversities.com.

• Additionally Bloomberg Business Week, U.S. News and World Report and The Times Higher Education supplement irregularly publish ranking systems.

programme/university’s learning deliverables. These ranking systems are very

popular in the USA and serve as the starting point for many prospective

students, when choosing colleges and universities. Rankings are not absolute

measures of best practice as they use a variety of algorithms to rate

universities, many of which are based on purely quantitative data and Internet

resources. Some use qualitative feedback from students, academics and the

constituencies they service, whilst others measure research outputs, pass rates

and the like. Tabulating the data and comparing the number and level of entry,

or entries, allows for a logical selection/elimination of programmes for review.

The second point of departure is word-of-mouth perceptions regarding the

quality of education provided and historical reputation, and also whether the

curricula include some liberal arts components. Based on an inspection of

institutional vision, broad content and structure, it is possible to identify

programmes that are good examples of educational curricula in the same vein as

that which Kelly posits in The Curriculum (2009:8). Comparing these two sets of

data allows informed choices to be made regarding the selected curricula to be

reviewed.

Generate a definition and determine the defining characteristics

A definition of the relevant discipline assists in positioning it with regard to

current and future relevance, a critical determinant in curriculum development.

Professional bodies, critical writing, commentary and opinion; inputs from

industry and commerce, peers and trend watchers; vision, mission and positioning

statements, catalogues, prospectuses and course guides from other institutions,

and the Internet, all provide worthwhile sources for generating a definition of

the discipline. Suggesting that it is possible to come up with a simple, one-

line definition for a discipline is not the intention here. Disciplines, and

the curricula that describe them, constantly evolve with the changes in

technology, commerce, socio-cultural influences, politics, mores and values of

contemporary society and as such, monitoring trends, and attempting to

understand the implication for the future of a discipline, is the more likely

scenario. Determining these trends and then extrapolating from them the

competencies that may be expected of a graduate helps to situate the definition

rather as a series of defining values and characteristics. Defining graphic

design, for example, resulted in ten defining characteristics that embodied the

essence of 21st century graphic design:

• Breadth of knowledge

• Collaboration

• Critical thinking

• Design principles

• Design systems

• Human-centredness

• Interdisciplinarity

• Sustainability

• Technical skills

• Technological integration

(AIGA 2008a; AIGA 2008b; Buchanan 2001:194–195; Davis 2007: 6; Dilnot in

Margolin 2002:97; Ekuan in Margolin 2002:98; Grefé 2007:8; Landa 2011:xi;

Nagasawa in Wang 2010:88). Depending upon the discipline, fewer or more

characteristics may be determined as being definitive.

Review the selected curricula

Having derived a set of defining characteristics for the discipline and practice

(that which would describe best practice in the discipline), it becomes possible

to review that which underpins a programme – the philosophy, values and

structure as they are determined by the department in which the programme is

housed and the vision and mission of the school and institution. The working

structure of each programme can be distilled to reveal the track and weighting

of the various subject/content fields. This helps to reveal whether these

programmes are synergistic with the defining characteristics for the discipline.

Since the primary motivation is to model a curriculum based on best practice,

the defining characteristics (or criteria) would collectively represent the

desired best practice for the discipline; consequently, any programme that

satisfies the broader definition, by implication, has a best-practice

curriculum.

The following aspects of the selected programmes should be considered

qualitatively (Cadle 2011):

Vision and values – What is the defining philosophy of the university and how does

that mesh with the vision and values of the school or department that is

presenting the programme?

The programme – What are the values and objectives that the programme reflects in

its course of study and the intended learning areas?

The structure – What is the physical ‘shape’ of the programme; considering levels,

subject/content fields and how they track and credit weighting?

Is the programme at (institution name) best practice? – Using a tabular structure, each

programme can be reviewed using the defining characteristics of the discipline,

as best-practice criteria.

The example below reports how the GD programme at NMMU was reviewed according to

the aspects indicated above and is extracted from Proposing a best-practice curriculum for

the Graphic Design programme at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (2011), an unpublished

research study by this author. (Subsequent examples are drawn from the same

study and appear as extended quotes).

Vision and Values:NMMU’s Vision, Mission and Values statement presents an abridged version of theVision 2020 initiative:

Our vision:To be a dynamic African university, recognised for its leadership ingenerating cutting-edge knowledge for a sustainable future.

Our mission:To offer a diverse range of quality educational opportunities thatwill make a critical and constructive contribution to regional,national and global sustainability.

