The Book of Musical Knowledge

THE BOOK OF

MUSICAL KNOW LEDGE

THE HISTORY ,TECHNIQUE , AND

APPREC IATION OF MUSIC, TOGETHER W ITHL IVES OF THE GREAT COMPOSERS

FOR MUSIC-LOVERS , STUDENTSAND TEACHERS

BY ARTHUR ELSONAUTHOR OP

“m “BIOIAIN’B GUIDE ,

" MUSIC CLUB PROGRAMS.

”l'l‘O.

BOSTON NEW Y ORK

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

absM edinalbw“dambnbgt

COPY RIGHT, n g, B Y ARTHUR ELSON

AL L RIGHTS RESERVED

Published Novem ber 1015

SIXTH IMPRESSION

LIBRARYafAfz TEAC HERS C O LLtMiANTA BARB ARA . CAL IFO RNOA

PREFACE

THIS book has been planned with a view to placing before the general reader the main facts that will enable him to appreciate m usicintelligently. One often hears the remark, I

’m fond of music, but

I don’t understand it.” The present work has been written with theidea of enabling the non-musician to comprehend the real meaningof the tona l art, and to familiarize himself with the value of thegrea t com posers’ works, the use of the instruments , the various musicalforms, anda num ber of subj ects of sim i lar importance.At the same time, certain other technica l topics have been included . While these have been presented in such a way as to be understood by the non-m usician, they have been given with sufficientthoroughness to make the work useful also as a textbook. It is therefore fitted to the needs of students andteachers, as well as amateurs.An effort has been made to condense the chief points of a generalmusica l education into a Single volume. While this book shouldprove of interest to the average reader, a course of study has beenadded , which will make it suitable for use in high schools or collegesalso, or in any institution that aims to give a course in the understanding of music.

CONTENTS

PART I . THE EVOLUTION OF MUSIC

PRm ITIVE AND SAVAGE MUSIC

EARLY CHRISTIAN MUSIC

THE MINSTREL KNIGHTS

THE SCHOOIs OF COUNTERPOINT

THE HARMONIC STYLE

PART II. THE GREAT COMPOSERS

CHOPIN

CHERUB INI AND FRENCH OPERA

LISZ T AND HIS C IRCLE

FROM GLINKA To TSCHAIKOVSKY

BRAHMS AND THE SYMPHONISTS

GRIEG AND THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES

STRAUSS AND RECENT. GERMANS

V111

XXVIII.

XXIX.

CONTENTS

THE RUSSIAN SCHOOL

OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS

XXX . AMERICA

LIV.

LV.

PART III. MUSICAL FORM

MELODY AND APPRECIATION

FIGURES AND PHRASES

THE SONG-FORMS

THE RONDOS

THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM

OTHER SONATA MOVEMENTSTHE ORCHESTRAL FORMS

DANCES AND PIANO STYLES

THE VOCAL FORMS

THE CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS

PART IV. THE INSTRUMENTS

THE PIANO AND ITS PREDECESSORS

THE ORGAN

THE VOICE

THE VIOLIN

OTHER BOWED INSTRUMENTS

PLUCKED-STRING INSTRUMENTS

FLUTE AND PICCOLO

OBOE AND ENGLISH HORN

THE BASSOONS

THE CLARINETS

HORNS, TRUMPETS, AND CORNETS

TROMBONES AND TUBAS

INSTRUMENTS or PERCUSSION

PART V. SPECIAL TOPICS

SOME FAMOUS PIANISTS

SOME FAMOUS SINGERS

VIOLINISTS AND VIOLIN MUSIC

CONTENTS

LVII. ORCHESTRATION

LVIII. CONDUCTING

LIX. ACOUSTICS

LX. How To READ MUSIC

APPENDIX

A. IMPORTANT MUSICAL TERMS

B . A COURSE OF STUDY, WITH REFERENCES

INDEX

WAGNER .

EXAMPLE OF OLD NOTATION FROM AN OLDSION OF THE AUTHOR

CANON, FROM AN ANCIENT MANUSCRIPT IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM“Sum er is icum en in ,

"dating about1215

DI LAsso

PALESTRINA

BACH

By perm ission ofThe Print-Collector's QuarterlyBEETHOVEN

WEBER

SCHUEERT

VERDI

THE HUMAN EAR

xii ILLUSTRATIONS

DVORAE

PAINE ; CONVERSE ; MACDOWELL ; HADLEY ; CHADWICK ; FOOTE ; PARKER

GROUP OF STRINGED INSTRUMENTS1. Mandolin , 2 . Lute; 3. Viola d’Am ore; 4. Violin ; 5. Banjo; 6.Viola ;7.Violoncello; 8. Guitar ; 9. Harp ; 10. Contrabass

GROUP OF WOOD-WIND INSTRUMENTS1. Bassoon ; 2 . Oboe; 3. Bass Clarinet; 4. Basset Horn ; 5. Clarinet;6. OldFlute; 7. Saxophone; 8. English Horn ; 9. Boehm Flute

GROUP OF BRASS INSTRUMENTS1. Valve Trom bone ; 2 . Slide Trom bone ; 3. Trum pet; 4. Serpent;5. Horn ; 6. Bass Tuba ; 7. Cornet; 8. Ophicleide

GROUP OF PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS1. Snare Drum ; 2 . Triangle ; 3. Chinese Gong ; 4. Glockenspiel; 5. Cas

tanets; 6. Xylophone; 7. Kettledrums ; 8. Bass Drum ; 9. Cym bals;10. Celesta

ADELINA PATTI

PAGANINI

OOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE

PART I

THE EVOLUTION OF MUSIC

THE BOOK OF MUSICALKNOW LEDGE

I

PRIMITIVE AND SAVAGE MUSIC

FETIS defines music as the art of moving the emotions by comb inations of sound. This statement would give to the tonal art avery early origin , andwould even allow it a pre-human existence inthe songs of birds. The beginning of human music must have beenvoca l in character. Herbert Spencer considers song as a form of expression arising from the reflex action of the voca l organs understress of em otion, just as a cry follows pa in . This would reverse thedefinition of Fétis, andmake music a resu lt of em otion rather thana cause.It seems probable that the early songs developed from hunting

calls, or other vocal signa ls employed in primitive life. As soon assuch ca lls were used for the pleasure expressed or imparted , apartfrom any useful purpose , they became music in the strict sense ofthe term . Melody would thus arise easily from the aruplification ofa single ca ll or the union of several . Some authorities think thatsong was first an accompaniment to the muscular expression thatled to dancing ; but the hunting-Signals probably antedated therudim entary tangos of the prim itive races .The origin of different sca les may be traced with more detail, even

if som e of it is legendary. Our own sca le is “founded on fact,”for

Pythagoras brought its mathematica l relations from Egypt, andmade them the basis of the Greek scales. In this system the pitchesofthe notes corresponded to defin ite fractiona l parts of a stretchedstring. The Greek system becam e the basis of the Ambrosian andGregorian modes, described in deta il in a la ter chapter ; and thesame pitches were employed in the diatonic mode that replacedthese. For the last two centuries the intervals , by common consent, have been altered Slightly, to make our twelve equal semitones that permit of modulation from one key to any other.

4 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE

Not allpeople, however, use our sca le. In Siam and some neighboring countries the octave is divided into five, six, or seven equalparts to form a sca le. The Hindus , on the other hand, used smallerscale-parts than ours, having third andquarter-tones. The legendstell us that when the god Kr ishna came to earth, he was met by noless than sixteen thousand nymphs, each of whom sang to him in amode different from that of the others. If they allsang at once, thebearer would certam have needed more than human patience ;butthe account does not dea l with that point. From this event camethe numerous m odes, or Raagnis, that were found in the nativeIndian music. These were often of great power ; andsom e were heldeven too potent for morta l use. Thus it is related that the Em perorAkbar commanded the fam ous singer Naik Gobaulto sing theModeof Fire. That performer, after finding allrefusal va in , started hisfata l task, but took the precaution of plunging up to his neck in thewaters of the Djumna . Before his song was over, the water aroundhim began to boil . Even then the Emperor would not let him stop ;so be resumed the fiery strain , only to burst into flames and beconsumed as he finished it. The story seems apocryphal , thoughmany later singers have been known to be persuaded into attempting things that they cannot manage safely.

China uses the so-ca lled pentatonic scale, consisting of intervalssim ilar to those of the black keys on our pianos . That this sca le maygive pleasing effects is shown by the Scotch folk-music, in whichmany of the m ost beautiful songs, such as

“Auld Lang Syne ” or

“Bonnie Doon, are wholly in the five-note sca le. Turning again tolegend , we find that the Chinese evidently preferred this scale to ourdiatonic mode. Long ago the sage Ling-Lun , in search of knowledge,came to the banks of the sacred river. Here he found the imm ortalbird of China , the Poang-Hoaug , with its mate. The fema le birdsang the notes of our diatonic sca le, while the ma le bird lim ited hisoutpourings to the penta tonic scale. At that time everything feminine was held of little account in China , so the fem ale

’s notes wererejected , and those of the male bird chosen. A little judicious cutting among the bamboo reeds on the river-bank enabled Ling-Lunto perpetuate this sca le. At present the Chinese often sing with apiercing intonation ; but their music itself is not atallunpleasing, asthe song in praise of theMu-Li flower will Show.

TSIN-FA

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()

A Chinese song pra ising a branch of'

Mu-Li flowers thrown into a maiden’s

oor.


Among ancient instruments, those of the Chinese are best described . Their invention is ascribed to Ka i-Tien-Chi, the ninth em

peror of the spiritual dynasty m entioned in Chinese mythology.

They are classified according to their material , and form the following eight groups : (I) The sound of skin ; (2) the sound of stone ;(3) that of metal ; (4) of baked clay ; (5) of silk strings ; (6) of wood ;(7) of bam boo ; (8) of calabash .

The skin of anim als, su itably tanned , is used in the eight varietiesof Chinese drum . Most of these are barrel-shaped , but two of thesmaller ones are more flat, and often partly filled with rice-gra ins .Musica l stones, to the number of sixteen, form what is known as theking, the stones being Shaped much like a carpenter

’s square andhung in a row. These are very valuable when perfect. They datefrom early times, a set of them having been received as tribute in theyear 2250 B .C. The sound of meta l is heard in the many bells andgongs

,which are highly esteemed in China . Baked clay forms the

material of the hiuen, a whistle with from five to seven apertures .Silk strings are employed on the kin and the che, which are widelyused. The form er has seven strings, giving only the five tones of thepentatonic scale. The latter is much larger, having twenty-fivestrings . These strings are plucked to produce the tone, which isunusually soft and agreeable. Wooden instruments are devotedaltogether to noise . The chief forms are a hollow box struck by ahammer, and a tiger-image with wooden pegs in its back, the pegsbeing swept at a stroke in much the sam e fashion that a small boywill use in running a stick along a picket fence . Bamboo forms thesiao and the flutes. The former is a set of sixteen Pan-pipes . Thelatter have only three finger-holes , and therefore demand muchskill in playing. Still more difficult was the obsolete form with

‘

themouthpiece in the centre, three holes on each Side, and the endsstopped up . The ca labash , or gourd , serves as the air-cham ber ofthe cheng, which has gold-tipped reeds stuck into it to form a

primitive organ . In recent years the Chinese have adopted foreigninstruments of the banjo andtrum pet type.Musical instruments were probably copied from natural models .

The wind whistling in a hollow reed would suggest the flute ; abranch bumping against a hollow tree m ay well have led to drums ;while the twanging bowstring develops naturally into a rudimentary

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approach ; andthe Iroquois braves reserved it for love-ca lls. Thefinger-holes were usually few in number, making it difficult for theperformer to get any but the sim plest effects .Instrum ents of the horn and trumpet type also are found among

primitive peoples . African horns have been made of ivory, wood , oreven large seashells. Just as Siegfried , in Wagner’s NibelungenTr ilogy, has his own horn ca ll , so many African chiefs had specialhorn Signa ls of their own , for use in battle or to indica te approach .

Som etim es nearly every m em ber of a tribe wou ld have such a signal .The Maoris of New Zealand hadwooden war-trumpets seven feetlong

,which were audiblefor several m iles. The Indians on the upper

Rio Negro hadsomething between a trum pet anda bassoon, madein eight different sizes for use in their SO-called devils’ music. Onthese they played good m elodies, with full accompaniment. Wom enwere barred from this ceremony on pain of dea th , and even forbidden to look at the instrum ents ; andit is sa id that the poison usedas a penalty for breaking this ru le was given by fathers to their owndaughters, andby husbands to their own wives.The gong is very popular am ong savages. Gong-like sounds are

obtained in Borneo from small pieces of iron, andeven from chainsthrown into the air. Skilful African players can get many effectsfrom the gong. Its chief use, however, has been to arouse its hearersto warlike frenzy, a condition that sometimes results from gongmusic in m ore civilized nations . Bells were adopted by the EastIndian Pegus, who united twenty of them into one instrument,played by hammer-strokes . The Javanese bells, or gammelong,

sounded like a string orchestra when heard from a distance by theChallenger expedition .

Prim itive drum s com e in allsizes, from the skin-covered bowls ofthe Hottentots to the large hollow tree-trunks of the Ashantis. InAfrica the drum has severa l uses beside that of accompanying musicor dancing. It is em ployed to announce the arriva l or departure of astranger, to give the marching tim e for native carriers, or even for acode of signals. The Dwalla tribes have such signals , which theyread with as much skill as a telegraph operator will use in receivingmessages on his sounder.

The marimba is a set of flat sticks on gourds of different sizes,the sticks being struck by a hammer. Some have cla im ed this as the

PRIMITIVE AND SAVAGE MUSIC 9

origin of the piano, but it would befarmore correct to callit the precursor of the xylophone.Plucked-str ing instruments are well represented by the guitar ofthe Ashantis, known as the lanku . This has a long neck joined to ahollow, skin-covered wooden box. It has eight strings, supported intwo rows by a bridge. The Africans have zithers also, with strings ofbamboo fibres or twisted rattan threads .Most widespread am ong stringed instruments is the harp . It un

doubtedly developed from the twang of the bowstring, although theNew Zealanders do not have bows, andyet do possess a form of thelyre . The harp of the Kaflirs is a simple bow, on which the stringm ay be tightened or loosened at will by means of a sliding ring.

For resonance, a hollow gourd is lashed to the bow near one end .

OtherAfrican tribes have harps varying in Size, andwith the stringsranging in number from seven to eighteen. In Guinea the nativesmake an wolian harp from the leaf-stalk of the aeta palm, by separating its para llel fibres andputting a bridge under them . Lutes havebeen found on the lower Congo, with strings of pa lm fibres . Dahom ey has a prim itive mandolin, while New Brita in and the YorkIslands possess a rudim entary banjo.The use of friction in tone-production seems to have originated in

Africa . The negro habit of rubbing two sticks together producesfearful andwonderful results, but it is a principle easy to apply toother materia ls . Thus the Damaras stroked their bowstrings, andproduced practica lly a violin tone. TheM’

Balunda negroes evolveda crude violin with three strings of plant fibre . The Malays have atwo-stringed violin, while East Java offers a sort of flattened Violoncello, with horseha ir strings on a frame of a rare variety of cocoanut. The Arabian rebab, Often considered the origin of our violin ,hadtwo strings which were plucked atfirst, andonly bowed in latertim es . Other Arabian instruments were the lute (alud), the tabor

(tambourine), the single-stringed monochord , the kettledrum , thezamar (an oboe), the nefyr (trumpet), several flutes, and the dulcim er, with its hammer-struck strings tuned in sets of three . Thelast-nam ed is the rea l prototype of the harpsichords andspinets thatled to the modern piano . The Arabian m usic, like that of Mohammedans in general, has a seven-toned sca le, derived from a theoreti

calsystem ofseventeen fractional tones. The scale, however, is not


uniform, its interva ls differing according to the num ber of fractionalparts used in each tone. The music is rhythm ica l in character and

striking in effect. It is well echoed in Felicien David ’s symphonicode “The Desert, and in Saint-Saéns’ song “La Brise .”

Babylonia andAssyria possessed harps, dulcimers, lyres, lutes,pipes, trumpets, and drums. The lyres were much like those ofGreece, instruments with an enlargem ent or resonance cham berat the bottom , nearly vertical sides, and cross-bar at the top , fromwhich the vertica l strings ran down . Som e of the Babylonian instrum ents m entioned in the third chapter of Daniel have Greeknames. A du lcim er-likeaffair,with strings plucked instead of struck,was known as the psaltery.

Am ong the Hebrews, music was cherished by the prophets asearly as the timE

I

Of'

Samuel, or abow ln the second temple,bu ilt about 520 B .C., singing with instrumental accompanim ent wascustomary, and the psalms were collected for such use. This earlymusic is lost, even the old Hebrew tunes of to-day, such as

“KolNidrei,

” being comparatively modern . The Hebrew instrumentswere almost wholly borrowed from other nations . The h umor, or

harp, was probably sma ll enough to be a lyre . The nebelwas a

psa ltery, som etimes hung on the player’s neck. The asor, which

David mentioned as an instrument of ten strings, was a lyre playedwith a plectrum . The tim bre], or tabor, or taboret, was a smallhand-drum , or tambourine, probably made in different sizes . Gymbals were known, and trumpets andflutes ; while probably som e usewasmade of the Egyptian sistrum , as well as guitars andpipes . Theorgan in the tem ple was probably a set of very large Pan-pipes .The Talmud asserts that when this organ was played, the peoplein the streets of Jerusa lem could not hear one another talk. But

the nam e used, magrepha , meant fire-shovel also, andm ay have referred to the large shovel that was thrown down after the sacrificia lfires were built. Some authorities even hold it to be a drum . All thisshows our lack of knowledge on the subject, and the inaccuracy ofthe early writers. Another striking story comes from Josephus, whomentions a concert of two hundred thousand singers, forty thousandsistra , forty thousand harps, and two hundred thousand trumpets.Ancient Egypt, that land of much forgotten civilization , had a

Well-developed system of music. The flutes in the Old tombs, as

PRIMITIVE AND SAVAGE MUSIC 11

already mentioned , are found to be excellent instruments . Therewere three varieties of harp , a small, bow-Shaped affair to becarried on the shoulders, a larger, bow-shaped instrument that washeld upright, and the more massive, loop-shaped affair, often triangular in form . None of these, however, had the pillar beyond thestrings that completes the triangle in modern harps and keeps theinstrument in perfect tune. For this reason the Egyptian harpscould not have stood very grea t tension, andmust have been comparatively low in tone. The strings varied in num ber from three totwenty or m ore. The Egyptianlyres, Shaped like the letter U witha cross-bar above, hadfive or more str ings . The lyres were usuallyset upright on a table or pedes ta l , but cou ld be held horizontally instead . They were played either by a plectrum or by the fingers . Thelater lute s were provided with frets along the neck, in quite m odernfashion. There were Oboes with straw reeds in the mouth-pieces , andsometimes double tubes ; Trum pets were made of copper or bronze ,andused chieflyfor m ilitary purposes. The syrinx existed in varioussizes . Percussion instruments included bone or ivory clappers , cymba ls , tambourines, and at least two kinds of drum, besides the Sistrum . The last was a Set of m eta l bars hanging loosely in a frame,andgiving a j ingle when shaken . It is thought that this instrumentwas used to give signa ls for workmen to pull andhaultogether, justas one of a group of sailors tugging at a rope will sing a “chantey”

to guide the m en in pulln together rhythmica lly. Apparently

The Egyptians employed music as a social diversion , a courtlyluxury, andan adjunct of religious ceremonies. Itwas united withpoetry and dancing. Professional Singers, players, and dancers receivedcareful tra ining at large institu tions , andsom e of the picturerelics Show this in great deta il . The existing instruments indicatethat the ancient Egyptian scale was probably diatonic, andsom e ofthe pictures suggest the use of harmony in instrumenta l combina

In the seventh opened to the Greeks , andthis intM W fiiflly. The Greek musicis derived largely from the Egyptian , m any of the Greek works onmusic having been written in Egypt. This being so , the Egyptian


music, as well as the Greek, becomes the source from which our owntonal art developed . We know little of the Egyptian sca le , andnothing of the notation ; but apparently it could not have beengreatly different from that of Greece, which has been described indetail by many writers. The so-ca lled Ptolemaic scale system becam e a later model for Greece.Enough has been set down here to show that music is by no means

a recent development. The known antiquity of the Chinese instruments (of which, in passing, we may note that the Japanese aremostly copies) is so grea t that it makes our earliest musica l classicsblushfor their extrem e youth . The widespread employment of com

paratively advanced instruments shows us that music might wellhave developed into a great art elsewhere than in Europe . Music,after all, is largely a matter of taste ; the Chinese, on hearing European music under the auspices of Father Amiot, sa id that it was nodoubt very learned , butthat it did not touch the heart like their ownmusic. But the old motto offers“to each his own ,

”andfor Occi

dental nations the history of music, except for the earliest Egyptiansuggestions, is wholly confined to Europe . The postscript of the lastcentury shows us a development in America too ; but that has beenlargely a reflection of European standards andmodels .

GREECE AND ROME

WHEN the poet Collins ca lled upon some party or parties unknown to “revive the just designs of Greece,

”at the expense of

“Cecilia ’s mingled world of sound ,” it is doubtful if he knew just

what those designs were . Certam it was disloyal to the m em ory ofPurcell and the grea t Elizabethan com posers who had gone beforehim . But subsequent discoveries have given us a better insight intothe subject of ancient Greek music, andwe now have several actualspecim ens of that music to supplem ent the many historica l trea

In Greece, poetry andmusic were at first treated as one art. Inthe Mythical or Heroic Age, the wandering minstrel flourished . Hewould travel about from place to place reciting his epic fragm entsor shorter poems with a certain style Ofchanting, or cantillation,for each kind of poetry. The m usic, therefore, was not defin ite, thevoca l chanting and lyre accompanim ent varying on repetition eventhough the style rema ined constant. The poets were received withsufficient honor in their peripatetic vocation . We read that

Seven cities claim ed the birth ofHom er dead,

Through which the living Hom er begged his bread.

But this was written som e twenty-seven centuries after the eventand it is probable that geniuses of the Homer or Hesiod type wouldnot often go hungry.

Shorter lyrics began to appear in the seventh and sixth centuriesB .C. Ionic iam bics and elegiacs were com posed by Archilochus andTyrtaeus , to be succeeded by the lyrics andodes of Sappho, Alcaeus,and Anacreon , to say nothing of Pindar , and the later poetessesMyrtis and Corinna . These were still sung with immovisational

accompanim ent. They m ust have hada strong effect, for Solon , onhearing a work of Sappho, expressed the hope that he might not diebefore he had learned such a beautiful song.

Music was given a scientific basis by Pythagoras . Born in Samos


in the year 582 B .C. , he travelled extensively, andbrought back fromEgypt the knowledge of systematic m usic. He gave to the sca le themathematica l proportions expla ined in the later chapter on acoustics, a sca le which was em ployed alm ost intact until 1700 A.D.,

and then changed only Slightly to form our present sca le. From hiswork and that of his successors came the well-developed system ofGreek m odes.The basis of the modes was the tetrachord , or group of four ad

jacent notes. The diatonic tetrachord consisted of intervals represented by E , D , C , andB in our notation . The chromatic tetrachordhad the interva ls of E , C-sharp, C, and B ; while the enharmonictetrachord hadstill sma ller intervals in its lower part. The diatonictetrachord was varied by the use of C-sharp instead of C , andD

Sharp a lso instead of D . The original tetrachord was ca lled Dorian,that with one Sharp Phrygian , and that with two sharps Lydian.

These tetrachords were made into sca les by the addition of tetrachords below. If the tetrachords were added above, the sca lesbecame Hypodorian, Hypophrygian , andHypolydian, with an extraone, the Mixolydian, to complete the series. Their intervals, whentuned on the octave lyre, were as follows :

Dorian E C G F EPhrygian E 014 G F# ELydian E CA A G# F# EMixolydian E C A G F EHypodorian E C A G F1? EHypophrygian E Cit A Git F# EHypolydian E Cif AI; G1? F3 E

These, it will be seen , correspond in size of intervals with whitekey sca les on our pianos starting on each degree of our diatonicsca le. Thus the Dorian has E to E intervals, the Phrygian D to Dintervals, andso on . The Lydian mode corresponds to our diatonicsca les ; so that when Collins wrote ,

“Wrap me in soft Lydian measures,

” hewas ca llingfor nothing new to modern ears . Each m odewassupposed to have its own special qualities, the Dorian being decidedly strong andm artial . The Hymn to Calliope,

” one of the fewbits of old Greek m usic still extant, is Dorian in effect, its chief notebeing what we would ca ll the third sca le degree. The im pressivepower of this mode may be seen a lso in the older Scotch setting ofAuldRobin Gray,

” which begins andends on the third sca le degree.


The Greeks combined alltheir sca les into one large two-octaveaffa ir, com posed of four Dorian tetrachords with the necessary alterations. These notes were named from the strings on the largetwo-octave lyre . The nam es, and further deta ils, may be found inWaldo Selden Pratt’s excellent book “The History of Music.” Themusic was notated by letters . The Greeks used few letters, butgave them new meanings when written sidewise or upside down .

The Romans did not understand the principle of the octave ; and inadopting the Greek system they continued the letters through thealphabet, and even added other characters.The Greek drama made use of music. Its declamation, half epic

andha lf lyric, resem bled in some degree the cantillation of the earlyminstrels , butwas used by the chorus as well as by single perform ers.Instruments of the wood-wind class (flutes, Oboes, clarinets, etc.)were gradually introduced also .

Most common among Grecian instruments was theJm L Thishada resonance box (often tortoise-shell), a U-shaped frame, andacross-bar, with from four to eighteen strings. Larger than the lyrewas the kitham , or phorm inx, in which the strings were carriedpartly over the side of the resonance box instead of being attachedto the top . It is held by Greilsam er, an authority on the Violin,that later kitharas with enlarged side-frames behind the strings m ay

have suggested the viols that led to the modern Violin . The magadiswas an Oriental- harp of varying shape, with about twenty strings.From this came the term ‘‘

m agadizing ,” which meant playing In

octaves instead of unison . Other harps were known under the namesof barbitos and trigon , according to their shape. Allthese wereplayed with the plectrum or plucked by the fingers.Am ong the wind instruments, the most popular was the aulos, or

direct flute of cane or bored wood . This had a detachable mouthpiece, andfrom two to eight finger-holes. There were double flutes,in which two tubes extended from one mouthpiece. The playeroften wore a strap around his cheeks , enabling him to get greaterpower. Sometim es a bellows was attached , making the flute a bagpipe . The syrinx was a set of tubes bound together, andplayed byblowing over the open ends. The salpinx was a na tural trum pet ofbronze , som ewhat tapering in shape. The term “flute ” probablyincluded also instruments of the clarinet or oboe type, with single

GREECE AND ROME 17

or double bits of vibrating reed in the m outhpiece . The deeperflutes were probably like our bassoon . Thus the som bre and impressive character of the “Nom e of Kradias,

”a death-march played on

the journey to an execution , must have drawn m uch of its effectfrom som e tone-color similar to that of the bassoon .

Am ong the wind instrum ents is also the rather m ysterious waterorgan , invented by Ktesib ios atAlexandria in the year 150 B .C . InRoman tim es this consisted of two or three sets of pipes m ountedona wind-chest, a keyboard of valve levers, anda pair of partly filledpumps causing a ir-pressure by hydraulic means .Many of these instruments were played atprivate or sem i-public

occasions ; but they became a prom inent fea ture in the public games.The Olym pic Gam es , occurring once every four years at Elis , datedback to the ninth century B .C. At these gam es there was often a contest oftrum peters, which becam e a regular event in 396 B .C. Mostfamous am ong the Greek trumpeters was Herodorus of Megara , whowon the prize ten tim es in succession , andin one year was Victoriousin allfour of the great festivals, the Olym pic, the Pythian , theNem ean , and the Isthmian . Many anecdotes are told of this mu

He would sleep on a bearskin , in imitation of Herculesandthe lion’s skin . His m usic was so loud that at tim es som e of hisauditors were stunned by the concussion . He could play upon twotrum pets at the same tim e , andwhen he did so the audience had tosit farther away than usual, to avoid the bad effects of the noise.Once at the siege of Argos, when the troops were giving way, he began to sound his two trumpets, which so insp ired the warriors thatthey returned to the fight andwon the victory. The trum pet wasused for m ilitary signals rather than for really musica l purposes . Itwas blown on the march, or to usher in a proclamation, or even toarouse the anima ls in horse-races .In the musica l contests the prize seems to have gone to loudness

rather than to what we shou ld ca ll expression . Trumpeters wouldoften injure themselves in their efforts, andsom etim es even burst ablood-vessel. Harmonides , wishing to astonish his auditors, is saidto have killed himself thus while playing the flute .Flute contests took place in the Pythian games, held in honor of

Apollo’s victory over the Python . One of the contestants once wonthe prize in a rather Singular manner. While he was playing on a


straight flute (held directly before the face, like a trum pet), he foundthe m outhpiece suddenly clogged . Instantly changing the positionof his instrument, he continued by playing it as a side-flute, in themanner of our present-day perform ers. His presence of mind wasrewarded by the Victor’s crown .

It was natural that music should play a large part in any festivaldedica ted to Apollo ; and in later years these events became ambitious enough . Thus in the year 250 B .C., shortly after Athens hadwon a temporary freedom from Macedonia , a musica l festival tookplace that would have delighted the hearts of Richard Strauss andothermodern wholesalers . The work performed was a representationof the combat between Apollo and the Python, in five movements .The composer is unknown , and it is probable that the music tookshape gradually under many hands ; but the deta ils of the scoringare recorded with some fulness.The first movement represented Apollo com ing to Pytho, andjoining other celestial beings in their pastim es . This included a

dance of the Horas, with the Graces andMuses presiding . The movement opened with thirty sim ikions, or hand-played harps ; andthesem ay have given some harmony, for the playing of chords on the harp

(instead of unison) hadalready been taught by Stratonicus. Twelveof the harps were of the enlarged form known as epigoneion , with

‘

forty strings instead of thirty-five. After a time ninety-five woodwind players were heard , using the plagiaulos (side flute) andbombyr (a sort of clarinet). Thiswas allin theE olian or Phrygian mode.At the dance were heard the krotala , or clappers, commonly used toaccompany the dances of Bacchantes and others.The second movement portrayed the descent of Apollo to the

fray. Itwas in the Mixolydian mode, a sca le that even in ourmusicsuggests hesitation and suspense . The low notes of twenty-sevendeep bom bos pipes, somewhat like our bass clarinets, gave a portentous and funereal effect to the end of the m ovement.The third movem ent pictured the actual combat, in the martia l

Dorian mode , andwith a rapid iambic rhythm. Forty-three clarinets were struck on the outside, to represent the sound emittedby the monster gnashing his teeth . Fifty players on the syrinx imitatedthePython’s groans. A hundred lyre players handled the polyphthongos and barbitos, large instruments with comparatively few

GREECE AND ROME 19

str ings. The com plete forces were now in action, andnumbered overfive hundred , including the loud kum baloi , or cymbals , with thesma ller varieties known as lekidoi andoxubaphoi . At the height ofthe tumult, ma jor thirds (considered the most discordant interval)rang out from forty-five trum pets.The fourth m ovement showed the monster’s dying struggles.

Fifty-five shrill fifes gave a portrayal of his angry hisses . The earlierstrings , with the forms of the lyre known as atropos, phoinix, and

sam buca , gave striking quarter-tone accom paniments to representthe Python’s last gasps. With his dea th , a solemn spondaic rhythmended the m ovem ent.The final movement was an ovation to Apollo, in the Hypolydian

mode.Such a festival consisted of what is known as programm e music,

which tries to tell a story or portray som e event or scene that necessitates explanation on the programm e . In contradistinction is theschool known as pure, or absolute, m usic , in which the music is to beenjoyed for its beauty without the aidof anywritten storyordescription of what it might mean . The programm e school was well developed in ancient Greece, andhas even given us a modern phrase.When a m usician attempted to give on his lyre a picture of a storm ,

the wit Dorian , who was present, remarked ,“I have heard a better

tempest in a pot of boiling water.

” This has com e down to us, inaltered form , as

“A tem pest in a teapot.”

The Nem ean games , celebrating the slaying of the Nemean lion byHercules, conta ined no definite m usica l contest ; but flute-playingwas a llowed for the purpose of stim ulating the athletes, andprobably prizes were awarded for it.A stone discovered at Chios bears on its face the names of manymusica l victors. It Shows that prizes were awarded for readingmusic atsight, for rhapsodizing, for accompanyingwith a small harpplayed by hand , andfor accom panying on the kithara played partlyby the left hand andpartly by a plectrum held in the right. Manylesser festivals , su ch as the Panathenaea , hadtheir musica l contests .Pericles gave much encouragem ent to music, anderected the Odeonfor musica l events . This bu ilding had a dome-shaped roof, whichgave it excellent acoustic properties.The power of music among the ancient Greeks was most marked.


We read of Terpander singing away the Spartan dissensions ; Tyrtaeus arousing that sam e people to martia l glory ; or Solon inspiringthe defeated Athenians to retake Salam is. In these songs the wordswere naturally of very pointed significance ; but there was a reverence for the com pelling power of music that does not exist to-day.

Even though our music m ay be far more involved and developedthan that of Greece, modern auditors are not swayed by m usic aswere the Greeks anda few other prim itive races. Orpheus and theSirens could have been evolved only am ong a people strongly influencedby the tona l art.

That music was cherished in many ways is shown by the exampleof Polycrates, who kept a boy choir at his court in Sam os to singsweet Lydian melodies during his meals . But the most pleasingpicture in Greek music was perhaps the spectacle of Sappho at

Mitylene, training her school of fair young Grecians in the mysterious power of poetry, song, and instrum ental music .Rome adopted Grecian cu ltivation , andwas only slightly original

in music. Trum pets were more varied in form , as befitteda martialpeople. The hydraulic organ has been mentioned already. With theRomans, the tibia , or flute (often with reed mouthpiece like a clarinet), usurped the prom inent position that the lyre held in Greece.The tibia was used in allreligious ceremonies except those ofBacchus, which demanded the kithara; so Mendelssohn showed historicalaccuracy in using flutes prom inently for the chorus “0 begracious , ye Immorta ls, in St. Paul .” Flu te-players were usedatRoman funera ls, and in such ostentatious numbers that a sum ptuary law was passed lim iting their number to ten .

The flute-players formed a guild , or union ; andValerius Maximusgives an anecdote showing their power. When the musicians wereonce excluded from the tem ple of Jupiter, where they hadpreviouslybeen allowed to take their meals, the whole guild left Rome in protest, andwent to the neighboring locality of Tibur. Without themitwas almost impossible to carry on many of the religious andpublicceremonies . The Sena te therefore sent messengers to ask their re

turn . When the strikers remained inflexible, the wily messengerspersuaded the people of Tibur to give a feast in honor of their visitors ; and before the musicians could

“sober up” from the effects

of this feast, they were bundled into chariots andbrought back to

GREECE AND ROME 21

Rome. They received alltheir form er privileges, with new ones inaddition ; but at certain public performances after this event theyalways masked them selves, to Show their sham e at their ingloriousreturn.

Rom e hadher games , but at these, as in the military trium phs,the musica l effects were striking and colossa l rather than artistic.The music of private establishm ents was probably better in qua lity ;andApuleius, after hearing some of this, gave high pra ise to the combination of flutes, kitharas, andvoices. The Roman plays were accom panied by gently flowing flute m usic,whichwas pleasing enough ;but in later tim es this too grew more devoted to effects of display.

In the later days of the Empire, there was a great dem and for Gaditanian singers or dancers . These cam e from the neighborhood ofthe m odern Cadiz, which still supplies tenor voca lists. Many of thetheatrica l performers were slaves , andwere subjected to the moststringent rules to prevent them from spoiling theirvoices by excesses .The dance, especially in pan tom im e form, reached a high state of

perfection in ancient Rom e. A certa in dancer was once told byDem etrius the Cynic that his art was merely an adjunct to music ;whereupon the dancer made the instruments stop , and enacted thesubject of Mars and Venus with such skill that Dem etrius wasforced to withdraw his reproach . On another occasion a prince ofPontus was entertained by Nero . The prince could not understandLatin , anddid not enjoy the plays given for him . But he admiredthe pantom im es greatly. When Nero wished him to nam e a partinggift, he asked for the dancer who hadappeared in these spectacles,explaining that an artist so gifted in physical expression wou ldmake an invaluable interpreter.

Nero himself cultivated music with m arked assidu ity, even practising breathing in a recumbent position with weights placed uponhim . In his own estimation he was a great artist, though in realityhis voice was rather thin andhusky. He used to contrive to have hisfriends ask him to sing, andwould accept princely fees for his appearance. When a soothsayer once told him that he wou ld som etim e find him self deserted by allhis friends, he replied ,

“An artistcan earn his living in any country.

” When he appeared publicly, hissoldiers prevented the audience from leaving ; though som e jumpedfrom windows, and others feigned death in order to be carried out.


Inattention was severely punished ; andwhen Vespasian was caughtasleep at such an event, his friends had hard work to save his life.Nero once made a tour of the Grecian gam es. There he bribedbetter artists to withdraw ; andone of these, proving obdurate, wasforced aside andkilled by his soldiers. Naturally under such conditions he was a lways awarded the prize. He did not fiddle whileRom e burned , because the ancients hadno Violins buthe ascended atower, andwas moved to sing

“The Destruction of Troy,”aecom

panying himself on the lyre. When his enem ies revolted , he considered winning back their allegiance by singing pathetic songs tothem . When Rome rebelled , he tried to placa te it by offering to appear in many musical events in the approaching public games ; butsom ehow the city declined his offer. When he fled , he was muchrankled by being called “that pitiful harper and he kept askinghis few comrades if anyone could play better than he could. Beforehis suicide, he exclaimed,

“What an artist the world will now lose!”

There was undoubtedly some beauty in the Roman music ; buton the whole, this feature was overshadowed by the display of thegames and trium phs. When Ambrose arranged the church modes,he took them from Grecian rather than from Roman sources.


the Puritans in Massachusetts. Some of the congregation wouldnaturally sing better than others, and the experts would graduallygather in one spot, where their voices would lead while others followed or became silent altogether. Paid singers existed as early asthe second century. Gradually they came to disregard the sim pleand expressive style, and to indulge in brilliancy to arouse adm iration . It was probably to remedy this state of affairs that PopeSylvester I founded a singing-school at Rome in the year 320. Atthat time, too , a special place was assigned to the choir. In A.D. 481,

the Council of Laodicea decreed that none butclerks (called canonicalsingers) should be allowed to sing during the service. At thisperiod the churches were ambitious in architecture, and the artsof painting and sculpture combined their attractions with those ofmusic. At first no instruments were em ployed in the service, butgradually the organ was adopted, and by the year 450 it was commou ly used in Spa in.

Toward the end of the fourth century, Ambrose, Bishop of Milan ,tried to establish music on a definite system . He adopted from hisidea of the Greek modes four sca les, or

“tones. These, ca lled“authentic, had intervals like white-key scales on our pianosbeginning with the notes D , E , F, andG . In the authentic modesthe keynote was at the bottom , and the dominant (chief note) usually a fifth above it. From each of these four authentic modes PopeGregory the Great derived a plagal (oblique) mode, having thesam e keynote, but with the scale now reaching from a fourth belowthe keynote to a fifth above it, andwith the dominant less than afifth above the keynote . As the compass of the average voice is notmuch over an octave, the interval from the lowest plaga l note to thehighest authentic note was large enough to satisfy the dem ands ofthe singefs. After the sixth century, four more modes were added ,two authentic and two plagal , on the intervals of white-key scalesbeginning with C andwith A. The m usic of the Catholic service hasbeen based largely on these modes ever since that time.Other branches of the Church hadtheir music. The Greek Church

used much ornamentation, for example, and sometimes em ployedthe Byzantine sca le (intervals like C , D-flat, E , F, G , A-flat, B ,

andC) ; the Syrian Church had its own hymns , especially those byEphraem Syrus, who was ca lled The Harp of the Holy Spirit

”;

EARLY CHRISTIAN MUSIC 25

while the Coptic Church adopted melodies tha t were intricate andfull of modu lation. But the Gregorian was the only system thatinfluenced Europe . Itwas tabulated later into a set of hexachords,or six-note groups, with a sem itone in the m iddle of each . The sca lewas diatonic exceptfor the fact that some of these hexachords causeda change from B to B-flat. B-natural was called durum , or hard, andB-flatmolle, or soft words which gave rise to the German termsDur for major andMollfor minor. In the eighth century we findCharlemagne sending em issaries to Rome to get full and accuratedeta ils on the methods of Gregorian singing.

The music at this time was sung wholly in unison or octaves .Hucbald, a monk of St. Amand living at the beginning of the tenthcentury, is said to have been the first to systematize part-singing.

He allowed some voices to sing the melody, while others took thesam e melody a fifth higher or a fourth lower. This procedure, ca lled“parallel m otion, would seem horribly harsh to modern ears.Probably it was not greatly enjoyed even at first ; for in the nextcentury we find Guido of Arezzo discarding the fifths, andmodifying the fourths somewhat. Guido, who died about 1050, was a notedsinger and teacher. He hada famous boy choir , which sang, amongother numbers , a hymn to St John running thus :

Ut queantlaxisResonare fibrisMira gestorumFam uli tuorum ,

Solve polluti uCZJ I”!the

Labii reatum , 14 4 I

Sancte Johannes.

3 : fl!In the hymn melody it happened that each line except the last begana degree higher than the preceding line. Guido therefore adoptedthe syllables at the beginning of the first six lines as names for thenotes of the scale, Ut, Re, Mi , Fa , Sol, La . These nam es havelasted until the present, with Si (or Ti) added later, andUtreplacedby Do, except in French instrumenta l m usic. Thus Gu ido was theinventor of what is called soifggg

’

p (singing by note-names insteadof words). By its means he tra ined his choir very thoroughly ; andhe took this choir with him when called to Rome in 1026 to explainhis system to the Pope .M m this time on, formore than four centuries , England took the


lead in the musica l advance . The length of this period may be appreciatedwhen we consider that the Germ an classics, which form themost important part of modern music, were allcrea ted dur ing thelast two centuries . The Netherlands were suprem e in the fifteenthand sixteenth centuries, and Ita ly’s swayJ lasted only into theeighteenth , even then overlapping the work of Bach andHandel .Guido had lessened the effect of constantly recurring fourths in

part-singing by allowing two voices to com e together, when neareither end of their compass, one part then diverging gradually fromthe other, which rema ined stationary until the interval between thetwo had reached the requ isite size . Thus was introduced what isnow known as oblique” motion . Between the date of his deathand the end of the century, England haddeveloped the principle ofcontrary motion , in which voices or parts could proceed in oppositedirections, andhad also made it a llowable for voices to proceed inthe sam e direction by varying intervals . Thus there came about asort ofmusica l declaration of independence, asserting that allvoicesin part-music were to be considered free andequal . This took placebefore the year 1100, and is made clear by a relic known as theWinchester Troper,

” which dates from that year. In addition tothe old fourths andfifths , thirds andsixths were now used . Hucbald

hadgiven his system the name of organum , while the newer intervalswere known under the title of fauxbourdon.

In the mean while, musica l nota tion grew from its crude beginnings in the Dark Ages to something not unlike its modern form .

Nota tion has been a most conservative affa ir. Every now and thensome one proposes a wholly new system of writing music ; andmostof these systems wou ld be an improvement, as our present methodis rather cumbersom e. But the innovations do not gain ground, forthe present system has the inertia of many centuries behind it.Before the tenth century no one hadany idea of the principle of

the staff. Music was at first learned orally, andsung to words inthe uncial characters that preceded the black-letter. Gradually themonkish teachers andpupils began to invent anduse little signs toaid their memory. The chief principle of these signs rested in thefact that a horizontal line above a word meant stationary pitch ,a rising line or curve meant rising pitch , anda downward line fallingpitch . These signs were supplemented by others representing trills,

FROM AN OLD MANUSCRIPT IN THE POSSESSION OF THE AUTHOR

EARLY CHRISTIAN MUSIC 27

turns, andthe various component parts of m elody ; andour trill andturn signs, am ong other bits of notation , com e directly from suchearly experiments . These primitive marks were known as the“neumes ,

”and flourished from before the seventh century until

well beyond the tenth . There were different systems, the Byzantineneum es being unlike those used in western Europe. One varietywas known as the fly-track

” notation (pedes muscarum ), becauseits thickly spread signs looked like the marks that a fly would m akeif it crawled over the parchm ent after a sojourn in the ink-bottle.It will be seen from the above description that the neumes were

not an exact nota tion . They served as a guide to the memory ; theyalso showed if the voice Shou ld go up or down ; butthey did not statehowfar up or down it should go . Thus a specimen of neum e notationdid not give any accurate suggestion to the person seeing it for thefirst tim e. Yet modern investigation is tireless, and m en of theRiemann type have Shown that patient research enables them tosolve alm ost allthe signs used in this ancient system of notation.

Some tim e between the year 925 and 950, an unknown musician

som e red ink , or pigment, and a ruler, he m ade m usica l progresspossible by drawing a single line. This line extended through theneumes horizonta lly, andrepresented the pitch of the F below middle C . Now allthe notes above F could be represented by signsabove the line, and lower notes by signs below it. The principleworked so well that another line was added soon after, perhaps bythe same m an . The second line, green or yellow in color, representedthe C above the F, andwas marked , like the earlier line, with itsproper letter. This F andC are stillwith us to-day, having changedtheir form only slightly to becom e the F andC clefs of the present,which are puton the beginning of a staffto Show the position of thenotes F or C . N o other lines were then added , making a four-linedstaff.Other attempts at staff-notation hadbeen made , either independ

ently or as a result of the lines through the neum es . The chief onewas perhaps the work of Hucbald, who died in 932 . Itemployed theprinciple of a staff of many lines, but in this staff only the spaceswere used . These spaces , too , did not conta in notes, but actua lwords, each syllable being written in the space showing the pitch


at which it was to be sung. The spaces of Hucbald’s staffweremarked by the old but clumsy method of using four Greek letters,the pitch varying when they were placed sidewise or upside down .

In this system the words had to be rewritten in their proper positionfor each added part ; andwe can trace Hucbald

’

s fourths andfifthsby following the lines of syllables a long his pages.The first use of the four-lined staff, which lasted through the Mid

dle Ages , has been ascribed to Guido, though probably it took placebefore his day. The third line of this staff represented A, andwas

between F and C , while the fourth line was either above or belowthe other three, specimens of old missa ls showing both cases, andusually having the F and C marked on each staff . Thus both linesand spaces were used ; and the gradual adoption of a fifth line gaveus the staff of to-day. For the non-musician , it m ay be sta ted thatwhile the F and the la ter G are marked in definite places on our

staff, by clefs which grew from the old forms of those letters , we havealso a relic of the movable letters in the C clef, which may be putonalmost any line of the staff .At first the lines, and even the staff, were used with the neumes .

But gradually the latter gave way to notes , andwe find Franco ofCologne giving these notes a definite value in his thirteenth-centurytreatise on measured music. The early pla in-song (Gregorian chanting) showed little variety of rhythm. But gradually, as music wasmore widely used , the need for the notation of rhythm resulted , andattempts to represent it were made . After the adoption of measurednotes, there came a division of music into triple or double rhythms .The former, being typica l of the holy Trinity, was ca lled

“perfectrhythm ,

”andmarked by a circle . The latter, being only two thirds

of the triple rhythm , was marked by two thirds of the circle ; andthis broken circle has been mistakenly transformed into the letter C ,

which is now used as a time-signature for four-quarter rhythm. Itis not rea lly a C , andtherefore cannot be the initial of what is knownas“common time .” There was a further division of ea ch beat into

triple or double rhythm , this subdivision being called the“prola

tion .

