Education, Science and Society

Editors

D. I. TSELES,

K. D. MALAFANTIS

A. I. PAMOUKTSOGLOU

ΪΕ> ^υγχρονη[καοτικη

Athens, 2011

The contribution of Information Technologies and Communication to the educational process of modern

school

Konstantinos D. Malafantis1

'Associate Professor of Education President of the Hellenic Educational Society

Faculty of Primary Education National and Kapodistrian University of Athens

Navarinou 13A 10680 Athens, Greece Tel: +30 210-3688082, +30 6944125860 Fax: +30 2103688078

E-mail: kmalafant@primedu.uoa.gr

Abstract

The introduction of Information Technologies and Communication (ITC) in education has raised serious debates during the last few decades. ITC has been found to contribute to the production and promotion of knowledge as well as to the improvement of communication and relations in the classroom.

However, a basic prerequisite for the successful introduction of ITC in education is the redesigning of the curriculum on the basis of the students' educational needs and the educators' training. The introduction of ITC into the learning process should not be simply associated with the conventional methods of teaching, but should play a crucial role in the acquisition and production of knowledge and meaning.

1. Technology and education

During the last decade of the 20th century, the debates concerning the introduction and use of technology in various educational systems reached a peak (Δανασσής-Αφεντάκης, 1997: 271-279). In Greece, we have observed the "deification" of computers, whereas in other countries they are dealt with apprehension, with the main focus being on the negative effects a computer may have on children: difficulties in the achievement of important pedagogical aims as well as deficits in socialization (Βρεττός, 2005: 190). Many questions of philosophical, epistemological, educational and sociological character have been formulated with respect to educational and learning problems on the one hand, and to the emergence of possible dangers from the introduction and use of technology

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in education on the other (Apple, 1991. Cuban, 1986. Hawkridge, 1990. Papert, 1991. White, 1987).

Papert's (1991) view that technology "will cause a revolution in the way of thinking and learning of human beings", as well as the fact that its fast and multilevel penetration in all areas of human activities, evidently lead to the conclusion that information technology constitutes a substantial and essential part of modern life. Besides, it has been ascertained that "information technology sector shows a rapid increase and it is estimated that at the end of the 20th century 60% of jobs will need the use of computer technology skills" (Hawkins & Blakeslee, 1996: 88). In general, the use of ITC in education, in well organized schools, has positive effects on the academic performance of students, increases their desire for learning and enhances their positive attitude towards education (US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 1988).

As far as the use of new technologies is concerned, according to Hawkridge (1990), four different arguments, called "skeptic" arguments, are formed, which support the introduction and use of ITC in education: a) the social argument, according to which students are obliged to familiarize themselves with the use of technology, since it is an integral part of everyday living activity; b) the professional argument, which means that the use of technologies can contribute to the future professional career of individuals; c) the pedagogical argument, according to which the use of the computer will make everyday teaching easier than before; and d) the catalytic argument, which means that the use of ICT contributes to the better administration of educational institutions (Hawkridge, 1990. Χατζηγεωργίου, 1999: 231-233).

In accordance with the pedagogical argument, ICT is regarded as a main tool in order to facilitate the achievement of important teaching goals and enhance children's socialization (Δανασσής-Αφεντάκης, 1997: 279-285. Ξωχέλλης, 1999: 66-68).

2. The new technologies in the educational process

The term "New Technologies" constitutes a wide theoretical and practical frame that includes the deliberate application of new knowledge, that is, special scientific and technical knowledge, as well as its products and, finally, its effects on social, economic and cultural field (Plomp & Van de Wolde, 1985: 243-256).

In the Report of UNESCO on world education (OECP, 1990) three fundamental points for the use of computers in developed countries are pointed out, the following: a) computers are tools for the acquisition of basic knowledge and skills concerning information technology; b) they support the curriculum; and c) they facilitate human interactions during the training process.

It has been proved that the use of computers in the educational process reverses the conventional, up to now, relation that conditions the instructive

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triangle "student - subject - teacher". Simultaneously, it represents a new pedagogical perception, which encourages active ways of learning, via the growth of new attitudes and skills, the direct flow of information from the internet, and the opportunity for cross-cultural communication and interaction among the users (Αλαχιώτης, 2002: 13). Relative studies and empirical researches show precisely this fact, that the use of ITC is unbreakably connected with the reduction of "sovereignty" of teachers and the corresponding increase of self-agency, autonomy and collaboration among students (Hennessy, 2003. Kozma, 2003).