Our values:Respect for diversityExcellenceUbuntu2

IntegrityRespect for the natural environmentTaking responsibility (NMMU 2010a:1–3)

Neither the Faculty nor School in which Graphic Design is housed presents anypositioning vision or values as an adjunct to that of the university as a whole.Mention is made of the School’s “long and proud history [that] has its roots inthe country’s oldest art school, the PE Art School founded in 1882” (NMMU2010b:1). Individualised tuition from skilled staff is a further point that ishighlighted. Although the School proclaims to have award winners in national andinternational fine art, design, music and photography competitions, this is notverifiable from the NMMU website or marketing material, but does speak to an ethosof quality and commitment.

The Department of Applied Design, location of the GD programme, presents adetailed philosophy that endorses Vision 2020 comprehensively and states that as“visual communicators, lifestyle interrogators and opinion generators we believein the ethos of fostering an environment that provides a creative and transformingeducational experience and produces students who are able to integrate, asprofessionals, into a multi-layered society” (NMMU 2010c:1).

2 This Xhosa word is a uniquely South African notion that expresses respect for the dignity of others and the recognition that as humans we are mutually interdependent [Cadle].

The Programme:The first year is a compulsory foundation year, known as Introductory Studies, forall major directions excepting Fashion Design. This structured programme engagesbroadly with 2- and 3D Studies, drawing fundamentals, Art Theory andCommunications providing students with the necessary ‘grounding’ for the majordirection. In the second and third year the course follows a graphic design-specific track with a strong vocational emphasis. Communication Design and DesignTechniques are the two main studio modules, supported by GD Drawing, and givenhistorical context by History and Theory of GD. Professional GD Practice inputsthe requisite knowledge and experience needed for the field and is supported byexperiential work engagement. Up to 50% of learning time in year three isallocated to Communication Design, as the major direction in the programme. Thestudents are guided through a learning experience that encompasses skillsdevelopment, creative development, entrepreneurial development and personaldevelopment (NMMU 2010d:6–9). The fourth year of the programme is focussed onintroducing research thinking and method via a self-driven specialist studioproject. An extended essay is a co-requisite of the process, initiated through aseries of written assignments of increasing complexity, before the researchproject is undertaken (NMMU 2011:25).

The Structure:This is a three years plus one year, structured programme and does not allow forelectives. The first three years are a diploma, followed by an additional year toobtain the B Tech GD degree. Access to the degree year is not automatic uponsuccessful completion of the diploma but is subject to the applicant for thedegree programme meeting a minimum 65% entry requirement. Each year of the four-year programme carries 120 credits, totalling 480 credits upon completion.

Although the programme’s teaching and learning goals are to develop the studentholistically, it is accomplished through a predetermined set of projects coveringcorporate identity, packaging, publication, direct marketing, advertising,promotion and web design, with very specific outcome requirements. The desire isto “mimic[s] how design projects and briefs are dealt with in industry” (NMMU2010d:4). Figure 1 (NMMU Graphic Design General Curriculum Structure) clarifies[the structure].

Note: Three items in the legend to this figure, namely ‘Co-requisite modules’,

‘Interdisciplinary modules’ and ‘Elective modules’ are not represented in the

curriculum structure, as this programme does not offer modules in these

categories. They should however be considered when doing a structural analysis

of a programme. There are instances where programmes may contain all of them and

therefore the picture presented by the structure will be more representative of

the programme reality. The last aspect of the programme is queried in [Table

1]:

Is the Programme at NMMU Best-Practice?Applying the criteria for best-practice results in the following tabular analysis

Table 1. Is the Programme at NMMU Best-Practice?

Criteria Yes

Maybe

No Comment

Breadth of knowledge X

There are no liberal arts choices, so no formallearning, although projects are structured to encourage the exploration of knowledge and experience areas outside of the Communication Design field.

Collaboration X

A number of projects are undertaken that allow for collaborative engagement with students of photography, fashion, interior design and fine art. A rare few projects have collaborated with marketing and engineering students.

Critical thinking X

Creative enquiry develops perceptual, cognitive, conceptual and critical skills as part of the studio engagement. Theoretical inquiry is only actively pursued through selected History and Theory of GD projects. Thinking critically is formally introduced as part of the B Tech year of study and underpins prescribed and self-initiated writing and studio projects.

Design principles X These are covered in the Communication Design

core.

Design systems X

Integration of design with crafting, marketing,community and industry through projects that pointedly target diverse outcomes within a single brief.

Human-centredness X

All teaching and learning grows from ethical and social responsibility, tolerance, and working towards the benefit of the broader community, as world citizens with civic duty.

Interdisciplinarity X

No modules are shared with other programmes. Formal learning is restricted to the core discipline although collaboration exposes students to other disciplines.