” The major, or triple, prolation was accepted if no Sign waspresent, while the minor, or duple, prolation , was ca lled for by a dotplaced in the middle of the perfect or broken circle . Thus the circlepractica lly ca lled for time ; the broken circle for the circle with


whatever sounds good, is good . In the Am brosian Library at

Milan there is an old treatise, ca lled“Ad Organum faciendum,

”

which dates from about the year 1100. This conta ins examples ofvery free part-writing, the voices at tim es making bold skips, orcrossing each other, even when the harmony is only two-part.The growth of the principle of imita tion marked a great step for

ward toward the contrapunta l forms . The charm of such im itation

gradually led to canonic writing, in which the parts follow one another ; andthat was almost surely the first form of artistic com position . An early suggestion of im itation is found in an old Frenchmanuscript, the work being probably composed in the twelfth century. It consists of a low voice singing the words, apparently an oldhym n , Custodi nos,

” while the two upper voices that are setagainstit give clear im ita tion, approaching the canonic style. As will beshown in a later section, the canon consists of a melody used as itsown accompanim ent in other voices, the theme entering atdifferenttimes in each voice . The sim plest examples of this style are thefamiliar part-songs known as “rounds.”

In the thirteenth century certa in composers began to appreciatewhat we ca ll “double counterpoint,

” in which two voices changetheir relative positions and repea t their themes in a new relativelocation . But the first contrapunta l form to develop fu lly was thecanon . This m ay be seen from the old English rota , or round,“Sumer is icum en in ,

” which is described in a later chapter.

Further development of notation caused the rounded b (at firstmeaning our B-flat) to be used as a Sign for any flat. The Germansstill speak of our B-flat as B ; andas they mistook the square B foran H , they use the latter letter to designate our B-natural . Thesquare B gave rise to the sign for any natural . The sharp was atfirst a cross , and is still ca lled so in Germany. Originally it merelyneutralized a flat, but soon it assumed its present significance . Thebar-line was introduced early in the seventeenth century, and thegrouping of notes just before the eighteenth.

IV

THE MINSTREL KNIGHTS

THEMinnesingers (love-poets) of Germany are said to have beguntheir career under H ederick Barbarossa , in the last half of thetwelfth century. But the first of their number, Henry of Veldig , isthe author of a poem lam enting the decadence of the Minnesinger’sart; so we are forced to consider its real origin as of an earlier date.The Minnesingers were m instrel knights, such asWagner pictured

in his opera “Tannhauser.

” There is sa id to have been an actua ltournam ent of song on the Wartburg, as in Wagner’s opera ; andthenames that he used were real . The Suabian Court was the centre ofthe Minnesinger’s art, and the Suabian language was used , thoughthe minstrel poets came from allparts of the em pire . So highly wastheir position rated that nobles andprinces were proud to be knownas Minnesingers .As may be judged from the name, many of the poems of these

knightly minstrels were love-songs. Som e of them were idea l in theirpurity of sentim ent, while others were less lofty in style. Examplesof the form er class are found in the works of Henry of Meissen

,con

sidered the last of the Minnesingers. He became so noted for hishomage to the nobler qualities of womanhood that he was given thename of H auenlob ,

”or Pra ise-of-Women andwhen his funeral

took place, numbers of high-born ladies followed to his open grave,andeach cast a flower into it until it was overflowing with blossoms.In their more persona l loves ongs, the Germans did not usually

go to the same lengths as the m ore ardent Troubadours of France .Yet there must have been some degree of amorous adventure, andthe latter is reflected in the so-called Wachtlieder (watch-songs). Inthese a knight may plead with a watchman for secret admittance toa castle ; or the watchman maywarn the knight of impending dangeror discovery.

Such songs were allset to music, and sung by the knights, whowould accompany themselves on a small harp.


The school of epic poetry, corresponding with that of the Trouveres in France , is represented by such works as the NibelungenLied

,

”or the “Parsifal ” of Wolfram von Eschenbach.

From this period a lso come many short proverbs and epigrams.Am ong these were couplets ; such as

The king m ust die,

Andso m ust I.

There were also sage bits of advice ; such as Never borrow trouble,or Don’t set the wolf to guard the sheep .

The art of the Minnesingers displayed itself also in fables andbrief allegorica l stories. There were many historica l tales too.A short bit of verse is quoted here (ascribed to Frederick II) to

Show what was considered of excellence atthe time. It runs thus

Ilike a cavalier Frances,And a Catalonian dam e

The courtesy ofthe Genoese,

And Castilian dignity ;The Provence songs, m y ears to please,Andthe dance ofthe Trevisan ;

The gracefulform ofthe Arragonese,Andthe pearlofthe Julian ;

An English face andhands to see,

And a page ofTuscany.

”

The freedom of thought and speech permitted by the House ofSuab ia did much to encourage poetry andmusic. Butwith the downfall of that house , in the year 1256, the Church regained power, andthe current of free thought becam e diverted into an artwhose chiefaim was to make paraphrases of the Scriptures , in bad German orworse Latin .

The Meistersingers (master-singers), who followed the Minnesingers, were not the equal of their predecessors in poetic inspiration.

Their name m ay have come from the fact that a Minnesinger whowas not of noble birth was ca lled a Meister ; but it is also similar tothe nam e given to the leaders in allthe guilds . The Meistersingersflourished in the great and growing cities, and were tradespeoplerather than nobles. Aga in we find Wagner giving a wonderfullyfaithful picture of early tim es in his opera (music-drama , he ca lledit) Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg . Nuremberg was an important centre for these humble but earnest poet-musicians, andwas

THE MINSTREL KNIGHTS 33

also the home of Hans Sachs , whose excellent plays andfarces represent the best work ofthis period . The characters in Wagner’slibretto (which he wrote himself, andwhich is now a textbook inGerman schools) were rea l in their day, and their nam es m ay befound in the old records . The picture of petty rules is also entirelycorrect, for the Meistersingers classified their poetic and m usica lmethods in a very strict and detailed fashion. This adherence torules interfered seriously with free inspiration, for in their tria ls ofskill there was always a hidden

“marker” (as in the opera ), to keepa record of any technica l mistakes . So far as we know, the Meistersinger movement originated soon after the year 1300, atMayence.It flourished until 1600, after which it became unimportant. Thelast Meistersinger society , that of Ulm, was not disbanded until1839 , and its last surviving m em ber lived until 1876 . The Meistersinger music had little rea l effect. It may have influenced the chorales of the Reformation, but these were far stronger in character.

Except for a few of the tunes , or“tones,

” which Wagner used sowonderfully in his opera , it is wholly out of date .The Troubadours, and in som e sense the Trouveres (both words

meaning “finders ” or are considered to have developed their art from Moorish m odels as found in Spain, or at theCrusades , or in various other ways. Some Celtic andancient Romaninfluences may have played their part, but if so it was a subordinateone. The styles of song, the instruments , and even som e of thenames , Show a Moorish origin .

The first of the Troubadours is held to have been William IX,

Count of Poitou andDuke ofAcquita ine. He hadsom e influence onEngland as well as on France, for his war-cry of

“St. George " wasadopted by England , as well as his granddaughter Eleanor ofAcquita ine, who married Henry II. The leopard crest of the earlyEnglish kings was another legacy from William of Poitou . Thispioneer died in 1127.

The poetry of the Troubadours was written in the so-ca lledLangue d

’oc ,” in which the word “oc ,

” meaning “yes,” distin

guished it from the northern French Langue d ’oil ,”andthe Ita lian

“Lingua di si .” The poems were of various forms , though in genera lthose of the Provencal Troubadours were short, while those of thenorthern Trouveres were long stories similar to epics.


TheVerse was a short form of free style, though it might consist ofseven couplets . The Chanson also was free in style, but usuallydivided into stanzas . The Sonnet, too , was free , the term signifyinglyric, or song, without any of the later division into rhym ed lines.The Couplet, or Stanza , was a genera l class of verse, signifying lovesongs in contrast to other subjects . The Planhwas a dirge, with tenor twelve syllables in a line ; usually it mourned a lost friend or lover,though sometim es it trea ted of more public ca lamities . The Tenson ,or Contention, was a dialogue in verse, in which the two partiesalternated their stanzas, using the same rhymes that occurred in thefirst one. The Tournament consisted of stanzas given in turn bymore than two participants . The Sirvente, or Pasqu inade, free inmetre, was a war-song, or else an outburst of satire against som eenemy. The Sixtine hadsix stanzas of six lines each, with no rhym esin the first one, but with each of the later stanzas using the endwords of the lines in the first, but in different order. The Discordwas a free poem in irregular form, often using severa l languagesin succession. The Pastorelle , or pastora l poem, usually with shortlines, consisted of a dialogue between the Troubadour and a shepherdess or shepherd ; it often began with a description of the scene,andgenera lly displayed a charming Simplicity of style. The Serenade, from sera , or evening, was an evening love-song, while theAubade , from alba , meaning dawn, was a morning song of the samecharacter, often resem bling in sentim ent Shakespeare’s “Hark,hark, the lark.

” The Ballad was a somewhat longer form , telling astory ; andmany of the Trouvere epics are evidently sets of ba lladsjoined together. The Novel was a short poem in free style recounting som e am orous adventure. The Romance was the name given tothe larger epic narratives in which the northern French poets excelled ; andmany of these are still in existence. The custom of addingan envoi at the close of a poem arose from the fact that the Troubadours did not always sing their own songs, so that they sometim esneeded an envoi to Show their reta iners andminstrels for whom thepoem was intended , or even how it shou ld be sung.

The Troubadour was usua lly of noble blood , andsometim es evenof roya l station, as with Richard Cceur-de-Lion. Only a very fewmusicians of ordinary birth were able to lift themselves from theranks of the Jongleurs, or minstrels, and be recognized as Trouba


dours. The Troubadour needed resources to enable him to enterta inand to keep a sufficient number of minstrels . When spring came,after a winter varied by martial exercises andmusica l com position,he would issue forth at the head of his reta iners , perhaps to visitsome neighboring castle. There he would be enterta ined sum ptu

ously, while his followers played andsang his new songs. Occasionally he would take a harp from one of them andgive a rendering ofsom e song himself ; butthis was usually in a small gathering, andnotoften in a crowded hall .The m usic of the Troubadours and Trouveres was sufficiently

refined in style, andat the same time popular in spirit. Best knownnow as a com poser is Adam de la Hale, called the Hunchback ofArras , who lived from 1240 to 1287. He produced , am ong othermusica l plays, the

“Jeu de Robin etMarion,” which is nothing less

than an early com ic Opera . Robin is a boastfulshepherd su itor whotells the shepherdess Mar ion he is afraid of nothing ; but when anobleman com es to pay her unwelcome attentions, Robin turns outto be a coward , and is received back only on sufferance . The m usicto this little farce is pleas ingly fluent in style . Butmost of the poetcom posers were content to produce the words andmusic of singlesongs.As the Troubadours always chose a lady as the object of theirdevotions, their poetry was often m ore personal than that of theirGerm an brethren ; andas the ladywas often a married woman , therewas muchm ore chance for jea lousy and tragedy.

Thus William Cabestaing , brought up in the castle of Roussillon,on receiving encouragem ent from Margherita , the wife of its lord ,began to pay poetic andother attentions to her. When som e of theirsecret meetings aroused the susp icion of the castle

’s lord , BaronRaymond, he taxed Cabesta ing with being in love. The latter

’spoems proved this , but Cabesta ing pretended that it was LadyAgnes, sister of Margherita , who hadgiven him her love . As Agneswas keen enough to see the truth , she ca lm ed Raymond

’s suspicionsfor a tim e by pretending that Cabesta ing

’

s statem ent was correct.But the rea l lovers grew m ore imprudent in their actions, untilfinally Margherita was rash enough to have her idol write a poemasserting his love for her alone. The baron’s suspicions of certa in

gossip being thus confirmed , he led Cabestaing outside the castle


and stabbed him to death . Tearing the heart out of the body, hetook it to the castle cook, ordering him to prepare it and serve it toMargherita . The cook did so, thinking the heart was that of a deer;andthe ladyate itwith the sam e idea , andpraised its delicious flavor.

Raym ond then explained to herwhathermeal hadbeen, andshowedher the head of the man whose heart she hadjust ea ten . She faintedaway ; but on recovering, she sa id ,

“Yes, barbarian , I have foundthat meat so delica te andbeautiful that, for fear I m ay ever lose thetaste of it, I will eat no more as long as I live.

” Raymond drew hissword andrushed ather in anger ; whereupon she fled, and jumpedto death from the castle walls rather than let herself be killed by him.

Butnot allladies were so im prudent. Thus Marie de Ventadour,noted for her wisdom andgood character as well asher beauty, oncefound herself the target of too pronounced attention from the adventurous Gaucelm Faidit, who was staying ather castle . As she fearedhis evil and sarcastic tongue, she resorted to stratagem to get ridofhim . She took counsel with a friend, Madame de Malam ort, whoagreed to act as directed . Then she refused Gaucelm ’

s attentionsdefinitely. He departed in anger, buthadgone only a littleway whena messenger overtook him and asked whether he preferred a littlebird in the hand or a crane flying high in the air. His curiosity wasso much aroused that he let himself be led back, andwas taken toMadame de Malam ort. This lady exp lained that she was the birdin hand , while Marie, who would not respond to him , was the unat~

ta inable crane flying high in air. Gaucelm then agreed to transferhis devotion , andwas asked in return to take formal leave of Marie’saffections. This he did in a dignified poem , far gentler than m ightotherwise have been expected . Butwhen the poemwasmade known,he found that Madam e deMalam ortgrew suddenly cold to his devotion, andwithdrew allsemblance of encouragem ent. Butmuch ashe was chagrined , it was too late for him to indulge in any sarcasmatMarie’s expense . Incidentally, Faiditwas well known as a poet,andwas patronized by King Richard of England , for whose deathhe wrote a m ost touching Planh, or dirge.But true love som etimes ran smoothly. Ram baud de Vaqueiras,

who was brought up in the home of the Marqu is of Montferrat, soonbecam e devoted to his m aster’s sister Bea trix del Carat. She wasan athletic beauty ; and once, when her brother accidentally left a


dressed himself in a wolf’s hide and had his friends and reta inersbring dogs to hunt him. The hunt was by no means a farce , for hekept on running until the dogs caught him and fastened their teethin him . He was rescued in time, and no doubt cured by his ladylove

,to whose honor he probably considered his wounds a great

tribute .More touching is the story of William de la Tour. He married a

gir l of low degree because of her charms , andloved her dearly. Afterher untimely death , he gave orders that her tomb should be so builtthat it could be opened atwill . When this was done, he would openthe tomb every night andconverse with her body, imagining that itwas a live. Later on he came to know that shewas dead, butbelievedthat she would rise again if he sa id prayers enough , which he gallantly undertook to do.The so-ca lled “Courts of Love were presided over by ladies of

rank, such as Queen Eleanor, or the Countess of Champagne. Thesecourts, in which a number of women aided in discuss ion, decidedupon questions of amorous etiquette . Thus a certa in knight hadloved a lady from girlhood ; and during her younger days she hadextracted the promise that the knight should kiss her every time hecame to see her. When grown up she denied him the privilege, saying that she had been too young to understand what the promisewould involve. He then brought the matter before a court of love,which decided in his favor.

Another case, tried before Queen Eleanor, had to do with a ladywho accepted a knight’s gifts but rebuffed his attentions . Eleanorgave the verdict for the knight, and said that the lady should haverefused his gifts or given him back something of equal value.Of much interest also are the so-ca lled Essenhamens,

”or poems

on manners and customs , intended for training in etiquette. Onesuch is by Amaneius des Escas . It begins by telling how a lady ofposition, at som e great court, sought out the poet for advice. Hetold her atfirst that she must know ten times as much as he did ; butapparently he overcame his scruples, for he launched into a longdiscourse of “What-to-dos” and He trea ted such persona l subjects as washing, care of teeth , care of nails , anddressing,as well asmodest personal bear ing andcourtly discourse. Incidentally,women

’s accomplishmentswere then held to be cooking, sewing,


surgery, and chess, the first two helping her to oversee andadm inister a household of reta iners, while the last two were for the careandamusement of noble visitors. A Germ an etiquette book of thistim e asserts that when a man enters a room, the women should rise,and remain standing until he sits down .

With a description of the Jongleurs we are brought back from a

long digression to the subject of m usica l progress . While the Troubadours confined themselves chiefly to com position, the Jongleursbecame proficient on allthe instruments of their tim e. These werefairly num erous ; andwe find one minstrel cla im ing (in the Bodleianmanuscript),

“I can play the lute , the Violin, the pipe, the bagpipe,

the syrinx , the harp , the gigue, the gittern , the symphony, the psaltery, the organistrum , the rega ls , the tabour, and the rote .

” Ofthese the gigue was a small , high-pitched Viol , ca lled after its German nam e “Geige” ; the gittern was a guitar strung with catgutthe sym phony (Ita lian , zampogna) was a form of bagpipe ; the regalswas a tiny folding organ, the tabor a tambourine, and the rote (oldCeltic, crwth)a sm all square harp. The organistrum , from itsdescriptions , seems to be the prototype of the modern hand-organ. Theplayer turned a wheel , andcould depress by keys any of the stringson the instrument, thus making them sound by bringing themaga inst the revolving wheel . Certa in so-called mechanicalViolinsuse the same idea to-day. Other instruments of the time were theflute, trumpet, flageolet, sackbut (trom bone), shalm or shawm(clarinet), rebeck (a bowed mandolin derived from the ArabianRehab ), and marine trumpet (having merely a sing le long string,much like tha t of a Violoncello). On allthese, the Jongleurs werepossessed of much skill.At first the Jongleurs were the paid musica l reta iners of theTroubadours . Girard Calanson, for exam ple, gave to his Jongleursthe following instructions : Learn to actwell, to speak well , and toextem porise rhymes well . Learn to invent clever andamusing gam esto please people. Learn to play on the tabour, the cymbals , andthebagpipe . Learn to throw and ca tch little apples on the point ofknives . Learn to imita te the song of birds with your voices, to pretend to make an attack on a castle as if besieging it, to jump throughfour hoops, to play on the citallandmandore , to perform on thecloncorde and the guitar, for they are delightful to all. Learn how


to string the viol with seventeen chords, to sound the bells, to playthe harp , and to compose a j ig that shallenliven the sound of thepsaltery . From this it will be seen that the modern juggler is theold Jongleur with only a partial change of occupation . The citall(citole) was a box-like form of the psaltery, and the mandore avariety of guitar.

The Troubadours were practically destroyed in the war of theAlbigenses a war preceded by many pasquinades, that exposedfaults both in the pleasure-loving adherents of the new creed andtheabsolution-peddling authorities atRome. The war itself was a constant triumph for Rome, under the leadership of Simon de Montfort ; andmany of the captured cities witnessed the burning of theircitizens alive by hundreds . Even Pedro of Aragon met defeat whenhe came to aidhis Provenca l friends.But whatever the rights and wrongs were, the killing-off of so

many Troubadours was a serious set-back to cultivation in its alliedforms of literature andmusic. They hadbeen the composers, whiletheir performing reta iners were merely the publishers of their compositions, as Petrarch sa id . The artof the Jongleurs, when no longerbacked by the inspiration of their masters, soon began to deteriorate .Their status and their enterta inm ents grew to be such that theyattracted only the coarsest audiences . They became wanderingminstrels, earning a precarious living by amusing people in themarket-places . Yet girls andwomen sometimes became Jongleuses,as the term was. We read that William the Conqueror rewarded hisJongleuseAdeline with an estate. In later times these fem inine performers led a wandering life, andwere known as

“glee-maidens .”

But at first they held honored positions and showed themselvesgifted enough . For example, the many Romances of Marie defi ance, Jongleuse of William Longsword (son of Henry III), arenow held to have rare value, and kept as much-prized treasuresin the British Museum . They include versions of the Arthurianlegends, as well as others of prime importance. But on the whole,the Jongleurs, male and fema le, were persons of no respectableposition .

The change from well-born poets to pa id enterta iners took placein Germany also . There was no Violent war in that country, but thealteration came just as surely if more gradua lly. There were evi


dently German musicians of the Jongleur type in the Suabian times ;for there exists an old song, which runs ,

King Rudolph is a worthy kin gAllpra ise to him be brought!

He likes to hear the m instrels play andSing ,

But after that he gives them naught.

Thus in Germany, too , the nobler com poser gave way to the paidmusician ; andfor many years, even extending down to the nineteenth century, the m usician was regarded and trea ted as a hiredunderling, if not an actual outlaw.

V

THE SCHOOLS or COUNTERPOINT

IThas already been stated that England held the lead in musicformany centuries . The fam ous song Sumer is icum en in ,

” whichsounds remarkably fresh andbeautiful even to modern cars, probably dates back to the year 1215, if not earlier. This was a

“sixmen’s song,

”but two of the voices sang a drone bass . The other

four, however, command interest ; for they follow in one another’s

footsteps with the strict canonic imitation that is found in the songsknown as “rounds .”

Soon after the earliest English development came a French school.This must have been in the thirteenth century, for by 1325we findJean de Muris, in his Specu lum Musicae,

” lamenting the departureof the good old times, andregretting that the composers hadlost theinspiration shown in the preceding generation . This seems to be acomm on com plaint ; and it has a familiar ring even to-day.

These early schools were in part an outcome of the chansonnot that of the Troubadours, but the people

’s song, that was popular through allof western Europe . Sometimes these part-songs werein the strict form Shown by “Sumer is icum en in” ; butmore oftenthey were fairly free in their part-writing. While the Troubadourmusic, when not in unison , has its melody in the upper part , inaccordance with modern ideas , there grew up in early days the custom, already mentioned , of having the melody held by the tenorvoice. The word “tenor” comes from the Latin tenere, to hold .

The chief melody, taken by the tenor, was called the cantusfirmus(fixed song), or often simply thecantus. A second part, added abovethis melody and sung with it, was ca lled the discant. Other partswere added above or below these two , andcalled from their positioneither bass or alto—words that m eant low or

“high .

” The term“treble,

” signifying a third part, was som etimes used for a voiceabove the discant. The word “soprano,

” meaning “above,”was

introduced later on, when the melody was given to the upper part.

CANON, from an ancientMS. in the Britilh Mufcum.

Sumer

cue

groweth

Sumer

i -cum cn

Cuc - cu

fed and bloweth medand

cw “

0 3 16!

fins cue—cu

never

cued

Sumer I! i u cun cu

welltings the cue- «u

Cuc —cu

Groweth fed and blowcth

Sumer i - cu—Incn

CUM —C“

THE SCHOOLS OF COUNTERPOINT 47

Groweth fed and bloweth.

u

Sumer I -cumen.

Paris was still active in the fourteenth century ; andthe part-songstyle was gradually developed by JehannotLescurelandGuillaumede Machau , as well as by Cesaris, Tapissier, Carmen, andHenricusde Zeelandia in a later generation . These names carry little im portnow ; butsuch com posers, probably with others living in the Netherlands, brought about a gradua l change from the popular style topolyphony.

The term polyphony refers to music written definitely in various parts , or voices . Hom ophony, which arose in the seventeenthcentury, denotes a m elody supported by chords and harm ony.

Counterpoint, m eaning much the sam e as polyphony, was derivedfrom the phrase punctum contra punctum , the punctum being an oldnote-name, and the phrase mean ing note against note. The contrapunta l forms are treated in a la ter chapter.

The strength of the popular influence is shown by the commonuse of secular m elodies for the cantus in various parts of the mass.These melodies were used by the composers because the peopleknew the tunes, andthe work could be more readily com prehendedby them , or more easily performed . So customary did this becomethat the tenors often sang the words of the orig inal song instead ofthe mass. We should be decidedly surprisedifour church tenors

Thefollowing feems to bethe true import of the words.

Summer is aocominLoudfing cuckow.

g m,

G rowethfeed,Andbloweth mead,Andfpringeth the woodnew.Ewe bleateth afterlamb ;Loweth after calf, cowm IIOCk am th’Buckevertcdi ,Merry fing cuckow.

Wellfin flthou cuckow,Nor e thou ever.new.


Should troll forth , We won’t go hom e till m orning, with the rest

of the choir wrea thing sacred words around that tune ; but customsanctions everything, and such use of popular melodies lasted forover a century in the early Netherland days.Certa in songs becam e favorites for use in sacred works. Thus it

seemed to be a point of honorfor each com poser to write at least onemass using the tune ca lled “L ’

Homm e Arm é ” ; while“Se la face ay

pa le was notfar behind it in popularity. Som etimes old plain-song

(Gregorian) tunes were used ; and as these were sacred origina lly,they seem appropria te enough . A

The chief forms used were the mass, the motet, the madrigal , andthe canon, to which Italy added the frottola , or ba llad . The mass isdescribed in the chapter on voca l forms . The motet was a sacredpart-song of contrapunta l character, the name being derived eitherfrom mot, referring to the sacred word, or from motus, meaningmovement, as the parts allmoved contrapunta lly. The madriga lwas much the same in style, usually with from three to six parts,andalways unaccom panied ; butvery often the melody did not staywholly in one voice, being distributed in separate phrases amongvarious parts . The derivation of the name is doubtful . Someascribe it to madre, referring to the Virgin Mary, but the words ofthe madrigal were often secular. This was one of the earliest formsused by the contrapunta l com posers, though sporadic canons ofearlier date have been found . The canon , as already implied , is apiece in which the same melody is used in each voice , but thevoices enter in succes sion, so tha t the melody is made to serve as itsown accompanim ent. Thus , a round is a canon, though there aremany canons that are not rounds . Various canons are illustrated inthe section on musica l form , in this work. These pieces were allsung without accom panim ent at first, though the organ gradua llycam e into use with the mass . Certain of the early canons wereknown as “fugas” (fugues) , but they were not rea l exam ples of thelater fugue , which is analyzed in connection with m usica l form .

The Netherland school shows as its first grea t exponent WilliamDufay. Like many of the early com posers , he began as a choir-boy,and grew up to hold important church positions . He wrote polyphonic songs for Ita lian weddings , andstudiedat the Papa l Chapel .Returning to church work in Belgium , he became known andhon


ored throughout Europe . His existing works include masses, motets,andchansons crude enough by our standards , but containing the

Another composer of this period was Gilles Binchois, who died atLille in 1460. The writer Tinctor sa id Binchois’s nam e wouldendure forever,

”but very few of his works rema in in existence.

Still others of this period were Petrus de Dom art, Philippe Caron,Vincent Faugues, Anthony_Busnois, Eloy, andVan Ghizeghem .

The rea l leader, however, appeared in England , in the person ofJohn Dunstable. Born atDunstable, living in England , anddyingatLondon in 1453 , he is quoted by the French poet Martin le Francas the m odel upon which Dufay and Binchois based their m usic.By 1440 he was known as far away as the Tyrol . His m otets andmadrigals are now to be found in many Continenta l libraries, whereworks of historic value are too often left to languish in hidden manuscripts . Many writers ca ll him the first contrapuntist ; and there isno doubt that he led the wayfor the school that arose in the Netherlands . As England andNorth France were politica lly united , it ispossible that Dunstable borrowed som ething from the French composers ; but the freshness of his style bears witness to his own genius,and m akes it seem probable that English music had developedsteadily from the days of “Sumer is icum en in .

”

The next developm ent in the Netherlands cam e in the shape ofincreased skill . Under the lead of Jean de Okeghem and JacobObrecht (or Hobrecht) it becam e customary for com posers to usethe utm ost skill in writing puzzle canons. The so-ca lled “crabcanon” consisted of a melody in one voice, while another voice sangthe same melody backwards for accom paniment. Som etim es onevoice would sing the m elody from the beginning, while others startedin the m iddle andwent both ways. For such work, the melody wassom etim es written only once , anda few words put with it to showwhat the different voices should do . A favorite ca tch-phrase was“outof light, darkness,

”or viceversa , referring to the outlined notes

(introduced by Dufay) as light, and the solidly-written notes asdark. This wou ld be equ ivalent to our directing a singer to use

quarter-notes instead of halves, or ha lves instead of quarters. Therewerem any such directing phrases used which arenow wholly obscurein meaning.


This set of composers covered a wide range of territory. Okeghemwas born atAntwerp , andbecame active in Paris, where three kingsin succession were glad to em ploy his services . His masses, motets ,andchansons show grea t skill andmastery of technique, and causedhim to be ca lled the “Prince of Music .” Obrecht worked in Antwerp,as did also Jacques Barb ireau , Antonius Wyngaerde, Jean Regis,Philippon de Bourges, andothers. The Netherlands musicians working in Ita ly included Guillaume Guarneri, Gaspar Weerbecke, and

Alexander Agricola . Germany had her own composers, su ch as

Tha ugott Eugenius and Heinrich Finck ; while Spa in producedFrancisco de Pefialosa .

This second Netherlands group devoted itself too much to thetechnica l side of music. Yet it rendered great service to the causeof music by its development andmastery of certa in techn ica l methods . Its music was not what we should ca ll pleasing. The attentionpa id to intricacies often caused beauty and expressive power to belost in curious fea ts of polyphony. The texts were frequently trea tedwith little respect ; single words were sometimes spun out till theylost their sense , and little attention was pa id to making the musicas a whole suit the words. But some of the works of this time are

Immediately following this set of composers is another group,that carried music over in to the sixteenth century. The new leaderwas Josquin des Prés ; andunder his guidance music was again givenrea l expressive beauty. Yet he was not lac king in technique or control of resources, for we find Luther saying of him,

“Josquin rulesthe notes , while others are ruled by them. The archaic styles ofthe preceding century were now replaced by a more fluent manner,much better able to express emotion.

Josquin was born about 1445, in Hainault, anddied in 1521. Heheld several important court posts , at Florence and elsewhere, andbecame a leader in the Papal Chapel . The year 1500 found him inParis as a choirmaster. Very many of his works are still in existence,and they Show not only technica l skill , but rea l tonal beauty andadelicate fitness to their text. Josquin exercised a great influenceupon his successors.Others of this period were Pierre de la Rue, of Picardy, whose

manuscripts were treasured highly ; Antoine Brumel, of Flanders,


a master of technique ; Loyset Com pere, a Flemish composer ofromantic gifts ; and the less known men nam ed Jehan Cousin ,Guillaum eCrespel, Jean Prioris, JeanVerbonnet, andNoel Baulduin .

At this time the cause of music received great aid from the artof printing. Before 1500, musicalmanuscripts were usually draftedandilluminated by hand , in the monasteries or other centres of learning. The formation of the first book-printing firm , Gutenberg and

Faust, took place in 1451. In 1476 , Ulrich Hahn tried to print m usicatRom e, andfive years later JOrg B esier, ofWii rzburg , andOttavioScotto , of Venice, made sim ilar efforts . But in these cases only thecom paratively sim ple plain-song was attem pted , and separateimpressions were made for the staffand the notes. Petrucci, ofFossom brone, working atVenice , was the first to print allvarietiesof music, no matter how intricate . In 1498, he secured a monopolyof the music-printing in that city, and from 1501 onward he publishedmany valuable collections. Oeglin began publishing atAugsburg in 1507, and Scheffer did the same atMayence before 1512 .

The first to invent a one-impression method printing both staffand notes was Pierre Haultin , in 1525, whose types were used byAttaignant, of Paris, in 1527. Another change came in 1530, whenBriard , of Avignon, replaced the diamond-headed notes with therounded forms that we use to-day. Music-printing by types soonbecame an important industry. At present, however, its use islimited ; for by far the larger part of our music is printed from en

The presence of certa in Netherlands masters in Ita ly led to theformation of two distinct schools there tha t of Venice andthat ofRom e . The prom inence of Venice was due to Adrian Willaert, whowas chorus-master at St. Mark’s until after 1550. Born at Brugesbefore 1490, he studied with Josquin, to such effect that when hewent to Rom e he heard one of his own motets sung andascribed tohis master. He showed a tendency to extend still further the styleof his teacher, while keeping up allthe Skill in technique. Thus ,besides masses , motets , and madrigals by Willaert, we have alsosome freer part-songs and instrumenta l ricercari . The latter termsignifies “research ,

”andwas used to designate pieces in which the

composer sought to show his mastery over intricacies .

The Venetian school included many famous names. Jachet de


Buus was evidently a Netherlandian Visitor. Another Netherlander,Ciprian de Rore, wrote m usic of rich charm, andbegan to use ebromatic and harmonic effects freely. Gioseffo Z arlino is now bestknown by his books. Annibale Padovano represented the growingtendency toward organ pieces a field which was well exploited byClaudio Merulo, Andrea Gabrieli, and Giovanni Gabrieli. Therewere other Venetian masters, and not a few in neighboring cities,a fam ous name being Animuccia . Under these , music began to takeon those characteristics that made the Ita lian com posers preem inentthrough two centuries.The school of Venetian contrapuntists naturally did not think of

harm ony as a branch of study. All through the contrapunta l period ,music was regarded as consisting of parts , or voices, that flowed ontogether. Under Okeghem these voices were allowed to flow in themost discordant fashion if the desired form demanded it. But fromJosquin on, we find a constantly increasing attention pa id to theexpressive qualities of the m usic. Although the later contrapunta lcomposers still considered m usic as consisting of parts, they gradua lly approached a melodic style, with harm onies not radically different from our own . The introduction of the harmonic idea as a principle dates from the end of the fifteenth century, when Peri , Caccini,andothers used it in the earliest operas. But it wou ld not have takensuch a firm hold as it did if the tim es hadnot been ripe for it . Whilethe masses, motets , madrigals, andcanons were kept as part-m usic,the ricercari andchansons were often freely harmonic in style . Withthe advent of opera , the contrapunta l style gradually disappeared ;and chords began to be studied for their formation , independentlyof their occurrence in part-music. This gave rise to the saying that“Of old , music was horizonta l ; now it is vertica l .

” The old idea ofinterwoven parts certainly gave music a horizonta l aspect.In Germany, there was a development para llel to that of the

Venetian school , exem plified in part by Heinrich Isaac. ButSaxonysupplemented the Protestant Reformation by developing a newschool of music in the Lutheran chora les. The style of these isshownby “Ein feste Burg,

”ascribed to Luther, but probably written by

one of his friends. The rugged Vita lity of these chora les led to a further expansion of Germ an music long after the Italian contrapuntistshadpassed away. Such men asDietrich , Ammerbach, Schroeter,


these two formed a culmination of his school ; andthe death of bothin the same year, 1594 , is held to mark the close of the contrapuntalepoch . As a matter of fact, motets andmadriga ls were com posedfreely until fifty years afterward ; but opera and instrum enta l m usicdrew public attention away from the older schools, so the sta tem entis fa ir enough .

Orlando di Lasso was born atMons in 1530 or 1532 , though somegive the date as 1520. The old Netherlandian name was som etimeswritten Lassus, while his native city knew him as Roland Delattre.He sang in a church choir atMons when eight years old ; and hisvoice was so attractive that it is sa id he was twice kidnapped forother institutions. It is sure that he was taken to Italy, for he spentmuch of his youth there . His earliest existing work is a set of madrigals published atVenice in 1552 . In his younger years he seems tohave devoted himself largely to secular music ; but by 1563 we findhim publishing a sacred collection, andcontinu ing in that field . Hissecular music shows the most freedom and ease of construction . Inthis he avoided the so-ca lled Flemish tricks,

”or devices of ingenu

ity, adopting instead a style of simplicity anddirectness .In 1556 or 1557, Di Lasso accepted a post with Duke Albert V of

Bavaria ; andfor the rest of his life he m ade Munich his permanenthom e. But he travelled considerably, being the recipient of manyhonors and attentions from high dignitaries, including the B enchKing andthe Pope . In Munich he still produced som e pieces of secular, and even humorous , character ; but his sacred works were ofgreater importance . Most prominent among them was a set of“Seven Penitential Psalms, which are still to be found in the RoyalState Library atMunich , in fu ll glory of m orocco andsilver, with illum inated text. This set conta ins the composer’s portrait, andwasprepared for him by the Duke’s order, as a mark of respect. Thesepsa lm s were written before 1565; and that da te disproves the claimthat they were composed to soothe the rem orse of Charles IX afterthe Massacre of St. Bartholomew. But they were important enoughto have com e to that monarch’s attention . The historian Am brosconsidered that these psalms, and Palestrina ’s “Mass of PopeMarcellus , were the two most im portant musica l productions ofthe sixteenth century.

Di Lasso was a very prolific composer, producing about two thou

DI LASSO

PALESTRINA


sand works . These showed great versatility, for they included madrigals, love-songs, hum orous songs, andeven drinking-songs , as wellas sacred works of severa l sorts. A sta tue of him , in Mons, testifiesto his fame. After his burial in Munich he was given an epitaph consisting of a bright pun on his name

f‘Hie ille est Lassus, lassum qui recreat orhem .

This may be translated , Here lies , weary, he who a weary worldrefreshed ” ; but the Latin for the first

“weary ” coincides with thecomposer’s name.In Italy, the sacred standard was upheld by Pa lestrina . Giovanni

Pierluigi da Palestrina received his last nam e from the vi llage wherehe was born , the date being probably 1524. He came to Rom e in1540, where he is sa id to have won favor by his voice. After returning to his native town, where he married and lived as organist, heappeared again atRome in 1551, as m aster of the boys in the VaticanChapel . At this tim e he becam e known as a com poser by publishinga set of four andfive-voiced masses.These were very welcom e, because up to their appearance the

Church had been forced to depend alm ost wholly upon Flemishcom posers. Pope Julius III then made Palestrina a singer in thePapa l Choir an exceptiona l honor, since its mem bers were supposed to be celibates. Under Paul IV, Pa lestrina was ruled out; buthe afterwards received the post of musica l director at the Lateran ,

which enabled him to live and to support his family. During sixyears at the Lateran , Pa lestrina wrote som e four-voiced lam entations

, a notable eight-voiced“Crux Fidelis ,

”and the fam ous “Im

properia ,

”or reproaches of Christ to his enem ies the com poser’s

best work, according to Mendelssohn .

In 1561, Palestrina became director at the church of Santa MariaMaggiore . While there , it is stated , an event happened that madehim known and respected by allCatholics. Haber], his best biographer, does not give the story ; butBa ini does . Itseems, accordingto Baini, that the Council of Trent, disgusted with the secular songsand words woven into the Flem ish masses, thought of excludingmusic from the service . A commission of cardina ls took up the matter with som e of the papal singers ; and as a resu lt Palestrina wascommissioned to write a mass that should show whethermusic could


be made dignified enough for sacred use . Unwilling to trust the issue to one work, Palestrina wrote three ; andone of these, the Massof PopeMarcellus ,

”was so beautiful that the Council atonce decided

in favor of retaining music. This story, however, is doubted bymany.

Pa lestrina now received frequent honors, but little profit. Thepapa l copyist wrote the notes of the successful mass in a larger sizethan usual ; Pope Pius IV exclaim ed that such must be the music ofthe angels ; while Philip II , on receiving a copy of these masses andfinding them dedicated to him , sent in return nothing but his thanks .Yet Palestrina was not without friends among the cardina ls, whomay have helped him in many ways. The success of his mass wonhim a new post that of com poser to the Papal Chapel . He hadhis moments of popular trium ph, too. In 1575, no less than fifteenhundred of his fellow townsmen entered Rom e in three groups, andsang the works of their beloved com poser while he himself marchedat the head anddirected the proceedings.Palestrina was also choir-leader at St. Peter’s, andteacher in the

important m usic school of his friend Nanini . He continued activeuntil shortly before his dea th , which occurred in 1594, four monthsbefore that of Di Lasso .

Palestrina ’s music has been divided into three periods . In thefirst, he led the voices independently, without much attention toharmony. In the second , he paid more attention to good harmoniceffects, but in consequence led the voices awkwardly. In the thirdperiod , he Showed excellence in both deta ils. Naturally his laterworks are his best ; but the

“Improperia ,

” falling in the secondperiod , shows a chorale-like strength that is very impressive.Pa lestrina brought the old school of pure counterpoint to its cul

mination . He discarded chromatics, andkept to the strict Gregorianmodes as a tenet of religion . He took care a lso to make his musicemphasize the words properly. His com positions may be less popular in style than those of his great Flem ish contemporary, but theyare m ore lofty in conception. There is a certa in lack of rhythm inPalestrina ’s works, which makes them sound strange to modernears ; but the devotee of Bach will soon learn to appreciate theSimplicity and nobility of the earlier master. Among other things,Palestrina has been called “the Homer of music” ; and there is a


sta teliness of style in his works which makes the title very appropriete.The year 1594 was marked also by the com position of the firstFlorentine opera ,

“Dafne.” The new work was definitely in theharmonic style ; andfrom that date onward , counterpoint was gradually replaced by a simpler andmore dramatic utterance.

VI

THE HARMONIC STYLE

THE textbooks usually dwell on the year 1600 as the date of thebeginning of opera . In that year a set of Florentine musicians, consisting of Jac0po Peri, Giulio Caccini , andothers, brought outPeri

’sEuridice,

” em bodying dramatic principles as they understood themafter studying the old Greek drama . Sometimes Peri ’s earlier work,“Dafne,

” is ca lled the first opera . But as a matter of fact, Ita lyhadwitnessed what was practica lly an opera over a century earlierthan that date, andhadseen the development of a tentative operaticschool .Mediaeval drama consisted of mystery plays, miracle plays, and

moralities . The mysteries were plays representing Biblica l stories.The miracle plays trea ted the lives of the sa ints, andm ay be saidto have included the passion play, dealing with the life and crucifixion of Christ. The moralities were a llegories of a moral or religioussort, such as the play of

“Everyman ,”recently revived by an Eng

lish company. In South France the “Fete de l’Ane” introduced anelement of comedy.

Italy, however, developed the secular drama , which flourishedfirst at Mantua . In 1472 , when the Cardinal Francesco Gonzagareturned to Mantua from Bologna , we find the form er place witnessing what may fa irly be considered the first opera

“La Favola di

Orfeo,” by Angelo Poliziani . The plot begins among shepherds.

When Orpheus enters, he is told of Euridice’s death , anddeterm ines

to seek her am ong the shades, as in the mythica l story. He wins herfrom Pluto , loses her by looking back in defiance of his agreement,and is stopped by Tisiphone from trying to find her again . His ra ilings then incense the maenads, who drive him off the stage and slayhim . This is set to music, consisting of solos, dialogues, andchoruseswhich suggest the frottola , the carnival songs, and the old ballata , ordance-song. The solo parts were arranged in the manner developedby the lute-players, who would Sing one part of a polyphonic com


conta ining a solo madrigal , butboth , with that exception, consistingof music sung in allthe parts . On this occasion a song by Aurora wasaccom panied by gravicembalo (primitive precursor of the piano),organ, flute, harp , anda large Viol ; while the Song of Night was setwith four trom bones to produce a grave andmelancholy effect.In 1554 , Beccari , of Ferrara , brought out IlSagrificio, a pastoral

play, which hadfor one character a high priest who sang to his lyre,butdid not in other ways adopt the lyric form . The choruses in this

,

as in Lollio’

s“Aretusa ” (1571) andArgenti

’

s“Sfortunato,

” weretrea ted contrapuntally.

Among other occasions, the marriage of Grand Duke Ferdinandat Florence in 1589 seems of interest, because the mem bers of theFlorentine coterie above mentioned took part in producing musicalintermezzi given between the acts of a play. The first,

“The Harmony of the Spheres,

”was by Emilio del Cavaliere, who afterwards

produced the first oratorio . Next, by Luca Marenzio , came the contest between the Muses and the Pierides, the singers accom paniedby lutes andViols while the judges hadharps and lyres in additionfor support . Next came a picture of Apollo slaying the Python,with som e features of a ballet-pantomime, a success as great asthe others , but a rather tame affair when compared with the oldGreek tone-picture of the sam e event. Another of these playletsShowed Arion’s adventures, and included a solo sung by him withharp accom panim ent. A picture of heaven and hell by Caccinioffered som e strong instrum ental effects . Last cam e an antiphonalbit between three groups of Muses, with dances interspersed .

The varied character of these short works shows that reform wasimpending. The madrigal plays seemed dom inant, but had theinherent weakness that they did not present the text clear ly. Ingenious attem pts were m ade to rem edy this trouble, Striggiowritingexcellent operatic comedies, and Orazio Vecchi even having thedia logue spoken while singers behind the scenes kept up a background of madrigals. But it remained for the Florentine coterie toestablish the true principle of opera the solo style of singing, withthe music a imed to reflect the emotions of the text, instead of beingmerely a skilled but irrelevant piece of contrapunta l composition .

The reformers found a little trouble awaiting them in anothershape. Where atfirst the spirit of opera was sacrificed to the com

THE HARMONIC STYLE 61

poser’s ingenu ity, now it met with another obstacle in the shape ofthe singer’s desire for display. The early works of the Florentinegroup , in 1600 and later, were declamatory in sty le, andalm ost likewhat is now known as “m elos,

”or m elodic recitative. The instru

menta l music was now definitely harmonic, and subordina te to thesense of the words ; in a prim itive fashion, to be sure , but with asmuch of artistic idea l as Gluck andWagner showed in later tim eswhen bringing opera back to its true m ission . Yet even in the firstof the Florentine works now extant produced inthe singer Vittoria Archilei is said to have enlivened the occasion byintroducing “lunghi giri e gruppi long roulades and em bellishments , such as Rossini and his school used in later days, whichobscure the dramatic effect in order to let the Singer display herpowers . Thus began a disagreement that has not been settled , evenin the present. Artistic ideas shou ld rule , but the public too oftendemands m ere vocal disp lay ; and the singers know it, from PattiandMelba down .

Opera soon broadened its scope , and in the hands of Monteverdebecam e a public am usem ent. In 1637, a public opera-house wasbuilt in Venice , in which his later works were produced . One of hisearliest operas produced at Mantua in 1608) shows anorchestra far beyond that of his predecessors . It consisted of twoharpsichords, two bass viols , ten tenor viols , one double harp , twosm all French violins , two large guitars, two wooden organs , threeviole da gamba , four trom bones , one regal , two cornetti (woodenpipes), one treble flute , one clarion , andthree trumpets with mutes .Itwill thus be seen that Monteverde was an instrum ental pioneerthe Richard Strauss of his tim e. Like Strauss , he was fond of experimenting with new orchestral colors ; andhe originated the Viol andViolin pizzicato, or plucking of the string, and the tremolo, or rapidrepetition of a tone. Monteverde

’

s career, with that of his successorsRossi , Cesti, andCava lli, brought opera down to the year 1675.

Spectacular effects were m uch sought after. For Cesti ’s I1Pom od'

Oro, given at Vienna in 1666 , a special thea tre, with room for

fifteen hundred , was constructed in the courtyard of the castle.According to Pratt,1

“the scenery included landscapes anda harborview, the open sea with tritons , the nether world , andthe Olympian

1 The History ofMusic.


heaven, each with its respective divinities ; andthe num ber of characters was bewildering. In the prologue appeared the personifieddivisions of the Em pire, Spa in , Austria , Hungary, Bohem ia , Germany, Ita ly even Am erica ! There were five acts andSixty-sevenscenes. The cost of production was said to be thalers .”

Venice rem ained an opera centre for som e tim e, the names ofFerrari , Sartorio , andLegrenzi being only a few of its many celebrities . Butbefore the end of the century, the sceptre passed to Naples,owing to the work of Alessandro Scarlatti. Hewas a Sicilian, havingbeen born atTrapani in 1659 . He composed an imm ense number ofsacred works, including two hundred masses . Buthe became betterknown by his operas , which numbered over a hundred. About onethird of these are still in existence. His orchestral writing was excellent, andhis them es full of vigor andcharm . He did much to establish the da capoaria , in which the first part returns to close the piece.His overtures, consisting of a slow section between two quick ones,became very popular. He a lso wrote harpsichord or spinet worksthat are still perform ed by pianists .Oratorio arose from St. Philip Neri s practice of having music

given in the oratory of his church . The transition from other sacredworks to oratorio was probably gradual . In 1600 came Cavaliere ’s“Rappresentazione di anima e di corpo , which is considered thefirst oratorio , though it may have been one of a set of sim ilar works.It shows the influence of the morality plays. It has about ninetynumbers, including recitatives , solos, choruses, part-songs, and an

instrumenta l intermezzo. The accompanim ent is for graoicem balo,large lute , double lyre, andtwo flutes, with a Violin to aidthe soprano.Carissim i did away with the old procedure of having oratorio

given in costume. He replaced the sacred opera or play idea byoratorio as we know it in its concert form . He also adhered strictlyto Biblica l subjects , treating others in what were practica lly can

tatas . Nearly allthe Italian composers who came just after Carissim i tried their hand at oratorio ; but their work was not very distinctive. Most prominent among them were Alessandro ScarlattiandStradella , but even their oratorios did not have the permanentvalue that Handel was soon to give to the form.