All new curricula converge in this: to render the management of information, with the use of computers, a "horizontal aim" of all lessons. In this way, the introduction of new technologies at school will help greatly in the interdisciplinary connection of various subjects (Βακαλούδη, 2003).

At this point, let us examine the relationship among the student, the technological tool, and the educator. The student discovers new knowledge only with the educator's help, as the technological tool is not sufficient enough to be used properly by the student, if the right guidance by the educator is absent (Prawat, 1996). Computers cannot replace teachers, as it was attempted in the first applications of ITC in education during the 1960s. For example, if we teach language, we will realize that it is difficult to incorporate different aspects of linguistics in only one model of language interaction, as Grimminger (1972) attempted, because this would be a kind of unilateral communication.

For all these reasons, a new system of continuing training for educators with regard to ITC in education is needed, in all subject areas. Leading educational authorities should not impose this kind of training on educators, but should encourage the active participation of the educators themselves (Hoyles & Noss, 1992). Within this framework, we accept that "the new technologies constitute an innovative way to revise certain aspects of teaching" (DiSessa, 2000).

According to Bruner (1966), a prerequisite for the development of the human brain is the knowledge of usage and administration of all those social mediations (i.e., tools, instruments, technology) which will promote the expression and creative transformation of human abilities.

3. The educational functions of the computer

The contribution of the computer in the educational process is defined inter alia on the basis of its most important educational functions and their classification, even if the categories seem to overlap. More specifically, three educational functions of computers in education are discerned: a) from the student's point of view; b) from the educator's point of view; and c) from the point of view of both the student and the educator.

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a) From the student's point of view. The essential educational change, to which contemporary technology is expected to contribute, does not concern only the educators, but also the students as well. This new role of a mediator in the acquisition of knowledge has been ascribed a positive value in the international literature and practice, especially when technology is used as:

i) A cognitive, exploratory tool which, via appropriately designed software, provides students with data and objects that they can manage within a dynamic computer-assisted learning environment. This environment also provides opportunities for interaction and direct feedback. Students experiment with the teaching material by using abstract concepts and relations, simulation, and problem modeling. Knowledge is represented in multiple forms, and visual representations as well as virtual realities come into the fore (Earl, 1995. Ράπτης & Ράπτη, 2001). Students are encouraged to correct their own faults; faults are not stigmatized but instead used as an inevitable and useful tool in the learning process (Στεργιοπούλου-Καλαντζή, Γυφτοδήμος, & Κυνηγός, 1997).

Meanwhile, the use of technology facilitates each student to find his or her own rhythm, promotes both individualized and cooperative learning, and offers chances of learning through guided discovery. This practice encourages the transition to more advanced levels of thinking and transforms the traditional classroom into a context of active exploration and direct production of knowledge. For these reasons, it is plausible that this learning environment is often better than the conventional ways of teaching. And this is especially true when it comes to the comprehension of obscure and abstract concepts in science, as well as the development of critical thinking (Τριλιανός, 1997). This is why computers have been described as an effective cognitive tool (Jonassen, Carr, & Yueh, 1998).

In the teaching of social sciences and humanistic subjects, the simulation of ideological, social, and historical issues facilitates experience-based, open, whole and flexible learning (Spiro & Jehng, 1990). Such learning conditions reinforce students' motivation to participate, activate their pre-existing cognitive structures and are adapted to each student's learning style - with the prerequisite that the corresponding learning packages are well designed. Every student can actively participate in the learning process and co-organize and co-regulate ideas and messages (Κόμης, 1995). Personal meanings are directly related to the texts, oral and written language is enriched, and the production of multiple forms of speech is facilitated.

ii) Cyber/Internet games. Cyber/internet games are extremely popular among children. They offer opportunities for individual and group entertainment, can contribute to the development of students' perceptual ability, as well as to the development of decision making skills in critical situations (although this does not mean that these games also enhance critical thinking).

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There are also educational games, such as simulation, role play, strategic games, creativity games, which, with the teacher's aid, add pleasant experiences in the classroom learning environment and often are the source of various other learning activities.