Sustainability X Sustainable solutions are key issues embedded in all outcomes.

Technical skills X The importance of craftsmanship reinforces all

projects.

Technological integration X

Technological innovation and application is considered to be a potential element in all learning outcomes. Unconventional solutions are encouraged.

Evident from this analysis is that NMMU’s GD programme shows a high level ofcompliancy with the best-practice ideal. The criteria that did not get ‘yes’scores require additional commentary:

Breadth of knowledge: This is a clear ‘no’, as the programme does not makeprovision for any electives, least of all liberal arts electives which wouldprovide for the ‘broadness’ identified as a necessity for a 21st century

liberal education.

Critical thinking: This is a ‘grey’ area as it is not a formal aspect of thelearning to any great extent. Critical thinking is employed implicitly in theapproach to problem-solving visual communication briefs at second- and third-year level and in the addressing of written assignments for design history.At fourth-year level the engagement with the notion of critical thinking isintensified through writing that questions issues of ethics and sustainabilityand through projects that place social responsibility and civic duty at thefore. The introduction to research methodology, development of a researchproposal, and production of a self-initiated project and supporting writingprovides the student with some exposure to critical thinking in praxis, albeitquite late in the study cycle. Realistically, introductions to philosophy,art criticism and theory regarding problem solving, starting at the foundationlevel, and proceeding with growing complexity to fourth year would be neededfor a ‘yes’ score, but a ‘maybe’ acknowledges that some effort is being madewithin the existing structure to meet this required criterion.

Interdisciplinarity: The GD programme does not share any modules with otherprogrammes even though there is significant collaboration, especially atthird- and fourth-year level, between disciplines. It could be implied thatcollaboration by its very nature results in an interdisciplinary engagement.The most obvious aspect of this idea occurs in the fourth year where GDstudents, together with fashion, textile and photography students, attendresearch development workshops, writing workshops, collaborate on projects andengage in other projects outside their discipline, and attend joint criticismsessions (the formal curricula were set up originally to be discipline-specific, ignoring the trans-disciplinary realities of the 21st century designindustry). Once again, this is not an aspect that was built into the originalcurriculum, and it occurs quite late in the study cycle, but it is evidencethat suggests an attempt is being made to comply with the criterion.

The review, thus far, is able to give an indication of whether a curriculum

ascribes to a best-practice standard according to the dictates of academic and

industry needs, humanism and good citizenship, and institutional values, and is

focussed upon the centrality of the discipline. A programme that is compliant

with the standard for the discipline can then be analysed further – this time to

determine whether the principles upon which it is structured, satisfy a

theoretical, best-practice ‘ideal’.

Use the Proposed Model for an Ideal Curriculum

The Proposed Model for an Ideal Curriculum (Cadle 2012:195-206) was created in

an attempt to develop a framework for the analysis of curricula according to a

theoretical, best-practice ideal. Reflecting upon the viewpoints expressed in

the section on Curriculum Development above, a model was developed that is a

graphic representation of the characteristics of such a best-practice

curriculum, and how the respective elements are interconnected. Figure 2

(Proposed Model for an Ideal Curriculum) clarifies [the model].

What needs to be determined is whether the selected curricula embody the

desirable qualities inherent in ‘good’ curriculum design (Glatthorn, Boschee and

Whitehead 2009:86; Habermas 1972 in Kelly 2009:58; Marsh and Willis 2007:72–73;

Ornstein and Hunkins 2009:2–3). By extracting criteria from the model and

applying them to a programme it is possible to determine whether the curriculum

mix satisfies the Proposed Model for an Ideal Curriculum.

The criteria are:

Does institutional vision underpin the programme design?

Does formal learning comprise elements of academic content, interdisciplinary experience, liberal arts

content, and vocational content?

Is hidden learning embedded in the formal learning?

The example below illustrates how the Proposed Model for an Ideal Curriculum was

applied to the GD programme at NMMU:Does institutional vision underpin the programme design?The university’s Vision 2020 is synchronous with the Department of AppliedDesign’s philosophy and places holistic and enriching education at the locusof learning.

Does formal learning comprise elements of:Academic content?

Design History provides a basis for the academic component, with a limitedresearch component built into each Communication Design project. From yearone through three this comprises a very small percentage of the learning thattakes place. This is somewhat offset by the research focus in the fourthyear.

Interdisciplinary experience?There is no formal interdisciplinary involvement. This sometimes happens atan informal level or under collaborative circumstances.

Liberal arts content?Liberal arts electives are not part of the structured programme.

Vocational content?The entire teaching and learning focus of the programme was conceived asvocational and continues to place significant emphasis on the same, withindustry-specific needs driving most projects.