Stradella may be cited as an instance of the way in which falseanecdotes thrive in the musica l world . There is a well-known and


expressive song that has been known as Stradella ’s Prayer. Thestory-tellers asserted that Stradella was in love with a noble Romanlady, who returned his love ; thather brotherwas incensed , andhiredassassins to kill the aspiring m usician ; and that these assassins,wa iting outside Stradella ’s church to murder him , were so m ovedwhen he sang the “Prayer” tha t instead of attacking him theywarned him andgave him m oney to get away. The story soundsa little excessive as it stands ; but research has shown that the“Prayer” in questionwas not by Stradella at all, andwas not written until after his death .

In France, opera developed from the ba llet. In 1581, Baltazarini’

s

Ba llet com ique de la reine attracted much notice . Under HenryIV, about eighty ballets were given at the court. Cambert startedproducing operas in 1659, buthe was soon overshadowed by Lu lly.

Jean Baptiste Lully, born atFlorence in 1633, was taken to Parisby the Duc de Guise . At first a kitchen scullion , Lully rapidly betteredhis position by his Violin-playing. Entering the private bandof Lou is XIV, he soon became its leader, andmade it very efficient.From 1653 he was court com poser, producing m any successful ballets . Nearly twenty years later he began the series of about fifteenoperas that m ade him famous . He had a hand in developing theFrench overture form , which consists of a slow m ovem ent followedby a quick one, and som etim es ending with another slow section .

In Germany the so-ca lled Singspielwas of rather elastic character.

It included the solos andpart-songs that were so popular with theGerman people, along with a certa in minimum of spoken dia logue.Not far different from this type were the first German operas,Schiitz

’

s“Dafne, in 1627 , andStaden

’s “Seelewig ,” in 1644 . The

real advance came with the opening of the Ham burg Opera-House ,in 1678. Reinhard Keiser soon becam e the leader of this enterprise,writing over one hundred and sixteen operas . Other com posers ofthe school were Kusser, the violinist Strungk, and Johann Theile.The operas tended toward disp lay, and som etim es became veryspectacular through intri ca te stage appliances .England hadsomething in the nature of opera in 1656, when The

Siege of Rhodes ” was com posed by five native musicians. But thechief English form of that tim e was the masque . This was takenfrom Ital ian models in the sixteenth century, but made into some


thing more origina l by the great Elizabethan poets. The masquewas practica lly a private thea trica l representation, in which members of cu ltivated society enacted some mythologica lor fanciful plot

,

with poetic words interspersed with dancing, singing, andeven incidenta l pieces . The actors were more or less disguised , as the nameof such m usical plays would indica te . Masques were forbidden bythe Puritans, but revived after the restoration of Charles II. Yetthe Comm onwea lth cou ld not have been Violently opposed to theform, as the Puritan poet Milton included it in his works.The music to these poetic affairs was written by the most giftedcom posers of the time. Among these were Campion , Lanier, Lawes,Banister, and Pelham Humfrey ; but greater than allwas HenryPurcell . Humfrey had investigated Lully

’

s work at Paris, and

brought back ideas about opera . Purcell made use of these, andwrote a num ber of real operas in addition to the customary masques.Purcell is reckoned by many as England ’s greatest composer.

Doubtless this title is fa ir enough , though Dunstable was m orewidely known in his day. Purcellwas one of the short-lived geniuses,for he died at the age of thirty-seven, in 1674. It is sa id that hisdeath was caused in part by his being locked out of his house in thecold after a rather riotous night with boon com panions ; buthe wasprobably as steady-going aswas expected atthat time. His masquesand operas together num ber about forty. Of the latter,

“KingArthur ,” with Dryden’s words, is considered the greatest. Theseoperas are not now given, although The Faery Queen was

recently revived in London as a curiosity.

The name of Purcell brings into notice a lso the developm ent ofinstrumenta l music. The Ita lians were the pioneers in this field .

All through the seventeenth century there was a constantly increasing repertoire of such music. The perfecting of the violin and thedevelopm ent of the harpsichord , spinet, and clavichord did m uchto bring this about. The widespread adoption of the harmonic stylewas a second im portant factor. The growth of the old dances wasanother incentive to the com posers .The English Virginal school , previously mentioned , seemed not to

develop into anything definite, in spite of the strikingly moderneffects of som e of its music. But it m ay have had an influence onPurcell . Whether he followed this or his cherished Ita lian models,


it is certa in that he produced instrumental music of the most valuable character. His sona tas for various com binations of instrum entsare not often heard at present, but they are none the less wonderfully attractive. In recent years Arnold Dolm etsch andothers havegiven concerts of old music on the old instrum ents . In these the variety of harpsichord effects (due to the m any peda ls) combines m ostexcellently with the qu iet, plaintive sweetness of the Viols andearlywood-wind instrum ents . Under such conditions the seventeenthcentury m usic shows a com bination of earnestness and grace, andseem s to have a “sweet reasonableness that is of the utm ost charm .

Manyof the early instrumenta l com posers aredeem ed hardly worthyof m ention except in the largest histories ; but the musica l antiquaryknows the worth of their productions . In listening to these works thestudent does not have to learn any forgotten or obsolete m ethods ofexpression. He will acknowledge, too, that such unforced andspontaneous m usic is rea lly more pleas ing to the auditor than many ofthe contem porary experim ents in abstruse harm ony.

Germ any was perhaps a little backward in instrumental development ; but it hadsom e masters, especially in the doma in of the organ.

Froberger, Kerll, Muffat, andPachelbel are good examples, the lastthree com ing near the end of the seventeenth century. Frobergerwas for a time imperia l organist and clavecinist at Vienna . On atrip to England he was wrecked and robbed , andhada hard timepersuading any one of his identity. Fina lly he managed to get achance at an organ . Here he was overheard by a lady who hadstudied with him on the Continent ; andShe recognized him by thebrilliance of his performance . Charles II then took him into favor.

He puthis reminiscences of allthis into a com ica l little tone-picture of a Channel trip , even introducing suggestions of seasickness.His works consist of brilliant toccatas, capriccios, and secu lar suites .Kerlla lso wrote for harpsichord as well as organ ; andhis solid styleis said to foreshadow that of Bach .

The student who wishes to go m ore m inutely into the early epochswill find m any other composers of this period described in Pratt’s“History” ; while the

“Oxford History” andAmbros are the grea tauthorities for the contrapunta l masters . After 1700 the development of m usic came through individuals rather than schools, andthe story of music becomes largelyan account of the great composers.

SOON after the end of the Middle Ages, andat least as early as1550, we may find m ention of a Thuringian family of musiciansnamed Bach . Hans Bach, of Wechmar, the first prom inent musicianin a long line, lived in the sixteenth century. His son Veit died in1619. Of Veit’s two sons, Hans, ca lled “The Player,

” died in 1626.

Hans had three sons , of whom Christoph was the second . Christoph ’s second son , Johann Ambrosius , who lived at Eisenach, hadthree sons in his turn ; and the youngest of these was the grea tJohann Sebastian Bach . There were many other Bachs, the descendants of the origina l Hans num bering about four hundred in threecentur ies. Butamong them all, Johann Sebastian stands preeminentas a world-genius , far above even his most gifted sons.Johann (or John ) Sebastian Bach was born at Eisenach in 1685.

His parents died soon after his birth, andhe was brought up by hisbrother Johann Christoph , an organist in a little Village nearWeim ar.

The youngster soon displayed musica l ability. The elder brother,som ewhat of a martinet, forbade his protégé

’s using certa in m anuscripts ; whereupon the young enthusiast copied them secretly bymoonlight, thereby laying at least a partia l foundationfor the blindness with which he was afflicted in later life. A choir position inLiineburg enabled him to have access to a large musica l library. Hisviolin-playing won him a post atWeimar, but in 1704 he began hisrea l career by becoming town organist atArnstadt.In earlier years he hadheard Reinken play, andfromAm stadthe

went to Lii beck to listen to Buxtehude. Bach was much influencedby them , andbecame a devotee of allthatwas best in the old contrapuntal style. This, as already described , is a system of writing inparts that flow along side by side, instead of using a m elody sup

ported by chords. Som etimes these parts are com paratively free ;in certain cases , however (described in the section on musica l form),they must obey very strict and intricate rules . Bach not only madehis music conform to the ru les, but did it with a freedom and skill


that a llowed him to keep his music astonishingly fresh and interesting . The organ was the scene of many an im provisation by him , inwhich m asterly command of m usica l structure anddesign was unitedwith remarkable expressive power. It is sa id that he cou ld im provisean intricate fugue with more ease than many lesser com posers wouldshow in extem porising a sim ple fantasie.AtMiihlhausen , Bach m etandmarried his cousin Maria Barbara .

He was a m an who held family life in the highest reverence, likesom e noble patriarch of old . After his first wife’s death he marriedthe singerAnna Wiilken . He hadtwenty children in all; andasmostof them were trained by him, we m ay be sure that there was m uchconcerted music in the Bach household . With such a large fam ily,it was a lm ost inevitable that Bach shou ld suffer poverty. He oftenhad to see m uch less gifted musicians chosen over his head to filllucrative posts ; buthe bore allhis troubles with a cheerfu l optim ismthat gaveway to anger only when any one spoke slightingly of m usicin his hearing.

Bach ’s next position was that of court organist to the Duke ofWeimar . In that place he developed his powers by still further praetice , and the study of more music , including the early Ita lian compositions . He became known as a teacher, andbegan to write someof the fugues, su ites , and Lutheran cantatas that have made hisname imm orta l .Under the Prince of Anhalt-Cothen (from 1717 to he had

no good organ within reach , but devoted himself to other instruments, including the clavichord andharpsichord . Here he composedthe first part of his fam ous “Well-Tem pered Clavichord ,

”a set of

wonderfu l fugues . These introduced the system of twelve equalsem itones, to replace the so-ca lled “scale of nature ,

” which hadbeenused up to 1700. Here, too , he wrote concertos and other instrumenta l music.Bach’s next position took him to Leipsic, as organist of theThom as Church andmusical director in the Thom as School . Herehe rem ained until his death in 1750. His Leipsic years brought himhonor and glory, even if wea lth seemed far away. He com posed ,taught, played , and lived outhis admirable domestic career in a waythat must have won him some happiness, even if his life was un

eventful for the most part.

BACH 71

In 1747, his fam e induced Frederick the Grea t to send him an

invitation to com e to Potsdam . His son Carl Philipp Em anuel Bachheld a perm anent m usica l post at Frederick’s court , andat last theold m an consented to go . When he arrived , Frederick sprang up

from supper, saying ,

“Old Bach is here,”and hastened to receive

the distinguished Visitor. Bach played on the King ’s new pianos,but sa id that he preferred the clavichord , andheld the piano fittedonly for light rondos or variations . Then he improvised a fourvoiced (four-part) fugue on a subject given by the King, and heafterwards elaborated it into a six-voiced work for his “Art ofFugue .

” After he left, Frederick sent him a sum of m oney ; but itwas em bezzled before it reached its destination.

This trip m ay have hastened Bach’s last illnesses . His eyes, none

too strong, were overtasked by his engraving the plates for the “Artof Fugue ,

” which poverty forced him to do for himself . Operationswere succeeded by blindness ; anda sudden return of sight was onlya prelude to the fit of apoplexy that killed him .

The number of Bach ’s works is enorm ous . The large recent edition by the Bach Society includes over fifty sizable volum es. Hiscomm anding genius was not fully rea lized during his life

, andfor

more than a century after his death m ost of his works rem ained inmanuscript. When Mendelssohn andothers began to unearth them ,

a num ber of these manuscripts were lost. But among those thatrem ain are exam ples of many forms , from the short chora l to thegrea t orchestra l su ite or the large voca l-orchestra l Passion .

Among the organ works are nearly a score of long preludes andfugues ; a few toccatas; andmany choral-preludes and fantasias .For clavichord alone, and now su itable for the piano , are the

forty-eight preludes andfugues of the Well-Tem pered Clavichord.

”

Each of its two volumes has one prelude andfugue in each one of thetwenty-four possible keys , twelve m ajor andtwelve m inor. The oldGreek sca le of Pythagoras , the

“sca le of nature,” based on m athe

maticalinterva ls, did not have twelve equal sem itones, but includedtones of two different sizes , and kept the flats and sharps m uchnearer to their notes than atpresent. In the old system , for example,C-sharp was lower than D-flat. This sca le did not a llowmuch m odulation

,so it was altered slightly to what was known in the seven

teenth century as“mean tem perament.” But by 1691, Werek


meisterandothers advoca ted the equa l-semitone system ; andBach’s

great collection of fugues, of which the first volum e was com pletedin 1722 , gave it perm anence. Bach ’s other clavier works includetwelve suites, many inventions and sm a ller works,

“The Musica lOffering ” (1747) and

“The Art of Fugue ” while he wrotea lso about a dozen concertos for one or more claviers (keyboard

The hearer who is unfam iliar with music will usua lly find himselfunenlightened when listening to his first Bach fugue. But if he perseveres, and learns to understand the beauties of the contrapunta lstyle, he will openfor him self a vast treasure-house of musical enjoyment. The Bach fugues are farthest away from the student’s natura l bent, andmore unlike popu lar m usic, than any other worksnow in the repertoire . In developing a taste for most of the classics

,

the student learns that tinkling tunes are not a necessity, and thatthe generalpervading tunefulness of a classica l piece m ay be treatedin better ways, andwith far more variety, than a hard-and-fast tunein conventional sections of monotonously equa l length . But thestudent still seeks for bits of melodious work , supported by chords,such as he is accustom ed to .

In the fugue, the listener must take a still more radica l step . Hemust give up hunting for melody supported by chords, and in placeof that he m ust imagine a musica l method in which there are variousparts (ca lled

“voice s ”) proceeding together. In harmonic writing,the chords support the melody just as the piers of a bridge upholdits superstructure. But in counterpoint, the different parts are interwoven to form a whole , more in the way that strands are wound tomake up a rope, or colored threads interwoven to form a delicatetapestry.

The chief possibility of importance in counterpoint is that of imitation . A phrase , or them e, or figure, which is used in one voice ,m ay be repeated in another, in such a way as to give balance andcontrast to the work in which it occurs . By repeating the motivejudiciously, the composer evolves an actual musica l design . Tothose who are trained to apprec iate the contrapuntal works, thissense of design, or perception of gracefu l structure, is a matter ofkeen delight. The fugue is the most intrica te of allthe contrapuntaldesigns. In it the whole work is practica lly developed out of a single

BACH 73

them e, ca lled the subject. Such a subject should a lways be shortand striking, so that the hearer may grasp it at once. At first thesubject is echoed and reéchoed by the different voices, in well-balanced and orderly succession. Then follow various passages builtout of the subject. In some of these it is used in part as an aecompanim ent for itself, while in others certa in figures or fragm entstaken from it are employed to bu ild up apparently new effects .As an instance of the way in which Bach cou ld rearrange anddevelop the briefest of them es, the reader is referred to the fifthfugue in volum e II of the “Clavichord ” set. In this the first ninenotes form the subject. The figure of the last four notes in thesubject is used to build up episodes ; and the reader m ay am usehimself by taking a pencil and seeing how many appearances ofthis figure he can mark or pick out in the entire fugue. Furtherdeta ils of this and other fugues will be found in the last chapteron m usical form .

Bach’s cham ber works include concerted pieces for various comb inationsof solo instruments . He wrote also sonatas andotherworksfor Violin, flute , orviola da gam ba (large

’cello-like Viol), with clavier,as well as sim ilar pieces for Violin , viola pomposa (large Viola), or’cello a lone. One of the most fam ous Violin pieces in the repertoireis the chacorme, for the solo instrum ent, taken from one of the Bachsonatas . This chaconne has becom e a sort of test piece for greatplayers.Bach’s orchestra l works include suites, overtures, and various

concertos. Among the latter, the so-called Brandenburg concertosare still favorites with the public . These and the suites are verystrong and direct in their effect , and clearly m elodious in spite oftheir som ewhat contrapuntal structure. The D-m ajor su ite has a

wonderfully fine overture , full of beautifu l harm onies ; a broadlyeffective air ; anda striking gavotte . The gem of the B-m inor suite ,which com es next in popularity, is the exquisite

“Badinerie,” in

which a solo flute is m ade to carry on an inim itably delightfu ldialogue with the orchestra . But it is hardly fa ir to m ake specialcitations , for Bach ’s orchestra l works are alm ost allhighly interesting . They do not aim to be strongly dram atic, but they flow a longwith calm dignity , or easy grace , or com pelling enthusiasm,Bach wrote a great many secular cantatas, serenades, and other


voca l works . Among the form er are two hum orous ones a Peasants ’ Cantata ,

” showing som e of the trials of country life, and a

Coffee Can tata , in which a wilful girl is held back from afternooncoffee-parties, wi th their a ttendant gossip , only by the promise ofhaving a husband given to her.

Among the voca l works are m any motets, cantatas, etc for use

in the Lutheran service. These comprise about two thirds of fivecom plete sets of works for the entire church year.

Bach com posed a lso five large masses , a num ber of sma ller ones ,andtwo Magnificats. More important than these, however, are thefive Passions (of which two are lost andone doubtfu l), the long sixpart “Christm as Ora torio,

”and sim ilar works for Easter and

Ascension . The “St . Matthew Passion,” the most famous of the

sacred works, is stillperformed with som e frequency. It conta insmany grea t touches, such as the shouts of the crowd to free Barabbas, the picture of the tram pling footsteps of the m ob , andthe greatfinal chorus of sorrow. Of the otherworks , the Christmas Oratoriois best known by its pastorale, which figures on many orchestralprogrammes when Christmas is approaching.

In spite of the grea t vari ety of form s used by Bach , there are certain very definite qualities common to allhis music.First of all, as already stated , his works are bu ilt wholly or partly

on the contrapunta l system . Even in his most clearly melodiouscom positions , such as the orchestral su ites, there is som e contrapunta l im itation ; and there is almost always part-writing, whichconstitu tes counterpoint in its sim plest form.

Bach was a master of rhythm . All his pieces appea l to us by theirclearness of accent and steadiness of flow. This is one of the pointsthat make his fugues so grea t, for their stra ightforward rhythmallows the various parts to com e clearly to the auditor’s ear. Thereis no m onotony about it, no lack of variety in rhythm ; but the styleis a lways clean-cut, andnever confused .

The third qua lity to be noted in Bach’s m usic is the beau ty andorig inality of his harmonies . They do not glow with the impressionism of the m odern score-m asters ; but they, too, are clear and cleancut, or blended into one another with the m ost exqu isite delicacy.

Bach did not try to“tear passion to ta tters,

” in the exaggeratedfashion of certa in later composers ; but he could Show an emotiona l

BACH 75

power that has proved to be deeply effective, even if somewhatrepressed and quiet.Incidenta lly, it must not be claim ed from the last paragraph that

Bach strove for the harm onic style. AS a matter of fact, he a lwaysheld to counterpoint. He summed up andperfected the style of hispredecessors . His im provisations grew fam ous because of theirwonderfu l contrapuntalintricacy . When he played for Reinken, thelatter, then an old m an , grew devoutly thankfu l that the art of thepast was thus nobly cherished, in defiance of conditions which wereeven then changing.

Of Bach ’s sons, the eldest, Wilhelm Friedemann, was an erraticbut highly gifted com poser, whose orchestral works show a wi ldpower that was remarkable for a time so long before Beethoven.

Carl Philipp Emanuel found tim e, when not com posing sonatas oraccom panying the flute of Frederick the Great, to write a notablework on “The True Art of Piano-Playing .

” Johann Christian became fam ous in London, wrote symphonies, andhelped to popularizethe early pian os, besides com posing curious little tone-pictures, suchas The Battle of Rossbach .

” Battle-pieces have been popular withthe com posers , and in this one we see the usual devices marchingof troops, trum pet fanfares, the rattle of m usketry, deep notes giving the boom ing of cannon, andso on. In this piece the cries of thewounded are present, being m isprinted into

“Les l’Am endations desBlessés . All this may have earned m oney. It was infinitely belowthe lofty earnestness of his father’s work ; but after the father

’sdeath, poverty m ade his fam ily separate in their search for sustenance. Descendan ts of the great Bach kept the line in existenceuntil 1846 , when the family becam e extinct.Among the pioneers in the sonata , which became important as a

form underlying many m odern works , Dom enico Scarlatti was oneof the earliest. The sonata form is described in a chapter of its own ,in the m usica l-form section. Here it m ay be sta ted that one of thechief ideas of the form in classica l tim eswas its adaptabilityfor goodcontrast in styles of them es . The sonatas of Scarlatti are little morethan dance-fantasias , andthey were frequently written in one m ovement, where the la ter sonata had three or four . Scarlatti’s pianowork is mentioned in the article on fam ous pianists , in this volum e.He com posed operas, but was best known in connection with the


harpsichord . Itwas he who wrote the so-ca lled cat fugue, usingas his subject the notes played by a pet cat as it stalked a long hiskeyboard. But he is best known for his harmonic work, his primitive sonatas helping to perpetuate the hom ophonic style.Paradisi and Galuppi were two Ita lians who produced some

what more ambitious sonatas . In their works the sonata hadmorethan one movem ent. The chief m ovem ent had two contrastedthemes, then a so-ca lled developm ent that began with the chiefthem e, anda recapitu lation beginning with the second theme. Butthe form had not yet become wholly definite in shape . AnotherIta lian deserving mention is Sammartini, who wrote sonatas andsymphonies that foreshadowed those of Haydn.

Bach ’s sonatas showed a grasp of the possibilities of them atic contrast. But his devotion to contrapuntal expression prevented theseworks from becom ing models for the harmonic composers, in spiteof Bach ’s greatness . His contem porary Kuhnau was more in linewith the subsequent developments . But if Bach ’s sonatas took nopart in the evolution of the form, those of his son Carl PhilippEmanuel were decidedly more productive of results. It was thela tter composer who led the way to the real beginning of the sonata ;andone of his works, com ing to Haydn

’s attention, showed the latergenius the possibilities of the new form.

Bach had no great successor in the field of actual church-servicemusic. Karl Heinrich Graun was the leader of a German group. Heis known by his oratorio,

“The Death of Jesus, certa in num bersof which are still occasiona lly heard in concert. In Ita ly PadreMar

tini,Pergolesi, andJomm elli deserve mention for their churchworks

but nearly allthe early Italian opera composers tried their hand atsacred music also .

In the clavier field , Francois Couperin andJean Philippe Rameaudeveloped an attractive French school of harpsichord (or spinet)works . Where the Italians had produced sonatas and su ites, thesetwo and their followers wrote many light but pleasing tone-pictures.

GEORG FRIEDRICH HANDEL (whose last name was afterwardsanglicized to Handel) was born at Halle, in 1685. As this was theyear of Bach ’s birth , these two pioneers have som etim es been ca lledthe “Siam ese Twins of Music.” But the resem blance between themis not close enough to justify the title . Both were com posers, andboth wrote in a m ore or less contrapunta l style ; butHandel strovefor dram atic efl'

ect, andemphasized harmony. Where Bach summedup the glories of the past, Handel foreshadowed those of the future.During childhood, Handel showed an early devotion to music.

Finding him self discouraged , he is sa id to have used a clavichordin the garret of his house, upon which he could practise in secret.When seven years old , he asked to be taken with his father on a Visitwhich the latter was phying to the Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels . Thisthe father refused altogether. But when the carriage had gone alittle way, it was found that the youngster hadrun after it, andwasclinging on behind . His persistence caused him to be taken along,with perhaps decisive results upon his career ;for the Duke, on hearing him play, advised his father earn estly to let the boy devote himself to the m usic that he loved so irresistibly. Handel was thereforeputunder a good teacher, by name Zachau ; and four years later hewas taken to Berlin as a prodigy.

After a university course, with organist work, at Halle, Handelentered upon an im portant phase of his career by becoming a Violinist in Keiser’s orchestra at the Hamburg Opera-House. Here hebecam e intimate with Mattheson .

The first incident in this friendship was a trip to Lubeck . Thepair went thither in search of the post of city organist. The oldBuxtehude, who had held the post for many years, was about toretire ; buthe hadmade it a condition that his successor should marryhis daughter. After looking over the situation (and the lady in thecase), the two young aspirants withdrew from the contest.


Handel soon became known as a composer, starting his operaticcareer in 1704, with

“Alm ira ,

”andproducing a Passion in the same

year. He also atta ined a higher rank in the orchestra ; for whenKeiser was once unexpectedly absent, Handel stepped into thevacant place, andbecam e the conductor. This position he held withfirm control ; but it brought him into another episode with Mat

theson ,which might have proved fatal . Handel refused to let

Mattheson lead parts of an opera which the latter hadwritten ; andafter the perform ance the composer was so angered that he boxedthe arbitrary conductor’s ears. The two drew swords at once, andbegan a duel . Mattheson broke through Handel ’s guard , but, fortunately for the world, his weapon snapped against a large button onHandel ’s coat.After three years or so at Hamburg, Handel betook him self toItaly. There he had the keyboard duel with Scarlatti that is mentioned in the chapter on famous pianists, in this book. He travelledabout, receiving honors in Florence, Venice, Rom e, and Naples.He made his operas conform to Italian standards, which were eventhen becom ing conventional .On returning to Germany, Handel accepted a post with the

Elector of Hanover. He had leave to travel , andwent to London,where his “Rinaldo made a hit in 1711. He liked London so wellthat on a second Visit he decided to stay, in spite of the fact that hisleave of absence had expired . It was, therefore, a decided surpriseto him when his former electoral master was called to London tosucceed Queen Anne as George I of England . Handel kept in hidingfor a time. At length a friend gave him a chance of reinstating himself in favor, and he summoned his musica l genius to his aid. TheKing was to give a water-party upon the Thames. As the processionfloated along the river, an unknown boa t drew near to the royalbarge. The occupants of the strange boat played some new and

very beautiful music. This, in accordance with the plan formed ,caught the King’s attention , and caused him to investigate. Whenhe found that this attractive surprise was the work of his old ser

vant Handel , he at once asked the composer aboard the royal boat,andpardoned him . The com position , known as the WaterMusic,

”

is still heard occasiona lly in orchestra l concerts .Handel then received royal pensions . For some years, too, he

HANDEL 79

was in the pay of the rich Duke of Chandos , under whom he composed his first oratorio,

“Esther,” in 1720.

In that year an opera company was form ed , with Handel and theIta lian Bononcini as directors . This com pany lasted for eight years,but in allexcept the first of these there was bitter strife between thetwo directors . Many partisans took sides, and the politica l partieseven became involved , to say nothing of the fierce rivalry am ong thesingers . Itwas this bickering which brought the sopranos CuzzoniandFaustina to blows. Italso led Dean Swift to write the rhymes,

Some say, com pared to Bononcini ,ThatMynheer Handel

’s but a ninny;

Others aver, that he to Handel

Is scarcely fit to hold a candle;

Strange allthis difference shouldbe’

Twixt Tweedledum andTweedledee.

The rivalry continued after the company had broken up in riotousdispute ; for Handel considered it right to start a com pany of hisown , and produce his own operas , which imm ediately caused hisopponents to start another company. Bononcini failed to please , inspite of the backing of the Marlboroughs ; but after his relapse intoobscurity, Porpora , Hasse, and others were ca lled to replace him .

As a result, both com panies lost m oney, andfinally failed .

But this fa ilure proved a blessing to music, for it made Handelturn definitely to the oratorio form . After producing “Saul ,

”

“Israel in Egypt,

”and sim ilar works , he brought out his m aster

piece , The Messiah ,”in 1742 . This is a work that still stands at

the head of the repertoire , nearly two centuries after it was written .

It Shows most adm irably its composer’s sure touch , varied power ofutterance , and control of strong dramatic effect. This work alonewas enough to win Handel a lasting renown . For ten years afterproducing it he continued writing oratorios , but he never quiteequa lled it again . Like Bach , Handel becam e blind in his last years ;buthe bore the afli iction with equanim ity, andcontinued his activity in m usic . He died in 1759 .

Handel was a hard andquick worker. His great Messiah tookhim only about three weeks to write . The inspiring nature of thesubject m ust have helped him to com pose rapidly, for he sta ted thatwhen he began the Ha llelujah ” chorus, it seem ed as if

“allHeaven


andEarth were lying open to his gaze . Handel sometimes adoptedthe them es of others , and som e critics have christened him thegrea t robber” ; but the percentage of plagiarized work is so infinitelysm all , in com parison with the com poser

’s own achievem ents, thatit cannot count aga inst him . Yet it is true that he did sometim esadopt a them e from other com posers, m uch as he transferred them esfrom his own early works into later ones. His song “Lascia ch’ iopianga figures originally as a sarabande in his first opera ,

“Alm ira .

”

When reproached with stea ling a m elody from a certa in composer,Handel once replied, That pig does n

’

tknow what to do with sucha tune.” This gives a clue to the fact that while a short melodymight be borrowed , its treatment and development were the composer’s own ; andhe beautifiedwhatever he appropriated .

Handel was bluff andhearty in character rather arbitrary, aswas necessary for an opera manager, but always honest, and evengenerous . He hada trem endous appetite, andis shown in caricaturewi th a hog’s head , sitting before an organ decorated with sausages ,ham , andother solid foods. He never married . Once he aspired towin a young lady’s hand ; buther father resented the attentions of a“mere fiddler.

” Later, when Handel grew fam ous, the father intimated that he would withdraw his opposition ; but by that time thecom poser’s ardor had cooled .

Handel ’s operas soon dropped out of the repertoire. They werecast in the conventional m ould of the time, andgrew moribund evenbefore Gluck’s reforms introduced higher artistic idea ls. The Handelian operas were nearly allbased on legendary subjects , usua llymythologica l . There were a lways three acts . The number of characters was prescribed , six or seven of a certa in kind being a lwaysexpected . Each of these characters had to have a fixed num ber ofappearances in concerted or solo work , and the latter consisted ofarias of prescribed character. These operas were tremendously popular in their day, the heroine

’s costum e in “Rodelinda” being

adopted as a national uniform of youth andbeauty. But the systemwas too conventiona l to last.Yet if Handel did not try to be a reformer in opera , he at least

im bued his works with the strength of his own genius . Many singlenumbers from these operas are Very much alive to-day, even thoughthe operas themselves are buried . His dramatic power of expression


that came m any decades after his death . Oratorio, unlike opera ,was not fettered by traditional or conventional ru les, so Handelcould make of it allthat his genius perm itted . His success in thisform led to an English cu lt of oratorio and cantata that is still in aflourishing sta te, even if it has not produced master-works . Handelwrote for imm ediate success . If his works lack the deeper qua litiesand the m ore involved intellectuality of Bach , they were far moredirectly effective in their day ; and they deserve alltheir renown.

Handel experim ented with the orchestra , trying out lutes, harps,and early Clarinets . His introduction of horns aroused much eriticism . As conductor, the com poser often led his work by playing atthe harpsichord or organ . He thus filled out harmonies which wereleft in a more rudimentary state in the written score. It has therefore been found necessary for later musicians to fill in the scoring ofcerta in works by Handel , the chief exam ples being two Versions ofthe “Messiah ,

” one arranged by Mozart and the other by RobertFranz.Of the Ham burg school of opera , both Mattheson andTelemann

outlived Handel . The form er wrote few works with much effort,while the latter com posed freely, but rather superficia lly. OtherGerman cities soon followed Ham burg’s lead ; andoperas by Graupner, StOlzel, Graun , and their kind were heard in Darmstadt, Breslau , Prague, Berlin , andother places . Frederick the Grea t, famousas a patron of music, was a lso a composer, writing the opera , IlRePastore .”

Italian opera , brought to its climax of popularity by AlessandroScarlatti , was carried on by many composers . Antonio Lotti wonsuccess in many fields atVenice. Domenico Scarlatti wrote severaldramatic works ; while Mancini , Sarri , andFago kept the school inactivity. Porpora wrote nearly fifty operas , butwas best known asa singing tea cher. The nam es of Feo, Durante , Leo, and the artistDa Vinci are somewhat more important, and bring opera to themiddle of the eighteenth century ; butnone of their stage works survivedfor long. The old operas were comparatively simple in strueture, andas a result they were produced by hundreds.Two composers of a later generation who became known in opera

were Nicola Jomm elli, in Ita ly, and Johann Adolph Hasse, inGermany.

HANDEL 83

A school of light opera hadits rise in Naples . Pergolesi, known byexpressive church works , won a trem endous success with the com edy“La Serva Padrona .

”Logroscino, who followed him , developed

grand ensem bles at the ends of his acts . Galuppi, who is apostrophized in one of Browning’s poem s , wrote the

“Tocca ta ” thatBrowning describes, and other organ works, butwas better knownby his many operas , the light ones earning him the title of

“thefather of opera bufi’a .

Fl‘ench opera offered Campra andDestouches , butwasm ore ablyrepresented by Jean Philippe Rameau . His works gradually re

placed those ofLu lly, from which they did not differ radica lly,although he was m ore gifted m usica lly. Rameau became knownby an early treatise on harm ony. It was this com poser who oncesaid, Music is dead ,

”m eaning that about allpossible com binations

of tone hadbeen worked out, andnothing new cou ld be found . But

since then m usic has been pretty lively for a corpse , as the long listof subsequent m asters will Show.

Jean Jacques Rousseau , the philosopher, was another well-knownopera composer of the tim e. His “Devin du Village” made a grea tsuccess , while his later

“Pygm alion ” laid the foundations of m elodrama . Rousseau championed the Italian company tha t came toParis with Ita lian Singers and operas . The resulting dispute between the upholders of French andof Italian standards was knownas the Guerre des Buffons.

” After an acrimonious struggle, Frenchopera com ique won the ascendancy.

It must not be supposed that forgotten operas are necessarilyweak or unmusica l . Rousseau ’s works are very tuneful . Revivalsof dram atic works by Rameau , Purcell , and others show that thesecomposers wrote good m usic, even if their operas are cast in an

archaic m ould . The same is true of the Ita lians , of whom Lottiand the Scarlattis were really gifted m usicians . If the ScarlattiOperas are on the shelf, the piano repertoire still conta ins a num berof pieces by both the elder andyounger Scarlatti. Those who heardPaderewski

’

s early programm es will rem em ber that they alm ostalways began with a selection from these com positions . In theviolin field

,Kreisler andYsaye have won remarkable successes with

the works of such early composers as Couperin , Vita li, Pugnani,Vivaldi, and others of the sort ; while the compositions of Tartini


are often played . Musical changes are sometimes an affair of mannerrather than m atter ; and the music of the late sixteenth and earlyseventeenth centuries often shows the rarest beauty, when it hasonce been unearthed from the dust of ages.England did not follow Handel’s lead in opera , but even during

his life developed a school resembling the German Singspiel, andknown as the ballad-opera . In this a number of songs were strungtogether on a thread of dialogue, to make an amusing or satirica lwork. The first exam ple of this form was the “Beggar ’s Opera,

”

the m usic com posed and arranged by Pepusch . The work had a

grea t success . As Gay wrote the words and Rich produced theaffa ir (in it was said to have made Gay rich andRich gay.

Henry Carey, sometim es considered the composer of “God savethe King, was another writer of ballad-operas. He ridiculed thebombastic style of certa in Ita lian operas , and satirized it very ef

fectively.

Of a later date was Thomas Augustine Arne, now known by hisda inty settings of certa in lyrics from Shakespeare’s plays . Arnewrote oratorios, operas, masques, and other dramatic works . Hewas the com poser of the popular English song Rule, Britannia .

In spite of the genius of Purcell andHandel, which kept Englishopera abreast of that in other countries during their lives , Englanddid not influence the development of opera . The ballad-opera wasnot high enough in aim to inspire imitation in other countries. Moreover, it soon changed its character, and grew into the over-sentimenta l affair that retarded musical progress in England until quiterecently.


Eurydice. But there were many drama tic touches in the opera ,such as the barking of Cerberus, the threatening refusa l of theFuries to aidOrpheus, or the fina l loss of Eurydice. Gluckwas developing the idea that operatic music should not be a set of meaningless melodies, but Shou ld bring out the dramatic possibilities ofthe text. The Viennese public were somewhat bewildered at first,but finally accepted the new work.

Gluck continued with “Alceste, on another of the Calzab igilibrettos . This work, brought out in 1767, was not a popular success,because of the gloomy nature of its subject.“Paride ed Elena ,

” with another Calzab igi text, appeared in 1770.

It showed a remarkable control of romantic lyricism, and conta inedmany strong bits of solo work. By this time Gluck had built up a

considerable appreciation of his works atVienna , though there wereadverse critics a lso. Later, he met with the same experience in

It was not until 1774 that his first Parisian work was broughtout. This opera ,

“Iphigenie en Aulide (Racine), was not one ofthe best in the new style, a lthough it has an effective overture. Theincom petence of the performers and the machinations of enemiesdelayed the production considerably ; and in the end its appearancewas due largely to the efforts of Marie Antoinette. That unfortunate queen hadknown Gluck during her girlhood atVienna , and inParis She became an enthusiastic patroness of his works . JeanJacques Rousseau , himself a gifted com poser, was another ardentsupporter of Gluck. But there were many opponents, who were notonly ready to use carica ture and paragraph, but would actuallyfight duels over the merits of the new operas .

Glu’

ck’s next work was “Arm ide,” which was given in 1777. It

was based on an old Qu inault text which had been set by Lully.

This opera showed much romantic beauty, though it did not sucoecd at once .In the mean time, Gluck

’s opponents had rallied around theItalian Piccini, who represented the old school of m ellifluous but

meaningless tunes. Fina lly itwas suggested that the rival composersshould set the same libretto , Iphigenie en Tauride

”and this they

agreed to do . Gluck finished his setting very quickly, but had towait some time for that of Piccini. The two were finally performed

GLUCK HAY DN

THE MOZ ART FAMILY


Gluck dropped the old French overture form, and adopted thatof the prelude, or introduction leading directly into the play. Whilehis later overtures were worthy classical compositions, the descriptive nature of their themes was made to conform with the scenesthat would follow. The old rules about the necessary kinds andnumbers of arias were entirely discarded . This meant that the poethad a freer hand to produce something of literary and dramaticmerit. The music was considered as following the text, andemphasizing the emotion brought out by the dramatic situation.

The orchestra , too , was given more important work than merelysupporting the voices or indulging in occasional short passages . Itbecam e an integra l part of the dramatic scheme. The touches mentionedabove in Orpheus (the barking of Cerberus and the gruffanger of the Furies) are only a few of many that may be found in thescore. In “Iphigenie en Tauride ” are found wild tone-pictures ofbarbarous Scythian revelry, or gloom y mutterings to accompanythe exhaustion of Orestes. The other operas in the “great six” Showequally Skilful instrumental touches.Works of this sort were far more im portant than the conventional

strings of melody that earlier writers had thrown off by the hundred . The com poser could not toss them off with the slight attentiondemanded by works of the former school ; instead , he had to studyhis text and characters, and put into the music real expressivepower anddramatic force. The performers, too, had to understandthe aim s of the new system before they could do their work properly. The public had to be educated up to entirely new standards ,as was the case with Wagner’s music in later years . Opera waschanged from an enterta ining variety-concert to a true art-work ;and it was inevitable that some who understood the form er shouldbe unable to learn to appreciate the latter. The progress made byGluck in the direction of dramatic strength is shown by the fact thathis later works are occasiona lly given even to-day, a lm ost a centuryanda ha lf after their creation . Gluck did not discard lyricism, but

used it as a means for dramatic expression, instead of an excuse forthe display of singers . His reforms cleared thewayformodern opera ,in spite of the fact that Rossin i reverted to the type of florid and

meaning less vocalism.

Nicolo Piccini, who sometimes misspelled his own name asNiccolo

GLUCK 89

Piccinni, was one of a flourishing school that had its headquartersat Naples . He was not without his meed of deserved fame ; for heentered into com petition with Logroscino, and supplanted the latterin the field of com ic opera. His comm and of m elody was great, andhe Showed an admirable mastery of concerted finales. He was rea llyan unwilling riva l of Gluck. He fulfilled the commissions given tohim, but finally acknowledged his riva l’s greatness with absolutefrankness . After the la tter’s death , Piccini even tried to collectfunds for an annua l concert of Gluck’s works. Piccini wrote overone hundred and thirty operas , some of which served as models forMozart in the latter’s earlier years .Antonio Sacchini was a fisher-boy, whose gifts were discovered byDurante. He wrote com ic operas for Naples, andshowed a popularfreshness of style tha t m ade him a rival of Piccini . He composedalso for orchestra andfor clavier.

Tommaso Traetta saw his operas produced in su ch various citiesas Vienna , Parma , Venice, London, and St. Petersburg. He wasfirst known as a church com poser. He hadgood ideas of dramaticvalues, and even foreshadowed som e of Gluck

’s reform s .Other opera composers of this time were Pietro Gug lielm i, who

was able to rival Cimarosa and Pa isiello ; Johann Christian Bach ,who wrote operas in Milan andLondon ; andJohann Gottlieb Naumann, who won fame in Germany, Denmark, and Sweden .

Giovanni Paisiello (1741—1816) wrote many symphonies and

quartets , but was best known by his operas . His works showedmuch spontaneous m elody, and his accompaniments were oftenorig inaland ingenious . His operas are som etim es strongly dram atic,butm ore Often piquant andcharm ing in style. He com posed at theRussian Court for eight years, and afterwards becam e a favoriteof Napoleon at Paris . His “Barber of Seville ” was very popular ,and for some tim e prevented Rossini’s work on the same subjectfrom becom ing well known .

Domenico Cimarosa (1749—1801) was almost as gifted as Mozartin opera . He soon became a com petitor of Pa isiello, andafterwardssucceeded the latter at St. Petersburg. This period was followedby further successes in Vienna and Ita ly. Cim arosa was very popular, and received high salaries . His best work is

“I1Matrimonio

Segreto ,” produced atVienna in 1792 ; butmany of his other works


were almost as great. The da inty lightness of Mozart’s operas had

its rise in the works of Piccini, Paisiello, and Cimarosa .

Giuseppe Sarti worked in Italy, Denmark, andSt. Petersburg. Inthe last-named place he wrote much sacred music. He was theauthor of an extraordinary attack on Mozart

’s quartets .Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf (1739—1799) com posed many

quartets , som e concertos, and over a hundred sym phonies . Hewrote oratorios too , but was best known by his comic operas, ofwhich Doktor undApotheker ” still holds the boards in Germ any.

In Paris, Pierre Montan Berton produced a few operas of his ownbefore becom ing a Gluck partisan .

H ancois Danican-Philidor, the chess expert, was another Pari

sian opera-com poser. He was best known in comic opera , andwonmuch success with his concerted numbers trios, quartets , etc .Pierre Alexandre Monsigny (1729—1817) devoted himself to

com ic opera when forty years old . He showed some dramatic instinct, but lacked technica l skill .André Ernest Modeste Gretry (1741—1813) was a contem porary

and successor of Monsigny, whom he eclipsed in fam e. Gretryshowed a m arked ability to handle musica l declamation, a certa ingift of m elody, andan excellent dramatic success . He became knownby such comedies as “Z em ire etAzor,

” “Le Tableau Parlant,”and

L’

Am ant Jalouse,”and entered the serious field with “Richard

Coeur-de-Lion .

” An aria from the last-named , entitled 0 Richard,0 mon roi,

” is still a popu lar solo num ber. Gretry’s operas wereorchestrated very thinly, so that the later composers have sometim es found it advisable to enrich their accom panim ent. Theseworks are not now given, except as curiosities ; butmany individualsongs taken from them are still effective num bers in the concertsinger’s repertoire. The operas as a whole lack the variety and

dramatic force that contem porary audiences demand ; but that isno bar to the enjoyment of short selections from their pages.


At twenty,Haydn hadwritten his first mass, andone of the comic

Operas that have been lost since that time. Three years later heproduced his first string quartet. Soon his early sonatas gained thenotice of aristocracy. Countess Thun brought him a set of fashionable pupils, and induced Count Morzin to engage him as privateorchestral director. In that position he com posed many stringquartets , and at last tried his hand at a symphony, in 1759.

A year later Haydn married , with unfortunate resu lts . He hadbeen in love with the younger daughter of a wig-maker namedKeller, andhad tried to win her hand ; but she was deeply religious,andat last disappointed him by becoming a nun . The father thensuggested that Haydn should marry her elder sister; and the composer finally did so. The result was most unhappy for the obligingHaydn ; his wife becam e selfishly extravagant, and proved to be aconsummate Virago.In 1761, Haydn was appointed second conductor to Prince

Anton Esterhazy. When that patron of music died , his successor,Prince Nicholas, made Haydn first conductor, with a reasonablesalary ; andHaydn stayed in this position until his master

’s death,

in 1790.

The first contract, with Prince An ton, Showed that musicians inthose days were practically servants. The composer was directedto be strictly temperate, andto avoid any coarseness in eating, dress,or manners ; while he was addressed as Er,

” in the contemptuousthird person reserved for underlings.But in Spite of allthis, the composer

“lived happily ever after.

He was master of a band of sixteen musicians, to say nothing ofsingers in addition ; he had time to compose as much as he wishedandhe began to receive money for the sa le of his works, which wereconstantly growing in public appreciation . He remained in seclusionmostly, writing the many symphonies and string quartets that havemade him famous, and that earned him meda ls, rings, and othertestimonials during his life. He might have finished his career inthis fashion ; but in 1790 his patron died, andhis orchestra was disbanded .

Haydn was now able to travel freely ; and an English managernamed Salomon induced him to Visit London . In that capital hereceived the highest honors. The six symphonies that he had com

HAYDN 93

posed for British performance m et with an enthusiastic reception ;the Prince of Wales enterta ined him for three days ; Oxford gavehim an honorary doctor’s degree ; and fashionable pupils flocked tohim at high prices.By 1792 he was back in Vienna , where the entire city delighted to

honor him . At that time a young man nam ed Beethoven cameto take lessons of him , at the rate of twenty cents an hour. Haydnrather neglected the young man at first, perhaps because he wasused to higher rates . After a tim e Beethoven grew so independent,in dem eanor as well as com position, that Haydn christened him“the Great Mogul.”

Haydn took six more symphonies to London in 1794. On thistrip he was invited to stay atWindsor Castle ; but he preferred toreturn to Vienna .

The English enthusiasm for God save the King caused Haydnto decide upon writing the Austrian National Hym n . Such deliberate attem pts to produce nationa l m usic are a lm ost always fa ilures ;but in this case the song proved a great success.London influenced him still further by its oratorio music, espe

cially that of Handel ; andHaydn determ ined to enter this field also.His first effort ,

“The Creation , m etwith much success at Viennaandelsewhere, and is still a favorite with oratorio societies . Haydn ,like Handel , felt that his gifts were the result of divine inspiration ;and this was shown at a perform ance of “The Crea tion ,

” whichtook place shortly before his death . At the words,

“‘Let there belight

,

’ —and there was light,”a striking change from m inor to

major occurs . On that day nature a ided the effect ; for while theday had been overcast, the sun burst forth at these words . Theauditors were thrilled by this coincidence ; and the aged com poserarose in excitement, and excla imed , pointing to heaven,

“It all

cam e from there .”“The Creation was followed by The Seasons but the drudg

ery of com position , united to the fervor of creative work, weakenedthe composer considerably. He spent his last years in comparativeinactivity, anddied atVienna in 1809 . While he was on his deathbed , Napoleon

’s forces were bombarding the city. His servants wereterrified , but he reassured them by saying, Y ou are safe withHaydn .

” During the same bombardment, Beethoven took to a


cellar not from any lack of bravery, but because of fear that thenoise of the guns wou ld ru in his a lready im pa ired hearing. When '

the city was taken, som e of the French offi cers bore testimony toHaydn ’s fam e by Visiting him on his dea thbed, and attending hisfunera l.Haydn is now known by his sym phonies , his sonatas, and the two

works in oratorio form . But he was very Versatile, and attemptedalm ost everything except organ pieces . His voca l works includemasses, operas , and songs. The operas are practica lly all lost,though remnants of some are discovered now andthen . OnceHaydnthought that his chief mission would be the composing of operas ;but he grew into orchestral work. Among his songs, such a da intylyric as “My m other bids me bind my hair ” proves that he cou ldwrite voca l m usic with the most charming grace. Brahms resuscitateda chorale them e by Haydn as a subject for variations ; buttoomany of the earlier com poser’s voca l works have been allowed tolapse into undeserved oblivion.