However, the software materials that can be found in the trade market are not usually designed with a clear pedagogical aim or teaching goal. Instead, they may contribute to the increase of violence, competition, callousness, racism and social stereotypes and are likely to lead children to social isolation or even addiction to them. Parents' and educators' responsibility is to seek regular information about this issue and to take care of the children's socialization through appropriate actions and interventions.

b) From the point of view of the educator the computer can be seen as a powerful tool of the educational technology, for the following reasons:

i) The computer is a "clever" teaching tool, very different from the conventional tools, so that it can also be viewed as an "intellectual partner" of both the educator and the student (Jonassen et al., 1998). Because it can imitate certain functions of human mind and human communication, the computer can now be an integral part of the classroom system, in a way that is different from the other existing tools of educational technology. The latter were designed mostly for the presentation of cognitive material on the part of the educator to the usually passive listeners and spectators (i.e., the students). Multimedia software presentations, for example, and the digital whiteboard change the atmosphere of the traditional classroom, and can be transformed from teaching tools into learning tools in the framework of a well-designed teaching unit.

Furthermore, of special importance is the possibility of incorporating many other tools in a unified system of multi-sensor representations of knowledge, in a way that combines empirical with abstract knowledge. This incorporation is likely to reinforce students' active participation in the educational process, thus contributing to the decentration of the classroom control (i.e., students can be, more than before, the agents of their own change).

Educators have the chance to become more active and creative when designing teaching interventions, and to experiment with innovative teaching initiatives in a cooperative framework. This means that they can share these initiatives with their colleagues, a fact that increases the probability of the improvement of these initiatives as well as contributes to the educators' own professional development.

ii) The computer constitutes a large pool of tools and learning material. Educators can discover and store material, thus broadening the content of instruction and the scope of their teaching practices. In this way, problems due to the lack of libraries and suitable learning materials are, at least partially, dealt with.

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iii) The computer functions as a director's workshop producing multimedia-hypermedia tasks. Apart from the software with a given content, which are used mainly for teaching social sciences, educators can learn to use open type hypermedia texts or programmed packets (e.g., Hyper Studio, Director, Toolbook Multimedia Builder MacroMedia Flash MX). With these tools they can create, in cooperation with colleagues, other scientists, and students, hypermedia educational applications, by making use of the interactive potentials of the hypertexts and hypermedia, applying methodologies of constructive, situational, contextual, unifying and flexible learning, introducing a variety of original "connective elements" of learning (e.g., anchors, texts, images, music, video depicting real situations, maps, virtual places, models of problem solving, games, case studies, illustrated stories, self-evaluation activities, network sites with information and material, etc.).

Various arts and sciences can be combined in school for interdisciplinary and inter-thematic purposes. In the teaching language, for example, on the basis of literacy theory as a methodological approach, technology can be applied in various ways. Projects can be technologically supported during all phases and stages of their design and implementation. Of special importance is the incorporation of the evaluation process, with the appropriate and timely evaluative feedback, so that individualized learning can be achieved. Evaluation therefore becomes part of the learning process and is used for designing further work (Αλεξανδράτος & Ράπτη, 2004).

c) From both the student's and the educator's viewpoint computers have acquired the following meanings:

i) The computer is a communication and information search tool. Through specialized networks, audio-visual means and hypermedia, the computer offers access to the spread of information and knowledge, possibilities to exchange ideas, communication between student communities, experienced scientists and other social agents, and opportunities for the enhancement of distance education and lifelong learning (Μικρόπουλος, Δίπλας, Γιακοβής, Χαλκίδης, & Πιντέλας, 1994).

More specifically, the use of the internet allows students and educators a) to retrieve, analyze and evaluate every form of information and data from specialized online libraries, museum sites with digital material, official documents, scientific and geographical data, newspaper and magazine articles, etc.; and b) to use updated teaching material and software for interactive activities that are far from the microcosm of the classroom (such as making an electronic newspaper and uploading students' experiences from schools of different geographical regions), to respond to self-evaluation tests and online tests, to experience simulation of historical events and natural phenomena, to engage in games for education and recreation, etc.