Is hidden learning embedded in the formal learning?A key aspect of the programme is addressing life skills, values, socialresponsibility and notions of citizenship and community through all of theformal teaching and learning, often as a separate outcome in a project brief.The hidden learning is considered as a critical element in the programme.

Correlate the two reviews

Having generated two distinct reviews it now becomes possible to correlate the

results from the selected programmes. Assuming that four different programmes

were being reviewed, the following could represent the results:

Table 2. Comparing how curricula measure up to each other according to the

defining characteristics

Institute NMMU Institute A Institute B Institute C

Criteria Yes May No Yes May No Yes May No Yes May No

Breadth of

knowledgeX X X X

Collaboration X X X X

Critical

thinkingX X X X

Design

principlesX X X X

Design

systemsX X X X

Human-

centrednessX X X X

Interdiscipli

narityX X X X

Sustainabilit

yX X X X

Technical

skillsX X X X

Technological

integrationX X X X

Table 3. Comparing curricula according to the Proposed Model for an Ideal

Curriculum

Criteria

NMM

U

Inst

itute

A

Inst

itute

B

Inst

itute

C

Does institutional vision underpin the

programme

design?

Yes Yes Yes Yes

Criteria

NMM

U

Inst

itute

A

Inst

itute

B

Inst

itute

C

Does formal learning comprise elements

of:

Academic content? Maybe Yes Yes Yes

Interdisciplinary experience? No Yes Yes Yes

Liberal arts content? No No Yes Yes

Vocational content? YesMayb

eYes Yes

Is hidden learning embedded in the

formal learning?Yes Yes Yes No

It is important to underscore that the results obtained from Table 2 and

Table 3 must not necessarily be interpreted as absolutes, owing to the

qualitative nature of the respective reviews. What they do is provide

functional and workable guidelines that allow for considered and meaningful

reflection on what can be aspired to within a curriculum and what is physically

possible within the institutional context. Based on the two reviews above, the

programme that apparently represents the desirable aspects of best practice in

the discipline and follows the Proposed Model for an Ideal Curriculum most

closely would be Institute B, as it complies completely with the aspirational

norms. Institute B’s curriculum would therefore serve as the recommended

starting point for developing a new curriculum.

In the context of the GD programme at NMMU, the outcome of the correlation

process resulted in the following findings (Author 2011):

Eliminating duplication and expanding on the definitive and implementableelements of the [reviewed] programmes [presented] the following aspects thatshould therefore be considered in the development of a new curriculum for theGraphic Design programme at NMMU:

• Four-year, semi-structured, course-work degree with a research component and

strong vocational emphasis• “Educational curriculum” (Kelly 2009:8) approach that recognises theconnectedness/multidisciplinary nature of design education and is human-centred• Structured, ‘smorgasbord’ foundation year• Limited studio core and studio electives from year two to four• Limited optional art and design topic-specific modules• Interdisciplinary studies, including English modules and survey of art

history • Compulsory, fundamental liberal arts modules• Limited additional liberal arts modules, which may include music,

performance and theatre• “Compass directions” (Design Academy Eindhoven 2010:10) build handcraft, andaddress culture, technology and professional practice• Research seminars/workshops• Internship in fourth year.

If it were possible to implement in its entirety, then all of the above-

mentioned elements would be included in an ideal curriculum for a generic GD

programme. At best this is the curriculum to which GD should aspire if context

were not an issue.

Populate the programme with subject fields

The elements listed above become the scaffold upon which to build a curriculum

that is appropriate to the institution. Some elements suggest attitudes or

approaches that need to be followed; others address structure or methodologies;

still others refer to actual modules or subject fields, technology and skills

needed. The resultant structure derived from this data becomes the starting

point for developing an educational curriculum. The example below in Figure 3

is a suggestion for a new curriculum for the GD programme at NMMU, informed by

the elements derived from the reviews. Various factors impact on the form that

such a curriculum could take. As pointed out earlier, serious consideration has

to be given to how existing teaching and learning structures, infrastructure and

staffing capacity will affect the desire to create a curriculum that employs

best practice and follows the Proposed Model for an Ideal Curriculum since these

scenarios are fluid and constantly in flux. Identifying the factors serves to

justify why the model may need to be a compromise and presents the real-world

influences that ultimately affect all proposed curricula that ‘look good on

paper’. For the GD programme at NMMU, these were the factors that informed the

structure proposed in Figure 3:Foundation year The model has to consider that there is a single foundation year for all ofthe discipline tracks.Same degree, different disciplinesThe wish is for a single B and Hons degree that allows students to followdifferent discipline tracks but results in the same qualification designator,