The orchestra of Haydn was somewhat variable. It consisted ofthe usual string parts, with the variation occurring in the wind instrum ents. The form er were divided into first and second violins,Violas,

’cellos, and contrabasses, as at present. The latter ranged

from Oboes andhorns up to a fa irly full list of wood-wind andbrassinstrum ents , though mostly without Clarinets . The later classica lorchestra , as developed from the Haydn m odel by Beethoven, hadfour wood-wind parts and three brass parts, the form er being flutes,Oboes, clarinets , andbassoons , while the latter were horns, trumpets,and at the last, trombones. The kettledrums com pleted the list ;andHaydn’s naive use of a loud kettledrum stroke in the Surprisesymphony was very effective in its day.

Haydn’s several hundred instrum enta l works include about one

hundred and twenty-five symphonies, thirty trios, seventy-sevenstring quartets , about one hundred pieces for various chamber comb inations, thirty-one concertos for various instrum ents, and aboutfifty sonatas or other works for clavier. In Haydn ’s time the clavier(keyed instrument) still referred to the clavichord or harpsichord .

The piano hadbeen invented in 1711, but it did not become reallypopular until Beethoven turned the scale in its favor by writingmusic that was too powerful for the earlier instruments. The best


charm of refreshing directness. At the time of their composition,they were of value as pioneer work in the orchestral field. EvenBeethoven followed the Haydn models atfirst.IfHaydn ’s sym phonies are still heard on their own merits , the

same is doubly true of his string quartets . In these his clear sty leand calm serenity are very much in place ; so that they still remainmodels of their school. The slow movem ents are, perhaps , a littletoo dragging for m odern standards , butapart from that point thesequartets hold their own easily against nearly alllater works in thesam e form .

Haydn ’s brotherMichael became noted as a church composer, buthe was a good orchestral writer a lso . He composed over two dozensym phonies, andseveral chamber works ; but he kept most of thesein manuscript, andthus fa iled to have any grea t influence.The sym phony received an early development at the hands of

the Mannheim group of violinists . Johann Stam itzwas the pioneerof this group , wri ting nearly fifty symphonies before his early deathin 1757. These sym phonies figured frequently on early programmesin the United Sta tes, which are admirably described by Oscar G.

Sonneck in his Early Concert Life in America .

” Other sym phonistsof the Mannheim group included Franz Xaver Richter, AntonFiltz, Christian Cannab ich,

Ignaz Holzbauer, Eichner, Toeschi,Beck, Karl Stam itz, and Anton Stam itz. All these men composedsym phonies , andmade the growing form known in many differentplaces . Others, from different cities , were Schwindl, Wagenseil,Wanhal, Pichl , Roessler, Wranitzky , Pleyel, andWolf. Many oftheir works were known andheard in the eighteenth-century programmes of our own country, and

“the celebrated Wranitzky,”as

he was called , was at one time held as a rival of Haydn .

More important in symphonic development was Francois JosephGossec , who was known at Paris as an opera com poser. His symphonies andstring quartets showed real value.Luigi Boccherini was an Ita lian symphonist—rather a lonely

figure, for Ita ly soon reverted wholly to opera of a popular var iety,and let Germany develop the classica l school una ided . He composed some symphonies andvery many chamber works .Dittersdorf worked in this field also, producing about fifty sym

HAYDN 97

Leopold Hoffmann wrote church music in Vienna , andatthe sametime composed such clever orchestral works that he is said to havedelayed the recognition of Haydn’s genius for some tim e. Haydn ,however, showed more virility than many of his contemporaries, sothat their works are now little known.

WOLFGANG AMADEUSMOZART, com poser by the grace of God ,was born at Sa lzburg on January 27, 1756. His full name wasJohann Chrysostom Wolfgang Theophilus Mozart. His father,Leopold

, was a m usician of som e standing, in the service of the loca larchbishop . Wolfgang’s sister Maria Anna was given piano lessonsat hom e when seven years old , and afterwards became a fam ousperform er. At her early lessons her little brother was greatly captivatedby the beauty of the clavier tones , and tried to reach up tothe keyboard . His extreme musica l sensitiveness was shown alsoby the sma ll size andunusua l shape of his aura l passages . His earswere so delicately built that the sound of a trumpet would send himinto spasms of terror.

The boy began to compose little pieces when only four years old ;andat the age of six he was discovered hard atwork over the muchblotted manuscript of a clavier concerto . His father, happy atfinding the son so gifted, began to tra in him carefully from his earliestyears . Soon Wolfgang became proficient at the keyboard , andwastaken on tours with his sister. The two child-prodigies won muchattention, even from the Em press Maria Theresa . On a later tripto London, the boy perform ed atsight some difficult pieces by Bach,and gained renown by improvising. He soon became still furthernoted by playing his own pieces .Returning to Sa lzburg at twelve years of age, he wrote the operaBastien et Bastienne.

” At Vienna he com posed “La Finta Semplice,

”but his youth prevented its performance. A trip to Ita ly,

however, proved more successful . Mozart’s Italian travels (between 1770 and 1773) resulted in constant ovations .1 His newoperas ,

“Mitridate ” and“Lucio Silla ,

” were applauded to the echoby Milan audiences . The Pope gave him the same order of knight

For an account ofone ofhis display perform ances, see the chapter “SomeFamous Pianists," in this volum e.


the Gluck-Piccini contest held public attention. He declined a

small position in the royal orchestra , saying that“whoever entered

the royal service was forgotten at Paris.” He might have workedup in the French capita l as Lully did a century earlier ; but ap

parently he did not approve of Parisian standards . After the dea thof his mother, who had been with him, he returned to Salzburg,where the miserly prelate, Hieronymus, had at last begun to givea grudging appreciation. There he became concert-master, with asalary of five hundred florins still a meagre amount, though at

that time money hadmore purchasing power than at present. Ofhis Paris stay, Mozart hadwritten home,

“If I were where peoplehad ears to hear, hearts to feel , and even a sma ll degree of perception and taste, I could laugh at everything ; but really, as far as

music is concerned, I am living among mere brute beasts .” Mozart’s

grea ter compositions were still in the future, so Paris was not to beWholly condemned .

In 1781,Mozart composed Idomeneo for the Munich Carnival .This work was an advance over its predecessors, and an improvement over the Cimarosa-Piccini style. Its success made Mozartdevote himself largely to opera , though he composed church musicand instrum enta l works a lso .

“Idomeneo ” was no longer an imitation, but displayed fully the melodic fluency, dramatic grasp , andpower in handling voices that became so marked in his later operas .

In the ensu ing year, Vienna heard his“Abduction from the Sera

glio,” which brought opera in German to a high state of excellence.

The old Singspielwas a rather elastic affair. Reichardt hadmade ita spoken drama with music in the un im portant parts , while Bendachanged it into a melodrama , with words spoken against an accom

panim ent. Mozart revived the old idea , andlet the important partsbe sung, while only the most unimportant episodes were spoken .

The Emperor thought the work conta ined too many notes ” ; butMozart retorted that there were “just enough for the subject.Meanwhile Mozart’s position in the Archbishop ’s entouragewas

that of an absolute underling. Dining with the servants, he wassubjected to allsorts of indignities by his strangely hostile master,andwas often branded with such insulting titles as Lum p ,

” Lausbube ,

”or Gassenbube ” words that are hard to translate, but

are about on a par with our“churl,

” “varlet,”or“guttersnipe.”

MOZART 101

At last the situation became unbearable, andMozart presented hisresignation ; whereupon the Archbishop ordered his steward to kickthe com poser downsta irs which was done.Though Mozart suffered enough from poverty after that event,

he was never aga in subjected to contumely.

Having lost Aloysia Weber, he turned to her sister Constance,whom he married in 1782 . The two loved each other truly enough,buthe earned little m oney, while she was a poor manager. Yet theircheerfulnesswas unfa iling ; anda visitor once found the couple dancing to keep warm when they had no fuel and no cash to buy it.Constance outlived her husband by more than fifty years, dyingin 1842 .

Mozart’s poverty seem ed as much a matter of loyalty as any

thing else . He might have done well if he hadstayed in Paris ; London, which welcom ed Haydn , would pretty surely have enrichedMozart a lso ; while he declined a liberal offer of the King of Prussia ,to stay in the ill-paid service of the Emperor of Austria .

He continued his operatic work with several com edies, such as

L’

Oca del Ca iro ,” “Lo Sposo Deluso,

”and the German “Schau

spieldirektor.

”But these were soon forgotten, for his later master

works were at hand .

“The Marriage of Figaro, produced in 1786, contains little ofthe politica l suggestion of the comedy by Beaumarcha is, but israther an intensely exhilarating bit of dram atic andm usical humor.

The plot deals with the love of Figaro , valet and facto of countAlmaviva , for Suzanna , the maid of the countess . The count

’spronounced adm iration for Suzanna is m ade into a m eans of discomfiting him . The others start to trick him by dressing the pageCherubino in Suzanna ’s clothes, and afterwards the masqueradeis made m ore effective by having Suzanna and the countess exchange dresses . The count then makes exaggerated dec larationsto a supposed Suzanna who is rea lly his own wife. The count is a lsotormented by Figaro’s attentions to the supposed countess . Thefinal unveiling brings about the count’s discomfiture, Figaro

’s marriage, anda general reconciliation.

The music to this vivacious comedy is superlatively delightful ,and contains many of Mozart’s very best vocal num bers . Some ofthe most attractive selections are Figaro ’s bright duet with Suzanna ,

102 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE s !

his half-humorous defiance to the count Se vuol ballare hisinimitably com ic lesson in soldiery to Cherubino, who is to be sentoff to the army in disgrace, Cherub ino

’

s love-song (“Voi che

the beautiful air of regret sung by the countess (“Dove

and Suzanna ’

s captivating encouragement of the count

(“Deh vieni

,non But it is a thankless task to cite single

num bers, for the com plete score is overflowmg with delightfu l musicalhum or. The overture, too, is a gem of tonal brightness .“Don Giovanni,

” produced in 1787, achieved another great success . It dea ls with the career of a totally wild and licentious nobleman ,

who invades the room of a certa in Donna Anna , is discoveredby her father, Don Pedro, andkills him to escape unrecognized . Hecontinues his am orous career by laying siege to Zerlina , a peasantgirl who is about to m arryMasetto. Don Giovanni captivates her,but is thwarted by Donna Anna and her betrothed , Don Ottavio,who com e with Elvira , a form er conquest of the adventurer

’s. DonGiovanni next exchanges costumes with his servant Leporello, andpays court to Elvira ’s m a id while Leporello gets a beating fromMasetto, who thinks him Don Giovanni. Then the dissolute nobleman sneers atDon Pedro’s statue. He is surprised to find the statueanswering his invitation to sup together ; andthe climax comes whenthe statue does actually enter the banquet-room and drag thecrim inal down to perdition .

Here, as in“Figaro ,

” there is a profusion of melody. Leporello’sfamous “ca ta logue aria is a rollicking list of his master

’s conquests .Zerlina ’s “Batti, batti

”and

“Vedrai carino ” are gem s of lyricism.

Don Giovanni’s duet with Zerlina ,

“Reach me thy hand , is anotherofm any famous selectionsfrom this work. The ensem bles areadm irable ; and Gounod sa id of the trio between Don Giovanni ,Leporello, andDonna Elvira , that if allcom positions but this weredestroyed , our music could be evolved aga in from it. While suchpra ise is exaggerated , there is no doubt that Mozart showed a wonderfulgrasp of the situation in this and other concerted selections .The overture , it is sa id , was written during the night before the performance. Mozartworked at the score while Constance rega led himwith home-made punch , or told him stories while he rested .

“Don Giovanni ” has been upheld by the classicists as the qu intessence of everything worthy. One fairly recent writer said of it;


their way. But the libretto has been too great a handicap , and theopera received few performances in comparison with

“Don Gio

Of the three dozen songs that Mozart wrote, apart from hisoperas, the m ost fam ous is the tender

“Violet.” Mozart com posedfifteenmasses, though he probably wrote very little of the one knownas his twelfth . Such mistakes have often arisen, from the carelessness of composers or publishers . Thus Schubert

’s “Adieu ” is probably not by him ; Weber

’s “Last Thought,”or“Last Waltz , was

not his atall, butsent to him byReissiger ; while Beethoven’s Fare

well to the Piano ” (a publisher’s title) was written before he com

posed som e of his greatest piano sonatas.In addition to masses, Mozart wrote motets and cantatas for

voices.His piano music is best represented by his two-hand sonatas.These

,which are seventeen in number, show a clearness of form that

makes them valuable to the teacher. Some of them are dramaticenough, the

“Fantasia and sonata being especially powerful .Mozart composed also five four-hand sonatas, and seventeen organsonatas.His chamber music, which is still prized for its union of clearness

with fluency and a proper amount of expression, is headed bytwenty-six string quartets . These are supplemented by quintets,many violin-and-piano sonatas, andconcertos for piano andvariousother single or multiple instruments . A concerto is a concert-piece,usually in three movements, to display one or more instruments ;and it may have either pian o or orchestra l accom paniment. Moderncomposers have made it a three-movement symphony with a threadof solo work running through it.The example of Haydn andothers led Mozart into the symphonic

field also. Of his symphonies , which number nearly fifty, the lastthree, which he wrote in 1788, toward the close of his life, are decidedly the greatest. These consist of the so-ca lled

“Jupiter Symphony,

” the “Clarinet Symphony,”in which that instrument was

first brought into the symphonic orchestra , andthe tenderly beautifulsym phony in G Minor.

Mozart, like Haydn , echoed the style of his time by making hissymphonies clear andfluent. Where Haydn showed vivacity, how

MOZART 105

ever, Mozart relied more on smoothness . Yet in his three last symphonies, Mozart showed a surprising vigor.

In 1791, the year of Mozart’s death, he wrote his famous Re

quiem . His illness was upon him , andhe hada presentiment thathe was com posing for his own funeral. There were other unusualdetails about the work, too . Amysterious stranger, clothed in black,visited him to give him the comm ission for the work, and to namea date when he would come for the finished com position. He returned ou time, butMozart had been busy with other things, thework was unfinished, and the stranger extended the time to stillanother date. Mozart, it is said , began to brood over the matter.

Ultim ately he grew to consider the stranger a messenger from theother world , sent to announce his death . He hadwhat was ca lleda m iliary fever ; but he began to believe also that some one hadpoisoned him. He died before com pleting the “Requiem,

”and

directed his pupil Siissm ayer to finish the work for him ; so that nowit is not definitely known which parts of the com position wereSiissm ayer

’

s additions.The mystery of the stranger in black was afterwards expla ined.

He was a certain Leutgeb , steward of Count vonWallsegg , andwas

sent in secrecy because his master wished to get hold of the Re

quiem”andpublish it as his own .

Mozart was a most delightful persona lity, being lively, fascinating, and a versatile ta lker. He was full of droll humor, but at thesame tim e gifted with keen andaccurate judgm ent. If he was rathertoo easy-going to achieve wea lth , he at least bore poverty withcheerfulness. Hewas fond of various amusements, andoften thoughtout his themes while playing billiards.His burial-place is not even known. The day of his funeral was

stormy, andhis coffin was hurried into a public grave. Som e yearslater his adm irers wished to give him a monum ent ; butas the gravehad been em ptied andused over again , the composer

’s remains arenot beneath the m em orial that was finally erected to his memoryin the large central cem etery of Vienna .

The Singspiel, which influenced Mozart to some extent, wascarried on by such men as Johann Adam Hiller, Johann André,Johann Abram Peter Schulz, Johann Schenk, Ferdinand Kauer,and others . Owing to the loose structure of their musica l plays,


many of their songs bécainepopu lar as separate numbers, andearnedthem reputa tions as song-com posers . Schu lz became famous for hiscollection of “Lieder im Volkston. Johann H

’

affner, who liveduntil 1833, wrote in a style resem bling Gluck

’s , andexerted a greatinfluence in Sweden.

Antonio Salieri was a pupil of Gluck, andmade a Parisian success with the opera “

Les Danaides .” He wrote afterwards forVienna ,

where he was in som e sense a rival of Mozart. It is saidthat he prevented the proper recognition of Mozart at the im perialcourt ; and those who accepted Mozart

’s idea that he was poisonedheld Sa lieri responsible. But that idea has absolutely no evidenceto support it.There were m any pianist-composers in Mozart’s day. In Vienna

were Franz Duschek, Anton Eberl, andJohann Nepomuk Hummel ,the last being Mozart’s pupil for a tim e. The school that followedthe famous Muzio Clem enti included Beethoven in its ranks ; whileothers of this group were Dussek, Mueller, Cramer, Woelfl, and

Prince Lou is Ferdinand . Hiillmandel, Lou is Adam , and Steibelt

were identified with Paris. Nearly allof these men composed something for their instrum ent.English song-plays were written by Samuel Arnold andWilliam

Jackson ; but Charles Dibdin became much greater than either.

Dibdin’

s many musica l plays were often on mari tim e subjects , orat least conta ined his famous sea-songs, such as

“The Token,”

“Tom Bowling,

” etc. They were most inspiring to their auditors ;and it is sa id that Dibdin ’

s songs were worth ten thousand men tothe English navy.

Among other English composers, Michael Arne, son of Thom asA. Arne, produced nine operas . Thomas Linley com posed a dozen ofthese song-plays, andwrote also m any graceful songs. His son wasa personal friend of Mozart. Others who worked in the voca l fieldwere William Shield, James Hook, Thomas Carter, Michael Kelly,andWilliam Reeve. Stephen Storace, the violinist, was anotherSingsm

’

elcomposer, anda close friend of Mozart.English music of that tim e came to include catches and glees.The glee was simply a part-song, often unaccompanied , and inspite of its name it was not necessarily lively or mirthful . Thecatch was a song that depended for its point upon some comicality

BEETHOVEN

LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN was born at Bonn, probably on Decem ber 16 , 1770. There is some doubt about the day, while Beethoven himself used to assert that his birth-year was 1772 . He wasof Belgian descent, his grandfather having come from Antwerp tothe Electoral Chapel at Bonn in 1733. His father was a singer inthe chapel . His mother was of low degree, being the daughter of acook ; but she was much more useful in the household than hershiftless husband .

Mozart’s precocity and childish success served as an example

which other fathers desired to see their sons emulate. This was thecase in the Beethoven family, as well as in Weber

’s . ButBeethovenscarcely a chilfl ody ; and his father was certainly not theto develop one. The father was dissipated andworthless, and

his efforts to train the child were irregular andsevere. With a booncompanion named Pfeiffer, he would rout out the youngster at allhours of the day or night, and force him roughly to the keyboard .

Visitors som etim es saw him shedding tears at the piano ; and it is awonder that his father’s harshness did not drive him to hate m usic.He did play in public when eight years old , and he com posed at

ten ; but he was not the money-making prodigy that his indigentfather desired .

At twelve Beethoven began taking lessons of his first good teacher,the com 'torganist,Neefe. That worthy pedagogue gave his pupil anexcellent training in Bach’s works , and inspired him with a rea l loveof good music. At this time he composed some early sonatas, andan admirable two-voiced fugue. In the next year the young Beethoven became cem balist at the theatre, leading the orchestra fromthe keyboard in the usua l fashion of the time. A year later he wasmade assistant organist.In 1787 the Elector sent Beethoven to Vienna for a time. There

he met Mozart, who was astounded at his power of improvisation,

BEETHOVEN

110 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL ‘

KNOWLEDGE

Yet in spi te of alltheseH

eccentricities, he made m nends

among the nobility, and kept them through life. They must haverecognized not only his commanding g enm srb utthem natenghrlrty

of his character. Though practica lly uneduca ted except in music,he built for himself a na tural religion, and had broad idea ls ofhuman brotherhood.

“ M "

First am ong these friends came Count Wa ldstein and the Breunings, atBonn . He taught music to Eleonora von Breuning, andatthe same tim e his contact with her andher cu ltivated family remediedsome of the defects of his education . In Vienna he was knownand liked by such people as the Lichnowskys, Prince Lobkowitz,

sky , and even many members of the royalfamilies.Beethoven was - love, though somehow he

never got asfar as marriage. Perhaps it would have been better forhim if he had tied the Gordian knot of matrimony ; for he wou ldhave been looked after, and possibly kept alive some extra years,to give the world more m aster-works. His first idol (or ideal) wasEleonora von Breuning. Following her came a long list, includingCountess Erdody, Babette de Keglevics, Baroness Ertmann , Bettina von Brentano, Countess Giulietta Guicciardi, andAmalia Seebald . When Beethoven died , three letters were found in his desk,written by him , and containing the most impassioned devotion.

It is not absolutely sure which lady was the “Immortal Beloved ”

that they m entioned ; but Countess Gu icciardi was a lm ost certamlythepersonforwhom theywere meant. She was a pupil of Beethoven ,andat times he grew irritable enough over her playing, in spite of hislove. She afterwards married Count Gallenberg.

The three periods of Beethoven’s work extended approximatelyfrom 1795 to 1802 , from then to 1814, and from that year to hisdeath , in 1827. It was in 1795that he began his actual list of publishedworks. He was one of the first to label his com positions withOpus numbers . An opus is simply a work or a group of works publishedtogether. If a com poser issues a piece without any opu_s_nurnher it is usua lly a sign that he considers this work unim portant.Beethoven’s early compositions are left without num bers , his Op . 1

being three piano tri os published in 1795, while his Op . 2 consistedof his first three piano sonatas .

BEETHOVEN 111

After atri p to Nuremberg, Prague, andBerlin , Beethoven settleddown to com position as his life-work. Other productions of hisfirst period consisted of the scena “Adelaide,

”a septet, six string

quartets, fifteen sonatas in all, the First Sym phony, the music tothe ba llet “Prom etheus,

”and the ora torio The Mount of Olives .”

After these works were written he felt deafness gron upon him.

By 1802 this worried him so much that he feared for his sanity. Hedescribed his condition in a letter to his brothers that is known ashis will ; yet even in that despa iring docum ent he showed a determination to defy the blows of fate.It is in the m usic of his first period that Beethoven shows the in

fluence of Haydn . But where Haydn and Mozart had som etim esmade

°

m usic a m atter of passing enterta inment to their auditors,Beethoven let it echo the noble sentim ents and aspirations thatseethed W ithin his own intense nature. Even in the first period ,Beethoven’s m usic showed a power and intensity of expression thatwas far above anything that his contem poraries could bring forth .

The first of his piano sonatas is based on the Haydn form , thoughhaving four m ovem ents ; yet Haydn could never in the world haveequaled its trem endous strength , which suggests a young giant tugging athis fetters . There aremany reminiscences of Haydn in som eof the other works—sometim es in parts of the string quartets , butespecia lly in the brisk and lively fina le of the First Symphony.

On the whole, though, Beethoven showed a vigor and a dramaticintensity that must have seem ed like a revelation after the lightgeniality of Haydn and the sm oothness of Mozart.The second period was astonishingly brilliant, and during its

twelve years Beethoven poured forth a constant stream of grea tmasterpieces . The dozen piano sonatas of this tim e included theintense “Waldstein” and

“Appassionata ” sonatas . The noble“Kreutzer Sonata ” for violin, and the fam ous sonata in A for

’cello, came early in this period . The Kreutzer Sonata ,

” dedicatedto the violinist of that name, may be cited especially as a wonderfu lexam ple of pure beauty in m usic ; for Tolstoy saw fit to read into itcerta in debased meanings , that could only have existed in his ownmind . The stri ng quartets of this period include the three that arededicated to Rasum owsky . The so-ca lled triple concerto, withpiano, appeared in 1804. The fourth piano concerto (with orchestra,


of course) came out in 1805, and the fifth in 1809 . While the latterwas being given once in Vienna , the French soldiers under Napoleon were in the city ; and an offi cer, on hea ring it, called it “theEm peror among concertos” a name tha t has clung to it since .In this period came the overtures entitled Coriolanus,

” Egmont,

”

“The Ruins of Athens,”and

“King Stephen . The chief voca l

works were the mass in C , the cantata“Der Glorreiche Augen

blick,”andthe opera Fidelio .

” The Second Symphony belongs tothe first period in style,

'

its suave, hymn -like, slow movement againsuggesting Haydn . But with the Third Sym phony (1804) Beethoven found a freer andmore viri le utterance. The Fourth Symphony came two years la ter, the Fifth and Sixth in 1808, and theSeventh andEighth in 1812 .

In speaking of Beethoven’s symphonies, one may exhaust allthe

adjectives in the dictionary and scarcely do justice to these greatworks. They are minutely described in Sir George Grove’s bookentitled “Beethoven’s Nine Symphonies.” They are not allofequal value. The story goes that a pupil, asked how many symphonies Beethoven wrote, answered ,

“Three .” “What were theyinquired the surprised teacher ; whereupon the pupil responded ,“The Third, the Fifth , and ‘

the Ninth .

” Those three are certa inlythe grea test, b iit

'

thefi

Si'

xth and Seventh are hardly below them invalue. When Wilhelm Gericke, former leader of the Boston Symphony Orchestra , was asked which one ofBeethoven

’s symphonieshe preferred , he replied ,

“Always the one I have played last.”

To describe them at length would demand a book ; and theirglories can only be briefly outlined here.

No. 1. 1st movement. Starts with an adagio introduction whicharoused criticism by not beginning in the tonic key. The sonataallegro has a first theme built of a rhythmic three-noted figure, theaccent com ing on the third note ; a melodious tributary and secondthem e, in Haydn

’s style ; andan expressive closing theme with littledownward drops after apparent cadences. Development and re

capitulation of themes follow, as is proper in the sonata-allegro movement.2dmovement. An andante with expressive song-like themes.3dmovement. A tremendously virile minuet, with tri o full of

4thmovement. A bright rondo in Haydn’s cheerful style.


major. Themes, development, recapitu lation, andcoda bu ilt almostwholly from the first four-noted figure, treated in var ious ways.This rhythm (three eighth-notes followed by an accented note)wassa id to have been suggested by a nocturnal reveller pounding on adoor for admission ; but Beethoven gave it a better significance bysaying,

“Thus Fate knocks at the door.

” The coda in this movement especially powerful. The whole movement intensely effective.2dmovement. An andante, built out of two short themes , the firstbeing song-like

,while the second has a fanfare character. The con

sum m ate art of Beethoven is shown by the skill and beauty withwhich he handles these them es, making their simple harmonies seemas perfectly balanced andas inevitably right as if they were the very“music of the spheres.”

3dmovement. A mysteriously effective scherzo, in which the heavyfour-note rhythm of the first movem ent recurs. The tri o, in rapid,rushing style, forms a good contrast. Much contrabass work. Asoft but impressive transition passage leads directly into the finale.4th movement. A grandly tri um phant allegro, with reminiscencesof the mysterious scheme for a middle part.

No. 6 . PastoralSymphony. The first great programme work inmusica l historyfT o

'

Fe-picture of life in the country.

Istmovem ent. Cheerful im pressions on going to the country. The

first sixteen bars give a theme from parts of which the rest of themovem ent is built. All rhythm ic, lively, and cheerful in character .

2dmovement. Andante, entitled“By the Brook.

” A tone-pictureof gently rippling water, varied by bird-calls.3dmovement. Joyous gathering of the peasants . Themes of lively

rustic character. A peasants’ dance, in whichan old bassoonist joinsin with battered instrument (see chapter on the bassoon). Recurrence of opening theme. Approach and breaking of a storm , withinstrum enta l suggestions of rising wind , thunder, etc. Thanksgivingafter the end of the storm . Practically a five-movement symphonywith the last three joined together.

No. 7. Very rhythm ic. Sometimes called the apotheosis of thedance.1stmovement. A slow introduction, with runs and broad chords.The allegrobegins with a waltz-like theme of most pleas ing character ;the same rhythm being carried through the second theme and theclosing them e.2dmovement. Marked allegretto, but really the slow movement ofthe symphony. A most wonderful use of the rhythm shown by a

quarter-note, two eighths, and two more quarters. This rhythm iscarried entirely through the movement. The chords at first corre

BEETHOVEN 115

spond to this rhythm, anda bipartite theme (with second half repeated) in minor is worked up to a great clim ax. A side-section, inm ajor, brings into the upper part an infinitely m elodious them e withtri plet accom panim ent, while the bass continues the form er rhythm .

The first them e returns , worked out in very elaborated and effec

tive counterpoint. The side-section anda suggestion of the originalthem e then end the movement.3dmovement. Scherzo is here replaced by presto, though the formis kept the sam e. Mysterious, chattering them es are alterna ted witha sim ple but rhythm ic trio .

4th movement. A tre m endously rapid rondo, of brusque and livelycharacter.

No. 8 . Light and short in com parison with the three precedingones, butvery hum orous , bright, andpleasant. This andthe SeventhSym phony were inspired partly by the enlivening influence exertedon Beethoven by Am alia Seebald.

1stmovem ent. No introduction . Themes cheerful , having almostthe character of a slow waltz.2d movement. A light, dainty allegretto scherzando, with themestossed about andm im icked in hum orous fashion .

3dmovement. Tem po di menuetto. Like a playfulm inuet in style.4thmovem ent. Allegrettovivace. Lively, chattering them es in even

No. 9 . The ChoralSymphony, introducing voices in the finale. Atonal picture of world-struggles followed by human brotherhood .

1stmovem ent. Em pty fifths and fourths, serving as an introduc

tion , lead directly into the wildly strong first them e. The secondthem e is m ore tender in character, and in the contrasting m ajorm ode ; while the closing them e is short. After developm ent and

recapitulation , the coda , ending in a grand climax, lets the som brem ood of the first them e preva il .2dmovement.

sa id to resem bletinned through3dmovement.

typify the best sentiments of hum anity .

however, are scarcely so striking as the SI

4thmovement. At first in some sense a review of preceding movements . Wild them es from the first and second movem ent are re

buked by stern passages on the contrabass ; a suggestion of theMagic dies away pla intively ; then the contrabass breaks into theimpressive theme that is sung afterward, to the words of Schiller

’s


Ode to Joy. The inner meaning of allthis is that human stri ving(the first three m ovem ents) is to be replaced by universal brotherhood

,shown by the sentim ents of the song.

The Ninth Sym phony belongs to Beethoven ’s third period, inwhich he gave up piano performances because he was entirely deaf.Other works of this period were the great “Missa Solemn is, thelast five piano sonatas, and the last of his stri ng quartets. Theseshow a discarding of the forms tha t he used in such powerful stylein his second period. The sonata s are more like free rhapsodies, andthe Ninth Symphony an approach toward the modern tone-pictureidea . Toward the end, Beethoven said that allhe hadwritten wasas nothing beside what he was planning ; andwe m ay conclude thatif he had lived he would have given us great orchestral canvases, asbroadly outlined as those of Liszt, with perhaps even more valuablethematic materia l.In 1815, Beethoven

’s brother Caspar died , leaving the composerwith the charge of a nephew. Lawsuits with the boy’s mother followed ; and the boy himself gave Beethoven much trouble. Theyoung ward of the com poser has usually been rated as a black sheep,because of some escapades that troubled his uncle ; but the nephewfinally went into the army, and afterward settled down as a goodcitizen . Beethoven’s arbitrary ways no doubt caused at least apart of whatever friction arose . He lavished affection on the nephew,

but perhaps showed too little self-control for a really goodguardian .

Beethoven loved the open air, andused to walk about frequently.

On these walks he would often stop to note down themes in some oneof his many sketch-books. The difference between the themes of thenotebooks and their fina l form in his published works is often remarkable, and proved that Beethoven possessed the capacity fortaking pains that Car lyle ca lls genius . Buthe had inspiration also.Sometimes he would become so absorbed in his themes as to blocktraffic, or cut his friends . At times, when he wandered far afield,the authorities would look with suspicion on such an eccentricstranger ; and once he was arrested as a vagrant. But he was safefrom trouble in one favorite spot a tree in Schonbrunn , whoseforked branches formed a natural seat.Beethoven had no fixed position. Once he thought of becoming


sonatas, five’cello sonatas, one horn sonata , five tri os, sixteen string

quartets, two qu intets, two sextets, one septet, and two octets .His com positions are nearly alla live tod ay, but the symphonies,

overtures, piano sonatas , and string quartets receive more perforrnances at present than his other works. Of the overtures , thatto “Egmont” is perhaps the most intensely powerfu l, With

“Coriolanus a good second ; but the three

“Leonora ” overtures , especiallythe third , are also strongly dramatic. The early string quartets aregreat, While the last few show the utter breadth of Beethoven

’sfina l style . The piano sonatas are nearly allfamous solo selections.Best among the early ones are the first three and the “Pathétique,

”

the latter being full of tremendously strong contrasts and greatpossibilities . The well-beloved Moonlight Sona ta ” is not reallya moonlight affair. One of the weird stories that are sometimessaddled upon an innocent work states tha t Beethoven, wandering ina forest, came upon a house, entered to find it filled by a socialgathering, and improvised this work with the moonlight streamingover the keyboard. In reality, he com posed the work in his study,and entitled it “Sonata quas i una fantasia . An other false storyarises from the name of the piece entitled “Farewell to the Piano .

”

This piece was not Beethoven’s last for the piano, andhis own titlefor it was “Thoughts on Departure .

” Of the later sonatas, the“Waldstein ” and

“Appassionata ” are great, While the last five arefreer in form , but grandly effective.The opera “Fidelio ” dea ls with the misfortunes of Florestan, a

Spanish nobleman who has been supplanted and imprisoned byPizarro . Florestan

’

swife Leonora disguises herself as a youth , underthe name of Fidelio , and enters Pizarro

’

5 employment as assistantto Rocco, his ja iler. Pizarro , learning of the governor Ferdinand

’sapproach , decides to kill Florestan ; but at the crucial momentLeonora prevents him from stabbing his victim by flourishing a

pistol. Just at this moment the governor’s trumpet-ca ll is heardfrom without ; andwhen that officia l learns the truth , he banishesPizarro and restores Florestan to allhe had lost. The music issomewhat sym phonic according to modern standards, but stronglydramatic. Fidelio’s outburst of indignation followed by the smooth aria Komm , Hoffnung,

” is a favorite concertselection ; while the second actas a Whole is a marvel of intensity.

BEETHOVEN 119

But the pur ely orchestral Beethoven was the greatest, after all.In treating the instrum ents , Beethoven brought out their capab ilities in the fullest m easure . Those that earlier composers had heldunimportant were often raised by him to a position of prominence.He thought orchestrally, and his last five sonatas seem like symphonic rhapsodies for piano .

His them es were almost always fraught with the most intensefeeling andsignificance. Their vigor is unexampled , and their depthof musica l expression rem arkable. When the works of several different composers are practised constantly, some of them seem towear threadbare after a short tim e ; but Beethoven

’s works nevergrow stale. They arouse constant admiration for their strength , andmark their com poser as primus inter pares a leader among themusica l Titans who have tried to sca le Olympus.

SCHUBERT

FRANZ PETER SCHUBERTwas undoubtedly the most spontaneousof com posers. Melodies occurred to him with the most amazingrapidity, and his short life was one continual outpouring of compositions. He seldom revised his work, being in this respect theopposite of Beethoven . But he gave forth his “native wood-noteswild” in an inexhaustible stream . Even Mozart, his only rivalinthis respect, was certa inly behind him in melodic and harmonic

Schubert was born on January 31, 1797, in the large family ofa poor schoolm aster atLichtenthal , a suburb of Vienna . His homelife was restri cted by poverty, but his father andhis elder brothersIgnaz andFerdinand were devoted to music, which Franz soon foundto be a congenial atmosphere. He received his earliest instructionat home, with the addition of some lessons from Holzer, the localchoir-leader. Schubert’s natural genius had evidently begun tomake itself manifest ; for Holzer sa id, He seems to have known lnstinctively whatever I tri ed to teach him.

”

Soon after he reached the age of eleven he was transferred to thechoir-school (Konvikt-Schule) of the imperial chapel in Vienna, Wherehe stayed until 1813. There he had some chances to develop himself, such as hearing occasional operas , or playing in the schoolorchestra , of which he became first violin and assistant conductor.

The playing at home, too, grew to a larger sca le, and the domesticperformances sometimes included symphonies as well as quartets .He began to com pose also . In that branch he was handicapped atfirst by an unusua l situation the lack of money to buy musicpaper. Fortunately the situation was discovered by an older and

richer student, who generously bought the needed supplies . Schubert’s povertywas shown in anotherway ;for the students were nonetoo well fed , receiving only two meals a day, anda letter exists inwhich Franz begged his brotherfor extra Kreutzers (pennies) to buy


allowance for them. He was also able to introduce Schubert to certa in valuable friends, such as the baritone Vogl . With Vogl or VonSchober the com poser made several very pleasant vacation tri ps.Another friend of this little group was the poet Mayrhofer

,whose

melancholy disposition must have been cheered by Schubert’s geniality. From this beginning there came u ltimately a fairly largecircle of poets, pa inters, andmusicians, including Lachner, Schwind ,Spaun , and other notables . They were a somewhat Bohem ian lot,leading a rather shiftless life ; but they made it a life of at least somehappiness . In its way the circle was alm ost communistic. If onehadmoney, allshared it with him , and drank champagne until arenewed financial deficit forced them back to sim pler potations.Once, when Schubert sold a group of songs to a publisher, he tookthe coterie to hear the grea t violinist Paganini, at over two dollarsa ticket. Hats, coats, andother articles of clothingwere appropriatedwhenever needed , andany one making a visit arrayed himself in thebest of this borrowed plumage. During a week of poverty , Schubertonce missed his wooden spectacle case . After a hunt, he found thatSchwind, too poor at the time to buy a pipe, hadfilled the case withtobacco , bored a hole in it, and inserted a stem, at which he waspufling contentedly.

Schubertwas recognized as the leader of the Bohemian gatherings ;andtheywere ca lled Schubertiades,

” in his honor. All the membersof the clique were active in some phase of artistic work When anewcom er was introduced , Schubert invariably asked , Kann er

was?” This question , which meant

“Can he do anything, finally

became Schubert’s own nickname.In 1818, a change came, in the shape of a chance to teach at the

Hungarian estate of Count Johann Esterhazy. There he must havebecome acquainted with the gypsy music, which is echoed in somany of his own great works . Unlike Beethoven, he did not im pressthe aristocracy. He felt ill at ease when with them , andm ore athome among the servants. But this did not prevent him from fallingin love with the Count’s younger daughter, Caroline, on a latervisit. His passion was sincere , if hopeless. Ithas been stated thatonce , when Caroline asked why he dedicated nothing to her, hereplied ,

“All that I ever did is dedica ted to you .

”

Schubert’s remarkable rapidity in composition is attested by


but did not get into close touch with them ; andBeethoven did notrecognize Schubert’s greatness until he exam ined some of theyounger m an ’s works while on his own deathbed . In similar fashion,Schubert found it hard to treat of business matters, andbecame aprey to the avarice of his publishers . Thus Diabelli bought a largenumber of Schubert songsfor about ten florins apiece ; while he madeover twenty-seven thousand florins from a single one of these, TheWanderer. In 1826, when the supply seem ed to exceed the demand, Schubert sold som e of the songs in the famous Winterreise ”

set for twenty cents apiece.After attending Beethoven ’s funeral in 1827, Schubert proposed atoast to the next great com poser who would die, not knowing that itwas to be himself.Schubert’s friends often reproached him with carelessness in com

position ; and toward the close of his life their words took effect.He showed m ore than usual care in writing his great symphony inC , and revised the m anuscript considerably. After that he evendecided to take lessons in counterpoint, feeling that the Skilfu lhandling of voices (par ts) and figure trea tment would give addedstrength to his works . He hadplanned the course wi th Sechter, buthe died before he could start it . Toward the end of the year 1828 hewas attacked by a sudden distaste for food, which soon changed intoa fever of the typhus sort, sim ilar to the one that carried offMozart .Schubert’s friends did not at first rea lize the serious nature of hisillness ; but even if they had known , their best efforts would probably have been insufficient to save a constitution worn outby irregu lar living. Schubert died on November 19, 1828, when less thanthirty-two years old .

The epitaph on Schubert, by the poet Grillparzer, sta tes, veryjustly,

Fate has buriedhereA rich possession , but yet greater prom ise.

Schubert was by nature a song-com poser, and allhis works , eventhe orchestral ones, charm us by theirwealth of spontaneous melody ;but if he had carried out his plans of study, and united the solidvalue of contrapun talknowledge with the melodic beauty of hisworks, there is no telling to what heights he might or might not haverisen. As it was, he earned a place among the world ’s masters at

SCHUBERT 125

thirty-one an age at which Beethoven had not yet finished thefirst period in his activity, andWagner had written only one of theoperas that were destined to m ake him fam ous . In person , Schubertwas short, stout, andround-shouldered , with a chubby face, a pastycom plexion (due to poor food), thick black hair, and alert eyes,which were unfortunately near-sighted . He spent his mornings incomposition, which with him was little more than the copying ofworks a lready com pleted in m enta l vision .

Schubert’s operas are now forgotten for the most part . He wrotequite a number of them , but the librettos were often poor, andhisstyle was lyrica l rather than strongly dramatic. Best known amonghis operatic compositions are the overture and entr

’

actes of “Rosamunde.”

Two of Schubert’s ten sym phonies have survived in the repertoireof the present—the Unfinished Sym phony, and the one in C .

The form er consists of two rem arkably em otional and expressivem ovem ents, the opening one being in the sonata~allegro form of afirst m ovem ent, while the second is a ca lm butrichly expressive slowmovem ent. The warm feeling of the first m ovem ent and the richharm onies of the second m ake this work absolutely sui generis a

veritable lyric among symphonies . The C-major work is based onlarger proportions. The broadly developed them es of its first m ovement, the fiery gypsy character of its second , the lyric brightnessof its scherzo, and the tri um phant glory of its fina le are fam iliar tomany concert-goers. This work m ay not have the astonishing depthof expression that Beethoven showed , say in the finely wroughtslow m ovem ent of his Seventh Symphony ; but the Schubert composition charms us none the less by its wea lth of melody and thechanging beauty of its harmonies .Schubert’s other works include twenty expressive string quartets ,

andchamber m usic for various com binations. His two dozen pianosonatas are rather long anddiffuse for a form that should be powerfulrather than lyri ca l . His many shorter piano pieces, avoidingthis defect, are often very successful . They consist of dances,marches, im prom ptus, moments musicals, and so on . His sacredproductions consist of six masses , two sacred canta tas (including“Miriam’s Song of anda num ber of motets andhymns ,some qu ite elaborate. For voice he wrote also about sixty part


songs ; buthe is best known by his solo songs, which number betweensix and seven hundred .

Schubert’s songs brought into existence the highly poetic and expressive style of lyric known as the German Lied. The I/t

'

edis a com

plete work that contains the maximum of artistic crea tion in theminimum of space. The Dialmay be compared to a gem in m usic,while the longer sym phony or overture resembles rather a largedecorative fresco . Such songs as Schubert’s “Erl-King,

”or“The

Wanderer, contain vivid bits of the most widely different styles,welded into an artistic whole with the utmost skill and delicacy.

The same variety is shown in the other songs when they are takenas a whole, though often a single song m ay be devoted to a specialstyle. Thus the “Schone Miillerin ” cycle, depicting the love of arustic swain for the miller’s daughter, andhis jea lousy of the greenclad hunter who supplants him in her affections , is pervaded bysuggestions of mill-stream and forest, although its various numbersdiffer among themselves in character. Songs like Die Allmacht” orAufenthalt” dem and breadth or power. Others again , like DiePost,

”or Das Fischermadchen, are lyric melodies of swingy

enthusiasm or compelling charm . Some numbers in the “Winterreise ” andelsewhere are settings of apparently unmusical subjects,done in such a clever way that the accom paniment proves effectiveafter all. In setting em otiona l subjects, Schubert did not quitereach to the depth of Schumann ; but he showed the way for thelatter, andsurpassed him in the variety of uses to which he put hislyric ability.

There had been song-composers before Schubert, such as Schu lz,Zelter, and others. Butwhere their work was primitive or experimenta l , Schubert

’s represents a full artistic fruition.

With Schubert as a song-composer two other men have beenclassed Robert Schumann , and Robert Franz.

l The former willbe trea ted under his own name ; butH anz

’

s work may well be described here.Robert Franz was born in 1815, at Halle, where he lived , with

short exceptions, until his death in 1892 . Gifted with musica l tasteat an early age, he enjoyed greatly the choral singing that took

The fam ily nam e was Knauth, but his father changed it to Franz, by royal

perm ission.

XIV

WEBER AND ROMANTICISM

CARL MARIA VON WEBERwas born at Eutin in 1786. He was acousin of the Constance Weber who married Mozart. His father hadbeen the loca l choirmaster and conductor for some years, andhadhoped for a child-prodigy am ong his oflspring . The children ofhis first wife showed only a m eagre amount of ta lent ; so that whenthe young Carl brought forth a juvenile composition, the fatherbegan to think that his hopes might be rea l ized . He did not hesita te to falsify his son ’s age, wishing thus to draw attention to anew child-prodigy. Buthe was not such a well-equipped teacher asLeopold Mozart, andhis son was not nearly so precocious as theyoung Mozart.Weber’s father was restless as well as versatile. The family began

a long period of wandering when Car l was only a year old . Vienna ,Cassel , Meiningen, Nuremberg, andm any other places were visitedin search of thea tri ca l or other employment ; and it is only a slightexaggeration to say that Weber grew up behind the scenes .Weber’s tra ining was desultory, though he hadsom e lessons from

Michael Haydn at Salzburg. At Munich , under Kalcher, the boyproduced his first opera ,

“Die Macht der Liebe .” Weber’s fathergrew interested at this tim e in the lithographic work of his friendSenefelder, andthought of giving up music ; buthe did not carry outhis design . In Freiburg, Weber produced

“Das Waldm

’

adchen,

”

which was afterwards rewr itten as “Sylvana . Next came “PeterSchmoll ,

” which was still immature, and had little more successthan its two predecessors.After study with Abt Vogler, who helped him much , Weber hecame Kapellmeister at Breslau . There he wrote the opera “Riibezahl ,

” now unfortunately lost. There, too , he accidentally ru ined hisattractive voice by sipping ata glass of his father’s nitric acid, whichhe mistook for wine. Unlike the Irishman in the anecdote, whomerely sta ted that he hadnever tasted that brand before,

” Weber

WEBER AND ROMANTICISM 129

fell to the floor unconscious, and did not recover his health for along tim e.At Stu ttgart, Weber entered into the fast court life that flourished

under Duke Ludwig ofWiirtem berg . There he was drawn into various kinds of gayety and dissipation, and became one of a coteri eknown by the pleasing title of “Faust’s Descent into Hell.” Assecretary to the Duke, Weber received som e of the wrath that hisduca l m asterhadaroused in King Frederick ; andhe made the breachirreparable by directing to the chamber of that royal gossip an oldlady who was asking for the court washerwom an. As a result,Weber was banished when one of his servants secretly negotiated aloan by promising a court appointment in return for it an act

of which the com poser was wholly ignorant.But this banishm ent was of good influence, for a more orderly life

was com ing. At Darmstadt there was renewed work with AbtVogler, who said of Weber andMeyerbeer that they would expresshis artistic principles for him . At this tim e came Weber’s first rea lsuccess in opera the one-act com edy “Abu Hassan .

Still m ore conducive to good effects was Weber’s marriage withCaroline Brandt. She made him give up the wild associates andhabits of his Stuttgart days , and lead a more orderly and industrious life, before she would consent to the marriage. In after life shecontinued to be his good angel .It was during his stay as conductor in Dresden that he started

com posing the works that have made him most famous . His operaW‘Preciosa

” belongs to this period , but his fame rests chiefly onthree great stage works

“Der Freischutz,

” “Euryan the,”and

“Oberon.

”

The plot of Der Freischutz is based on the old legend of ademon who gives huntsmen m agic bullets in exchange for theirsouls . The dem on’s name is Zamiel , and the huntsman Kaspar isin his power. Kaspar, who must furnish a new victim to prolong hisown lease of life, beguiles to Z am iel

’

s glen a young huntsman nam edMax, who loves Agatha , daughter of the chief huntsman Kuno .