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Being connected with the "outside world" opens "windows" on classrooms walls, favors cooperation with experts, as well as with various social groups. Cooperation among students from different schools is encouraged with the aim to develop shared complex projects and make cross-cultural exchanges. Also, through the development of tele-learning and tele-cooperation, students can come closer to one another, engage in a dialogue with students from other countries, discuss historical and cultural differences and similarities, and feel more united (Μακράκης, 1996). For Greece especially, the interconnections among Greek communities abroad and all over the world (i.e., the "diaspora") constitute a challenge for continuing feedback and reviving cultural bonds with the country of origin (Ράπτης & Ράπτη, 2001).

ii) The computer is a mediator for the development of local and universal networks of communication, cooperation and discourse. The facilities provided by the world web and the internet as well as the programs supporting distance education, promote new forms of cooperation, the creation of learning communities of open education, not only among student population, but also among educators who share similar concerns and interests (Dillenbourg, 1999. O'Malley, 1995. Rogoff, 1994. Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1996). In this way, cooperation among student groups of different nationalities and educational institutions, as well as cultural exchanges is facilitated. Common elements among different cultural or educational communities are revealed and differences are decreased (Μακράκης, 1996).

Johnson, Johnson and Stanne (1986), through investigating cooperative learning with the help of the ITC, reached the following conclusions: a) Computer-assisted cooperative learning improves the quantity and quality of the daily schoolwork, secures evidence-based learning, and the students' ability to use knowledge for problem solving; b) students' discussions become more focused on the topics studied; c) cooperative groups seem to be faster and more accurate than the individualistic and competitive groups; and d) students need less help by the teacher.

Webb (1984) observed that the students' work with the help of ITC "proved an ideal scene for the promotion of cooperation within the group and the prospect of allocating work", while Fischer (1984) observed that ITC facilitates "a unique interaction among classmates, placing students in a more cooperative environment as they cooperate in order to solve the problems that arise".

iii) The computer is a powerful private printing shop. The computer offers printing facilities that can be used in the service of various writing, artistic, cultural and other activities of students. Thus, through various applications, the "theory of activity" and the practice of "a community of learners" are realized and lead to innovative, complex and effective applications in education (Nardi, 1996. Prawat, 1996. Rogoff, 1994).

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iv) The computer is a tool of technological literacy. In the student's and the educator's hands the computer is the main means for the student's initiation to the field of contemporary technology. Computers offer the potential for specified research, learning and communication. Therefore, information literacy appears to be analogous and equal to the general concept of literacy (Ματσαγγούρας, 2007: 19-67), as it can open the way for developing research and communication skills, useful for the citizens of the world now and in the future.

4. New Technologies and the school's socialization function

The main concern of the science of education is, among others, to continually seek teaching conditions which will create a friendly and attractive environment for students, not only for their cognitive development but also for their whole social and personality development in an interactive social context. Besides, according to contemporary epistemological and pedagogical thinking, learning experience and knowledge, apart from being subjective processes, are also social constructions, formed and developed under specific socio-historical conditions (Cole, 1996. Gasser, 1991. Luria, 1979. Vygotsky, 1978).

Older pedagogical views and concerns regarding ways to form the most appropriate learning and development conditions, seem to converge, during the last decades, to the admittance that the dynamic and interactive conditions aiming at developing cooperative discovery of knowledge through collective work, present obvious advantages in comparison to the modes of individualistic learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1994. Kagan, 1994. Slavin, 1991. Shultz, 1989.). Papert (1991) suggested that we should not use the new learning tools to teach in the same ways as in the past.

The basic arguments in favor of technology place emphasis on the transformational role of the modern school: it promotes socialization through the use of dynamic interactions stemming from the use of new technologies. This may be realized not only in general education but also in learning groups with special characteristics and needs (Αλεξανδράτος & Σταμάτη, 2009).

Besides, the discovery of knowledge, apart from being a parameter of personality development, is a field with a strong transformational dynamic. At the same time, the acquisition of knowledge plays the role of a cultural tool, which provides opportunities to express ideas, form authority relations and interactions among social groups and individuals (Aronowitz & Giroux, 1991. Derrida, 1967. Freire, 1973).