but different qualifiers; for example BA Visual Communication or BA VisualArts. Credits allocationThe structure needs to allow for limited module choices in core areas; forexample such that equal credit weights make interdisciplinary choices andelectives possible without complicating staffing and time-tabling logistics.Interdisciplinary modulesCertain modules need to become generic or multidisciplinary, such as ArtTheory, Professional or Entrepreneurial Practice, Reproduction and Printing,Publishing, Printmaking, Photography and Imaging, Software and Technology, asthere is often unnecessary duplication in the different discipline directions– resulting in inefficient use of staffing and venues.Teaching capacityIt is important to consider actual physical teaching capacity to teach acrossa broader set of content, being as the ideal is to create a four-year course-work degree, unlike the present three-year diploma, with one-year research BTech degree. Knowledge expertiseInevitably a new curriculum will require a different way of engaging withcontent and transferring knowledge; not in all areas, but certainly where theimpetus is to encourage more collaborative learning, a more academic leaningand critical discourse, and where staff knowledge and experience may belacking. Lecturers will have to upskill in such an eventuality as theteaching and learning of complex systems become the educational norm.Implicit in this would be the need for staff to improve qualifications andencompass a more research-focussed paradigm at the higher levels of learning.SpaceThe opportunities to be creative about class sizes, minimising repetition andalternative methodology are severely impaired by a shortage of studio,exhibition and criticism venues.Liberal arts and electivesIncluding the suggested liberal arts content brings with it the logistics ofco-ordinating timetabling with the rest of the Arts Faculty, where the liberalarts modules are housed. The longer hours of studio-based modules needing tointegrate with the more regular, shorter-length liberal arts lectures,effectively excludes many of the modules from inclusion in the curriculum.Consideration may need to be given to commissioning experts to create visualarts-specific liberal arts modules.

Conclusion

Acknowledging the necessity for curriculum review and possible re-curriculation

is a fundamental reality of good educational policy. It also demonstrates an

understanding of the importance of an enriching educational experience. There

are numerous perspectives on what elements constitute a best-practice curriculum

– interdisciplinarity, maximising the educational experience, flexibility, the

importance of goals, the influence of a liberal education, implicit forms of

learning, and an ability to read the world – all relevant principles grounded in

relevant theory. How to apply them to developing a curriculum, while

considering the needs and relevance of the discipline, the university’s

philosophy, vision and values, the academic integrity of a programme, and the

practical implementation thereof, was the rationale for this research. By

proposing a series of guidelines that draws together these diverse elements, it

is possible to form a picture of a best-practice curriculum that has contextual

relevance. Moreover, using the guidelines is a simple, methodical and

sequential process that can be followed by academics unschooled in curriculum

design, and that introduces order and logic to a qualitative activity.

By applying the seven steps of enquiry from the guidelines to the

development of a curriculum for the Graphic Design (GD) programme at Nelson

Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU) in South Africa, a curriculum structure,

with broad subject fields was generated. This becomes the point at which the

curriculum structure can be populated with content and where logistical issues

regarding credits, timetables, staffing and the like can be addressed, and the

proposed curriculum adjusted accordingly.

The model is deliberately not based on absolutes or predictability but is

rather intended to provide the impetus to begin the development of any

curriculum, for any discipline. Subject content should not need to be a

consideration when the model is applied, as the characteristics of the

discipline are predetermined before the modelling of a curriculum takes place,

and the ‘shape’ or structure of it grows out of the findings as they are

revealed. The physical and intellectual engagement required in the process,

although ordered, allows for the findings to be as detailed as necessary and

permits continued reflection and revision at any stage. Indeed, the Proposed

Model for an Ideal Curriculum is itself open to interpretation, but provides a

legitimate and considered starting point for analysing whether a curriculum

could be considered to embody good curriculum design.

Further research could be applied to determining the ultimate efficacy of

the Ideal Curriculum model and measuring it against other models with a similar

endorsement to describe the nature of educational curricula. The guidelines

argued for in the process here certainly allow for the development of a visual

arts-style curriculum, like graphic design, but may need to be tested on other

disciplines to monitor effectiveness.

In conclusion: the revision of existing curricula and the development of

new curricula, in the quest to provide for an enriching educational experience,

should be an indisputable feature of the mandate of a university. It should be

a dynamic and vital part of the on-going challenge universities and academics

face to remain relevant and cutting-edge. Encouraging academics to apply these

proposed guidelines will eliminate the anxiety and uncertainty curriculum

development causes and will hopefully result in better-considered curricula and

a better ‘educated mind’.

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