As Kuno is about to retire,Maxwishes to succeed him ,forAgatha’s

sake. Max is made to shoot badly in the prelim inary contest, whichimpels him to get the magic bullets . With these he shoots perfectly,but the last one, which was to do Z am iel

’

s bidding, aim s itself


atAgatha . Deflected by a sacred wreath , it kills Kaspar instead .

Zamiel is satisfied with this victim , whereuponMax confesses andis

This work is justly considered as the foundation of the romanticschool in German opera . The school derived its name partly fromits subjects, and partly from its methods of trea ting them. The

classic mythological texts of the Metastasio sort were now replacedby legendary lore, or historica l pageantry. The music was basedlargely on the folk-song style.Weber’s opera conta ins many examples of the simple beauty that

pervades the German Volkslt'

ed. Artificialities were banished in asm ooth flow of music that made a strong popular appeal . Such numbers as the horn quartet in the overture, or the close of Agatha ’sprayer, are exactly in the style of the Germ an folk-music. Suchmusic as this , in connection with the brisk hunting-choruses andtheimpressive incantations, must have exerted a strong appea l whencontrasted with some of the conventionalities that hadpreceded it.The entire German nation went wild over the work. After a Viennaperformance, Weber wrote ,

“Grea ter enthusiasm there cannot be ,and it is scarcely possible to rise higher than this . To God alonethe pra ise!”“Preciosa was based on a Spanish gypsy subject, andhad no

national im port. Die Drei Pintos,”a comedy written at this time,

was left unfinished , and not performed until after the composer ’sdeath .

“Euryanthe, Weber’s second great success, was handicapped

by a mixed andpoor libretto . Count Adolar, praising the virtue ofEuryanthe, his betrothed , is told by Lysiart, a rejected suitor, thatshe can be made fa ithless . Lysiart, aided by Euryanthe

’s maidEglantine , obtains a ring and learns a secret about Adolar’s sisterEmma , both of which seem to com prom ise Euryanthe by showingher to be on confidentia l terms with him. Adolar, incensed, dragsher to the wilderness to kill her, and leaves her alive only becauseshe saves him from a serpent. Returning , Adolar is told by Eglantine that she com promised Euryanthe outof jea lousy. Lysiart stabsEglantine and is led off to punishm ent ; while Euryanthe, whohas been found and saved by the king, is restored to the repentant Adolar. The music of this work was again of high rank ; and


Freischutz by three years, it did not cause any national feeling, orserve to found a school.Spohr studied the violin during boyhood , andwon some attention

by writing a concerto at the age of fourteen . By further study, andthe hearing of great artists , he developed himself into a leadingviolinist

,of a broad and solid school that superseded the Parisian

coterie of Rode andKreutzer. He was active also as an opera conductor, and Weber helped him to becom e court choirmaster at

Cassel, where he remained for many years. He married the harpistDorette Scheidler, and composed many harp-and-violin duets forher andhimself.Spohr’s works consist of nine symphonies, including the famousConsecration of Tones” ; fifteen violin concertos, and other worksof the sort ; much chamber music ; ten operas in all; and severaloratorios, such as

“Calvary ” and“The Last Judgment.” Many ofthese works have reta ined their popularity ; but they are a lm ost allmarked by Spohr’s peculiar mannerisms . He wrote in a very modulatory style, sometim es so chromatic as to seem artificial . He hasbeen likened to a man who , on wishing to enter a house, will not walkthrough the front door, but dodges around the corners, andfina llyjumps in through some unexpected window. Yet much of his musicis effective, for he was a good contrapuntist and a fair master oforchestration.

Peter von Winter and Joseph Weigl antedated the romanticschool , at least by their operas . They form a link between theMozart-Sa lieri period andthe school that followed Weber. Winter’s“Unterbrochene Opferfest” andWeigl

’

s“Schweizerfam ilie

” weretheir best works. Others of this intermediate period were Fri edrichHimmel andIgnaz von Seyfried. Himmel became known as apianist, butwrote several operas , treating romantic subjects in DieSylphen ” and

“Der Kobold .

” Seyfried , a pupil of Mozart, Haydn ,andWinter, treated such effective topics as

“Die Druiden ” and“Der Wundermann am Rheinfall .” Ernst Theodor Hoffmann , thefamous wri ter, produced a num ber of operas, of which

“Undine,”

his best work, was given in 1816. From allthis it may be seen thatvarious German composers were working toward the romanticschool ; butWeber was the first to give the school a conscious existence, anda firm foundation on German folk-music.

WEBER AND ROMANTICISM 133

The chief successor of Weber in the romantic school was HeinrichMarschner (1795 After some years as a boy-prodigy, he metBeethoven, and began to settle down to composition . He becameassociated with Weber atDresden. Of his fifteen operas , the mostfamous were “The Vampire,

” “Hans Heiling,”and

“Tem plar andJewess,

” the last being based on the story of “Ivanhoe . Marschnerbecam e known also by his chamber works, piano music, and songs.His success in treating scenes of homely simplicity or supernaturalweirdness was not far behind that of Weber himself. Both men influencedWagner.

Adalbert von Gyrowetz is almost forgotten to-day, though helived from the time of Mozart to the middle of the nineteenth century. He produced stage works after Weber, but his chief successes came with “Der Augenarzt” in 1811and Robert” in 1813.

He composed sym phonies, chamber works, and sonatas with greatfacility.

Peter Joseph von Lindpaintner, another pupil of Winter, becameknown by “The Vampire,

” produced in 1829, and the later“Lich

tenstein . With him m ay be mentioned Poissl, Blum, Kuhlau theflutist, andSchnyder von Wartensee.

Karl Gottlieb Reissiger won fame by his Y elva ,

” “Die Felsenm iihle,

”and

“Turandot,

” which were given soon after Weber’sdeath. He wrote ten masses, andthe oratorio

“David, as well ascham ber works and light piano pieces.Konradin Kreutzer com posed songs, piano pieces, and chamber

works, butwas best known by his operas. Most successful among thelatter were “The Spendthrift” and

“The Camp before Granada ,

”

both of which are still performed in Germany.

Gustav Albert Lortzing had a rather unsettled youth, much as

Weber did . Lortzing was a tenor of som e renown, and his operasshow a very practical andeasy leading of the voices. Most successfulam ong them were “Die beiden Schiitzen,

” the humorous “Czarund Zimmermann ,

” “Hans Sachs,” “Der Wildschii tz,

” “Undine,”

and Der Waffenschm ied .

” A posthumous work,“Regina , was

given in 1899 with fair success.Other names deserving mention are Reuling, Titl, Netzer, and

Nicolai .The work of allthese men is now largely relegated to the past.


Even the Weber Operas are not often heard outside of Germany.

Their merits were such as to win them immense popularity in theirday; but the standards of the present demand more advanced librettos andmore spicily dramatic music. But if the romantic operas aremostly off the stage, they still conta in much tha t is of value for theconcertplatform . Inmany cases their composers were gifted enough ;but they cast their ma terial in a form that is now held antiquated.

Works by Weber and Spohr are still to be found on the dramaticstage, and are fairly familiar on concert programmes. Weber isespecially rem em bered for the excellence of the overtures to histhree great operas. But apart from them the school is little knownnow. Popu lar taste, however, is not necessarily a safe guide ; andthe work that was done by the romantic school should not be forgotten or underestimated .


St. Matthew Passion, andsoon he organized a performance of thework, which took place atLeipsic. This did much toward bringingallof Bach ’s m usic into renewed attention. Mendelssohn was a

zealous devotee of Bach ; andhis own music shows the earlier m as

ter’s influence.Soon after this, Mendelssohn made his first tri p to the British

Isles . His journey to Scotland was especially productive of results ;and its effects are seen in many of his compositions, both large andsma ll . He composed m any songs in the Scotch style, which heseemed able to assimilate with more succes s than other Continenta lcomposers ; while his

“Hebrides ” Overture (sometimes called “Fingal ’s Cave and the Scotch Symphony show the influence of thatNorthern land on his larger works. When he first visited Fingal ’sCave, andsaw the sea swishing against the majestic basalt columnsunder a gray sky , he was so im pressed that the scene translated itselfinto tones for him . On the back of an old envelope he scrawled athem e of twenty measures, which he sent back to his sister as a description of the place ; and this theme was afterward used as theopening of his “Hebrides ” Overture. Its minor lilt gives a wonderfulpicture of the waves, echoing the rhythm of the wavelets over thedeeper bass of the larger surges in truly inim itable fashion .

Back in Germany, Mendelssohn tri ed for positions in Berlin, andconducted festivals in Dusseldorf andelsewhere. Buthis rea l homewas Leipsic. There he became conductor of the Gewandhaus Orchestra , and lived in the most pleasant andusefu l activity. It wasduring this period that he performed for the first time Schubert’sgreat sym phony in C , which Schumann had discovered at Vienna .

Mendelssohn’s charming persona litywas now winning him manyfriends. He was full of m agnetism and liveliness, besides being kindand tactful . He was eager to do favors for others, and constantlyactive in their behalf. In his dom estic circle he was full of gayety,and this sometimes showed itself in a musical way. After his sistermarried the painter Hensel, Mendelssohn composed the canta ta“Son and Stranger” for a domestic festival . Hensel was very unmusical , so Mendelssohn tem pered the wind to the shorn lamb bygiving him a part consisting of a single note , repea ted whenevernecessary. Even then, Hensel fa iled to hit the note correctly ; andthe little party burst into a storm of merriment athis expense.

MENDELSSOHN 137

Mendelssohn himself married Cecile Jeanrenaud, whom he metat Frankfurt. She was the daughter of a Swiss clergym an . Fivechildren resulted from this union.

A tri p to Italy was followed by the com position of the Italian Symphony ; but this was not so characteristic as the Scotch work.

As a conductor, Mendelssohn was sunny andcheerfu l in his readings, but not deep. His style m ay be shown by his statem ent thattoo slow a tempo was inferna l.” The bright, rapid character of hisown works shows that he was m ost at home in that vein, and notsuccessful in handling dram atic passages . In his compositions fororchestra he avoided the dramatic vein for the most part. His chiefwork in that field , the Ruy Blas

” Overture, is not rated as a greatsuccess . This overturewas the occasion of a rapid piece ofwork on hispart . It was wanted for a certain concert, buthe delayed writing ituntil only a short time was left. Then he com pleted the work in twodays, filling in each measure for allthe instrum ental parts beforeproceeding to the next. Com posers usually m ake it a practice towrite out the string parts first, with only the most im portant m elodies in the other instruments . The missing parts are filled in last.This m ethod is much easier than the one Mendelssohn adopted forthe occasion.

At Leipsic, Mendelssohn composed a long series of importantworks. There were piano pieces of much value ; the oratorio

“St.Paul ,

”

g iven in England as well as Germany ; the violin concerto,which is still one of the few grea t examples of its kind ; andthe effective symphonic canta ta known as the Hym n of Pra ise.” His activity in behalf of teaching resulted in the founding of the grea t LeipsicConservatory.

His last large work, the oratorio Elijah , was conducted by himat Birmingham in 1846, andwon a trem endous success .In connection with this work, Mendelssohn hada narrow escape

from plagiarism. When he first wrote the solo, O rest in the Lord ,”

he set it, note for note to Leeves’ tune of the Scotch song knownas“Au ld Robin Gray . Composers always have m any them es in

mind , andin Beethoven’s case these them es were tra nsferred to note

books. Mendelssohn had evidently heard the Scotch song, but hadforgotten its identity, and he cam e to regard it as one of his ownmelodies. When the work was shown to his English friend Horsley,


the latter sent Mendelssohn a copy of the song in question ; whereupon the composer altered the number by writing the beautifulmelody now used .

The work of writing Elijah was somewhat wearing to Mendelssohn . He planned a com plete revision of the oratorio, while huntingup suitable text for another work, Chri stus.

” In the midst of thistask he received word that his sister Fanny had died . There hadalways been the closest relationship between them ; andwhen Mendelssohn heard the news, he fell in a fa int. This shock, in com bination with the extra work that he was doing, proved too much for hisdelicate constitution ; andhe never recovered his health . He died in1847.

Mendelssohn was by allodds the most unequal of the great composers. His works seem to show that it is but a step from the sublime to the comm onplace , if not the ridiculous . Some of his compositions arouse the liveliest admiration andwonder, while othersdisappoint allrea lly musica l hearers by their trite simplicity.

This strange condition of things m ay be explained by the fact thatMendelssohn wrote too much . He adopted as his motto the phrase,Nulla dies sine linea , meaning that no day should pass without itsline, at least, of music. While such constant activity was pra iseworthy in its way, the com poser could not count upon the presenceof his highest inspiration . If genius were only a capacity for takingpains, then Mendelssohn surely earned the title. But in music oneexpects more than m ere work ; it must be work of an inspired sort,revea ling great ideas and broadening the hearer’s mental or emotionalvision, before we adm it tha t its com poser is a genius . Some ofMendelssohn’s music stands the test ; but not all.The so-called “Songs without Words,

”for piano, show traces of

the weaker andmore conventional Mendelssohn . These are shortpiano pieces of much daintiness andcharm in their way. They alsoshow a most skilful handling of comparatively simple forms, so thatthe student will find them of much interest andvalue. Buthere andthere is a trace of conventionality in their melodies, which makesthem seem too simple and sugary. The same defect is found morefrequently among the composer’s shorter vocal works . Many of hissongs are daintily graceful , or sweetly melodious ; but some of themare merely fluent without being grea t.


its picture of monotony, followed by favoring winds and a tri um

phant reception in port, is rather tame in contrast with recent works.Mendelssohn wrote much chamber music, including stri ng quar

tets andpian o tri os of grea t value . In such pieces he showed alltherequisite skill in balancing and interweaving the parts.His choral Works, however, have made Mendelssohn most widely

known . The two oratorios and the “Hym n of Praise” meet with a

constant welcom e. Fragm ents of an opera ,

“Die Lorelei,” show

some beauty ; buthis cantatas arefar more effective. Of these, suchworks as the music to Sophocles’ “Antigone ” and

“(Edipus at

Colonus ” show a most solid and strong handling of the voices. Inthe sacred field Mendelssohn com posed also the canta ta “LaudaSion,

” settings of eight psalms, andmany motets andanthems.The chief of those who came under Mendelssohn’s influence wasNiels Wilhelm Gade, the Danish composer. Born in 1817, Gadeachieved his first grea t success in 1840, with the Ossian

” Overture.He spent five years at Leipsic, andbecame so devoted to the Mendelssohn style and standard that some critics have nicknamed him“Mrs. Mendelssohn .

” Yet his works have enough originality inthem . Even if not so characteristic as Grieg, Gade still shows someScandinavian tra its in his music, allied to a poetic romanticism . Hebecame known by his attractive cantatas , such as The Crusaders,

”

“Coma la ,

” “Psyche,” “The Message of Spring,

” etc. He composedalso symphonies, overtures , a violin concerto, chamber music, pianopieces, and songs . But outside of his own country his works arenot often heard .

Hartmann , whose daughter Gade married , deserves mention as apioneer in Danish music. Hartmann wasmuch influenced by Spohrat first. The Hartmann symphonies and overtures are practica llyon the shelf . He achieved more success with his four operas , andsmaller works for voice or piano.Another member of this Danish coterie was Erik Siboni, whose

symphonies, choral works, and chamber music show Mendelssohn’s

Ferdinand Hiller (1811—85) was known in various fields . He composed operas , oratorios, orchestral works , chamber music, pianopieces , etc . These were marked by technical skill , and had a fairshare of expressive power. But as a whole they lack the vigor of

l NDELSSOHN 141

deep originality. They are in part what is known as Kapellmeistermusik, that is, music of only the average routine excellence thatan orchestra l leader would be expected to show.

William Sterndale Bennett (1816—75) was an intimate friend ofMendelssohn who became famous as a pianist. His works werechieflyfor his instrument. They display som e skill, anda few analogies with Chopin , but they lack a deep appea l . Bennett composedalso an oratorio,

“The Woman of Samaria ,”anda pastora l, The

May Queen .

”

Moritz Hauptmann was a Mendelssohn protégé who was bes tknown by his writings . The same is true of Ernst Richter, thoughthe latter com posed instrumenta l works and the oratorio “TheRedeem er.

”

IgnazMoscheles, the pianist, became another of the Leipsic group .

His compositions are piano solos or concertos.Ferdinand David , the violinist, who was made concert-master of

the Gewandhaus Orchestra , composed much for violin , but wrotealso in the larger forms.Julius Rietz was a ’cellist who assisted Mendelssohn at Diissel

dorf. He com posed overtures , symphonies, and smaller works .Karl Reinecke was a Mendelssohn pupil who becam e well known

to many Am ericans as a teacher of composition . He conducted theLeipsic Orchestra for thirty-five years, following Mendelssohn

’sstandards . As com poser he wrote sym phonies, overtures, concertos,chamber works, andmany smaller pieces. His Nut-cracker andMouse-King” music is a charming example of mock-heroic fairymusic.Salom on Jadassohn , whose works on harmony and counterpoint

have caused hard laborfor many music students , was another versatile com poser. He wrote orchestral andchamber works, buthis mostinteresting productions are his sets of canons andother contrapunta lpieces. His skill in writing canons earned him the nickname of “themusical Krupp .

Franz Lachner (1803—90) was of more importance in his day. Heknew Beethoven, andwas a prominent mem ber of the

“Schubertiades. He was active as a conductor at Vienna andMunich . Hewrote symphonies, chamber music, oratorios , andoperas, includingCatarina Com aro

”and

“Benvenuto Cellini.” But he is best


known because of his orchestral suites. The old su ites of Bach ’s daywere sets of dances. In Lachner’s hands the su ite became a set ofmovements not unlike those of the sym phony, but somewhat moreinformal in style. One of these su ites conta ins a well-known marchandan admirable orchestral fugue.Wilhelm Taubert was another Mendelssohn disciple. His compo

sitions include sym phonies, overtures, chamber works, and incidenta l music to various plays.With the exception of Lachner, allof these men were more or less

directly influenced by Mendelssohn . Lachner was a conservativewhose works placed him in line with the others . Lachner was soopposed to the freedom of the growing Wagnerian movement thathe gradually withdrew from composition after 1865. All these menworked along the lines of fa irly stri ct form . They did not a lwaysdisplay deep inspiration ; but they possessed the learning and skilldemanded by the classical style, and in many instances their workswere sufficiently great to win andhold public esteem.


bringing forth many beau tiful works . Schumann then began thetheoretica l studies that he had previously held in su ch contem pt ;andthe mistakes in his early harmony exercises prove that he was inneed of tra ining.

Soon after these events Schumann entered the critica l field , founding the paper known as the “Neue Zeitschrift ftir Musik.

” This“New Paper on Music ” is still flourishing. At first it fulfilled a valnable mission ; for the fetters of classicism were being discarded bythe freer school of romanticists, of which Schumann himself was aleader. The greatness of the classical masters rema ined undirnm ed;

but Schumann and his comrades were ready to give due apprecia

tion to new styles, andprevent the old forms from becom ing a clogon originality. Thus while Mendelssohn composed with one eye onthe past, Schumann looked more to the future . Of Chopin he wrote,“Hats off, gentlem en! A genius!

” He spoke of the piano sonatasof Brahms as

“veiled symphonies , a term that has been usedto describe the last five sonatas of Beethoven . He a lso knew and

He had a lready begun composing, andwas getting known as a

wri ter of piano pieces . These ranged from his variations in honor ofFraulein Abegg, which used the letters of her name as a musica lthem e, to the varied and attractive group of little tone-picturesknown as the Carnival .” The la tter, written in 1835, was dedica tedto Ernestine von Fricken , a fellow pupil of his to whom he wasmuchdevoted at the time. Her native village of Asch was hinted atagainandagain in the work, by the use of the notes A, Es (E-flat), C , and

H (our B-natural). The pieces consist of little ba llroom pictures ,such as the “Promenade ,

” “Va lse ,” “Aveu ,

”or“Reconnaissance ” ;

hints atmasqueraders, su ch as Arlequ in , Pierrot, or Colombine ; andeven tonal descriptions of rea l characters, such as Chopin or Chiarina , the latter being Clara Wieck, who afterwards became his wife.Schumann ’s courtship of Clara Wieck, andtheir subsequent devo

tion to each other, have been so minutely described that many people believe she was his only love. But his thoughts were evidentlyelsewhere when he wrote the “Carnival .” His admiration was sopronounced that Ernestine von Ifii cken afterwards com pla ined ofhis desertion, and acted as though a breach-of-prom ise suit wouldbe in order.


Life . He wrote also his joyous First Sym phony, a triumphantwork of much beauty .

In 1842 he was busy at his chamber music, and in the next yearhe began his larger voca l com positions . After this he suffered a nervous breakdown from overwork. Moving from Leipsic to Dresden,where he gradually recovered , he became intim ate with Hiller, andgrew to know Wagner. He gradually resumed his own work, finishing the opera Genoveva ” and his “Faust” Cantata . A tri p toDusseldorf resulted in his beautiful Rhine Symphony, the third ofhis four , though perhaps the manuscript of the fourth was completedat an earlier date.In 1853 the com poser’s menta l malady took fresh hold upon him.

He attended spiritualist meetings, and insisted that Beethoven wastrying to comm unica te with him by knocks in the rhythm of thefigure that begins the Fifth Symphony. He continually heard thenote A sounding in his ears andhe thought that certa in themes werebrought to him by spirits . One of these them es, which he wrotedown , was used by Brahms in the variations that end with a funeralmarch . Feeling that his reason was going, Schumann tri ed to drownhimself. The last two years of his life were passed in an asylum at

Endenich . He died in 1856 .

The romance andpoetry of Schumann ’s nature showed themselvesmost adm irably in his music. But in place of the excessive emotionof Chopin , Schumann

’s works usually show a hearty, hea lthy enthusiasm that carries alltheir auditors by storm. Les s skilled in technique than Mendelssohn , andmuch less gifted in counterpoint, heshowed a far deeper andm ore vita l inspiration. His works seem tocom bine earnest thoughtfulness and depth of feeling with a joyousstrength . In his reviews, and in the

“Carnival,” Schumann dis

tinguished two sides of his character, the dreamy andpoetic naturebeing nam ed Eusebius , while his more im patient andfiery side wasca lled Florestan . A judicial blend of the two he christened MeisterRaro . The distinction is one that does not apply to Schumann ’sworks except in a few cases.The depth andpower of Schumann ’s music was not atfirst appre

ciated. Liszt, to be sure , ca lled him the grea test music thinker sinceBeethoven. Wagner, however, sa id patronizingly that Schumann“hada tendency toward greatness.” Mendelssohn did not appre

147

ciate Schumann properly, though the two were associated for a timein Leipsic. The public, especia lly the English public, understoodMendelssohn ’s grace andskill, butwas slow in comprehending the expressive warmth of Schumann . Chorleywasnoticeably bitteragainstSchumann, speaking of his music as

“the broken-crockery school .”

Mendelssohn him self must be held som ewhat to blamefor Chorley’sabuse. A word would have stopped it, but Mendelssohn did notutter that word.

Among the best of Schumann’s piano works are the Papillons,a toccata , the

“Carnival ,” the Fantasiestiicke,

” three sonatas, aset of “Novelettes,

”andthe grea t variations known as the “Etudes

sym phoniques .” He wrote many short pieces, such as the Kinderscenen ,

” conta ining the familiar “Traum erei.” His chamber musicincludes a great piano quartet and qu intet, three tri os, two violinsonatas , andmany other pieces for solo instrument with piano. Hislonger voca l works include the opera Genoveva ” (with a beautifuloverture), the canta ta

“Faust,” “Paradise and the Peri ,

” “ThePilgrim age of the Rose, etc . In this field a lso is his charmingManfred ,

” which is partly melodrama tic. A m elodram a , as al

ready explained , consists ofspoken words aga inst a m usica l background . In this case there is only one reader, who recites manyof the selections chosen from Byron’s poem . But it is possible tohave various characters, and to give actual spoken plays in thisform .

Schumann’s songs are in many cases the most enthusiastic outpouring of emotional warmth. Less varied in style than Schubert’s,they stri ke a fuller note of feeling . There are almost two hundredandfifty of them, varying from the melting lyricism of

“Woman ’sLove and Life” to the m ore narrative vein of such ballads as

“Blondel ’s Song,”or“The Two Grenadiers.” So intense is their

emotion that in many cases they seem to pulsate with the warmthof life itself.The Schumann sym phonies, though not always well orchestrated ,

are gloriously spiri ted works. The first of them has a rushing,rhythm i c first m ovem ent, a contem plative, slow m ovem ent, a

strong, brusque scherzo, and a finale tha t alternates with strongchords a rapid , chattering them e of rare brightness . The SecondSymphony has a slow, broad introduction, followed by rapid chord


themes ; a quiet slow movement ; a strongly rushing scherzo ; andafinale full of grand chord effects . The Third, or Rhenish , Symphonyhas a triumphantly joyous first movement ; a scherzo-like movem entthat is redolent of half-humorous Rhine-wine songs ; a slow movement of expressive charm ; a church service suggesting CologneCathedral ; and a varied , anima ted chord-finale, representing thepleasant intercourse of the people after the service. The FourthSymphony strikes a new note for Schumann , varying strong m inorefl

'

ects with exotic orienta lism. Its first movement, after a strikingintroduction, has minor them es of almost wild power, with a contrastedmiddle part in m a jor, anda gloriously tri umphant coda ; theslow movem ent seems Orienta l in its odd harmonies and languorousstyle ; the third movement is aga in a brusque scherzo ; while thefinale, in spite of some conventiona l moments, brings renewed suggestions of power.

Schumann’s influence has been very great. While Mendelssohnexcelled him in popularity during their lives, time has brought anappreciation of Schumann ’s strength of expression . His music hasbeen an insp iration to many composers , not only in his own country ,

but in Scandinavia andRussia also . He has come in for some abuseat the hands of the extrem e French modernists ; butas they rely toomuch on an ultra-refineddelicacy of effect, it is evident that they donot understand the value of his music, and do not appreciate thequalities of em otional breadth andvigor that pervade it.The most prominent name assoc iatedwith Schumann ’s is that of

Robert Volkmann (1815 who came to Leipsic in 1836, andstudied with Schumann . Volkmann taught at Prague and Pesth , theatmosphere of the latter place giving some of his works a Hungariangypsy flavor. He composed symphonies, overtures , string-serenades,chambermusic, andvarious voca l works . His overture to RichardIII

”has enjoyed a fa ir amount of popularity. But it conta ins a

decided anachronism, in the shape of the tune“The Campbells are

A Scotch tune hardly fits an English battle-field butwhenone remembers that the tune in question was composed a hundredyears or so after the battle of Bosworth Field, the melody begins toseem decidedly outof place. But this blunder does not detract fromthe dramatic power of the work.

Friedrich Kiel (1821—85) lived in Berlin , but followed the leader


to take lessons of Schumann, butwas prevented by ill hea lth . Hewas always poor, andwas troubled by consumption , which finallycarried him off. Jensen was an enthusiast who could hardly stopwhen he started to play over the world ’s masterpieces for himself.As a resu lt, he paid for long sessions of Wagner ’s music by manyhours of pain . Jensen composed large works , such as the posthumousopera Turandot,

” the cantata “Jephtha

’

s Daughter,”

and a

“Gaudeam us ” set to Scheffel’s words . His songs are gems of theLiedschool, and show a warmth of feeling much like that of Schumann . His pian o works are very beautiful and fluent, though notvigorous . The charming “Bride-Song,

” one of his best-knownpieces, is one of a set of four-hand music, which includes also a

wedding m arch , a dance-like“Reigen,

”and a nocturne.

Carl Banck was another song composer who followed Schumann .

Banck’s works are unassuming in sty le, but their grace andcharm iswell shown by such a lyri c gem as his “Abendreigen .

”

Franz Abt, though not belonging to the Schumann school, deserves mention as being a com poser of more popular vein. His songsdo not reach the highest level, but they show a fluent smoothnessthat makes them widely known .

Other song com posers who should be named here are EdwardAugust Grell , Karl Curschmann, Friedrich Kiicken, Karl Eckert,andJoseph Dessauer.

IT is not every composer who can have two centennials of hisbirth celebrated , in two successive years ; but Frederic Chopinachieved this seemingly im possible feat. Many authorities give thedate of his birth asMarch 1, 1809 . Som e, however, including one ortwowho ought to have known about it, place the event in 1810. Thelatter date is probably right.Chopin was born atZelazowa Wola , nearWarsaw. His father was

French, andhis mother Polish . From them he seemed to inherit acombination of Parisian grace and elegance with Polish intensityandpatri otism . He was one of four children, two of his sisters becoming well-known writers . His father was a successful privateschool teacher, who im parted an atmosphere of cultivation to thefamily life.Chopin at first showed an aversion to the piano. After a time,

however, he took lessons under a Bohem ian teacher named Z ywny.

These lessons must have been excellent, for they cured him of hisdistaste, and enabled him to appear in public when nine years old.

Poland idolized him , andWarsaw ca lled him “the new Mozart.Cata lani heard his playing when he was ten , andgave him a watchwhile the Czar of Russia supplemented this giftwi th a diamond ring.

Entering the Lyceum , where he became known for high spiritsanddramatic ta lent, he studied com position with Joseph Elsner, andprofited greatly by the lessons. In 1826 he issued his first publishedwork, which he hadpreceded by several dances in manuscript. Inthe next year he finished his studies, and entered an active musica lcareer.

At this time he was a great admirer of the beautifu l Warsawsoprano nam ed Constantia Gladkowska . He dedica ted som e of hisworks to her, and sta ted that she had inspired the adagio of his Fminor concerto . But in spite of his feelings, the couple parted quietlyenough, with conventional phrases, when he set offto strange lands.


He hadplayed in Vienna with som e success ; and in 1830, after threegrea t farewell concerts atWarsaw, he started on a longer tour. Hespoke of this tri p as

“going to the United Sta tes via Pari s .” Butwhen we consider how primitive the Am erican conditions were at

that tim e, it was no doubt fortunatefor the composer that he nevergot beyond the French capital . He travelled slowly through variousGerm an cities . At Stuttgart he learned that the rebellion of hiscountrymen had failed , andWarsaw had been taken by the Russrans.

At Paris his artistic gifts andaristocratic ways soon brought himinto contact with the best circles . He was welcomed by allthe greatmusicians, from the aged Cherubini to the young Liszt. He becamevery fashionable as a teacher, andcharged high prices for his lessons .As he met with some rivalry on the part of Kalkbrenner, he decidedto smooth it over by taking some lessons of the latter artist. Butwhen he gave a concert, early in 1832 , Mendelssohn said of him ,

“Chopin is worth twenty Kalkbrenners.

”But he did not continue

his public appearancesfor long . In a few years his growing weaknessinterfered with them ; and the cool reception accorded to his secondconcerto made him take a dislike to the concert room .

As a pianist, Chopin showed allthe delicacy that one would haveexpected from a man of his temperament. His fortissimos were farless powerfu l than those of the average player, to say nothing ofLiszt. His gradations of power were thus kept in a fairly lim itedrange. Hewasnot entirely successful as an interpreter of othermen’sworks. Butwhen it came to playing his own , he was unrivalled . Hisdelicate nuances of expression gave to his performances the utm ostcharm . He was an absolute master of rubato, the giving of character to a melody by prolonging some notes at the expense of others,without disturbing the rhythm as a whole. Sometimes, for amusement, Chopin would sit down at the keyboard andrattle offa piecemechanically, as a sort of burlesque ; butthis procedurewas reservedfor his intimates.Late in 1836 Chopin met the authoress George Sand (MadameDudevant), with whom he lived in close connection for over tenyears . Two years after their meeting they passed a winter at

Majorca , described in one of Madame Dudevant’s books . Afterthat they stayed either atParis or atNohant. In Majorca Chopin

CHOPIN 153

fell ill,andlaid the foundations of the consumption that carried him

off in after years. Madam e Dudevant was rather arbitrary, while hewas sensitive and irritable ; so it is a wonder that their intimacylasted for so long. When it was finally ended by her, in 1847, she

puthim into one of her novels,“Lucrezia Florian i,

” where he figuresas Prince Karol .Chopin returned alone to his Paris quarters. Back in his old rooms,

he began to im provise at the piano. The excitem ent and frenzy towhich he was a prey led him to think tha t he saw visions. The nob ility of his native Poland seem ed to march before him in review, as ifgoing into battle . He grew so afra id of his own mental state thathe rushed from the room , andwas found later wandering about thePar is streets. But the them es that echoed his vision remained inhis m ind . It is said that they were shaped by him into the greatA-flat Polona ise ; but probably it was the A-m ajor Polonaise.The revolution of 1848 found him in England, where he made

severa l private appearances. Returning to Paris, he died there in1849. He was given an impressive funera l atthe Madeleine. Following the Polish m ilitary custom of being buried in uniform, he wasinterred in his concert clothes.Chopin ’s m usic is mostly for piano. Unlike the other great m as

ters, he confined his efforts alm ost wholly to this single branch ofmusic. His concertos and dances with orchestra are practica llypiano works with an instrum ental accom paniment. His piano trioand

’cello sonata are not am ong his best works. His songs are sometim es lightly joyous, like

“Were I a birdling,”but in som e instances

they are tinged with wild power. Anything connected with hisnative land moved Chopin to the depths of his heart. An example isfound in the song “Poland’s Dirge,

” which is a gloomy threnody ofthe strongest intensity.

In his piano works as a whole, Chopin introduced the idea ofem bellishments and refinem ents , not in their seventeenth-centuryforms, butas episodes or connecting links in the melodic structure.Little runs , or passages of several grace-notes together, take theirplace in the design of the piece, andgive it an exquisite charm. WithChopin everything must be made poetic and fu ll of feeling. Thisresult is atta ined in part by the proper use of rubato andpedals, andfor the rest by interpreting andexpressing the sentiment that glows


in the music itself. Chopin has been ca lled with justice the poet ofthe piano.”

With Chopin,music was a matter of emotion almost wholly. He

did not devote himself to the learned elaboration of figures or balancing of the stri cter forms . With him m usic was always to be free,plastic, and expressive . Emotion was the chief thing with him ,

whether it proved to be dreamy and languorous or fiery andheroic.Field

,noting this excess of emotion, spoke of Chopin as

“a talent

for the sick-room .

”But Chopin is not usually morbid . His senti

ment is not sentimentality, his feminine qua lities not effeminate.His pathos and intensity are Polish , his etherea l delicacy French instyle.Perhaps the most splendid of Chopin ’s works is the great A-flat

Polonaise . The title marks it as one of the stately dances ofPoland , originating when the nobles paraded before John Sobieskiafter his victory over the Turks . Chopin ’s work , which is his Op .53,

is known as the Heroic Polonaise,”anddemands a pianist of the

first rank for its interpretation. The work is both impassioned andmajestic, and its broad sweeps of expressive power make the musicalauditor lose himself in admiration . Of the dozen or morepolonaises by Chopin , that in F-sharp minor, Op . 44 , is another greatwork ; while the

“Military Polonaise,” in A , is shorter, but im pet

uously enthusiastic.Comparable with the polonaise for excellence is the sonata , Op.

35, in B-flat minor. The work consists of four movements, an

opening allegro, a scherzo, the well-known funeral march , and a

short butrapid finale. In the true sense of the word the work is nota good sonata ; it does not aim to em ploy figure treatm ent anddevelopment as its chief resource . But it is wonderfully beautiful .The melodic andexpressive themes of the first two movements forman admirable foilto the sombre gloom of the funeral march . Thelatter is even more widely known than the sonata as a whole ; thoughthe prim and formal Mendelssohn said of the march,

“I abhor it.”

The unrest of the finale is a fitting close for the work.

In point of numbers, the mazurka seems to have been Chopin’s

favorite form . He wrote over fifty of these dances . The mazurka ,or masurek, is a popular Polish dance , which Chopin must have seenoften in the country. It was in time

, andwas often accented by a


something oi a trial for him . He wrote several hundred short pianopieces of various sorts , ballades, nocturnes, études, and so on.

John Field,who sneered at Chopin, did not differ so greatly in

style from the Polish master. He wrote severa l concertos, and a

num ber of solo pieces, but is best known now by his nocturnes forpiano . These are full of delica te sentim ent, and seemed to foreshadow the m ore passionate outpourings of Chopin .

Kalkbrenner’

s use of a guide bar to support the wrist is mentioned in the chapter on Famous Pianists,

” in this volume. Hisconceitwas somewhat excessive, andChopin

’s tak ing lessons of himresu lted from his rather brazen offer to teach the Polish performer.Kalkbrenner wrote fluent concertos, sona tas, and other works, andplayed wi th sm oothness. These men, wi th Czerny, Moscheles,

Tomaschek, and other masters of still earlier date, brought pianoplaying to a high level . But the works of Chopin were the first thatshowed the full capabilities of the instrument in emotional expressron.

The pianists who flourished in the middle of last century (seechapter on “Famous Pianists ”) included such famous names asHenselt, Herz , Thalberg, andDreyschock. Henselt practised forlarge stretches, and devised exercises for that purpose. He composed a concerto , a number of études, and other solos. Thalberghad great technique, but devoted himself largely to salon music.Dreyschock played his own pieces for the most part, andthey wereshowy rather than deep . Herz, too, wrote and played works thatwere brilliant, but shallow.

The term salon music, in its strict sense , implies music suited forthe drawing-room. It signifies also music that is not of the highesttype, requiring serious attention, but is aimed merely to please ina more or less superficial manner. This is not equivalent to sayingthat salon m usic is necessarily trashy. It does, however, lack thedepth and earnestness of the master works. Salon pieces are notnecessarily easy to compose ; and in many cases they show muchskill and dexterity, or real expressive power. A number of salonmusic composers are now mentioned .

Albeniz , who died in 1855, was active atMadrid for many years.Leybach, who was an organist at Toulouse, became known by hisnocturnes, of which the fifth is still widely popular. Litolff, the well

CHOPIN 157

known publisher, wrote some salon music, but attempted a lso concertos andother large forms. Bovy, som etim es writing as Lysberg,became famous at Geneva . Alkan (Morhanges) became known atParis by his études andother works. Jacques Blumentha l was pianist to Queen Victoria . Gobbaerts composed many light, short piecesatBrussels. Eugene Ketterer became known by his popular dances.In our own country, Louis Moreau Gottschalk deserves mention.

Born at New Orleans in 1829, he probably inherited musical tastefrom his Creole mother. Studying in Paris and elsewhere, he soonbecame known as a pianist. But his fame rests chiefly on his compositions, which are light in a way, butvery characteristic andeffective in suggesting their titles . His Bambou la ” reproduces the turmoil of that Negro dance . His Bananier” and“Savane ” have aninimitable southern flavor. His Banjo ” echoes the sounds of theplantation darkies very daintily. Ojos Creolas ” disp lays a romantic style. The Last Hope ” is a pathetic picture inspired by a

mother’s dea th just before the desired return of an absent son.

“Ossian ” consists of two richly poetic bits of bardic utterance.These may well serve as a type of salon music . There is here none ofthe development of the sonata , or the studied intri cacy of the fugue.Instead , there are light, butpleasing melodies, andharp-like sweepsof rich harmony.

On the whole, however, salon music covers a multitude of sins .While it m ay include works of interest andvalue, it offers room alsoto the tawdry effects of many commonplace pieces , or the conventionaltriviality of popular dan ces. Stri ctly speaking , many of thegrea t composers have written salon pieces. The shorter bits of Beethoven,

such as the “Six Bagatelles,”or the “Traum erei

” of Schumann , or some of the melodic bits of Schubert, show the simplicityof style andthe popular appeal that is a characteristic of salon music.Yet if a com poser uses nothing higher than that style, he can hardlybe reckoned as a master.

XVIII

ITALIAN OPERA

WHILE Germany had added to the earlier names of Bach and

Handel the more recent ones of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, andWeber, Ita ly produced no genius of the first rank. A cer

ta in decadence hadbegun to show itself in Ita lian music. The worksof the Scarlattis, Lotti, or even Cimarosa , no longer appea led to thepeople of Italy, andpublic taste in that country began to be satisfiedwith som ethingfar simpler in style. It was this decadence of Italiantaste that led Von Bulow to remark, Ita ly was the cradle of music,

and rema ined the cradle.” Instead of keeping abreast of Germ an classica l development, Italy shut her ears to the geniuses of thenorth , and turned her attention to a school of bright but rathertrivial melody. This musica l isolation lasted until within a fewdecades.Gioachino Antonio Rossini , who led the movement toward this

popular style of opera , was born atPesaro in 1792 . His father wastown tr umpeter, and his mother a baker’s daughter. He studiedsinging and horn-playing at home. Entering the conservatory at

15, he took up counterpoint under Mattei ; but he had no patiencewith such serious work, andgave it up as soon as he haddevelopedhis facility in the lighter vein . He studied the music of Haydn andMozart until he was nicknamed “the little German ” ; but he imifa ted their orchestration andfluency rather than the worth of theirstyle.Rossini wrote his first stage work for Venice, in 1810. This was

followed by an opera bufia at Bologna , andan opera seria at Rome.His career was now a busy one. For the next ten years he broughtoutno less than thirty operas, in such diverse cities as Rom e, Venice,Naples, Milan, andLisbon . His first work of any value was

“Tan

credi,” given in 1813. During this period he composed also his

“Barber of Seville,

” brought out at Rome, in 1815. This brightcomedy, which has done more than any other opera to keep his name


cism . But in a country where the public applauded only a tawdryandconventional style of melody, therewas no incentivefor the composer to develop himself beyond that level . The im provement thatRossini made in Paris shows very definitely that he was capable ofhigher things than the conventional singing-concerts which formmost of his stage works.Rossini, like Handel , was not above adapting themes from others.

Like Handel in another respect, he transferred many pieces from hisown ear ly works . In a conversation about his mass, Rossini oncebegan to explain where its num bers hadbeen borrowed ; and the listranged allthe way from Aureliano ” to “Semiramide.”

The opera seria , or trag ic opera , was the most conventiona l affairim aginable. The inanities of this school gave rise to the remark,Whatever is too silly to be spoken m ay be sung.

”In opera seria no

attention was paid to the principles of dramatic fitness, which Gluckhad evolved . While the form was not so rigid as in the days ofHandel , itwas still a matter of certa in conventional solos andensembles, anda grea t dea l of bravura display. The soprano hadto haveher scena , often a m adscene, in which she was allowed to indulge inallkinds of tri lls, runs, andvoca l display. She was almost alwaysin love with the tenor, andpursued by the bass . For some reasonthe bass singer was usua lly cast as a villain , who wished to win thesoprano’s regard , butcould think of no bettermethod than persecuting her. Wagner broke through this stereotyped custom, and gavethe hero’s part to a basso in his “Flying Dutchman .

”

In comedy, a more natural tone preva iled . The opera bufi’a , forsome reason , was unhampered by traditions, andgrew into spontameous excellence. Its dramatic structure was admirable, its musicsuitable.Vincenzo Bellini (1801—35) was the son of an organist atCatania,

from whom the boy took his first lessons . When he reached the ageof eighteen, a patron sent him to Naples, where he studiedfor severalyears. He wrote a number of student works , including a sym phonyandhis first opera . He pa id attention to both German andIta lianmodels, and was especially interested in Pergolesi . The operamanager Barbaja saw that the young man was rea lly gifted , andat length began to order operas from him .

“IIPirata ” (1827 was

a great success, though the favorable result was probably due to

ITALIAN OPERA 161

Rub ini’

s singing in the chief part. At present, an opera is regardedas an art-work in which the composer must do som ething worthwhile, so that a single singer could not now m ake a poor work sucoecd . But the Ita lians of a century ago cared for little beyondsm ooth melodies well sung.

Of Bellini ’s dozen or so of operas , three became far better knownthan the rest. These three were “Norma ,

” “I Puritani,

”and

“La

Som nam bula . The first is based on a Druidic subject, andhas asufficiently drama tic libretto. Its music is fluent, andnot lacking ineffects of rea l breadth . Most famous among its numbers is Norma ’sgreat solo of prayer andrenunciation,

“Casta Diva .

”IPuritani ”

dea ls with Cromwell ’s tim es , although its conventiona l story of loveandjea lousy is hardly Puritanica l . This work allowed a trem endoussuccess to be m ade by the so-called “Puritani” quartet of singers,Grisi, Rubini , Tamburini, andLablache. For many years they keptthe work before the public at Paris. “La Somnam bula ” treats a

Scribe libretto, dea ling with com plications that result from the sleepwalking of its heroine, Amina . Her final outburst of joy,

“Ah, nongiunge,

” is another grea t favorite with soloists.Bellini did not enter the field of comic opera , and in his tragedies

he did not show the versatility of Rossini . But if he lacked som e ofthe brilliance of his rival , he atoned for it by breadth of effect. Hismelodies are often tenderly pathetic in style, with m uch sincerity,andoccasionally broad sweeps of feeling . When the standards of theday are kept in mind, it will be seen that Bellini

’s operas showedconsiderable tragic solemnity.

Gaetano Donizetti (1797—1848) was born at Bergamo. He received early tra ining from Mayr andMattei . For a time he enteredthe army, to avoid being forced into the law. Buthe soon began tocom pose operas , and in 1822 his “Zoraide de Granada ” procuredhim an honorable discharge.The first ten or twelve years of his work were devoted to rather

frank im itations of Rossini, without much individuality. By 1830Donizetti had com posed about thirty operas, though none of themshowed grea t m erit. But with “Anna Bolena ” (1832) his moredistinctive period began .

The works by which Donizetti is best known are three tragediesand three comedies. The former are “Lucrezia Borgia,

” “Lucia di


Lammerm oor, and Linda di Cham ounix, while the latter consist of “La Fille du Regim ent,

” “Don Pasquale,”and

“L

’ Elisird’ Am ore.”

The tragedies have allthe faults of their school . While their brilliant solos captivated the audiences of their day , their music is nowseen to have no especial dramatic meaning . These tragedies, likethose of Rossini’s earlier styles, show not the faintest approach tothe real dramatic possibilities of opera , as exploited by Gluck. Theyare merely groups of singable m elodies, with little or no connectionbetween them and the dramatic situation or the sense of the words.Their rather disconnected numbers have been likened to a string ofseparate pearls ; but even the single gems were not of the first waterwhen com pared with those made in Germany.

In the comedies, far better conditions prevail . The music is notonly tuneful , butbrightly hum orous in character, andwell suited tothe needs of the different situations . “La Fille du Regim ent

”has

for its hero a Tyrolese peasant, named Tonio, who enters the regiment to win the love of its pretty vivandr

'

ére, Marie. Adoptedby theregiment when a foundling, Marie finds tha t she is the daughter of amarquise, who carries her home ; butTonio, becoming colonel , tracesMarie, andfinally wins her. Don Pasqua le” dea ls with an old m anof that name who wishes to cut off his nephew’s expectations bymaking a second m arriage. The nephew, Ernest, persuades hissweetheart Norina to try to captivate the elderly wooer. She charmshim atfirst, but after a mock marriage she pretends to turn shrewish andextravagant. Don Pasquale is made to hate the idea of m ar

riage before he is told that the wedding was not rea l.“L

’ Elisird ’ Am ore” treats the story of a love potion bought from a conjurorby the villager Nem orino . With the aidof this, andvarious events,he succeeds in winning his sweetheart, in spite of the fascinations ofa visiting sergeant.The vivacity andcharm of the music in these comedies wins high

pra ise even now. No allowance need be m ade in their favor becauseof changing standards ; they hold their own to-day with scarcely lessvigor than when they were first produced. While the tragedies ofthe Italian school seem thin and inartistic, the comedies are stillmodels in their particu lar line.A number of composers were active at the beginning of Rossini s


Those who began activity toward the middle of the century included Francesco Chiaromonte, Antonio Cagnoni, the double—bassvirtuoso Bottesini , Francesco Sehira , Giorgio Miceli, CarlottaFerrari, and the still later Pietro Plata nia and Filippo Marchetti.Greece was represented by Spiro Samara and his successor Theo

philus Sakellarines.

The two brothers Luigi and Federico Ricci wrote together at

times, and made a great success with their joint work “Crispino

e la Comare,” given atVenice in 1850.

Antonio Carlos Gomez, the Brazilian, was a member of thisschool , though coming a little after it in point of time. From 1870

on he won attention with his “11Guarany,” “Sa lvator Rosa ,

”and

“Maria Tudor.