According to constructivistic theories of learning, the learning process is realized through various interactions with the social environment, which affect the pre-existing cognitive schemas and lead to the formulation of new concepts (Ράπτης & Ράπτη, 2001: 94-96). According to the critical epistemological views, learning constitutes a process of personality change and hence a change in the

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social identity (Sawicki, 1991), which creates expectations for the development of more just social schemas.

In a technology-based learning environment, where group cooperation teaching is widely implemented, students develop communication and discourse, decrease their personal confrontations, practice in collective decision making and finally achieve a democratic learning climate, with mutual satisfaction of emotional needs (Τριλιανός, 1998: 149-209). On the contrary, in a conventional educational environment, where competition dominates, good communication among students is absent, their positive attitude towards every new subject is at stake, and the quality of knowledge production is not satisfactory (Hertz & Miller, 1992. Johnson & Johnson, 1994. Kagan, 1994). Based on the theory of constructivism, where the learning process is associated with making ("learning by making"), the student is called and encouraged to process and construct personal meaning. In this way, every student can play the teacher's role.

In the computer-supported learning environment, changes occur mainly in the democratic climate of the classroom and concern both the role of the educator, who becomes the student's collaborator and mediator of knowledge, and the role of the student, who develop strong relations with his or her fellow students. From passive recipients of learning materials, students are encouraged to act as agents of their own learning and change, with the support of their teacher.

Teaching with the use of computers takes place in a laboratory environment, which gives the educator the chance to deal with learning difficulties, cultivate self-knowledge, develop democratic and cross-cultural exchange, and promote solidarity and empathy within and among learning groups. In this way, the communication structures of a classroom change: they acquire greater width. For the educator it seems that the benefits are not negligible, as he or she has the opportunity to work together with his or her students, following their personal development (Hay, Guzdial, Jackson, Boyle, & Soloway, 1994. Lebrun, 1999. Mitra, 2000).

A programming language friendly to the educational process, where the students take up the role of the teacher, is Logo (Γλέζου, 2010). In the Logo area, the student, as a teacher, is called to understand the knowledge that is going to teach, organize the teaching approach of a subject, divide knowledge in small, comprehensible units, continually communicate with his or her classmates, recognize their already existing knowledge and build on it, and respond to their misunderstandings and faults.

It is worth noting here that today many educational activities can be implemented with the use of another technological tool, that is beginning to be very popular in Greece too, namely the interactive whiteboard.

The screen of the interactive whiteboard resembles to an expeditionary map. It can be separated into independent parts, where in each one a different approach of the same subject is developed. The teacher participates in the lesson as a helper,

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whereas students have direct access in a multitude of digital sources. In this way, knowledge is sought for with more enthusiasm by the students, compared with the use of the traditional blackboard (Bell, 1998. Cogill, 2003).

The teacher should always keep the interactive board under his or her own control and use the electronic material without losing contact with the class (Solvie, 2001). In this new procedure, the educator is called to redefine the lesson's approach and to improve it with the aid of new technologies. Recent studies in England have shown that students of all ages respond positively to the use of the interactive board and their concentration during the learning process is increased significantly (Bucland, 2002). Also, in the eyes of students, both the teacher and the subject acquire greater trustworthiness and reliability (Miller, Glover, & Averis, 2005). The educators themselves report that technology in the classroom life competes with all the other technological tools that exist in children's lives, in a professional and pedagogical manner (Miller et al., 2005). Surely, these new differentiated roles for the student and the teacher alike are more demanding, but at the same time more creative and more specialized than in the past (Hershkowitz & Schwartz, 1999. Noss & Hoyles, 1996).

ITC can bring changes to the "culture of learning", as it transforms the centralized and inflexible educational environment into a decentred working context, comprising both individual and group work. Learning outcomes can thus acquire a high quality, democratic communication structures can be established, and improved interpersonal relations among members of a school class can be achieved (Αλεξανδράτος & Ράπτη, 2004: 3).

School has the obligation to take into account social changes that take place in the wider social context and to adapt to them accordingly, in order to prepare the members of the new generation for the future conditions in which they will live and create.

In concluding, it is evident that the aforementioned benefits stress the necessity of using the Technologies of Information and Communication in the educational system. This should be combined with additional training of the educators. The aim is that computers will not be simply associated with the conventional methods of teaching, but will play a crucial role in the acquisition and production of knowledge and meaning.

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