”

Contemporary with Gomez was Amilcare Ponchielli, who studiedandcomposed atMilan . His best work is “La Gioconda ,

”a ta le of

the love andself-sacrifice of a poor street singer. This holds its placein the repertoire to-day.

Arrigo Boito, born in 1842 , has won fame as an admirable librettist for Verdi . In 1868 Boito finished his own excellent opera ,“Mefistofele.

” Com ing after Gounod’s “Faust, it differs fromthat work in treating both parts of Goethe’s great poem . The firstscene shows the Prologue in Heaven , with Mephistopheles gainingthe Lord’s perm ission to tempt Faust. Then comes the first act, ona square in Frankfort, and in Faust

’s laboratory. The second act

includes the garden scene andthe Witches’ Sabbath on the Brocken.

The third act consists of the prison scene, with Faust returning tofind his Marguerite dying. The fourth act shows the Classica l Sabbath , on the banks of the Peneus. An epilogue shows Faust in hislaboratory, andbrings in his ultima te salvation through the happiness he found in working for others .The music to this great work places it in a more modern ca tegory

than the date of its completion would indicate . While the ma jorityof Italian composers still followed Rossini or the early Verdi, Boitoblazed a new path for himself, andbased his work on the true principles of modern opera . When given with adequate forces,

“Mefisto

fele” is tremendously effective. The choruses of the Cherubim , and

the voice of the Lord from behind the clouds, give the prologue asurprising majesty. The first act includes Mephisto ’s great solo

“Son

ITALIAN OPERA 165

10 spirito. The garden scene is pleasing enough , the witches’

revelwildly effective, and the prison duet really beautiful . In the fourthact Helen of Troy has a powerful anddrama tic solo ; while the epilogue, with its struggle between the powers of good andevil , sustainsthe dramatic interest well . Boito has not yet produced a successorto this work, though his Nero

”has been announced many times.

The real Italian leader, however, was Giuseppe Verdi. He wasborn at Le Roncole, on October 10 1813, the sam e year that sawWagner

’s birth. Verdi’s love for mus1cwas displayed atan early age.

When a seven-year-old choir-boy, he became so absorbed in listen ingto the organ tha t he forgot to hand the holy water to the priest. Akindly musician, Cavaletti, repaired an old spinet, which he gaveto Verdi’s father because the youngster played so well .After studying with the loca l organist, Verdi went to the town ofBusseto , where other friends helped him . He was aided especia llyby the rich merchant Barezzi,who enabled him to study with Provesiandafterward sent the young m an to the Milan Conservatory.

There a surprise was in store ; for Verdi was rejected by the Milanteacher, Eas ily. There are severa l anecdotes telling how he revengedhim self afterward by outdoing the conservatory students in fugalandcanonic writing. These, however, are probably false ;for even inhis great Manzoni Requ iem ,

” Verdi rather avoided counterpoint.Verdi studied with Lavigna , andwas certa inly earnest anddiligentenough ;for we soon find the m erchant-patron allowing his daughterto marry the young com poser, before the latter hadmade a name forhim self.Verdi’s first opera , Oberto di San Bonifacio, was produced at

Milan in 1839 . This succeeded so well that the manager, Merelli,

gave Verdi a contract for three more operas. The first of these wasthe comedy

“Un Giom o di Regno.

” While he was atwork upon it,his wife and his two children died . Under these circumstances hewas hardly in the mood for comedy ; and it is not surprising to readthat thework failed. Verdiwas so utterly cast down that he thoughtof giving up composition ; but Merelli finally persuaded him tocontinue.The composer’s next work was Nabucco, another success. The

soprano who had the chief part, Giuseppina Strepponi, afterwardbecame Verdi ’s second wife, and lived until 1898.


Other works which Verdi com posed atthis period include I Lombardi,

” “Ernani,” “

I Due Foscari,” “Giovanna d ’ Arco,

” “Mac

beth,

”IMasnadieri ,

” “Luisa Miller, andsevera l more. “Em ani”

has lasted better than the others . Based on Victor Hugo’s play, ittreats a story of romantic power with sufficiently popu lar music.At this tim e Verdi understood nothing higher than the style ofmelodic tragedy introduced by Rossini ; buthism elodies, even thoughnot aimed to echo the sense of the words, were m uch stronger thanthose of Rossini .“Un Ba llo in Maschera , which belongs to a later period , shows

how lightly the libretto of an opera was regarded . Verdi ’s earlylibrettists , Solera and Piave, were veritable slaves, at the beck ofcom poser or manager. In their hands “Macbeth ” became so comm onplace that Shakespeare would hardly have recognized it. Butin the “Ballo in Maschera ” (Masked Ball) the incongruities increased at every turn. The libretto dealt with the assassination of aking at the masquerade. When the authorities forbade this as toorevolutionary, Verdi made the scribe change the king into the Dukeof Mantua . This was not enough to satisfy the police ; so Verdi nextmade a radica l change by altering the vi ctim into the Governor ofBoston .

” One hardly im agines the old Boston Puritans givingmasked balls. When the tenorMario found the costume of the ru lertoo plain, he a ltered it into that of a Spanish cavalier.

Verdi atone time atta ined a peculiar politica l significance, becauseof the letters of his name. They stood for “Vittorio Em anuele, Red ’ Ita lia and the young patriots who shouted Viva Verdi” werein rea lity cheering the idea of a united Ita ly.

In 1849 Verdi entered upon a new period in his growth . To thisbelong Rigoletto,

” “IlTrovatore,

”and

“La Traviata .

”

“Rigoletto,” the first of the three , has a plot dealing with the

intrigues of the Duke of Mantua . His court jester, Rigoletto, hasa ided him in an amorous adventure, and the friends of the victimrevenge themselves by bringing Rigoletto’s daughter Gilda to theduke. The jester then hires an assassin, who lures the duke to alonely house . But the assassin’s sister, falling in love with the duke,persuades her brother to substitu te another victim in order to earnRigoletto ’s money. To cure Gilda of her lovefor the duke, Rigolettobrings her to see that ruler’s attentions to Maddalena . Gilda , fear


La Traviata was founded on Dumas Cami lle, with the heroine named Violetta andher lover Alfredo. She leaves him becausehis father says she will injure his prospects ; andhe thinks her false.After a meeting ata Paris ball , he learns the truth, but only in timeto findher dying. The most famous selections from the score ofthis work are Violetta ’s expressive “Ah , fors e lui ,

”andthe father’s

description of hom e in Di Provenza ilmar.

” At the first performance, the size of the soprano made the opera a failure ; for when thethree-hundred-pound singer Donatelli stated that she was dying ofconsumption, the audience burst into laughter.

Meanwhile Wagner’s doctrines had been gradually becomingknown , even in Italy. Verdi always disclaimed being influenced byWagner, but this assertion, though true in the letter, is not truein the spirit. Verdi may not have tried to imitate Wagner’s style,but the German master led him to wr ite operas that were far morelike the German music-dramas than his earlier works .“Don Carlos” and

“La Forza del Destino ” showed Verdi’s new

tendency ; but it reached a much greater perfection with Aida ,”

given at Cairo in 1871.

“Aida, on a plot provided by the Egyptian Khedive, who ordered the work, deals with a story laid in ancient Egypt. At thecourt, Aida , a beautifu l Ethiopian hostage, falls in love with the officer Rhadames, who returns her love. Rhadames is appointed leaderof the force that is to fight the Ethiopian king, whose daughter isAida , though her captors do not know of the relationship . ThePrincess Amneris, who herself loves Rhadames, discovers Aida

’sfeelings by questioning her. Rhadames brings back the Ethiopianking, Amona sro, as a captive ; andhe warns Aida not to betray hisidentity. On the island of Philae, Aida , forced by her father, learnsfrom Rhadames the route of the next expedition . Amonasro thendiscloses himself, and tries to persuade Rhadames to flee with himandAida . While Rhadames is hesitating, the high priest of a near-bytemple, brought by Amneris, discovers the trio. Amonasro escapes,butRhadames is heldfor judgment. Amneris offers him freedom inexchange for love, buthe refuses . He is sealed up in a subterraneanvau lt, into which Aida hasmade herway to die with him.

The music of “Aida ” is so fresh , varied , and forceful that theopera is still one of the best drawing cards in the entire repertoire.

ITALIAN OPERA 169

In this work Verdi deserted the simplicity of Ita lian tunes, andproduced a work whose rich harmonies and rea lly expressive melodieswerefar above anything he haddone before. To catalogue the m usicalexcellences of this opera would a lmost mean giving a descriptionof the entire score ; but a few of the chief numbers m ay be mentioned. In the first act, Rhadames’ aria “CelesteAi da,

” the chorusof acclamation when he is made leader, Aida

’s tragic Ritorna vincitor,

” when her lover goes to fight her father, andthe consecrationservice in the temple, are alladmirable. The temple scene is basedon a rea l Egyptian m elody. In the second actcome the dance of theslave-boys before Am neris, her dialogue with Aida, andin a separatescene the return of the victorious army, the last being one of themost sta tely scenes in the realm of opera . The third act includesMda ’s foreboding lament, her duet with Rhadam es, and the climaxof their discovery with Amonasro. The fourth act conta ins som eimpressive priests ’ music, well contrasted with the agitation ofAmneris, and in the death scene som e fervid snatches of duet, inadmirable contrast with the temple service going on above thedoomed lovers’ heads .For sixteen years Verdi rested upon his well-earned laurels. Then

he produced the tragedy “Otello. Boito wrote the libretto , andadded to it a chain of choruses sung by the Cyprus fishermen bearing gifts to Desdem ona , anda sardonic

“Credo ” of Iago that evenShakespearians adm ire . While this is not so popular as “Aida ,

” itsmusic is intensely powerful , andshaped with an eyefor tragic effects.

Verdi set his own m usic to the song “Willow,

”m entioned by Des

dem ona ; but the old English tune,which still exists, would have beenmore directly expressive.Six years la ter, in 1893, Verdi brought out his last opera , Fal

atMilan . Again Boito was the librettist. This time the playwas altered only by the introduction of Falstaff’s dissertation onhonor, taken from Henry IV.

” The libretto as a whole comes fromThe Merry Wives of Windsor.” Falstaffis made to meet his mis

adventures, both at Ford’s house and at Herne’s Oak, in a vein of

light sarcasm set to the most delightfully chattering music. As inthe play, allends happily, with Fenton

’s betrothal to “Sweet AnnePage.

XIX

CHERUBINI AND FRENCH OPERA

LUIGI CARLO ZENOBIO SALVATORE MARIA CHERUBINI, whosename became as fam ous as it was extensive, was born atFlorence in1760. He was at first trained by his father, a harpsichord player ata loca l theatre ; andafterwards he took a thorough course with Sarti .His life divides itself naturally into three periods, first, a shortcareer in the conventiona l Ita lian style ; second, the leadership ofopera com position atParis ; and last, a number of years as composerof sacred music and director of the Paris Conservatoire. His loftystyle gave point to the saying that he was an Ita lian who composedGerman music in France.In his first period , Cherubini mastered counterpoint, andbecame

familiar with the style and spiri t of the old Ita lian church music.After a sojourn in London , the young composer made Paris his

home, andsoon came under the classic spell of Gluck’s later operas.

Cherubini himself composed an“Ifigenie in Aulide,

" which wasgiven at Turin in 1788 with much success .His first Parisian triumph ,

“Demophon, proved that he haddefinitely discarded the light Ita lian sty le, and adopted som ethingmore strongly dramatic. Like Rossini , he was inspired by the traditions of the Parisian stage ; but he soon rose to grea ter heights thanRossini ever reached .

His next French success, Lodo'

iska , was brought out in 1791.

This work ga ined for its com poser an interna tional reputation . It

also cast into the shade the light melodious trifles that were beginning to appear in Paris. In later years, the more superficia l worksof Boieldieu andAuber became typ ical of Parisian taste. It is onrecord that when the former hadwon plaudits with his “Caliph ofBagdad ,

” Cherubini sa id to him ,

“Are you not ashamed to enjoy

such an undeserved succass?” Boieldieu then studied with Cheru

bini with good resu lts. In allhis career Cherubini was a rathercaustic andcaptious individual, more feared than loved ; buthe used

CHERUBINI AND FRENCH OPERA 171

his critica l tongue in defense of a high standard of artistic principle.The libretto of “Lodo

'

iska”was rather weak. It dea lt with the

efforts of the heroine’s lover to rescue her from a powerfulrival ’scastle, andended with an attack by Tartars that brought about thedesired result.Three years later cam e Elisa but a far more important work

appeared after another three years , in the shape of“Médée.

”Its

dignity and cla ssic power rendered it a masterpiece. It was notpopu lar atfirst, because it hada rather poor libretto , which placedthe interest chiefly with the title role, and because its music wasrather too harmonic to su it the masses . But it soon grew into popu

Cherub ini’

s best-known opera was Lac Deux Journées, given in1800. This work deals with the fortunes of the Deputy Armand,who has incurred the hatred of Mazarin. The Paris gates are

guarded , butArmand escapes in a cask of the water-carrierMikeli,whose son he hadhelped on a previous occasion. Once outside, Armand is captured while defending his wife ; but a pardon from thequeen m akes everything end happily. This opera is known in Germany as “The Water-Carrier.

”

The style of the m usic to this work, aswas true of most of Cherubini’s French productions , united a lofty dignity wi th rare charm ofmelody andexpression . His works, with those of Gluck and others,are often referred to as classica l ” opera ; butan equally good term ,

in Cherub ini’s case at least, wou ld be“symphonic opera . His

scores show the worthiness in material and the skill in its handlingthat we associate with the great orchestra l m asters of Germ any .

Cherub ini’

s overtures , by which he is stillknown on concert programm es , have allthe dignity and power that we expect from thesym phonic writers. Especially excellent are the overtures to “LesDeux Journées and to “Anacreon,

” which followed the ea rliersuccess in three years .Cherubini was often at odds with Napoleon, who perhaps did not

appreciate his music, and in any case did not approve of his independent andarbitrary ways. Cherubini finally found it wise to leaveParisfor a tim e. He went to Vienna , andin 1806 brought outatthatcapita l his last great operatic succes s , Faniska .

” This took Germany by storm ; andBeethoven andHaydn praised the work highly.


It is probable that Cherubini served as a model for Beethoven, andhelped the German master to develop the strength of expressionthat he showed in the later part of his second period . But soon Na

poleon came thundering at the gates of Vienna , and Cherubini hadto move aga in.

When the Bourbons returned to power, Cherubini was once morein favor atParis . Buthis operatic careerwas over. As Royal Choirmaster andhead of the Conservatoire, he devoted himself to sacredmusic. His works in this field include many admirable short compositions ; but his fam e rests chiefly on his larger productions ,consisting of eleven masses and two superb requiems . He couldcompose in the pure manner of the Palestrina school , andalso showa comm and of later harmonic expression and dramatic instrumentation . He blended the old with the new in most adm irablefashion.

As director of the Conservatoire, he remained active for manyyears, in fact, almost down to his dea th , in 1842 . He ruled witha strong hand . His arbitrary decisions led him into several mistakes ; for he rejected Liszt andRubinstein, andsneered atBerlioz.But these were radicals, while he was a conservative. He showed amastery of his own field by writing an admirable treatise on counter

point.Ritter wrote of Cherub ini’s operas, They will remain for the

earnest student a classic source of exquisite artistic enjoyment, andserve as models of a perfect mastery over the deepest resources andmeans that the rich field of m usica l artpresents .” Fétis said of “Lesdeux Journées,

” “There is a copiousness of melody but such isthe richness of the accom panying harmony, and the brilliant coloring of the instrumenta tion that the merit of the melody was notappreciated at its just value. Mendelssohn wrote of “Les Abencerrages,

” one of the operas , that he could not sufficiently praise“the sparkling fire, the clever, original phrasing, and the unusualdelicacy andrefinement of the work.

”

Etienne Nicholas Méhul(1763—1817) was of French birth , andcame under Gluck’s influence . He played the organ when ten yearsold, andtook up sacred composition soon after. Later on he went toParis. In spite of the disturbed sta te of the Revolutionary politics ,he soon began to make headway as an opera composer, starting in

174' THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE

As already recorded , Rossini 5 William Tell belongs to theschool of Parisian grand opera .

Another com poser who participated in grand opera by a singlework was Daniel Francois Esprit Auber (1784 He was a

pupil of Cherubini, whose influence is shown in Auber’s early m asses

andoperas . By 1820Auber becam e known in connection with opéracomique, which was really his life-work. He associated himself withEugene Scribe, and set the latter

’s bright librettos during a periodof forty years. But in 1828 he made a successful entry into theSpontini field of historical grand opera , by the production ofMasaniello, som etim es known as

“La Muette de Portici .” The

heroine, Fenella, is dumb . Shehas been betrayed by DukeAlphonso ;butwhen her brotherMasaniello leads a successful rising, she generously causes him to spare the duke andhis betrothed, Elvira . Meanwhile the defeated party assemble fresh forces, and overcome thepeople ; whereupon Masaniello, after a fit of m adness, is killed byhis own com rades, andFenella kills herself on Vesuvius . The musicto this opera has many bold and original effects , in spite of someconventional passages. Auber’s light operas include “Le Macon,

”

“Fra Diavolo,

” “Le Cheval de Bronze, and“Les Diamants de la

Couronne.”

Francois Adrien Boieldieu (1775—1834) preceded Auber, andwasa pioneer in his style of light opera . Boieldieu secured Parisianrecognition as early as 1795. In 1800 he became a piano teacher atthe Conservatoire. He learned much from Cherubini andMéhul,his advance showing in Ma Tante Aurore ,

” produced in 1803. Hisbest works include “Jean de Paris” “Le Petit ChaperonRouge ” and his masterpiece La Dame Blanche”

The last-named opera is based on scenes from Scott’s “Monasteryand

“Guy Mannering.

”

Henri Montan Berton com posed nearly fifty operas, and taughtcom position atthe Conservatoire . His best works were Le Délire,

”

“Aline,”and

“Francoise de Foix. He was a bitter opponent ofRossini.Nicolo Isouard, popularly known as Nicolo, was equa lly active in

Opera . His most popular works were Cendrillon,” “Joconde,

”and

“Jcannot etColin .

” His little melodies were simple enough, butnotwithout artless pathos ; andconcert singers still delve into his works

CHERUBINI AND FRENCH OPERA 175

for unfamiliar but graceful selections. He was rather less carefulthan Boieldieu ; and jealousy of the latter m ay have been an incentive to the dissipation that ended his career .

Luc de Persuis secured a hearing for his operas and ballets partly

Rodolphe Kreutzer, the violinist, produced operas of a som ewhatearlier date, bringing out a “Lodoiska

” in 1791.

Charles Sim on Ca tel displayed much elegance of style, but hismusic was considered too learned for opera .

Giuseppe Blang ini and Giuseppe Catrufo were Ita lians whoworked atParis . The latter’s “Felicie won som e attention.

Michele Carafa was another transplanted Ita lian . He com posedLe Solita ire,

”anda setting of Masaniello that preceded Auber’s.

Contem porary with this school of opera were the PortugueseMarcos An tonio Portogallo, com poser of

“Fernando in Messico,”

andthe Spaniard Ramon Carnicer, whose bestworkwas Colombo .

Louis Joseph Ferdinand Hérold (1791—1833) is best known byMarie ” “Zampa and

“Le Pré aux Clercs ”

He showed som e richness of insp iration, and gave to the Frenchballet its vivid warm th of expression . His last two great works wonhim a lm ost as much renown as Weber atta ined . In “Zam pa ,

”a

pirate of that name captures a Sicilian merchant, falls in love withthe prisoner’s daughter, gives him freedom at the price of her hand,and displaces her lover ; but at the wedding feast the statue of ayoung girl whom he hadbetrayed claim s Zam pa , anddrags him off

to the infernal regions. “Le Pré aux Clercs ” has its scene laid inNavarre, and is fu ll of intrigues and conspiracies.Adolphe Adam (1803 -56) represented light opera in a later gener

ation. He was best known by “Le Postilion de Longjumeau .

” Hisstyle marks a decline toward triviality, though he m ade som e conscientious efforts to enter the field of grand opera .

Albert Grisar was of Belgian origin . His works were poetic in away, butvery light.Florim ond Ronger, Alexandre Lecocq , Emile Jonas , andJacques

Offenbach brought the school to a still lighter, though brighter, level .By their tim e opéra comiquehadretraced its steps andbecom e a lm ostlike grand opera . In fact, even its nam e was changed , andit becameknown as the “drame lyrique.” Offenbach’s fantastic opera “The


Tales OfHoffm ann was of a higher type than his other works. Itmakas the bizarre German writer Hoffm ann the hero of some of hisown storias, each of which is presented in an act. Hoffmann is pursued by ah evil principle that always makes his love end unfortunately. Finally the muse Offers to console him with fame ; buthe hasbeen drinking, and is too coma tose to accept.Felicien David, also of a later generation, became known by La

Perle du Brésil,” “Herculaneum,

”and

“Lalla Rookh.

”But he

achieved most fame by his symphonic ode Le Désert,” which was a

pioneer work in using a real Oriental style and suggestion .

Grand operawas continued in the preceding generation byJacquesFromenta l Halevy (1799 A pupil of Berton and Cherubini,he followed Héroldat first, but soon worked on original lines. Hisgreatest operatic success came in 1835, with the tragedy

“La Juive

and the comedy In “La Juive,” the disguised Prince

Leopold pays attentions to Rachel, supposed daughter of the richJew Eleazar. She penetrates the disguise ; andas the prince is married , she denounces him . The cardinal atthe court then excomm uni

cates Leopold, and he, with Rachel and Eleazar, is thrown intoprison. The wronged princess touches Rachel ’s heart, so that tosave the prince she retracts her accusation. Then she is thrown intoa vat of boiling oil ; andEleazar explains that Rachel was the cardinal

’

s own daughter, saved from a fire during infancy.

The last of the foreigners to dom inate French grand opera wasGiacomo Meyerbeer, whose name was originally Jakob Beer. Hewas born of Jewish parents at Berlin , in 1791, and soon became achi ld prodigy. After studying with Abt Vogler, who gave him longwinded dissertations on the fugue, Meyerbeer started his operaticcareer with “Jephthah

’

s Vow,

”almost an oratorio, and

“Abimelech .

” Then the young m an set outfor Ita ly, where he won attention in spite of Rossini’s fame. His “Crociato in Egitto ,

” writtenfor Venice in 1824 , was a premonition of future triumphs . SoonMeyerbeer made Paris his home, anddidnot disdain to take a thorough course of study with French masters.In 1831,

“Robert le Diable,”his first great su ccess, aroused tre

m endous enthusiasm. In this work Meyerbeer first disp layed hismastery of instrumenta l effects, andhis dramatic power. The sceneis laid in Sicily, to which the daredevil Robert of Normandy has


betrayal by friends lead him to end allby blowing up the palacewhere he resides . This work is rather confused in its libretto , butthe music conta ins some scenes of gorgeous pageantry. Most effective is the lofty “Coronation March .

The overture and incidental music to Struensee came in 1846.

Meyerbeer’s last grand opera , was delayed in production until after the composer’s dea th, in 1864 . It deals with Vascode Gam a , his sweetheart Inez, a rival ofli cialnamed Don Pedro whotries to stea l Vasco’s new discoveries, a treacherous slave Nelusko,who wrecks the explorers, and a generous African queen, Selika ,who loves Vasco, butreturns him to his own sweetheart. The musicto this work is less grandiose than that of the preceding operas. Itssuavi ty is in some degree a reaction toward Rossini’s methods.Meyerbeermade two trials of opéra comique. “L ’Etoiledu Nord

is a story of Peter the Grea t and his com panion Catherine, afterwards Empress ofRussia . Dinorah ,

”or The Pardon atPloermel,

”

dea ls with the fortunes of two Breton peasants, Hoel andDinorah,whose adventures centre about buried treasure. Neither work wasa great success.It has become the fashion to abuse Meyerbeer because of histheatrical superficiality. But it must be rem em bered that heexisted before the Wagnerian standards made grand opera a rea lart-work. In spite of excesses and concessions to public taste,Meyerbeer showed a breadth of conception, a dramatic power, anda mastery of scoring, that kept some of his works on the operaticstage until within a very few years of the present. Schum annaccused him of “going over to the circus,

”but if he did so, he carried

out his action successfully.

BERLIOZ AND OTHER FRENCHMEN

FRENCH com posers have made their reputa tion in opera, for them ost part. ButBerlioz was an exception to this rule ; andhe won hisway into the ranks of the leaders by his great orchestral works.Hector Berlioz was born at COte-Saint-André, near Lyons, in

1803. His father was a doctor, andexpected the son to follow in hisfootsteps. By 1822 the boy was sent to a medica l school in Paris ;buthe soon began devoting his tim e to the study of scores , particularly those of Gluck andBeethoven. In a short time there came adefinite breach between father and son, the young man clinging tomusic. As a resu lt, he was thrown upon his own resources ; andhesang in a theatre chorus to gain a livelihood .

His conservatory studies were pursued under Lesueur , who wasalmost the only teacher not antagonistic to him. Berlioz began toshow his radical tendencies at the start ; and Cherubini, on lookingat som e of the pupil ’s work, dismi ssed it with an equivalent of theslang phrase “Nix verstay. He was called unfit to compete forthe PrixdeRome, though after many attem pts he reached that goalwith his canta ta “Sardanapale.

” His “Messe Solennelle,” the over

tures “Waverley” and“Les Francs Juges, and an opera were

among his previous attempts at fame.In the m ean while he had seen a beautiful Irish actress , named

Harriet Smithson, and fallen deeply in love with her. As a token ofhis feelings, he produced the Symphonie Fantastique.

” This notable work consists of five m ovem ents , pictur ing episodes in the lifeof an artist. In the first movem ent he sees his idea l, andfalls in lovewith her ; and the fair one is typified by a definite theme. But hislove is unrequited, andhe seeks various scenes to help him forget her.

The second movement is a ballroom picture, with fragments of dancemusic suggesting themselves, and being woven about the theme ofthe loved one. The third movem ent,

“In the Fields, is a pleasing

rustic scene,with a dialogue between a shepherd and a shepherdess


portrayed by English horn and oboe. A thunderstorm arises ; andafter it passes, a tragedy is suggested when the inquiring strains ofthe shepherd meet with no response except distant thunder. Meanwhile the artist, in jealousy, kills his sweetheart ; and the fourthmovement depicts his march to execution. Most composers wouldhave ended the work here ; butBerlioz, always fond of morbid sub

jects, added a fifth movem ent showing the murderer’s reception inthe infernal regions. There the Dies Irae is parodied , and the themeof the loved one turned into a ribald waltz.Another outcom e of the com poser’s feelings may be seen in theRomeo and Juliet” symphony, which is bu ilt on a similar largeplan, and carried out in the programme style.Th e com poser’s devotion finally proved acceptable to Miss Smithson ; but unfortunately it could not be said that they lived happilyever after. An accident compelled her to leave the stage. Mattersgrew more andmore strained in the household , until a dispute aboutthe composer’s tours caused a separation . He supportedher, however,until her death. A second marri age, with Mlle. Recio, was quieterin its raeults ; butdisag eem ents came even here . She was a singer,and kept demanding prominent parts in her husband ’s works,even when she must have known that the mi les were beyond her

powers. After her dea th , hermother helped Berlioz considerably.

At one time Berlioz took up wri ting as a stop-gap . He has leftmany criticisms andmemoirs, which are marked by an excellentliterary style.Other great works by Berlioz include the monodrama Lelio,

and the overtures “King Lear,” “Rob Roy,

”and

“The Corsair.These were followed by another im portant programme symphony,Harold in Ita ly,

” based on parts of Byron’s Childe Harold . Bythis time the composer’s financia l condition began to mend. ARequiem brought him four thousand francs from the Government.Paganin i, hearing one of his symphonies, presented him with twentythousand francs. Beside these amounts, he got ten thousand morefor his “Symphonie Funebre et Triom phale.” His foreign tri ps, inGermany, Austria, and Russia , were continuous triumphs. EvenMendelssohn, the conservative, gave his works a full chance to beheard ; though Berlioz said afterward that Mendelssohn’s musica ljudgment was

“an abyss of superficiality.

”


position of m asses . On his return he spent some years in theologica lstudy, but finally reverted to a m usica l career.

His “Messe Solennelle, the“Redem ption,

” the Mors etVita ,andother sacred works evidently reflect the atmosphere of his studies . He tried the symphonic field a lso , though with little success .His operatic career began with “Sapho , which showed some

musica l richness, but was undramatic. Next came “Ulysse,” in

which an attempt at an antique style caused som e monotony. La

Nonne Sanglante ” was based on a story by Lewis entitled TheMonk .

” This was followed by a setting of “Le Médecin malgrélui ,

” which was effective enough in a way, but without any realcomic spiri t.“Faust,

” brought out in 1859, has been the composer’s greatest

success, and one of the most constant triumphs in the annals ofopera . It deals with the first part of Goethe’s tragedy, and the Germans som etimes ca ll it “Margarethe .” In its first act, Faust

’sthoughts of suicide are interrupted by charming choruses from out

side ; andwhen Mephistopheles rises athis spell, he agrees to sell hissou l for pleasure, after being shown a vision of Marguerite . Thenext act shows a kermesse in a public place . Here Faust meetsMar

guerite, andMephisto entertains the crowd , until his drawing flamesfrom a spigot along with wine makes them look askance athim . Thenext scene shows Marguerite’s garden , with Mephisto placing jewelsby the flowers of her boyish admirer Siebel , andkeeping the duennaMartha out of the way while Faust m akes successfu l love to Mar

guerite. In the fourth act, soldiers return, including Marguerite ’sbrother Va lentine. A mocking serenade arouses Va lentine

’s ire, andin a duel Faust is treacherously aided by Mephistopheles, who killsValentine andtakes Faust away in flight. A church scene shows thenow desperate Marguerite unable to escape from remorse , personifiedby Mephistopheles. In the last act she is shown in prison, having becom e insane and killed the child of her betrayal. Faust returns to save her, but she dies, and in spite of Mephisto

’s attemptto cla im her sou l , it is shown in a vision ascending to heaven.

The music of “Faust” still charm s thousands at each hearing. Ithas a beautifu l overture, whi ch modern composers would do well toequal if they could . The first act conta ins charming choruses . Inthe second act, Mephisto

’s “Golden Calf” song, the waltz, and the

BERLIOZ AND OTHER FRENCHMEN 183

popular exorcism of the evil spiri t, are allhighly interesting in differentways. Siebel’s “Le parlate d’

am or,” “The King of Thule,

” the“Jewel Song,

”andthe love duets are effective parts of the charming

garden scene, which was held to be a weak spot in the work before itssuccess proved the falsity of this assumption. The “Soldiers’

Chorus ,” if frankly popular, is also strongly effective, andwarms the

most hypercritica l aloofness into rea l enthusiasm. The church musicis full of power anddignity. The fina l act is short, but its grand trioform s an effective vocal clim ax.

“La Reine de Saba ” did not fulfill expectations ; but Mireille

was successfulin a new direction. The story is a Provencal idylbased on a work of the poet Mistral . Mireille loves Vincent, but herrich father objects to him, preferring the herdsman Ourrias . On apilgrimage to a church at Crau , Mireille suffers from a sunstroke.Her father then tries to propitiate her by withdrawing his oppositionto Vincent ; whereupon she speedily recovers. The music to thispastoral storyhas a charming warmth of expression andcoloring, theshepherd ’s song in the third act being especially suggestive of fragrant m eadow flowers .“Philémon etBaucis is another pleasing work, in two actsLa Colombe was not a great success, while the later Cinq

Mars ” proved hasty, and Polyeucte” mediocre. But “Rom éo et

Juliette ” was another triumph for the com poser. Its music has notthe m anifold beauties of the Faust” score ; but it contains manypopu lar numbers, such as the wa ltz song, Mercutio

’s QueenMab

song, and the im pressive measures of Fri ar Laurence.Georges Bizet (1838—75) was one of the many great composers

who were cut Offin their fourth decade. The manifold beauties ofhis Carmen andthe “Arlésienne music show that he hada greatcareer before him when his untimely death overtook him .

He won the Prix de Rome, and in his sojourn there he broughtforth the overture “La Chasse d’

Ossian”

and the stage works“Don Procopio” and

“La Guzla de l’Em ir. Another early work

was“Docteur Miracle. “Vasco de Gama , which followed , was

more ambitious . “Les Pécheurs de Perles” and

“Djam ileh

” wereattractive examples of Orienta l coloring, som ewhat in the style ofDavid ’s “Le Désert.” These operas, and

“La Jolie Fille de Perth,

”

met with some success, butwere not markedly popular.


The music to Daudet’s L’

Arlésienne hasmet with a better fate.In this

,Bizet showed allthe warmth of expression found in Gounod ’s

“Mireille,” combined with a remarkable vigor anddirectness of ex

pression. The many contrasted numbers have been made into tworemarkably attractive suites, which contain some beautiful saxophone passages, a charm ing adagietto, a broad intermezzo , twodainty minuets, a rollicking farandole, and other numbers .The opera Carmen,

” Bizet’s greatest success, is founded onMérim ée’s story of that name, altered andmade spicyfor stage purposes. Carmen is a captivating but wild gypsy, who stabs a companion and is arrested by the soldiers . She beguiles one of them,

Don José, to loosen her bonds so that she can escape. In return, shedances for him and enterta ins him atLillas Pastia ’s inn. She keepshim beyond his trum pet recall, saves him from the officers who wishto seize him as a deserter, and takes him to the retreat of her smug

gler friends . There she grows tired of Don José, for whomher feelingmust have been only a passing fancy ; and she finds that she reallyloves Escamillo, the Toreador who swaggered so impressively at theinn . Meanwhile Micaela , who loved Don José in his native village,comes to take him away to his mother’s death-bed. He returns tofind Carmen approaching the Seville bull-ring, where Escamillo is tofight ; andwhen he finds that she has cast him Off, he stabs her todeath .

The music to Carmen is one long succession of attractive numbers. The overture, consisting in part of the march to the bull-fight,is brilliant andspiri ted . The first act contains Carmen’s sensuouslybeautiful “Habanera ,

”her graceful “Seguedilla ,

” some charmingphrases in connection with Micaela , a pleasing soldiers

’ chorus, aburlesque by whistling street gam ins, anda humorous scene of confusion when the girls alltry to give the captain their version of Carmen’s deed . The second act contains some spirited dance music,Escam illo

’

s famous “Toreador” song, Carmen’s graceful dance for

Don José (interwoven with the trumpet recall), anda dainty smugglers’ quintet. The third acthas a fortune-telling scene, som e brightsmugglers’ music, and a smoothly melodious scena for Micaela ;while the fourth act gives a strong contrast between the glamour ofthe march andthe tragedy of Carmen’s death . In allthese numbersthere is a most satisfying directness of expression, andevery theme


andFerdinand Poise were among those who worked in French operaator after the m iddle of the last century. Fri edrich von Flotow, wholived at Paris, is best known by his com edy

“Martha ,” which con

ta ins som e sentim entality, butmuch liveliness and charm a lso .

Felicien David’s operas have been mentioned already. His successor in the Academy, Louis Ernest Reyer, showed a similar fondness for Oriental coloring. Reyer’s “Sigurd ” treated the samesubject asWagner’s “Siegfried,

” while his “Sa lammbo was basedon Flaubert’s story of old Carthaginian tim es . Gaston Salvayre,another opera com poser, is usua lly classed with Reyer.

Léon Gastineland Louis Defies composed operas, but becameknown in the orchestral field also . Victorin de Jonciéres did the sameat a later date. Edmond Mem brée andAuguste Morel kept morestrictly to opera .

Leo Delibes (1836—91) became well known through his ballets,such as

“La Source,

” “Coppelia ,

”and

“Sylvia .

” The music tothese pantomines is varied and effective, showing a warm richnesswell suited to the demands of the form . In opera , his most notedwork is “Lakm é.

” In that com position , Lakm e, daughter of a Hindu priest, is loved by an English officer, Gerald . Her father discovers the affa ir, andfinds outwho Gerald is by m aking Lakmesingin the m arket-place until he betrays himself. The priest then stabsGerald ; but Lakmesaves him , and nurses him back to health in aforest retreat. In the end he returns to his people ; while Lakme, deserted, poisons herself . The music is full of the charm of delicacy.

Lakm é’

s duet with her slave, her“Bell ” song in the market-place

,

the Oriental ba llet music, andher slumber song over the sleepingGera ld are among the best passages in the score . This work winssuccess by its grace, in spite of the fact that it does not strive for thewildly dramatic scoring of recent decades . Another excellent Délibes opera is “Le Roi l’a dit.”

With Delibes m ay be classed Ernest Gu iraud, whose Piccolino ” is a dainty comedy.

Benjamin Godard was a devotee of Schumann . He composedsevera l symphonies, and a num ber of operas, of which

“La Vivan

diere was the most su ccessful . He wrote also many cham ber works,anda number of songs andpiano pieces , of which Florian’s Song”

and the piano solo “Au Matin ” are widely known.

LISZ T AND HIS CIRCLE

FRANZ LISZTwas born in 1811, at the small Hungarian town ofRaiding. His father, a steward on one of the Esterhazy estates, wasa gifted m usica l am ateur, andtrained the child so well that the latterwas able to perform in public when nine years old . His precocityaroused the interest of a group of noblemen ,who subscribed a liberalsum for his education. The story goes that Beethoven heard theyoung Liszt, andexclaimed , He will make mymusic understood byposterity.

” Liszt studied under Czerny andothers atVienna , withlater lessons at Paris . His early ambition lay in the direction ofopera , andhis Operetta

“Don Sanche” was produced in 1825.

On the death of his father he began to make a living by means ofpiano playing, andsoon grew famous in this field. He became a wellknown m em ber of the Parisian clique that included Hugo, Lamartine

,George Sand , Chopin , Berlioz , and other celebrities. In 1834

he m et the Countess d’Agoult (known in literature as Daniel Stern),with whom he became intim ately connected. In 1836 came an oldfashioned piano contest with Thalberg, in which Liszt was plainlythe victor.

In 1839, Liszt began his long piano tours, in which he spoke of asingle concert as piano recitals.” He fully rea lized his ambition tobecom e the Paganini of the piano ; and his tr emendous techniquehas remained unequalled . His profits increased greatly ; andhe wasonce able to give substantial relief to flood-sufferers in Pesth, aswellas adding to a Beethoven monument fund . In the meantime he revived his childish mem ories of Hungarian music, andechoed it in his piano rhapsodies.Liszt was one of the first to assert the dignity of the musician’s

position . Beethoven hadshown independence, but it was the exception in the epoch when such masters as Mozart andHaydn had toput up with various slights . The occasion arose when one of Liszt’sprincess friends asked if he haddone good business on his last trip.

LISZT AND HIS CIRCLE 189

Liszt replied , Madame, I am in music, not business. Perhaps thiswas straining a point ; but Liszt

’s later career certainly added newlustre to the occupation of the musician .

Liszt’s piano pieces conta in a large num ber of transcriptions.These show the utmost vari ety, ranging from old vocal works ofArcadelt to the art-songs of Schubert and the operas of Rossini, orfrom the organ fugues of Bach to the sym phonies of Beethoven andthe glowing orchestral scores of Wagner. His original pian o compositions include the rhapsodies and other national music ; but besidethese they com prise many piano works of tremendous breadth andstri king power, such as the great single-movement sonata . Lisztdeveloped a sty le that has been called the orchestration of the piano.In his larger keyboard com positions, and in the transcriptions also,one may find broad sweeps of tone ; melodies supported by the richest andm ost complicated harmonies ; or stri king antiphonal effects,like those one might hear when parts of an orchestra respond to oneanother. Such works as the “Sermon to the Birds,

”or“St. Francis

walking on the Water,” bring out keyboard possibilities that were

utterly unsuspected by Liszt’s predecessors. A num ber of his piecesare grouped together in the sets entitled “Années de Pelerinage.”

In 1849, Liszt was offered a court post atWeimar, which he accepted. In that city began the most famous period of his career.

His teaching gathered around him a circle of the greatest pianists inthe world, who looked up to him as disciples do to a master. Notevery one who was recommended found himself able to enter thecharmed circle. Many an overpraised young maiden, sent to playfor him , was met by the scarcely veiled rebuff,

“Marry soon, dearchild .

” Once a poorly equipped male student heard him mutter,“This before me, who have so often heard Tausig! But if the student proved able enough to be accepted , he entered into a veritablefairyland of art. Often the lessons term inated in social gatherings,where the leaders perform ed , or discussed new works . FrequentlyLiszt himself wou ld play, ostensibly to show how certa in passageswere to be taken . Liszt was not absolutely infallible, and once hestruck a wrong note in some cross-hand work ; buthe atoned for thisby dazzling his hearers with a series of the most brilliant pieces . Hewas able to read at sight with remarkable facility, andwould evenplay a piano version of new scores set before him .


Liszt used his position as orchestral leader to bring outmany newworks. Raff, Schubert, Schumann, Lassen, Cornelius, Rubinstein ,andWagner were am ong those whom Liszt helped into publicity.

Liszt’s larger compositions date mostly from his Weimar stay.

They include his great Faust sym phony, two famous piano concertos,andabout a dozen im portant symphonic poem s . Liszt really developed the latter form ; andsuch examples as LesPreludes,

” Tasso,“Die Idea le,

” “Mazeppa ,”and others of the group, prove that ex

cept for Richard Strauss his work in this field rema ins unequalled.

Liszt’s sym phonic poem s show a most strongly expressive style, amassive handling of the orchestral forces, anda great amount of realmusicalbeauty. They made their way very slowly, and only in themost recent years has Liszt’s greatness as an orchestral composerbeen fa irly recognized . Wagner, who was Liszt

’s son-in-law, onceca lled attention to a passage he hadborrowed from Liszt, by saying ,ata rehearsa l, Now, papa , here comes one of your themes.

” Verygood,

”replied Liszt. “The public will hear it now, at any rate.”

Disagreements over Liszt’s progressive policy caused him to giveup his Weimar post ; andhe settled in Rome. There, after a brokenengagement to marry the Princess of Sayn-Wittgenstein, he beganto study for the Church, and gained the title of Abbé. He hadalready produced the Graner Mass” andthree psa lm settings ; butin Rome he devoted himself still more to religious music. His laterWorks include the oratorios “St. Elizabeth,

” “Christus, and theunfinished “Stanislaus,

”as well as the Hungarian Coronation

Mass anda requiem. An organ mass was of later date. Otherworksby Liszt included the symphonic poem “From the Cradle to theGrave,

”and the cantatas “Die Glocken,

” “St. Cecilia ,”and

“DieKreuzesstationen.

” Liszt divided his time in later years betweenRome , Weimar, andPesth. His influence as teacher and leader wasstill kept up, andhe devoted many efforts to the furthering ofWag

ner’s cause . He died in 1886, at a Bayreuth festival .While Wagner brought opera to a new orchestral standard, Lisztdid the same with concert works. His symphonic poems are verydefinitely written for modern instead of classical orchestra . Thesetwo men , with Berlioz, who modernized the programme symphony,brought the large orchestra into existence, and illustrated itspossibilities.


Die Kriegsgefangene treats an episode Ofthe Trojan War, and

brings in Achilles’ victory over Hector andhis love for Briseis .

“GOtz von Berlichingen,

” “Der Frem dling,

”and

“The Winter’sTale ” are still later operas by Goldmark ; while he recently summedup his mem ories in the overture

“Aus meiner Jugendzeit.” His

career, reaching practica lly to the present, has been full of honorand crowned by many successes. He died in 1915.

Joseph Joachim Raff was born atWiirttem burg in 1822 . He wasatfirst a school-teacher, but studied music privately. When he wastwenty-one, Mendelssohn helped him to publish som e piano piecesand begin a musica l career. Two years later, Liszt took the youngman a long on a tour. Raff then settled in Cologne, as critic andcomposer. He aim ed to take free lessons from Mendelssohn, to get commissions from a Vienna publisher, and to have his opera KingAlfred ” given at Stuttgart. ButMendelssohn died ; the publisherMechetti died just before making an agreement with Raff ; and theStuttgart m anager declined the opera . Von Bulow then helped himto put other works before the public. In 1851 he became Liszt

’sassistant atWeimar, andheard his opera performed at last.Raff was very poor in his younger days. He cou ld not afford a

good metronome ; andthe broken-down one that he used caused hisworks to seem too rapid when played with more accurate metronom es . He wrote a great deal , andOften published rathermediocrepieces in an effort to keep the wolf from the door. Once he wasarrested for debt ; but Liszt andDr. William Mason saw to it thathe was com fortable. With the pens, ink, andmusic-paper that theyprovided , and the good food that they insisted upon, he was reallymore com fortable than in his own frugal quarters.In 1856, Raff moved to Wiesbaden ; andsoon after this he married.

In 1863 his first sym phony,“The Fatherland, won the prize in a

Vienna competition . Another opera ,“Dame Kobold,

”was per

form ed atWeimar. Raff soon became famous through other symphonies, such as

“Im Walde ” and

“Lenore .” During his last yearshe was director of a conservatory in Frankfurt, andtaught a numberof Americans, includingMacDowell. He died in 1882 .

His works include eleven symphonies, four suites, nine overtures ,

an effective piano concerto , a violin concerto , an oratorio, severalcantatas, some chamber music, andmany smaller pieces. They are

LISZT AND HIS CIRCLE 193

almost allremarkably melodious . Raff resem bles Schubert ratherthan his benefactor Liszt, and shows little leaning toward m odemism. In many cases Raff’s m elodies are ineffably sweet and charming

, and their harmonies delightful . There has been considerabledispute over Raff’s position. Many hold that the too melodiouscharacter of his works places himfar down among the second-raters ,But one m ay rem em ber the couplet,

“And if his art as artifice you score,

Where have you seen such artifice before?

Admi tting that Raff’s works are extrem ely melodic in character, wecannot gainsay the fact that their m elody is of the best. His wellknown cavatina is but one of many instances that will prove thepoint.Peter Cornelius (1824—74) was born atMainz. After some years

of youthfultraining, he joined the Weimar circle, and heard his“Barber of Bagdad” given. That opera has for hero Noureddin,

who loves the daughter of the Cadi, and visits her . He takes withhim the loquacious and irr esponsible barber, Abu Hassan , who remains outside. Hearing a chance outcry, Hassan at once imaginesNoureddin is being attacked ; andhe gathers a band to invade theplace. To escape from the Cadi’s anger, Noureddin hides in a chest.Finally the disturbance brings the Caliph on the scene ; andNoureddin, rescued in a half-sm othered state, is presented with the handof his adoredMargiana . The m usic of this rather mixed work showsdecided power, andnot a little skill in hum orous orchestration. Theinterlude of the m uezzin call , and the hurly-burly of the last scene,wi ll stand comparison with the laterWagner. In fact, this rollicking work had a direct influence upon Wagner’s “Meistersinger.”

Cornelius composed also “Der Cid” and“Gunlod .

Eduard Lassen (1830—1904) was born atCopenhagen, andstudiedatBrussels. Liszt brought outone of his operas,

“Landgraf LudwigsBrautfahrt,

” in 1858 . When Liszt gave up the control atWeimar,Lassen succeeded him. Lassen com posed two other operas“Frauenlob” and

“Le Captif.” He wrote also symphonies, overtures , canta tas, much incidenta l music, and very beautiful songs,such as “Itwas a dream.

”

Hans von Bronsart, born atBerlin in 1830, was a Liszt piano pupil.He composed a symphony, the choral symphony In the Alps,

”and


other orchestral works . His wife, Ingeborg (Stark) von Bronsart,was another piano pupil of Liszt. She com posed severa l Operas andmany piano works.To the Weimar circle belongs also Alexander Ritter (1833

He com posed two comic operas and several symphonic poem s, butis better known because it was his influence that made RichardStrauss adopt the programm e style of composition.

Leopold Damrosch (1832—85) was a famous violinist, who composed violin concertos, a symphony, various canta tas , and otherworks. Before his death he exerted considerable influence upon

Felix Draeseke, born at Coburg in 1835, became known throughovertures, sym phonies, operas, andchamber music. In his later lifehe becam e unusually conservative.Hans Guido von Biilow (1830—94) came under Liszt’s influence

at Weimar andWagner’s at Zurich . He married Liszt’s daughterCosima , who was afterwards divorced andmarri ed to Wagner. VonBiilow was a fam ous pianist, anda thorough conductor. It was hisorchestra , at Meiningen, that once started a programme withoutany conductor when he was unavoidably late . He toured Americatwice. His programm es were always chosen with a view to improvingpopu lar taste. His own compositions include a few orchestral works,some concert pieces for piano, andmany transcriptions. He hadavery caustic wit, and som e of his remarks are quoted elsewhere inthis volume. Once a chance acquaintance from some previous meeting stopped him on the street, andsa id,

“I ’ll bet you don’t rem ember

me.” Von Bulow instantly retorted ,“Y ou

’

ve won your bet,”and

passed on . Again , in rehearsing his orchestra, he once said to thetrumpeter,

“That passage is forte.

” The trumpeter then blew hishardest ; whereupon the leader repeated ,

“I said forte.

” Then thetrumpeter made a mighty effort, andnearly blew his head off whereupon the leader explained , I said forte, andyou have been blowingfortissimo allthe tim e.”

Klindworth and Tausig were other pupils of Liszt who becamebetter known by their arrangements than by their com positions.Leschetizky, the great piano teacher, was known also as a piano

composer, in a brilliant butrather showy style. Once Brahms , passing him as he worked at his desk, thought to tease him, and said,

XXII

FROM GLINKA TO TSCHAIKOVSKY

MUSIC in Russia has been a popular affair from time imrnem orial.

In the Oldpagan days, minstrels of allsorts were common . Whenthe land came under Byzantine influence, the native music met wi thofficial opposition, butwas never entirely rooted out. When Russiabecame an em pire under the Romanoffs, its folk-music flourishedagain. Poets shaped into literary form the epics of its old legendarycycles, and created innumerable subjects suitable for musica l settings. In the eighteenth century, foreign composers, and some native musicians, began to give some attention to these ; while in thenineteenth , an important Russian school came into existence.FrancescoAraja (1700—67 was the first foreigner to bring Russianopera into being ; andduring his stay atSt. Petersburg, he set severalnative subjects . Galuppi, Sarti, Paisiello, Cimarosa , and the Venetian Cavos were other prominent foreigners . Cavos treated the sub

ject of Ivan Susanina , which Glinka used later for his great popu larsuccess . Early native m usicians included Fomin, Matinsky, Pa

s

kievitch, Beresovsk y, Bortniansky, Verstovsky, Alab iev, and the

Titov brothers . Verstovsky won some success with“Askold

’

s

Tom b, butnone of these m en was gifted enough to found a nationalschool . Bortniansky , famous for his Russian church music, confinedhis operatic ventures to Ita lian andFrench texts .Michael Ivanovitch Glinka (1804—57) was born of a noble fam ily

at St. Petersburg. Brought up in pleasant social surroundings, heshowed an intense devotion to music, butatfirstwas little more thanan amateur . He began to com pose short songs andpieces for a ladyfriend. His family gave him a musica l training, but thought his gifts

merely a social asset. It took a foreign tri p to develop his latentpowers. He enjoyed Ita lian opera atMilan , but soon found that itsidiom was not suited to express his Russian nationalism . It was inBerlin that he Obta ined real benefit, in studying with Siegfried Dehn .

That teacher, seeing that Glinka was both gifted and impatient of

FROM GLINKA TO TSCHAIKOVSKY 197

drudgery, wisely condensed his instruction into five months, andgave the pupil the chief points of harmony, counterpoint, fugue, andorchestration. This was so beneficial that Stassov said , Glinka leftus a dilettante, and returned a maestro.

” He would have continuedhis studies , but the death of his father recalled him to Russia .

Glinka wrote some instrum enta l pieces and a num ber of sm allerworks, but is best known by his two operas,

“Life for the Czar” and“Russlan andLudm illa .

” The form er work, brought out in 1836, isconsidered the foundation of the Russian national school. It did forRussia what Weber’s “Der Freischutz did for Germ any, by idealizing the native folk-m usic into an artistic com position. Whereearlier Russians had m erely incorporated folk-songs, sometim esleaving the simple accom panim ents unaltered, Glinka brought theresources of the trained composer into action, and gave the musicrea l strength without injuring its characteristic flavor. His use of amelody that he had heard on the lips of a cab -driver caused hisOpera to be called “Musique des cochers, but the reproach is uhjust.The plot of this work is laid in the seventeenth century, when

Russia was largely in the hands of the Poles. The conquerors decideto seize the newly elected czar, Michael Rom anoff. On their marchthey order the peasant Ivan Susanina to guide them. Butthe latter,too loyal to betray his ruler, secretly sends his son to warn the czar,and leads the Poles astray, though he knows he is thus meetingdeath . The m usic is full of Russian touches, even including churchmodes.Glinka

’

s incidenta l music to Prince Kholom sky was followedby his second opera . This work,

“Russlan andLudmilla ,” is based

on a legend, in which Russlan , the favored one of three su itors, is towed Ludm illa , daughter of Prince Svietozar. Meanwhile the wickedwizard Chernom or, seeing Ludm illa , falls in love with her, and carries her offfrom the wedding feast. The three suitors are sent torescue her, and naturally Russlan succeeds. One of his rivals tri esto ga in the credit, by throwing the pair into a magic slumber; butRusslan awakes in tim e to unm ask the pretender. The m usic to thisopera is of more solid and learned style than Glinka ’s earlier work.

It caused much discussion, Stassov praising it while Serov called it aretrogression.


Alexander Sergeivitch Dargom iszky (1813—69) gained some instruction from the exercise-books that Glinka hadfilled when underDehn

’

s tuition, though he was already proficient in orchestration .

His first opera ,

“Esmeralda ,”was rather light and trivial in style,

though it pleased the public. “The Triumph of Bacchus ” was re

jected, and rem ained unknown for many years. “The Roussalka ”

(1856) met with a better fate, though atfirst it was too advanced tofindmuch favor with a public that still craved Italian opera . TheRoussalki, or water-nymphs who lie in wai t for the traveller, aremaidens who have been betrayed andhave drowned themselves. Inthe story (wri tten by Pushkin) a young prince falls in love with therrriller

’

s daughter Natasha . She accepts his devotion ; butwhen shelearns that he has betrayed her, to marry in his own rank, shedrownsherself, becoming a Roussalka . The prince marries, butdoes not livehappily. Some years later he is at the mill , which he visits out of remorse. The spiri t of Natasha ’s child appears to him. While he hesitates, the miller, now crazed , pushes him into the water. The musicto this opera is national in spirit, but is bright or dramatic whereGlinka

’s scores were more simply lyrical .

Dargom iszky’

s last opera ,“The Stone Guest,

” is based on thesame subject as “Don Giovanni,

” though using Pushkin’

s version.

It was unfinished at the com poser’s death, and Rimsky-Korsakofffilled in the orchestration. In this work, which is somewhat declamatory, words andmusic are welded in close union. The nationalRussians admired it so much that Balakirev spoke of it as “TheGospel .”

AlexanderNicholaievitch Serov (1820—71) becam e famous in criticism at first, defending Spontini and the historical opera in a waythat foreshadowed Wagnerian principles . In later days Serov andWagner became qu ite intim ate, andapparently formed a “mutualadmiration society.

” Serov was over forty before he tried to clinchhis hold on the public by composing an opera ; andhe had to learnmany of the technica lities of composition. Under the circumstances,the strength of his work,

“Judith ,” is remarkable. It is not subtle,

but handles gorgeous scenes in a broad, almost Wagnerian manner.

Serov’s second work, Rogneda, was written frankly to fit thepublic taste ; and it succeeded in its object. Its sensational stage


are still played by famous pianists, the later ones rivalling the symphonies in popularity .

Rubinstein com posed qu ite a large amount of chamber music.Most pleasing to the public is a stri ng quartet conta ining the soca lled Music of the Spheres,

”a very expressive and saccharine

slow m ovement.Rubinstein ’s orchestral andchamber music shows som e command

of orchestration, and a richness of musica l effect arising in manycases from his use of Orienta l flavors. His works are often grandiose,but they do not always show rea l inspiration or sustained power.

Rubinstein ’s songs are among his best compositions. In thesethere is no need for lengthy expression, and in their brief space thecom poser has often given us lyrics of unflagging inspiration . Hisdramatic streng th is shown in

“The Asra ” ; his melodic richnessappears in “The Dream ”

; while“Golden atmy feet” is a much

adrnired example of Orientalism .

The piano works include a couple of sonatas butthe shorter piecesare m uch better known . Rubinstein himself made many of thesefam iliar to his audiences ; but they have held their place after hisdeath . The well-known “Melody in F ” verges a little toward thecommonplace ; buthis barcarolles , romances, andother works of thesort are still in evidence on concert programmes .Rubinstein devoted m uch attention to the opera . His first dra

matic effort, Dm itri Donskoi,” met with only a fair reception ;

while “Tom the FOO1” aroused so little enthusiasm that the composer withdrew it. Other early works were “Hadji-Ahrek ” and

The Siberian Hunters,” each in one act. As Rubinstein had thus

failed in Russian opera , he devoted his attention to Germ any.

There he brought out his “Kinder der Heide” ; and the sam e country applauded his “Feram ors.

” His next efforts were in the field ofsacred opera , andresu lted in The Tower of Babel ,

” “The Maccabees,

”and

“Paradise Lost,” some of which resem bled cantatas.

Returning to the secular field,he next com pleted his best opera ,

“The Demon, which was brought out at St. Petersburg. Thiswork, based on a poem by Lermontov, portrays a species of Russian“Faust.” Its hero is a morta l , with certa in demoniac tendencies,who wishes to find consolation in love. He pursues Tam ara, theobject of his affections

,even into the convent where she has taken

THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE

Ministry of Justice. He never worked hard at this post, however.

He acqu ired the habit of chewing paper when at allabstracted.

Once, while taking a state document to a certa in offi ce, he met afriend in the corridor ; andthat friend

’s conversation proved so interesting that Tschaikovsky bit up most of the document before remem bering his errand. Fortunately he was able to make another

At this tim e he hadvarious music teachers, butnone of them sus

pected his future greatness. He received no valuable instructionuntil the conservatory started . Then he was thoroughly groundedin harmony and counterpoint, and studied form with Zaremba andorchestration with Anton Rubinstein .

Tschaikovsky’s tastes were very variable. At that period heplaced Wagner far below Serov, and sa id that piano and orchestradid not blend. Now Serov is known as a

“second-rater,” while

Wagner’s leadership is acknowledged ; and Tschaikovsky’s own

piano concertos are among the very best. At this time, too , heshowed his own radica l tendencies in an overture entitled “TheStorm,

” which caused a real storm when the conservatory peoplesaw it.Tschaikovsky fell deeply in love wi th the singer Désirée ArtOt,

but did not marry her after all, perhaps not wishing to be the m a leattendant of a travelling star. Itwou ld have been better for him ifhe hadmade this union ; for his own marriage, occurring later, wasmost unfortunate. A lady whom he had met during girlhood ad

dressed a series of love-letters to him . He informed the lady (Antonina Milyukova) that he hadnothing beyond friendship to offerbut she was persistent, and finally the composer feared he mightruin her life if he refused her. They were marri ed in 1877, but theunion soon proved unhappy. Tscha ikovsky, who was very nervous,would probably have been driven into a premature grave if an earlyseparation hadnot taken place.Another woman was of far more beneficial influence on his career.

This was Nadeshda Filaretovna von Meck, the wife of a rich engineer. Much moved by Tschaikovsky’s music, she gave him the generous sum of six thousand roubles annually, to allow him to com poseunhampered by financial cares . She made it a condition that theyshould never meet ; andeven when attending the same concert, they

FROM GLINKA TO TSCHAIKOVSKY 203

passed each other as strangers. But they corresponded , and thecom poser sent her frequent accounts of his musica l activity.

A stay atClarens, on Lake Geneva , was followed by a tri p to Ita lyand various other places. In Vienna he found Wagner’s “Ringrather tiresome, andcame to dislike the works of Brahms . The latter feeling was natural enough, for the intellectual Brahms and theemotional Tschaikovsky were certa inly opposites in music.Back in Russia , Tschaikovsky settled atMaidanovo, where thequiet country life gave him rest. Here he took long walks, whichoften brought him musical inspiration . The last few years of his lifewere full of travel . In 1891he even m ade an American tour , receiving much appreciation, butmeeting many annoyances also from illbred hotel employees. He died of cholera , brought about by hisdrinking a glass of unfiltered water at a St. Petersburg restaurant.Tscha ikovsky

‘s music marks him as a leader in orchestration, andin the best effects of the programme school. His great symphonicpoems show a most powerfulm astery over the instruments andtheircom binations.In Russia , Tschaikovsky is known as a prolific opera composer.

His first attempts, however, met with misfortune that was not undeserved .

“The Voyevode”was perform ed , but cut up afterwards

into separate numbers. “Undine ” was rejected , and its music toowas dissected for use in later works. “Mandragora ” had a weaklibretto. The com poser’s first success was The Opritchniki .

” Thisreceived fourteen perform ances in a year ; butCui called it the workof a schoolboy, ignorant of the needs of lyric drama .

“Vakula the Sm ith,” which won prizes in com petition, hasfor its

hero the son of a witch, who brings for his sweetheart the shoes ofthe empress, demanded as a pledge of love, by tri cking andusing thedem on who is smitten with his mother. The subject is decidedlybizarre , buthas its moments of humor as well as dramatic power,and is set to good music.Eugene Onyegin,

” Tschaikovsky’s best opera , treats a story byPushkin . Eugene’s friend Lensky, loving a girl named Olga , pre

sents him to her family. Her sister Tatiana falls in love with thestranger, but he sees in her only a country nobody, and ignores herlittle advances. Later rn life he finds her transformed by marriageinto the brilliant Princess Grem in. He then feels her spell, and


pleads his love ; but in spite of her early longing for him she is ableto refuse his advances and leave him in despair . The music showsmuch beauty of feeling, Tatiana

’s scenes being especia lly tender.

“Joan ofArc ” was a weak blend of Ita lian andMeyerbeer effects.Mazeppa ” prom pted Cui to say that Tschaikovsky hadsucceededin producing som ething worse even than “Joan of Are.

” “TheSorceress” was undramatic, the composer showing a tendency tomake his score consist of com plete musical forms. The later one-act“Iolanthe ” was prolix, though occasionally expressive. But “TheQueen of Spades proved another success. This work is based on aPushkin story of a young gambler who is told of three succes sfulcards by the spiri t of a dead countess . He wrns on two of them , but

the third changes to the queen of spades, on which he loses everything. A love story with the daughter of the countess is added inthe libretto .

Tschaikovsky ’s incidental music to The Snow Ma iden is verygood, much better, in fact, than that to

“Hamlet.”

He composed three ballets,“The Lake of Swans,

” “The SleepingBeauty ,

”and

“Casse-Noisette. All of them show much musicalbeauty. In the last, the stage manager called for the music in definite am ounts, sixty-four bars of soft music, eight bars Oftinklingmusic as a Christmas-tree lights up, twenty-four bars of lively m usicfor the children’s entrance, and so on ; but this did not seem to ham

per the com poser’s inspiration.

Tschaikovsky’s orchestralworks are really much greater than hisoperas , andare known through the civilized world. Of his six symphonies , the first is called “Winter Dreams.” The second wasnationalenough to win pra ise from Cui, who disliked the com poser

’scosmopolitan ideas . The third is more conventional, being based onwestern European models. The fourth , beginning a much greatergroup , depicts m an’s troubles with fate , butends in popular festivity.

The fifth, com ing som e years later, is a strongly effective work, withvery characteristic nationa l themes that recur in the different movements . The sixth, the

“Sym phonie Pathétique,” is m arked by the

most astonishing expressive power. Its first m ovem ent contrastsrugged work with a sad-sweet them e typical of tender mem ories.Its second movement, in time, shows an undertone of unrest. Thethird movement culminates in a stirring march, suggestive of glory ;


of three string quartets, a sextet, anda piano trio. His piano worksand songs are a lso attractive, but not wellknown in America .

Tscha ikovsky ranks with the foremost masters. His handling ofthe modern orchestra , com bined with the strongly em otional character of his them es, make his work as important in its way as thatof Liszt or Berlioz. His music does not always wear well

, for itlacks the underlying intellect of Bach or Brahms ; but its gloriesare most marked, in spite of allcri ticism.

XXIII

WAGNER AND HIS REFORMS

WILHELM RICHARD WAGNER was born at Leipsic on May 22 ,

1813. After he became well-known, he om itted the Wilhelm”per

manently. His m other, widowed before his birth, marri ed the actorandartist Ludwig Geyer, the family m oving soon to Dresden. Somehave thought that Geyer was really Wagner’s father, though theevidence seems against the idea . The little Richard was a spiri ted,warm-hearted boy, with a taste for reading fairy tales . He showedno m usical aptitude atfirst. Geyer, on hearing him pick outa tunethat his sister hadplayed, asked himself, Has he, perhaps, a talentfor m usic? ” But Geyer died before having his question answered.

It was not until 1827 that a hearing of Beethoven’s sym phonies andWeber’s operas aroused Richa rd ’s love of music. His studies withTheodorWeinlig , atLeipsic, resulted in the composition of sonatas,overtures, andeven a symphony in C ; butthase works were nearlyallpedantic anduninspired .

Wagner’s first libretto , wri tten in his school days, consisted of atragic affair in which allthe characters were killed , and the last actcarried on with their ghosts. His first opera was “The Fairi es,

”

which he finished atWiirzburg in 1834 . In that work a prince, whohas married a fairy andlost her, goes through various tria ls in orderto regain her. At Magdeburg he com pleted “Das Liebesverbot,

”

a setting of “Measure for Measure ” in the Rossini style. A furtherposition brought him to Riga , where his conducting showed him thereally commonplace nature of the Ita lian opera of that epoch. Hisnext work, Rienzi,

”was based on the sumptuous style that Meyer

beer used. The libretto shows at first the Orsini-Colonna brawlsAdri an Colonna ’

s love for Rienzi’s sister Irene ; and the popularrevolt under Rienzi. In the second act the nobles are pardoned , buttry to kill Rienzi at the feast of reconciliation . In the third act theyrebel , are defeatedagain , andseveral , including old Colonna , put todeath . In the fourth act Adrian, out of revenge for his kinsman,


fom ents popular revolt ; Rienzi, in an impassioned speech, regainsthe people’s a llegiance ; but the Pope

’s messengers excommunicatehim ,

whereupon he is deserted . In the fifth act, after a va in attem ptto regain his influence, Rienzi retreats to the palace ; Adrian joinshim , out of love for Irene ; andthe trio perish when the people burnthe palace. This work succeeded, andWagner cou ld have becom erich and famous by continu ing in its school ; but his artistic idealdrove him to seek higher things.Wagner the artist andWagner the m an were two widely different

beings. In art he soughtfor the noblest standards ; but in life he wasoften m ean and petty. He m ade the financial loans of his friendsminister to his needs ; andhe seemed to take it for gran ted that hecould be perm itted to draw inspiration from woman’s love, no matterwhere he found it. In Magdeburg he married Wilhelm ina (Minna)Planer. She was a young actress who gave up her careerfor him, and

helped him in the most practical ways, and by the most patientdrudgery. This was especia lly true atParis, where the pa ir went onleaving Riga . The voyage suggested a sea-subject to Wagner, andin Paris we find him beginning The Flying Dutchman , which firstshowed som ething like his later style. Some songs and otherworkswere of little pecuniary aid, andprobablyMinna

’

s care andsacrificeswere allthat saved him from starvation . Wagner once said that hecould not be a Meister Bach,

” doing drudgery in a small post. Herecognized his own genius ; but he made this an excuse for spongingon his friends, instead of working until he earned enough to let himcarry out his ideas . But his later musica l plans were so titanic thatthey could not have materia lized without the help of some wealthypatron .

A return to Dresden as Kapellmeister brought some happy yearsfor Wagner, and for Minna too . She wrote afterward that his“Tannh ’

auser” and“Lohengri n” were composed in her presence,

andwhile he was cherished by her care. She has been accused of notunderstanding Wagner’s rea l greatness, and not giving him thesp iritual companionship that was necessary for the development ofhis highest ideas ; but the wom en who did give him such spiritualuplift m ight have been too busy to do so if they had been obligedto look after his physica l needs as patiently and as well as Minnadid . This marriage, and the subsequent separation, was not a case


but one cannot help feeling that a better treatment of Minna wouldnot have interfered with his creative ability. She died in 1866.

Except for a Russian trip, Wagner hadfor two years been carryingon an affair with Cosima , daughter of Liszt andwife of Von Bulow.

After Minna ’

s death , he settled at Triebschen, near Lucerne, andCosima soon joined him there. Four years later, Von Biilow divorcedhis wife, andWagner married her. Wagner died in 1883 , andshe hassurvived him for severa l decades, being alive in 1915. She gave himthe spiri tual companionship that he desired .

Meanwhile Wagner hadplanned , andin part completed, the greatworks that were to make his name fam ous . His two subjects “Barbarossa ” and

“Wieland the Sm ith ” were not used . But“The

Young Siegfried, which he started in 1851, gradually grew intothe great Trilogy (with prologue) that we know as The Ring of theNibelungen .

” The text was printed in 1853 . The Rheingold” wasfinished in 1854, and

“The Valkyri e ” by the end of the same year.The latter was scored by April , 1856. Then “The Ring” was laidas ide for “Tristan,

” which was completed in 1859.

“Die Meistersinger” was planned in 1862 , though not finished until 1867.

“Siegfri ed ” was com posed in 1869 , and scored in 1871; while DieGOtterda

’

mm erung”was composed in 1870, and the scoring finished

in 1874 .

“Parsifal , the“stage-consecration-play,

”was composed

in 1878—79, and scored in 1882 . The composer died at Venice onFebruary 13 , 1883 .

In one respect, at least, that of the criticisms he received, Wagnerwas fully justified in com plaining. The public atfirst failed to appreciate the greatness of his music. Even composers were not

'

able todo it full justice . It was called , after one of his pamphlets, TheMusic of the Future ” ; and under this title it was subjected to allkinds of ridicule andabuse. Even after it hadmade its way with thepublic, officials Often intrigued against it. Judith Gautier, in

“Wag

ner at Home,” describes a “Rheingold ” performance at Munich,

in which, after the rehearsals had been correct, the final representation was spoiled deliberately, by a manipulation of lights that keptthem sedulously away from the rainbow bridge to Walhalla , andbyother similar tri cks .In the last four decades the greatness of Wagner has been recog

nized. Even those who most disliked the man were reduced to

WAGNER CAR ICATURED AS ATTACKING THE HUMAN EAR


in spite of Heaven itself, for which blasphemy he was doomed to sailforever. Release will come only if a maiden loves him enough tosacrifice herself ; and once in seven years he m ay land to seek her.

Failure has m ade him gloomy ; butby showing his wea lth he obtainsDaland

’

s permission to woo the latter’s daughter Senta . The secondactshows Senta among a merry group of girls busy at their spinningwheels. But she stands apart, gazing ata picture of Vanderdecken .

When teased about her sadness, she tells his story, and says shewould willingly save him. Her admirer Erik cannot alter this mood .

When Daland brings in the real Dutchman, she is amazed ; butsoonshe plights her troth to him . The third actshows the seamen makingmerry by the harbor. The Dutchm an ’s sailors, however, do not join.

When challenged , their boat glows in a supernatural light, and theysing a weird song taunting their captain with his many failures inlove. Senta appears with Erik. The latter again pleads his love.The Dutchman, hearing this, thinks Senta false to him andsets sailto depart. She tri es to reach his ship . He tells every one of his identity, so that she m ay be held back ; butshe plunges into the sea afterhim , redeeming him by her sacrifice.The music shows a rugged vigor well suited to its subject. This

strength, combined with a rich harmonic and melodic beauty, ischaracteristic of allWagner’s later work. Especially attractive arethe spinning chorus, Senta

’s dramatic ballad, the tender them e thatportrays her, the sombre figure typifying the Dutchman, and therollicking sailors’ music. The work shows a tendency toward Melos,the continuous melodic recitative that Wagner afterwards used,

instead of single numbers .“Tannhauser” shows the m instrel knight of that name revelling

in pleasure in the Mount of Venus . But her charms pall , and hereturns to the upper world . In a pastoral valley, he hears the chantof passing pilgrims. Landgrave Herrrnann , hunting, finds him, and

brings him to the tournament of song athis castle. There Wolframvon Eschenbach , Walther von der Vogelweide, and others compete, as they did in actual history. Elisabeth is to award the prize.In his song, Tannhauser, incited by memory, sings of Venus, andshocks the assem blage. He realizes his sin, and departs to obta inthe Pope’s forgiveness . Elisabeth , who loves him , awaits his return,andwatches the passing pilgrim s for him. Then Wolfram sings of

WAGNER AND HIS REFORMS 213

his own hopeless love for her. The Pope has told Tannhauser thatsooner should his dead staff put forth leaves than the knight beforgiven. The latter, returning, attempts to seek Venus again .

A funeral procession passes with the body of Elisabeth, who hasdied broken-hearted. Tannh '

auser sinks in death by her bier, whilea band of pilgrims bring the Pope’s staff, which has blossomed intoken of the knight’s pardon.

The Pilgrim s’ Chorus, the brilliant Venusberg music, the songs inthe contest

,Elisabeth’s Greeting to the Hall,

” the knights ’ march ,andWolfram’s song of devotion are some of the musical gems in thescore.In Lohengrin, Elsa of Brabant is charged with the murder of

her young brother, Prince Gottfried , who has rea lly been bewitchedby the sorceress Ortrud . The latter’s husband Telram und is readyto appear against Elsa in ordea l of battle ; but no one will fight forher. While the hera ld ca lls for her defender, Elsa recites a dream ofa knight in shining armor who would come as her cham pion in aboat drawn by a swan . Meanwhile those at the back of the stagesee something approaching. It is rea lly Lohengrin, on the riverScheldt, andElsa

’s dream becom es a fact. Lohengrin wins the fight.He begs Elsa to be his bride, but tells her also that he cannot remainwith her un less she will refrain from asking his name. The next actshows the outside of the palace, in which a wedding feast is takingplace. Ortrud andTelramund, discredited, are hiding outside. Elsaappears on a balcony, andOrtrud wins her pity by pretended hum ility. Day dawns, andthe bridal procession com es to the church. It isstartled first by Telramund

’

s em erging from hiding, and again by

Ortrud’s claim ing precedence over Elsa andtaunting her with ignorance of the bridegroom’s nam e. In the third act, the bridal chorusgreets Elsa andLohengrin in their apartm ent. When left alone, thepair express their love ; but Elsa

’s susp icions are aroused, and sheasks Lohengrin’s name. Telram und breaks in to kill Lohengrin,butdrops dead at sight of the la tter’s magic sword . The scene thenchanges to the ground by the river Scheldt. Lohengrin explains thathe is a Knight of the Holy Grail , who can remain on earth onlyif unknown. Elsa is disconsolate ; but in parting Lohengrin findshim self able to disenchant her brother Gottfried, who was reallythe swan.


The m usic to this work, strangely enough , was atfirst attacked asunm elodic. But its m elodies have a rich harmonic support that wasevidently too novel for the critics . The Bridal Chorus is now knowneverywhere. The Prelude is a shimmering web of tonal richness.The work is one long stream of musical beauty ; butespecially attraetive are Elsa ’s dream, her balcony soliloquy, the processional music,Lohengrin’s love-song (

“Dost thou not breathe with m e”

) andhis

The Trilogy consists of The Rheingold,”TheValkyrie,

” “Siegfri ed ,

”and

“The Twilight of the Gods . Its story is partly told invarious versions Ofthe Nibelungenlied. These, with

“Tristan ,”

“The Mastersingers,”

and“Parsifal ,

”are ca lled music-dramas

instead Ofoperas . In these Wagner developed his theories with somefulness . In the first place, he insisted that a libretto should be poetic,andworthy. He held also that the composer should wri te his ownlibrettos. Wagner did this so well that The Mastersingers” is nowa textbook in the Germ an schools . In “The Ring” he wrote in abrief, strong fashion pregnant with expression, and well suited tom usicalsetting. He insisted on the continuous style that he ca lledMelos . He held that the music should always reflect and intensifythe spiri t of the words or situation ; andthis idea he carried outfaithfully. He summed it up well in the words,

“Music is Truth .

” Heused also guiding motives, especially in

“The Ring. These areshort, pregnant phrases that illustrate som e personage or event, andm ay be used afterwards to suggest that character or event. As willbe seen

,the use of these m otives enables an orchestra literally to tell

a story in tones . He discarded ensem bles as being unnatural . Butback of alltheories was Wagner’s own musica l inspiration . His compositions showed the possibilities of the rich modern orchestra as

applied to opera . Liszt handled the instruments equally well , butin certain operatic scenes Wagner’s genius went far beyond that ofLiszt. Wagner learned from Beethoven, though his idiom is vastlydifferent. Wagner may rank with Beethoven and Bach in leadership.

The Rheingold opens in the depths of the Rhine, with the threeRhine Daughters playing as they guard the gold . Alberich, king ofthe Nibelungs (subterranean Dwarfs), enters suddenly. At first heis charmed by the maidens ; but on learning that he who renounces

216 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL IQ ‘IOWLEDGE

But in the fight, Hunding is allowed by Wotan to kill Siegmundthough Wotan then kil ls Hunding . The third act shows a gatheringof the Valkyries, with Brunhilde coming to escape from her father,who is angered at her disobedience. The two are left alone, andWotan is pacified , but even against his will he must punish Brunhilde. He puts her into a magic sleep, andmakes her the prize of thefirst man who finds her ; but ather request he surrounds her with amagic ring of fire, through which none but the bravest man can

penetrate.Before Siegfried , Sieglinde has died , andSiegfried , Siegmund

’schild, is brought up by the Dwarf Mime, who hopes the youngmanwi ll weld Siegmund ’s sword and slay Fafner with it.Siegfried ” opens with Mime at work over his forge, and the

boisterous Siegfried being told the story of his birth . After Mimehas a dialogue with Wotan, Siegfried forges the sword successfully.

The second act shows a forest glade, where Siegfried muses on thesylvan beauty. The dragon appears, and Siegfried kills him. Ataste of the blood, which has spattered on Siegfried

’s hand, enableshim to read any one

’s thoughts. Learning thus that Mime will tryto kill him and take the gold, he kills Mime. Guided by the birds

’

songs, he goes to seek Brunhilde. In the third act, Wotan tries tobar the way, but his spear is broken by Siegfried

’s sword. Siegfriedpierces the ring of fire, andwins Brunhilde

’s love.A prologue in “Die GOtterdamm erung

” shows the Nom s, or

Fates, spinning the thread of the Gods until it breaks. Siegfriednow exchanges his ring for Brunhilde’s horse .Grane, and starts insearch of adventures. After an orchestral interlude, the Hall of theGib ichungs, on the Rhine, is seen . There Siegfried finds Guntherand his sister Gutrune with their ha lf-brother Hagen, son of Alberich. Hagen, who knows ofthe ring, wishes to get it. He gives Siegfried a magic potion that makes the latter forget Brunhilde and loveGutrune. Then he suggests that Siegfried shall get the ring and

bring Brunhilde to be Gun ther’s bride, which is done by Siegfried inGunther’s form. In the second act, Brunhilde is overcome on seeingSiegfried wear ing her ring andmarrying Gutrune. She accuses himof treachery ; butthe potion hasm ade him forget the past. Gunther,thinking himself betrayed, joins Hagen in plotting Siegfried

’s death.

In the third act, in a forest, the Rhine Daughters beg Siegfried to

WAGNER AND HIS REFORMS 217

give them the ring ; buthe refuses, in spite of their warning . Hagenrestores Siegfried ’s m em ory by a second potion ; andwhen he hastold of Brunhilde, Hagenstabs him in the back, his one vulnerable spot. Another scene shows Gutrune at the castle. Hagen saysSiegfried has been killed by a boar . He claim s the ring, and stabsGunther in order to get it. But as he reaches for it Siegfried ’s deadhand is ra ised in warning. Brunhilde, having learned the truth fromthe Rhine Daughters, irnm olates herself on Siegfried ’s funeral pyre.As Hagen tries to get the ring from the ashes, the Rhine rises andengulfs him , the m aidens thus recovering the ring. Meanwhile aglow in the sky is seen ; Walhalla is in flam es, the old Gods perish,andhum anity rules on earth.

The m usic of this great epic is best understood by a close knowledge of the words. Without that, some passages seem tedious. Buteven to one who knows little of the librettos, the scores containmany orchestral passages of great beauty. Such are the entranceinto Walhalla , the Ride of the Valkyries, the Magic Fi re music, theForest Rustling, and the Rhine Journey. But allthe m usic isstrongly effective, and suits the words rem arkably well . In

“The

Rheingold ” are the rhythmic, steady pulsation of the river, theRhine Daughters’ attractive calls, the odd rhythm of the Dwarfs

’

hamm ers, and the heavy footsteps of the Giants, beside the variousmotives of the Gods and the Walhalla music. In

“Die Walkiire”

are the storm , the love-song of Siegmund, the Wotan-Fricka scene,Siegm und’s brave protection of Sieglinde, the fight in the darkness,and the wonderful scenes of the Valkyries and the Magic Fire. In“Siegfried ” are that hero’s forging of the sword, the m urm urs ofthe forest, the fight with the dragon, andthe grea t duet at the close.In Die GOtterdamm erung

” the gu iding m otives are built up intogrand climaxes . The use of these m otives m ay be shown by Siegfried ’s funera l m arch, which practica lly tells the story of his life intones . Another fam ous exam ple of their use is in the first act of“DieWalkiire.

” Siegmund, alone by the hearth of his enem y, is lostin m using. The motives show that he barely thinks of the storm ; herem em bers Sieglinde andher kindness instead. Soon he grows agitated, and finally ca lls for the sword. The firelight then flares upandreflects on the sword hilt in the trunk of the tree about which thehut is bu ilt ; while in the orchestra the sword motive is interwoven


with the motive of Wotan’s com pact, showing the audience that the

prom ise of the sword will be kept.“Tristan and Isolde” opens on shipboard . King Mark had

chosen as his bride the subjugated Irish princess Isolde, andhadsentTristan to be her escort. Isolde wishes to die ; and she summonsTristan (whom she hates because he did not woo her for himselfon a former occasion) to drink a fatal draught with her. But her

servant, Brangaene, substitutes a love-potion for the fatal draught,andthe pa ir feel its effects. In the second act, atKing Mark’s castle,Tristan meets Isolde secretly, and they sing of their love. But hisenemy, Melot, brings the king on the scene, andwounds Tristan,who is taken away by his squ ire Kurwenal. The third act showsTristan sick and delirious at his castle in Brittany. A shepherd signals that a ship is approaching. Isolde enters . Tristan dies, andshesings his elegy and dies of love, just as Mark’s men, from a secondship, force their way in . Mark has learned of the potion, and isready to pardon the pair ; buthe com es too late.The music of this work is intense in character. To some it seems

monotonous, while others regard it as the very essence of Wagner’stheories. Ifthe text is followed closely, the music will be found toillustrate it perfectly.

The Mastersingers of Nurem berg opens in a church , with theknight Wa lther von Stolzing andEva, daughter of the goldsmithPogner, falling in love at first sight. Learning that her hand is tobe the pri ze in a m astersinging contest, Walther wishes to enter themasters’ guild. The apprentice David, under orders from Eva

’smaidMagdalena , tells him of their intricate rules. He discards these,however ; and he sings to the masters, who have gathered, a trialsong that is free, though poetic enough . A pedantic rival , Beckmesser, counts him as failing ; and only Hans Sachs appreciates hispoetic gifts . The opera is in som e sense autobiographica l , andWal

ther represents Wagner, whose genius was not recognized by thosewho clung to old standards. The second actshows the narrow streetbetween Pogner

’

s house and the cobbler shop of Sachs. Eva and

Walther try to elope, but Sachs, working in the open air , preventsthem by his presence. Beckmesser com es to serenade Eva , but hisludicrous music reaches Magdalena , who has sat at the windowto personate Eva while she met Walther. Beckm esser pretends to


holy spear, with which Klingsor hadwounded him. He can be curedonly by a touch of the spear. The first scene is a rustic glade, wherethe innocent Parsifal slays one of the sacred swans, thinking no evilof it. The knight Gurnemanz takes him to the Grail castle, the scenery moving by in a panorama until the pair enter the castle hall .There the Grail service is held, butParsifal does not understand it.Gurnemanz hadhoped to find in him the guileless fool ” who wasto heal Amfortas . The second act shows Klingsor’s magic gardenand its flower maidens . Parsifal, who has entered, is tem pted byKundry ; but at her kiss he recoils, and gains the understandingthat he hadnot possessed before. His resistance to temptation overcomes Klingsor ; he recovers the holy spear, and the garden sinksinto ashes . The third act takes place on Good Fri day. Parsifal isbaptized by Gurnemanz, andanointed by Kundry, the latter beingnow freed from Klingsor’s spell, andduly penitent. Again the scenerymoves until the Grail castle is reached . This time Parsifal knowswhat to do, and heals Amfortas with the spear , being afterwardsmade king himself.The music is sometimes a little spun-out, but it has many great

beauties. These include the joyous Parsifal motive, the Grail service, the attractive song of the flower ma idens, Kundry

’s sensuousappeal , the

“Good Fri day ” spell , and the final service.Wagner composed a few otherworks, such as hisdramatic Faustoverture and severalmarches . Of the latter, the Kaisermarschwas for Germany, andthe Centennia l March for the PhiladelphiaExposition . But his operatic marches, such as the one in “Tannhauser,

”are much worthier affairs . The “Siegfried Idyl ,

” plannedas a surprise for his wife Cosima atTriebschen, is full of beauty. Ituses motives from the music-drama, but treats them in a new way.

XXIV

BRAHMS AND THE SYMPHONISTS

JOHANNES BRAHMS was born atHamburg in 1833. Son of a contrabass player, the boy soon learned the rudiments of music, thoughhis father’s opposition made him work in secret at first. He practised composing exercises andvari ations by himself for a tim e ; butunder Marxsen his studies becam e system atic and thorough. Whenfourteen, Brahms appeared publicly as pianist and composer ; buthe wisely withdrew from the career of a prodigy andstudied quietlyfor som e years more. He earned a precarious living by arrangingmarches anddance music, or playing atdances himself.At this time he went on a tour with the violinist Remenyi. Oncethey were to play the Kreutzer Sonata ” of Beethoven. The pianoproved too lowfor the needed violin brilliance ; so Brahms transposedthe entire piece a sem itone upward, from m em ory, and played itwith accuracy andspiri t, in spite ofRem enyi

’

smisgivings. Joachim,

who was in the audience, was so astounded by this feat that he gaveBrahms letters to Liszt andto Schum ann . The tour ended suddenlyat Hanover, where the police remembered that Remenyi

’

s brother(and probably he himself too) had been active in the uprisings of1848. But the pair went to Weimar, andgave a performance whichLiszt heard . Rem enyi introduced his com panion at Liszt

’s house,where the latter played Brahms ’s Scherzo (Op . 4) from an alm ostillegible manuscript. A little later, Liszt played his own sonata ; butwhen he looked around for approbation, he found that Brahms,worn out from travel, was sleeping peacefully.

Brahms made a m uch better impression on Schumann.

from Gottingen to Dusseldorf (he was too poor at the moment toride), he was warmly welcomed on his arrival , and enterta ined forsome tim e. He captivated the local musicians by a performance ofSchum ann’s Carni and Schumann responded by wri ting upBrahms m ost favorably in his magazine. The article calls Brahmsthe coming hero of music, speaks of his piano sonatas as veiledsymphonies, andpraises his other early works.

2 22 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE

One result of this praisewas an appearance at the Leipsic Gewandhaus. There Brahm s m etwith a foretaste of the adverse criticismthat was to follow him for some tim e. In spite of the praise of Schumann andJoachim , one critic wrote,

“Brahms will never become astar of the first magnitude” ; andanotherwished him

“speedy deliverance from his over-enthusiastic patrons .” But attention wasdrawn to the young m an , and the publishers soon began to print his

Brahms was a devoted friend to the Schumanns during the eldercom poser’s illness ; and in later life Brahm s cherished the greatestadmiration forMme. Clara Schumann.

Soon after this Dietrich described Brahms as having a depth ofseriousness, but an underlyi ng vein of quiet hum or also. Brahmsnever marri ed , though at Dietrich ’s house he met a lady whom hesaid he would have liked to marry . Poverty prevented him atfirst,and afterwards he considered it too late. His life was orderly andwell-balanced , exhibiting allthe virtues of the Germ anic character,in refreshing contrast to Wagner.

Much of Brahm s’s later life was passed in Vienna . Hewas fond oflong walks , andwou ld often settle down for a time at any near-byplace that seem ed quiet andsuitablefor com position . In these trips,and in his summer vacations, he showed an extrem e fondness forchildren . He would often carry sweetmeatsfor them . Once an English lady, wishing to see Brahms when he stopped at the hotel whereshe was staying, found him on all-fours, giving a horseback ride tothree juvenile friends .

Brahms was at first described as rather delicate, slim-looking,and with a beardless face of ideal expression .

” He remarked ofhimself,

“I suppose I did look something like a candidate for the

ministry in those days . But he grew afterwards to really Teutonic breadth ofsta ture . He was athletic enough, andused to befond of diving when off on vacations with Henschel or other friends.In m ounta in-climbing, however, he wou ld soon be out of breath ;though he Often concealed his state by getting his comrades to pauseand examine the view.

Brahms wasmuch averse to writing letters. An English publisheronce wished perm ission to bring out the com poser’s new worksat the same time that they appeared in Germ any ; but Brahms


learned (either by study or experience) that form is the true logic ofmusic. So great a writer as Finck has ca lled Brahms ’s work “musicalsmall-ta lk, m eaningless twaddle,

”andrated the composer as “a

grea t dressmaker ; a musica l Worth . But the “dressmaking,” the

balancing of structure , anddevelopment of figures, are rea lly pointsof value in m usic, andnot a cause for reproach . More difficult tounderstand is Runciman’

s cla im that Brahms “hadnot the intellectof an antelope,

”and

“hadnot a great matter to utter. Time has

shown the true value of Brahms, who stood for allthat was best inclassicism.

The orchestral works of Brahms include four symphonies,two

overtures, a beautiful set of variations on a Haydn theme, a setof Hungarian dances, a serenade, and another serenade for sm allerorchestra . With these works belong a lso two piano concertos , astandard violin concerto, anda double concerto for violin and ’cello.Of these works, the sym phonies are heard oftenest. The first one, inC minor, is the one that Von Biilow ca lled the

“tenth ,” not exactly

because it was fit to succeed the nine of Beethoven, but because itcam e tenth in a list of great symphonies that he was making. Themusic is deeply earnest and austerely noble. The second symphony is more playful . The third has many moments of beauty,while the fourth is sometimes odd andnovel in flavor.

The chamber music of Brahms displays the same earnestness andunderlying feeling that the orchestral works show. It consists of twostri ng sextets, two string quintets, three stri ng quartets , a quintetforclarinet and stri ngs, three piano-violin sonatas, two

’cello sonatas ,three piano tri os, three piano quartets, a piano quintet, a tri o forpiano, viol in, andhorn, another with clarinet in place of horn , andtwo clarinet sona tas . The piano quintet and the sextets are especially great.The piano solos by Brahms include sonatas, rhapsodies, varia

tions, études, and other pieces. He wrote a lso an excellent sonataandother works for four hands, besides two organ compositions. Inallthese , both chamber and solo works, he is at

l

his best. He doesnot give the artist much chance for technical display. The piecesare hard enough for the performer, but it is a self-abnegatory sort ofdifficulty , in which he has to present form or emotion without show

BRAHMS AND THE SYMPHONISTS 225

Brahm s composed many fairly large choral works, som etimeswi th orchestra . Best of these is the great “German Requ iem ,

” nota liturgical requiem , buta noble oratorio treating of death andconsolation. He wrote this just after his mother’s death, andundoubtedly hadher in m ind. Another great work is the Ode of Destiny,for chorus andorchestra .

“Nanie” andthe “Song of the Fates ” areother famous choral-orchestral compositions. The list is com pletedby m otets, psalm , andm any choruses.Brahm s composed over two hundred solo songs. In many of these

his style of unobtrusive emotion anddepth is shown to the best advantage. Such a case is found in the “Sapphic Ode,

”apparently

simple, but in reality most poignant in expression. Nearly allthesongs are vocalgems ; but som e of the part-songs show an overrefinement of style, and a too great repression that resu lts in comm onplaceness. The cham ber andorchestral works avoid this defect,for they offer the composer many parts instead of a single melodicvoice, andallow him to give to his music the contrapunta l suggestion that makes for strength and permanence.On the whole, then, Brahms is the com poser who leans most to

ward intellectualeffects. These are not dry anduninspired, as som ecritics assert. His effects are contem plative where those of a Beethoven were dram atic ; but they have their full share of feeling, inspite of the occasional quietness of style. The appreciation ofBrahm s is still growing ; and the next generation will probably admit that Von Bulow’s ranking him with Beethoven was practicallyjustified . In the wild chaos of m odern radicalism ,

Brahm s stands asa model of allthat is sane andwell-balanced in m usic. Ifothers donot follow his lead , it is because they do not possess his genius. Theimpressionistic style is easy to adopt, and the student can soonlearn to compose in the programm e school by throwing togetherhis masses of orchestralcolor. But it is much harder to write m usicthat unites the logic of form with the persuasiveness of expressivebeauty, and yet does not borrow interest from any outside story.

Brahms did this, but no one seems to have inherited his mantle ofleadership.

Anton Bruckner (1825—96)was in some respects a rival of Brahms.Without desiring it, Brahm s was held up as a model for Wagnerby the latter’s enemies. Brahm s himself could appreciate Wagner’s


freedom of style, but atfirst the cr itics could not. When Brucknerbegan to becom e known by his sym phonies, their involved character andtheir use of the fu ll m odern orchestra tempted Wagner’s par.

tisans to cla im him as a sym phonist of the Wagnerian school . ThatWagner looked askance atallsuch riva lry is shown by his statementthat he intended his style only for opera . But that did not preventthe upholders of both sides from making rivals out of Brahms andBruckner, with m uch consequent bickering.

Bruckner was born at Ansfelden, in Upper Austria . His fatherand grandfather were school-teachers, his mother an innkeeper’sdaughter. He was the Oldest of twelve children . As the teacherswere expected to be musicians, Anton found his father ready to teachhim . At twelve he was sent to a relative, Weiss . When his fatherdied , his mother a nd the family moved to St. Florian’s, whereAnton became a choir-boy. There he continued his studies.As a school-teacher in Windhag, he was so poor as to be literally

half-starved. Kronstorf proved even worse ; but he was soon transferred to Steyr, where there was a good organ and sufficient pay.

After that he taught atSt. Florian , practising ten hours a day on theorgan andthree on the piano. Later on he became organist atLinz,and finally he went to Vienna , where he became a conservatoryteacher.

His great mastery of counterpoint was shown in a theoretica lexam ination, when Herbeck and others gave him a subject on whichhe was to extem porize a fugue. Herbeck m ade the subject long andhard ; but Bruckner handled it with such mastery that Herbeckexclaim ed, He should examine us instead.

”In sp ite of his skill,

Bruckner studied with Sechter. This teacher was not the best one,for Bruckner was often diffuse, andSechter didnot correct the tendency.

Owing to the Brahms-Bruckner rivalry, the criticHanslick becamea virulent enemy OfBruckner, slashing athis works, andeven opposing his appointm ent as counterpoint teacher. So much did this injustice rankle that when Bruckner was presented to the Em peror,andasked to nam e a favor, he replied naively,

“Won’t you pleasemakeMr. Hanslick stop writing about m e? ” Von Biilow, the Herzogenbergs, and other friends of Brahms were also unable to appreciate Bruckner’s greatness.

BRAHMS AND THE SYlWPHONISTS 227

In person, Bruckner was full of odd mannerisms , andshowed a slypeasant hum or that betrayed his hum ble ori gin . But he was trem endously sincere in his music. Once he said to a friend,

“I think

that if Beethoven were alive, and I should go to him with my seventh symphony, andsay,

‘Here, Mr. Van Beethoven, this is not sobad as certain gentlem en would make out,

’

I think he wouldtake me by the hand, and say,

‘My dear Bruckner, never mind, Ihadno better luck.

’ Then I’dsay to him ,

‘Excuse me for going beyond you in freedom of form, but I think a true artist should makehis own forms , andstick to them.

Bruckner composed three m asses, a requiem, a Te Deum for

voices, orchestra , and organ, a“Tantum Ergo,

”and other sacred

works ; but he is best known by his nine symphonies . Weingar tnersays that Bruckner was too much given to the invention of ideas,and too little to their development, while Brahm s showed the reverse fault. Bruckner’s sym phonies are often long, andnot alwaysperfectly balanced . But they are earnest to the point of absoluteausterity, and their intensity im presses the bearer in spite of anyfaults of construction . The seventh andeighth sym phonies are fullof grand effects. The ninth is unfinished , being without a finale. Itis dedicated to God . The large plan andserious intent of these worksplaces Bruckner am ong the masters.Max Bruch, born in 1838 at Cologne, has been active in many

fields . He composed three symphonies, but these are seldom heardnow. A better fate awaited his four violin concertos, as they arefavorites with the soloists , especially the beautifu l work in G m inor.

His oratorio,“Moses,

”andthe operas “Lorelei ” and Herm ione,

”

are comparatively little known ; but in the field of the epic cantatahe achieved constant success. The martial Fri thjof andthe striking “Odysseus ” are works in this form that are most wonderfullyimpressive. “Arm inius” is less so, though it is the composer

'sfavorite . Other works of the same sort are “Achilleus,

” “The Songof the Bell ,

”and

“Dam ajanti.

” Such m ale choruses as Salam is,”

“Leonidas , and the “Norm annenzug” deserve especial m ention

for sim ilar virile qualities.Herman Goetz (1840—76) com posed a sym phony which has re

ma ined in the repertoire for som e tim e. He became known also byan Operatic setting of “The Taming of the Shrew.

”


August Klughardt (1847—1902 ) composed five symphonies, thesymphonic poem “Leonore, several overtures, and four operas.Josef Rheinberger (1837—1902) produced a Florentine sym phony,three overtures, the tone-picture

“Wallenstein ,” two operas, a

mas s, andmuch chamber music. He excelled in counterpoint. As ateacher, he hadm any American pupils .Fri edrich Gernsheim, born in 1839, has been known as conductor,

teacher, and composer. He wrote four symphonies, of which thefirst and last have been most frequently given. His choral-orchestral works include Die nordische Sommernacht” and DerNornenWiegenlied.

” His male choruses, such as“Salamis ” andthe “Watch

terlied,”are well known . A recent composition is the Overture to

a Drama ,” which handles m odern effects with classic dignity.

Gustav Satter, born in 1832 , has composed symphonies, overtures, an opera , and the tone-picture

“Washington .

”

Ferdinand Thieriot, born in 1838, has composed orchestral fantasies, m anuscript symphonies, and the opera

“Renata .

”

Georg Riemenschneider, born in 1848, is another conservativecomposer for orchestra .

Hans Koessler has produced a symphony, a violin concerto, acantata , andsmaller works ; buthe became best known through hissymphonic variations, in which he endeavored to picture Brahms invarious phases of life.Wilhelm Berger, born in Boston, though living in Germany, is

an other conservative. His “Todtentanz” scored a fair success.Georg Henschel, for a long time intimate with Brahms, com posed

som e instrum ental music, as well as an oratorio, a requiem, andsm alloperas . But he became most famous by his singing and his earlyleadership of the Boston Symphony Orchestra .

Paul Caro composed four symphonies, aswell as symphonic poems

andOperas.Ignaz Bri ‘rll(1846- 1907) composed a symphony, serenades, con

certos, and overtures, but was most widely known by his operas,such as “The Fiery Cross ” and

“The Heart of Stone.Other Germ an sym phonists include Albert Thierfelder, Karl

Gramm ann , Max Zenger, Bernard Scholz, Heinri ch Hofm ann,Richard Heuberger, Arnold Krug, Otto Kurth , andRichard Metzdorff. Many of these men composed operas also. Other opera

XXV


EDWARD HAGERUP GRIEG (1843—1907) was the only Scandinaviancomposer to win a place among the world ’s great musica l masters .Born atBergen , he benefited by the musica l atmosphere of his home,andwas well taught by his mother. Ole Bull was so im pressed byGrieg

’

s early attem pts at composition that he persuaded the boy’sparents to send him to Leipsic for study. This was done, and thecourse com pleted , in spite of illness. Grieg then worked under Gadefor a while ; but in Copenhagen he met Rikard Noordraak, whosenational principles drew Grieg

’

s attention to the beauty of theNorwegian folk-m usic. Grieg returned afterward to Norway, wherehe settled in Christiania , married a charming and cu ltivated wife,and devoted himself to composition. A later change of residencebrought him to a villa near Bergen, where his retired life

‘ could notprevent him from receiving many honors, and drawing a government pension. Occasionally he made little tours, where he provedcalm and forcefulas a conductor, but rather nervous as a pianist.In com position, Grieg became devoted to a style that echoed the

Norwegian folk-music. That music is full of the most expressiveandplaintive effects, as may be shown by such songs as

“Astri , myAstri ,

”or“The Herder’s Call .” The richness of melodic andhar

monic beauty in Grieg’

s works of course goes beyond the popularstyle, but is nevertheless a very definite idea lization of it. Grieg

’

s

melodies are lyri cal, and full of a sweetness that is never commonplace, but always remarkable for its joyous enthusiasm or plaintivesadness . There is in his works a melting tenderness, a warmth ofsentiment that seems perennially charming . His harmonic effectsare responsibleformuch of this, as they are not only fresh andnovel,but full of feeling andpathos also .

Grieg’s com positions may be divided into three classes. These

consist of his larger works,the smaller works that are essentia lly his

own, and the many pieces directly inspired by the Norwegian folkmusrc.


Best known in the first class is the Peer Gynt m usic, which thecom poser arrang ed in two concert suites . The melodic beauty of the“Morning Mood,

” the intense gloom of “Aase ’s Death ,” the rhythm

of“Anitra ’s Dance, andthe suggestive oddity of In the MountainKing's Halls” are known to nearly allconcert-goers. The secondsuite is less familiar, but conta ins

“Solvejg

’

s Song,” whi ch is a gem

of pathetic appeal. His other orchestral works include the im pressiveAutumn overture, a worthy anddignified piano concerto, the melodram a Bergliot,

”andthe “Sigurd Jorsalfar

” suite, as well as som eNorwegian dances. The elegiac m elodies, the Norwegian them es,and the Holberg sui te are allfor stri ngs . These works show allofGrieg

’

s rich fulness of lyri cal expression ; and the same is true of thelarge choral works, such as

“Olaf Trygvason .

The second group may be said to include Grieg’

s three beautifulviolin sonatas, in F, G, andC minor. Of these the first is the favorite. Many of Grieg

’

s piano works belong here, among them the“Humoresken” anda part of the “Lyric Pieces .” Here, too, mustbe classed the many beautiful songs that Grieg com posed . Thesesongs show a most wonderful freshness of inspiration. Such lyrics as“Die Prinzessin,

” “Sonnenuntergang,” “Waldwanderung,

” “Haa

kons Wiegenlied , or The Fi rst Primrose,” show a most surprising

andnovel beauty of style. Grieg hadsomething new andinterestingto say in music ata tim e when inspiration seemed ata discount else

More directly inspired by the Norwegian music are the Hallings,Spri ng Dances,

”andsim ilar num bers, both in the

“Lyri c Piecesandelsewhere. Som e of these, like the

“Slatter,” Op . 72 , were mod

elled on the actual performances of peasant musicians.Grieg has been com pared with Chopin, since both emphasized

em otion, andboth drew inspiration from nationa l sources. ButwhileChopin som etim es grew morbid, Grieg never did . Grieg

’

s m usic isplaintively expressive rather than intensely passionate . But it losesnothing by this, as its charming origina lity leaves the auditor refreshed instead of exhausted .

Among Norwegian musicians, Ludwig Lindemann did pioneerwork in collecting the folk-music. Waldemar Thrane produced thefirst native opera . Ole Bull composed a violin concerto and otherlarge works, butwrote also in the national style. TorgeirAudunson


was a native genius who refused to take music-lessons . Halfdan Kjerulf

’

s songs were early favorites in many nations. Rikard Noordraa k died very young, but became known by his national songs.Edmund Neupert, Adolf Terschak, andChr istian Cappelen deservemention also . Erik Meyer-Helmund (born at St. Petersburg) composed som e successful songs and an opera . Among the women

,

Agathe Backer-GrOndahlis known by her expressive voca l works .

Peer Winge andPeer Lasson are also successful song composers .Johann Severin Svendsen (1840—1911) was less distinctively na

tionalin style. He studied in Germany, toured Europe as a violinist,married an Am erican wife, and settled in Denmark. His “Rhapsodies Norvégiennes,

” like his “Carnival at Paris , give a verymuch diluted nationalism . His sym phonies , his

“Z orahayda

” music,and his “Sigurd Slem be” overture show sim ilar qualities , beinggood music, but not distinctively national or overwhelmingly ori

ginal.

Christian Sinding, born in 1856, has shown himself the greatest ofthe Norwegians after Grieg. He has entered the orchestral field witha symphony, a

“Rondo Infinito,” the “Episodes Chevaleresques ,

”

a pian o concerto, and two violin concertos . A recent work of muchmerit is his opera ,

“The Holy Mountain.

” He wri tes with modernorchestral control . He has com posed songs, but he is m ost widelyknown by his many excellent piano pieces, of which the

“Rustle ofSpring is a favorite. Sinding has been so fond of weaving rapidtonal em broideries about his themes that the musica l copyists unitedin charging him more than the regular ra tes.Johann Selmer, born in 1844, composed several orchestral tonepictures, andmany voca l works.Otto Winter-Hjelm

,born in 1837 wrote two symphonies based on

German models, but became more popular by his songs and othershort works.Ole Olsen, born in 1850, has composed a symphony, incidental

music, the symphonic poem “Asgardsreien,

” the opera “StigHvide,

”andm uch piano music. His birthplace was Hammerfest,

the most northerly city in the world.

Sigurd Lie and Eyvind Alnaes are more recent orchestral composers in Norway. Thom as Tellefsen, of Norwegian descent, has


delightfully fresh enthusiasm, and a warm rich ness of harmonicbeauty.

Wilhelm Peterson-Berger, born in 1867, is an operatic leader, having produced “Sveagaldrar,

” Fortune,”andthe latermusic-drama

“Ran .

” His operatic lyri cs, like his songs, are sometimes pensive,but generally marked by a sunny warmth of feeling.

Hugo Alfvén , born in 1872 , has composed three fairly successfulsymphonies, besides a Swedish rhapsody, a symphonic poem, and

many sm a ller works.TorAnliu , born in 1866, is famous as a violinist, andhas composedthree violin concertos and four idyls of much musica l worth.

Erik Akerberg has produced orchestral and choral works. Gustav Hagg has tried the orchestral forms, but is best known by hisorgan music. Jacob Hagg com posed a “Northern Symphony” and

other works . Fri tz andAnton Hartvigson were pianists as well ascom posers. Johann Nordqvist is an orchestra l wri ter of an Oldergeneration. Widéen has produced excellent male choruses. Lindegren was a composer of chamber music. Bror Beekrnan has workedin the violin field . Liliefors, Vletbad, Erikssohn , andLundberg havecom posed for the piano. Elfrida Andree leads the women, wi thValborg Anliu , HelenMunktell, andAlice Tegner deserving mention.

In Denmark, Gade’s prominence obscured both Johann Hartman

andhis gifted son Em il, though both hadwritten good sym phoniesandpopular operas . After Gade’s death, a new generation succeededthem.

Siegfried Saloman wrote operas for Copenhagen, beginning in1832 . Henrik Rung produced eight dramatic works, beginningin 1847. Alfred Tofftwas another Danish opera composer. JOrgenMalling was still another Copenhagen writer of operas. PresbenNoderm ann became known by his “King Magnus.”

In more recent years, Ludvig Schytté (1850—1909) composed several operas, including

“The Mameluke,” “The Swa llow,

” “Hero,”

and the burlesque “Circus-Damen,”as well as the pantomime

“Atelderspuck.

”

Eduard Lassen (1830—1904) has been mentioned in connection

A recent Danish opera composer is August Enna, born in 1861.He was handicapped at first by poverty, and once indulged in the


melodrama tic act of burning som e of his manuscripts for warmth .

His early “Village Tale ” won a little notice ; but“Areta ” was re

fused , and“Agla ia ” sacrificed as fuel . An orchestral suite and a

symphony won some attention anda little money, enabling the composer to travel. On his tour he wrote m uch of “The Witch,

” hisfirst great tri umph. This work was accepted by an opera manager,but laid aside, andrescued from oblivion only when Svendsen happened to look at the score and admire its beauties. It is based onFitger

’s drama of the same nam e. Its success was marked . Since

that time Enna has held a leading position in Denm ark. His lateroperas include “Cleopatra ,

” “Aucassin and Nicolette,

” “Lamia ,

”

“The Little Match-Girl,”and several other Andersen subjects .

In the orchestral field, Simon Paulli was an early composer whooutlived Gade. The Helsted fam ily, consisting of Hermann , Karl,andAdolph, were active in Dan ish music, the first composing ballets , while the other two wrote symphonies andvarious large works.LangeTMuller is a more recent sym phonic and operatic com poser.Joachim Andersen is a flute composer who has also entered the symphonic field. Victor Bendix , a Gade pupil, has com posed severalsymphonies, including the

“Felsensteigung and the “Sommer

klange aus Siidrussland. Asgar Ham erik , who taught for a time inBaltimore, has written six symphonies, som e operas, andother largeworks. Otto Malling has composed orchestral and chamber music.Em il Hornemann haswritten a number of overtures ; Fini Henriquesis known by incidenta l music, as well as piano pieces ; AugustHyllested is another orchestral composer who has taught in Am erica ;August Winding has written a violin concerto ; while Karl Nielsenis becoming known as an important sym phonist. In the smallerform s, Attrup, a Gade pupil, has com posed organ works ; whileJohann Nebelong andAsgar Juul have produced piano works andsongs . Thorvald Otterstroem is a visitor to America who has composed good chamber works.The first well-known Finnish composer was Bernhard Crusell

(1775 who lived in Sweden andGermany and composed theopera “Die Kleine Sklavin .

”But the real founder of the Finnish

school was Fredri k Pacius (1809 a Germ an by birth who spenthis life in Finland and com posed national songs and operas . Filipvon Schantz, who lived until 1865, produced songs, choruses, and


cantatas . Carl Wasenius was active atAbo, the former capita l .Karl Collan , son-in-law of Pacius, com posed very popular choralmarches . Conrad Greve, of Abo, wrote incidenta l music. Mohringdevoted his efforts to male choruses, while Ingelius, Ehrstrom , and

Linsén com posed well-known songs. Richard Faltin , the successorof Pacius as a teacher, produced canta tas, vocal works, andpianopieces . Martin Wegelius became known by the overture to “DanielHjort, andby his critica l essays. Robert Kajanus founded and ledthe Philharm onic Orchestra at Helsingfors, the capita l , and composed sym phonic poems on subjects from the Finnish national epic

,

the Kalevala . This epic has much literary interest, and may haveinspired the methods used by Longfellow in his “Hiawatha .

”

Armas Jarnefelt, born in 1869, wrote orchestral suites and the symphonic poem Korsholm,

”andunited lyri c beauty with rich instru

mentation. ErnestMielck, known as“the Finnish Schubert,

” diedwhen only twenty-two, after composing a beautiful symphony andother orchestralworks. Oskar Merikanto has produced an opera ,The Maid of Pohja . Ilmari Krohnhaswritten instrum ental works

andmotets, besides teaching andpublishing essays. ErikMelartin isa song-writer ; Emil Genetz awakened much enthusiasm by his malechoruses, such as Heraa Suomi ” (Awake, Finland while SelimPalrngren is known by songs andpiano pieces of much brilliancy.

But the leader of the Finnish school , and the only Finnish composer to win a government pension for musical excellence, is JeanSibelius . He was intended for the legal profession, but his violin lessons led him to adopt a musica l career. He studied withWegelius inFinland , andwith Becker andGoldmark in Berlin andVienna. Hehas composed four sym phonies at the present writing. His symphonic poems “The Swan of Tuonela ” and

“Lemm inka inen ” arebased on Kalevala subjects . “Islossningen,

” “Sandels,

”and

“Sub

frid ” dem and choruses, while“Kullervo ” em ploys soloists as well.

His suites,“Carelia ” and

“King Christian IV,

”are earnest works,

the Elegy in the latter being especially impressive. His “Finlandia ,

”an orchestral work based on Finnish tunes, aroused such

patriotic feeling that the Russians, after depriving Finland of selfgovernment, forbade the performance of the work. His other compositions include canta tas , voca l ballads, songs, piano pieces, string

XXVI

STRAUSS AND RECENT GERMANS

RICHARD STRAUSS was born at Munich on June 11, 1864. Hisfather, Franz, was first horn player in the court orchestra . On oneoccasion Fia nz found certain Wagnerian horn passages too diflicult;but he did not know then that his son would one day composemusic even more intricate than Wagner’s. Richard ’s mother was adaughter of the brewer Pschorr.

The child’s precocity, aided by the musical atm osphere of hishom e, resulted in a readiness for piano lessons at four, and thebeginning of composition at six. Songs andpiano pieces were evenfollowed by an orchestral overture. The child ’s handwriting wasstill immature, so the mother hadto inscribe the words of the songsin order to get them in to their proper space.During his Gymnasium course (at the age of eleven), young Rich

ard began taking lessons in musica l theory and com position . An“Electra ” chorus, several songs, an overture, anda string quartetcam e soon after this period . These were allin classical form and

style. The same is true of a violin concerto, a horn concerto, andthe F-m inor Symphony . The latter work was intended to be in theBrahm s style, but it is not so deeply earnest as the Brahm s symphonies. Piano works of these years, such as the

“Mood-Pictures,”

Op. 9, show much beauty, andare somewhat in Schumann’s style.

This group includes the delicate andetherea l Anotherearly choral work is the “Wanderers Sturmlied,

” Op . 14, for sixvoices and orchestra .

Soon after this, Strauss gained Von Bulow’s esteem , andwas ap

pointed assistant conductor atMeiningen. This came about afterVon B i ’rlow heard Strauss conduct, without rehearsal , his Serenade, Op . 7, for thirteen wind instruments. Strauss afterwardbecame chief conductor.It was at this time that Strauss met Alexander Ritter, who per

suaded the young composer to abandon classical forms andstyles in


the end of the work there is no m istaking the stern anger of the citizens who have caught the rogue. His inconsequential little theme isof not the slightest avail aga inst their insistent accusation . At lasthis them e starts in a final plea , but is choked offruthlessly in themiddle.“Also Sprach Zarathustra is based on Nietszche’s mystic phi

losophy, in which Zarathustra (Zoroaster) is made to teach a doctrine of super-men. There is a picture of the “Hinterweltern,

”or

dwellers in the rear-world of ordinary narrow humanity ; and theirstriving andyearning find voice in a tender Grave-Song.

” Scienceand its futility are represented by a chromatic fugue. A passage eutitled “The Convalescent” shows the defeat ofsorrow and trouble,and the triumph of the super-man ’s joy and laughter. An exultant Dance-Song ” pictures this still more definitely. At the closecomes the mystic “Song of the Night-Wanderer ” ; and the workends oddly in two keys, as if representing eternal doubt. Strangeas it m ay seem, this com position shows much sublimity, in spite ofthe unusual nature of its subject.“Don Qu ixote ” is still m ore definite in its tone-painting. This is

a set of variations, each of which portrays one adventure of theKnight of the SorrowfulCountenance. These adventures includethe attack on the windm ills, the dispersa l of the flock of sheep, thediscourses of the knight with his squire Sancho Panza , the mistakingof the pilgrim s for robbers, the knight

’s vigil, a meeting with Dulcinea , the ride through the air, the voyage in the enchanted boat,the mistaking of the two monks formagicians, andthe fight with theKnight of the White Moon. The original theme conta ins a passage,typical of the Don, that appears in a distorted shape atfirst, but in asim plified and clear form at the end, where the hero regains his samity just before his death. In the variations, the programme idea iscarried out thoroughly. The flock of sheep blea t persistently ; thepilgrims’ sacred phrases come to a rude end ; and the ride throughthe air is accom panied by a theatri ca l wind-machine.“Ein Heldenleben” (

“A Hero’s Life ”) is m eant as a bit of autobiography. It is divided into six sections. The first, portraying thehero, is brought to a great climax . Then his enemies are described,by cackling, snarling phrases on the woodwind instruments . Hishelpmate is represented by a solo violin, giving rather conventional

STRAUSS AND RECENT GERMANS 241

passages,d by a love-duet and other sweet music. The hero’sbattlefield is shown as a fierce orchestral struggle. The hero’s worksof peace, which form the fifth section, bring in them es from the composer’s earlier works, as m any as twenty-three rem iniscences, onewriter claim s . The final section shows the hero’s apotheosis. Thiswork is grand in conception, but the thematic material is som etim escommonplace.The “Dom estic Sym phony is a long one-movem ent work. It is

said to depict a day in the com poser’s hom e, which is apparently

very noisy. There are them es for father, mother, and child, whilethe advent of other relatives is suspected here and there. Straussonce told the present writer that the work is supposed to depict thepassing of night and the succeeding morning, in the latter of whichis a fugue portraying the education of the child. But he has givendifferent versions of the symphony atdifferent times. The mu

'

sic is

often broadly effective ; but it does not gain much from the natureof its subject.The programm e school , which seem s to have won first place in

contemporary m usic, perm its som e variety of treatm ent. Music candepict em otions successfu lly, but is at a disadvantage when tryingto describe actual scenes or events . A programm e subject that indica tes contrasts in em otion is therefore more fitted to perm it the writing of great m usic. Liszt’s “Tasso, Lam ento e Trionfo,

”has been

cited as an exam ple. In the m usic of Strauss,“Death andTrans

figuration” affords a sim ilar effective contrast without forcing themusic to depend on trivial details. But

“Don Qu ixote ” brings inthe objective rea lism which is hard to portray accurately by m usicalmeans . To illustrate this, the reader m ay listen to short program m epieces (piano solos are m ost convenient) without knowing theirnames . He will find that the m usic is alm ost always capable of m anyexp lanations, anddoes not of necessity suggest its subject. Straussclaim s that programm e m usic will u ltim ately becom e m uch m oredefinitely suggestive andaccurate ; but this idea , like his claim thatallcomposers really use m enta l programm es in writing m usic, isdefinitely incorrect. What m ay be called subjective programm emusic, dealing with em otions rather than events , hasm ore possibilities andm ore value than Objective programm e m usic.Strauss has com posed several operas . “Guntram ,

” the first, is a


story of a knight belonging, like Lohengrin, to a mystic order. Gun

tram rescues Freihild, who is drowning herself to escape a hatefulmarriage. Her father honors him, but is angered by his praises ofpeace andmeekness. He attacks Guntram , the latter killing him inself-defense. Though Guntram is held blameless, he knows thatrivalry in love was his real motive ; and he is forced to renounceFreihild.

“Feuersnoth is based on an old Oudenarde legend. Diemut, the

Burgomaster’s daughter, is loved by the stranger Kunrad. She resents a kiss given too publicly, andrevenges herself by enticing himinto a basket, hauling him halfway up to her window, and leavinghim there. In his turn he casts a spell that puts outallthe fires andlights in town ; and she renews her allegiance before he relents. Inthe legend the girl was made the only source of renewing the fire,so that her pride was abased by exposure to the touch and the eyesof the m ultitude. This opera has some richly orchestrated music,though it is not often performed . It has an autobiographical passagein the text, in which puns on Wagner (cartwright) and Strauss (bouquet) show that he, like Wagner, objected to the critics who hadm alignedhim at first. Butwhere Wagner

’s “Meistersinger” passagesare artistic, the personal allus ions of Strauss are too openly conceited.

His later operatic style has been exemplified by Salome,Elektra ,

” “Der Rosenkavalier, and

“Ariadne aufNaxos.” “Sa

lome is an intensely dramatic one-act affair.

“Elektra,” based on

Hofmannsthal’s version of the subject, is terrifically strong, andthe

orchestra almost drowns the singers’ voices. “Der Rosenkavalier”

is somewhat in the style of “The Marriage of Figaro, thoughscored for full modern orchestra ; but it lacks sincerity in a way, and

is not rated highly.

“Ariadne” is a two-act setting of “Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, one act being devoted to M . Jourdain’

s entertainment of the marquise, while the second consists of the play“Ariadne,

” given for her amusement. It is scored for only thirtysix instruments, buteach one is given important work in a solo style.The songs of Strauss are polished gems of perfection . Sometimesthey seem fragmentary at first, but on repeated hearing they all

show a most perfect unity. While his orchestral themes are som etimes commonplace, in spite of the grand uses to which he puts them,


cut off a head andyet leave it in place. In the first movement thecelestial maid Swanhilda appears. Wieland loves her, but she is terrifiedatfirst by earthly passion, andretires to her lofty abode. Thesecond movem ent shows Wieland’s despair. The third movementdepicts him forging a pair of wings, which he completes successfu lly.

In the fourth movement he departs aloft with Swanhilda, leavingthe dull world for the realms of eternal sunlight.Hauseg g er has written other works, including songs with orches

tra . He is prominent as a conductor. His music shows a most richlymelodious character, that makes it rem arkably attractive. “

Bar

barossa ,

”for exam ple, has many charming passages, though it is

rather long-drawn-out.Strauss and others consider Jean Louis Nicodé (born in 1853) a

pioneer in the programme school. Nicodé taught piano atfirst, andbecame a conductor. His works include the “Carnival Pictures,“Maria Stuart,

”a Jubilee March,

”a violin concerto, a set of

sym phonic variations, and choral-orchestral compositions, such as

“Das Meer” and

“Gloria ,”a romantic “8t und Sonnen-lied .

”

They show som e largeness of structure, andan interesting style.Felix Weingartner, born in 1863 , has been active in many fields,

and is known as a gifted conductor. After study with Mayer, whotaught Strauss, Weingartner spent some years as conductor in smalltheatres . In a letter to the present writer, he com plains of the hardconditions in these minor posts . I became acquainted with theirwretchedness, he wri tes . “The salary was small, 150 marks

a month, for seven months anda half . In Dantzic there

were only four or five first violins, two contrabasses, third-rate singers, a miserable chorus, andno chance for proper rehearsals, as thedirectors insisted upon an extensive repertoire.”

Weingartner’s first opera ,

“Sakuntala ,”was given by Liszt at

Weim ar . Later operas by him were “Malawika”and

“Genesius .”

His “Orestes ” is a group of three one-act dramas on subjects fromZEschylus. His symphonic poems include “King Lear” and TheElysian Fields,

” the latter being inspired by a BOcklin picture. Hehas also written symphonies

,of which the third , with organ, is full

of broad effects. His chamber music includes three stri ng quartetsand a sextet. He has com posed a lso many beautiful songs, and a

number of piano pieces . His larger works show a strong handling of


the orchestra, anda commendable freedom of style without radicalharm onic excesses.Max Reger, born in 1873, m ingles classical learning with experi

ments in abstruse styles. His stri ng quartets show the very intricateand jum bled harmonic effects that constitute modern radicalism.

He has composed a very beautiful set of vari ations, with fugue, on a

them e by Hiller ; buthis“Suite in Old Style ” shows less direct inspi

ration. He has written many organ works.

Butthe wildest radica l in modern Germany is Arnold Schoenberg,born in 1874. His earlier compositions, including theorchestral Gurrelieder,

” were fairly direct in style. Inhowever, he has em ployed wildly dissonant harmonies in a most surprisingway. His works seem atfirst sight nothing more than chaoticmasses of fragments . His piano pieces have made audiences thinkthat he m ust have wri tten them as a joke. But in spite of theirjumbled character, they show a marked drama tic force, even thoughthey are too radical for those who appreciate the more orderly workof Strauss . The “Five Orchestral Pieces ” form another much-discussed andmuch-abused work. Like the piano pieces, they are forthe m ost part almost too wildly radical to be classed as music. Butsom e of them, especially the first one, entitled

“Presentirnents,

”

show a dramatic power of utterance that prevents Schoenberg frombeing disregarded .

A list of those who have composed recent symphonies will includeHerm an Bischoff, Gustav Brecher, Hugo Daffner, Paul Ertel , theconductors Max Fiedler and Emil Paur, Georg Fitelberg , GustavKord, Julius Major, Josef Reiter, August Scharrer, Paul Scheinpflug , Ernst Seyffardt, and Ewald Straesser. Many of these m en

have com posed sym phonic poems also. Other orchestral writers areCarl Bleyle, Ernst Boehe, Walther Braunfels, Joseph Foerster,Oskar Fried, Richard Gabriel, Karl Kam pf, Siegfried Karg-Ehlert(known also by organ works), the boy-prodigy Erich WolfgangKorngold (a sym phonietta , a pantom ime “Der Schneemann ,

”

chamber music, and shorter pieces), Gerhard von Keussler, theearlier Julius Kniese, Theodor Kroyer, Walter Lam pe , RichardMandl , FranzMayerhoff, Heinrich Noren, Siegfried Ochs , BernhardPaumgartner, Ferdinand Pfohl, George Washington Pittrich, MaxPuchat, Felix von Rath, RudolfRoesel, Hugo Rueter, Hans Schaub,


Bernhard Sekles, Georg Schumann, Thomas Stamm , Rudi Stephan,Otto Taubm ann, Amadeus Wandelt, Hermann Wetzler, and theconductor Hans Winderstein . This list does not claim absolutecompleteness, for orchestralcomposers in Germany are as thick asblackberri es in August. But it is representative enough. Besidethese men, a number of the opera com posers have wri tten symphonies andother orchestral works. Best known among these areEugen D ’

Albert, Wa ldem ar von Baussnern , Leo Blech , AugustBungert, Otto Dorn, Josef Erb , Alban Foerster, Robert Fuchs, PaulGeisler

,Theodor Gerlach, Albert Gorter, Waldemar Kam pfert,

Hugo Kaun, Fri edrich Klose, Josef Krug-Waldsee, Friedrich Koch,Arthur Koennemann, Georg Kramm, Franz Mikorey, LeopoldReichwein, August Reuss, Bernhard Schuster, the older RobertSchwalm , Ludwig Thu ille, Fritz Volbach, RichardWetz, Hugo Wolf,FelixWoyrsch, andHeinri ch Zoellner. Among those who have paidattention to other forms, Max von Erdm anns rfer andReinholdHerman have composed cantatas , Hugo Roehr has produced an

oratorio, Robert Kahn andStephan Krehl are knownfor their chamher music, Heinrich Gebhard is a piano com poser, while Henningvon Koss, Alexander von Pielitz, and HansHeumann have wonnotice by their songs.In opera , Engelbert Humperdinck, born in 1854, is the most suc

cessfulof the contemporary Germans . Studying architecture at

first, he took up music at Hiller’s suggestion . His works include a

Moorish rhapsodie for orchestra , the choral ballad“Die Wallfahrt

nach Kevlaar,”andmanymusical plays arrangedfor his juvenile rel

atives. The latter include “DornrOschen,

” “The Kings ’ Children,“Sa int-Cyr,

”and

“Die Sieben Geislein .

” From these came also hisfirst great success,

“Hansel andGretel ” ; while a later opera ,“The

Kings’ Children,” is elaborated from the earlier musical play of the

same name.“Hansel and Gretel , brought out in 1893, is based on one of

Grimm’s fairy tales . It opens with the two children dancing andmaking merry instead of working. Finally they upset the cream-jug .

Their stepmother, catching them,sends them out to gather berries

on the Ilsenstein, to m ake up the deficit in food . Left alone, shebewails the family’s poverty. The father, Peter, returns in a rollicking humor, having sold his brooms andotherwares to good profit, and


the forest ag ain, with the minstrel living in the but of the witch ,whom the people had killed in anger at her supposed mockery.

Messengers com e to ask him to return ; anda child begs him to findthe king’s son and the goose-girl again. While he is away, the pairreturn to the hut, fam ished after their wanderings ; but the peoplerefuse them food , and they retreat to the hillside to die. The minstrelfinds them too late, andsings a very stri king lament over theirbodies . The music is keenly expressive andrichly melodious. Theplot is really an allegory meant to Show that true nobility of soul isnot recognized by the common herd .

A very successful opera , which has been translated into manylanguages, is

“Der Evangelimann,

” by Wilhelm Kienzl. Its plot isbased on self-sacrifice. Mathias and Johannes, two brothers, bothlove the same girl, Martha . She prefers Mathias ; andJohannes, inanger, sets fire to the barn where the lovers are meeting , and denounces Mathias as the incendiary. Martha ’s effort to save herlover prove futile ; he accepts his fate, and is imprisoned for twentyyears . After the term is up, Mathias finds Johannes dying, andforgives him . Kienzl, born in 1857, has composed other operas, such as“Urvasi,

” “Heilm ar der Narr,

” “Don Quixote,”and the recent

Kuhreigen, or“Ranz des Vaches ,

” based on the actions of theSwiss guard at Paris during the French Revolution .

Eugen D’

Albert, born in 1864 , is famous as a pianist. He has composed piano concertos, a

’cello concerto, overtures, anda sym phony.

But opera has been his chief work, andhe has set a dozen or moredram atic subjects . “The Ruby” is based on Hebbel ’s version of anOrienta l story , in which a Caliph

’s daughter is m agically imprisonedin the gem , and duly freed by her lover.

“Ghism onda

” treats thelove of a low-born m an for a princess . When discovered , he diesrather than reveal her secret ; but she makes his chivalry known.

Gernot” is a fairy opera with much delicate music. “Die Abreiseshows the reconciliation of a married couple, who haddrifted apart,but were brought together through the unwelcome attentions of athird party .

“Cain” is a one-act version, som ewhat altered , of theBiblical story. Der Improvisator” is a setting of Hugo’s “Angelo.”“Tiefland,

” the best of D ’

Albert’s works , treats a Spanish story of

true love that baffles the intri gues of a dissolute lowland Alcalde.Cyrill Kistler, born in 1848, was once looked upon as a possible


successor to Wagner. His Kunihild, which was well received , hasfor heroine Kunihild, who lives in a m agic castle, and is won bySigun , but loses him through the enm ity of his brothers. Kistlercom posed also “Eulenspiegel,

” the legendary “Baldur’s Death ,”

the comedy “Im Honigmond, and“Der Vogt von Miihlstein.

His style is som etim es too heavy-handed .

Max Schillings has produced the symphonic fantasias Meergruss ” and

“Im Morgen, and a dignified prologue to

Of his operas,“Ingwelde ” treats a viking story. Its heroine is car

ried from her home, her kidnapper is killed by his brother, andwhenshe returns , that brother kills her husband also , after which the pair,who love each other, set out in a boat and irnm olate themselves together.

“Der Pfeifertag

” is an attempt at the old-tim e atm osphereof Die Meistersinger.

” The plot includes various adventures on“Piper’s Day, with the guild resenting an excessive toll ; but it israther confused .

August Bungert went to Grecian mythology for his subjects, andcom posed a hexalogy consisting of

“Achilles,” “Clytemnestra,

“Circe,” “Nausicaa ,

” Odysseus’ Return , and Odysseus’ Death .

The plots are adm irably arranged , but the music is hardly greatenough for such beautiful subjects . Bungert wrote also a comicopera , the

“Tasso ” Overture, and a sym phonic poem.

Hugo Wolf (1860—1903) com posed an Opera , Der Corregidor,and partly finished another,

“Manuel Venegas. The form er isbased on a Spanish libretto, and apparently aims to duplicate thesuccess of “Carm en” ; but its story is intri cate, and its m usic notstrongly dramatic. His symphonic poem

“Penthesilea ” is a worthywork ; but he is best known by his many songs. These are real artworks, and continue the excellence of the Germ an Medwith something of the variety and force shown by the Strauss songs .Siegfried Wagner, born at Tri ebschen in 1869, has attempted to

carry on German opera , butwith more persistence than success. Hissubjects are good enough, consisting mostly of Germ an legendarylore ; buthis music is never great. His operas include

“Der Baren

h'

auter,” “Herzog Wildfang,

” “Der Kobold,

” “Bruder Lustig,”

The Kingdom of Black Swans, and others of the sort. But he isbetter known as a conductor.

Ludwig Thuille (1861—1907)wasmuch praised by Strauss . Thuille


com posed overtures and chamber works that are well known . Hisoperas consist of the unsuccessful “Theuerdank,

” the fairy play“Gugeline,

”and

“Lobetanz,

” given recently in New York.

Leo Blech , born in 1871, is credited with three symphonic poemsandsevera l operas. The latter include the village picture

“Das war

ich,

” the legendary “AschenbrOdel,” the dramatic “AlpenkOnig ,

”

and the bright comic Opera “Versiegelt.”

Heinrich Zoellner, born in 1854, shows American influence in hiscantata “Columbus ” and his choral work “Onaway, awake.

” Hehas composed also several symphonies . His operas include Der

Ueberfall,” “Fri thjof,

”and

“The Sunken Bell .Hugo Kaun ’s American stay resulted in “Mirmehaha andothersymphonic poems . Born in 1863, he now lives abroad . He has composed a

“Fatherland Symphony,” choral works, and the opera

“Der Pietist.Emanuel Moor, of Czech extraction, has composed a symphony,

two concertos , and three Operas .

Among operas that have been highly praised are Friedrich Klose’sIlsebill ,

” Paul von Klenau ’

s“Sulamith,

” Julius Bittner’s “DerMusikant,

” Arnold Mendelssohn’s “Elsi, Hans Pfitzner’s “DieRose vom Liebesgarten,

” Max von Oberleithner’s “Aphrodite ,”

MaxVogrich’

s“Buddha, andWaltershausen

’

s“Oberst Chabert.

Other opera com posers, not mentioned in connection with orchestralworks, are Robert Erben, Ivan Knorr, Gustav Kulenkampf, Reinhold Becker,MaxMarschalk, Karl Pottgiesser, Eugen vonVolborth,Ignaz Waghalter, andHector von Woikowsky-Bledau.


Eyolfinto an am bush, where he is killed . While the victors debatewhether such a gentle maid as Hulda should not be put out of thiscruel world, Eyolf

’

s m en appear, andshe casts herself into the sea toescape their vengeance.“Le Valet de Ferm e was an earli er opera tha t did not m etwith

grea t success . “Ghisella ” was left unfinished , and too fragmentaryfor performance .Franck com posed some excellent chamber music, anda number of

shorter works. His organ pieces are na turally well su ited to theirinstrum ent. His “Prelude, Aria etFina le,

”andsimilar compositions

for piano, are widely known .

Franck’s work is rathermodulatory. In his shorter pieces he showsan interesting style, though his modulations are not handled withthe freshness possessed by a Strauss . In the orchestral works,Franck’s manner is dignified and lofty, andoften strongly dramatic.His organ compositions show much solid learning.

Franck’s simple fa ith and devout earnestness won him muchrespect ; andRopartz wrote of him , He stands out from his contemporaries as one of an other age. They are scoffers, he was a

believer ; they vaunt themselves, he worked in silence ; they seekglory, he let it seek him . They shrink from nothing, concession, comprom ise , meanness even ; he performed his mission faithfully, andwithout counting the cost, leaving us the noblest exampleof uprightness .”

Charles Camille Sa int-Saens , born at Paris in 1835, represents amore conservative school . His musical activity began at sixteen

,

when he produced his first sym phony. Soon afterward he became achurch organist ; andhis la ter im provisations at the Madeleine madehim famous . He has been active also as a piano teacher anda publicperform er, though most of his later years have been spent in compositiou .

His orchestra l works include four symphonies, two suites, andfive piano concertos, of which the one in G minor, with clean-cutandante, graceful allegretto, and brilliant presto, is a prime favorite.For voices in addition he wrote a Christmas oratorio, two masses,the ode “La Lyre etla Harpe ,

”andmany orchestral ballads. His

songs with piano are often Oriental in character. His piano andorgansolos are al so successful . His four symphonic poems seem rather

R IMSKY -KORSAKOV DVORAK

FRANCK


Massenet started his operatic career with La Grand’ Tante and

Don César de Bazan .

” “Le Roi de Lahore,” which followed , was

spectacular. It dea lt with the love of Alim for the Hindu Pri ncessSita ,

who is coveted also by the powerfulScindia . In jea lousy,Scindia strikes Alim dead . The latter, in the Orienta l paradise , begsIndra that he may return to earth. He is accorded permission, butmust die (permanently) when Sita

’s life ends. Scindia’

s pursu itgrows so irnportunate that Sita kills herself. The scene in the Indianheaven is gorgeously set and staged .

Hérodiade”was another success, but it was thrown in the shade

by “Manon .

” The latter work, founded on Prevost’s novel , shows

that fa ir but fra il beauty leaving her loverfor a rich admirer, passingthrough various vicissitudes, being reconciled to the former, andfina lly dying in his arms .Le Cid ” proved rather weak, as Massenet

’

s style was sentimental rather than dramatic. “

Esclarm onde,” however, scored

another success . It shows the beautiful Byzantine sorceress of thatname winning the kn ight Roland , losing him through his lack ofcaution, andrecovering him when he gains her as prize in a tourney.

The prize idea , andthe condition that Roland will lose his love unlesshe keeps their relation secret, seem rem iniscent of Wagner’s librettos .“Werther” is based on Goethe’s novel Ofthat name. “Le Mage ”

treated an Orienta l subject. The very successful “Thai s” depictsthe conversion of an Alexandrian courtesan , who becomes trulydevout and sa int-like

,while the monk who converted her falls a

prey to feelings of earthly love for her.

“La Navarraise” is a one

act m ilitary affa ir (belonging to the vert'

smo school of rea lism ), inwhich the heroine kills a hostile leader to earn a reward, but is sus

pectedby her lover of having obta ined the money in a way less creditable to her honor.

“Le Portrait de Manon ” is a one-act love idyl .

Cendrillon trea ts a fairy subject. Griselidis” shows that legen

dary bride’s fidelity, which is unshaken by many attempts to proveher inconstant. “Roma ” and

“Don Qu ixote ” are later works, butneither of them made a success equa l to that of “The Jongleur ofNotre-Dame .

” This delightful m ediaeval story shows a poor, halfstarved Jongleur enterta ining a crowd . A monk reviles his calling ;and the sight of a donkey laden with food makes him willing to giveit up, and enter the monastery. Inside, he b ecom es the butt of all

FRANCK AND MODERN FRANCE 255

except the cook ;for they can alldo som ething in honor of the Virgin ,while he knows nothing su itable to offer her. Struck by a suddenidea ,

he thinks he will enterta in her ; andhe does his tricks before herstatue. The monks find him , and are shocked at what they thinkblasphemy ; but the statue com es to life, thanks him , and calls himto her side in heaven. This opera was written for m ale voices only,

but changed afterwards at Mary Garden ’s request, the juggler’s

part being arranged for fema le voice.Vincent d’

Indy, born in 1852 , is a leader of the new school that theFranck pupils developed . In a letter to the present writer, he m en

tioned Franck’s tea ching as “worthy andbeneficent direction .

” Atri p to Germ any in 1872 enabled D

’

Indy to meet Liszt ; and theVoung m an became a devout Wagnerian .

His first success was the “Piccolom ini Overture, which becamea part of the la ter “Wallenstein ” Triptych .

“La Chevauchée du

Cid ” and“Le Chant de la Cloche are voca l-orchestra l works. Theoverture to “Antony and Cleopatra ,

”and the “Jean Hunyadi

”

Sym phony, were followed by the symphonic poem“La Foret

Enchantée . This work, based on an Uhland poem , depicts theknight Harald riding through the woods, until his com panions arelost, and he him self thrown into a m agic sleep.

“Saugefleurie

” isanother sym phonic poem , trea ting a story by De Bonnieres . Istar,

”

the set of varia tions treating an old Assyrian legend , shows thatheroine seeking her lover in the abode of death . Her procedure ismarked by successive sacrifice s of her garments , to pacify thewarders ; and the work depicts this by reversing the usual form , and

having the variations grow sim pler, with the them e at the end . OfD

’

Indy’

s two sym phonies, the first is m ore successful . It is basedon a Cevennes air ; andthe pure, sadm elody is trea ted in a way thatis earnest, if som ewhat ascetic. Other orchestra l works by the composer include the Karadec

” su ite and incidenta l m usic to Mendes’

Médée.

”

In Opera , D’

Indy’

s early one-act comedy, Attendez-m oi sousl’

Orm e,”has been frequently given . Ferv is based on a Dru idic

plot, in which the hero, loved by Guilhen , daughter of his Saracen conqueror, renounces everything in a va in attempt to restorethe Dru ids’ power.

“The Stranger has a more sym bolica l plot.It treats of a Silent, patient stranger who meets persecution in a


fishing-village, but is loved by Vita . André, who is betrothed toVita , loses her love through his readiness to earn m oney by ferretingout poor sm ugg lers . The others think Vita foolish ; but she knowsand loves the stranger’s forgiving ways. Rom the shore a boat isseen in distress . NO one will try to aid it ; but finally the strangerdoes so. Vita rushes along with him . The pair rea ch the ship

, but

are engulfed with it. The plot extols self-sacrifice by contrasting itwith selfish financial shrewdness.Achille Claude Debussy (1862 -1918) was the leader of the m ove

ment known asm odernism. His work has been aptly termed musicalstippling. In his operas, andorchestral com positions sim ilar to TheAfternoon of a Faun,

” he gains his effects by a succession of m ore orless detached chords, instead of by flowing harmonic progressions ofthe usual sort. His ear was exceedingly delicate, the result showingin the continua l softness of his orchestral pieces . A climax in hisworks wou ld be lost in the noise of a Strauss or a Scriab ine. His useof chords in fugitive dissonan ces is m uch adm ired by many ; but theyare always the ones who have been the laggards in appreciating theless fragm entary style of classic and rom antic com posers. To onewho does not sense harm onic relations, Debussy

’s music will showmerely its exquisite delicacy. But to those who are definitely movedby a perception of orderly harmonic progression, the more radica lwork OfDebussy andother modernists seems too fragmentary to bepleasing. Certa in French critics have ca lled the m odernistic productions cerebral music ” ; and the term is fa ir enough, since thosewho enjoy them feel a mentalappreciation of their delica cy ratherthan any em otional uplift such as a them e of related harmonies willproduce. Thus we may not say that Debussy

’s more extrem e compositions are bad, but that their appeal is not that of earlier m usic.His little genre pictures sometimes seem like minia tures , so excessiveis their refinem ent.TO win the Prix deRom e, Debussy la id aside his new style, and

produced the expressive opera-cantata The Prodiga l Son .

”In this

he showed him self a master of conservative music ; buthis own auraldelicacy soon led him into strange pa ths. “La Demoiselle Elue”

and Chimene ” are two early lyric scenes. For orchestra , the vagueand elusive Prelude to Mallarm é

’

s“Afternoon of a Faun ” was fol

lowed by the “Nocturnes,” consisting of “Nuages and

“Fetes.”

Q58 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE

made from a set of piano pieces . Its five movements show a mostdelightfully piquant orchestration, although the thematic materialconsists of the bitter-sweet progressions that characterize the modern B ench school.Louis Aubert is a younger member of the modernist group . His

opera “La Foret Bleue” has an attractive plot, andsome humorous

mom ents, but is set in an altogether dissonant and unattractivestyle.Florent Schm itt is another master of dissonance

,but he writes in a

more effective and forcible style. He has com posed a symphonicstudy on Poe ’s “Haunted Palace, the sym phonic poem “En Ete,

”

the Com bat des Raksasas ,” two rhapsodies, the ballet “La Trage

die de Salom e,” vocal-orchestral settings of psalms, chamber works,

andsma ller pieces .Alexis Emmanuel Chabrier (1841—94) wrote in vigorous style,

but with more conservative harmonies. His early operas include“L

’Etoile” and“L

’Education manquée . His “Gwendoline” isstrongly dramatic. That heroine is the daughter of the ancientBritish king Armel . She dreams that a Dane carries her over thesea . The people laugh at her fears ; but their mirth soon changesto dismay, for the Dan es, under Harald, have really come . Gwendoline saves her father and captivates Harald, but Armel plotsto kill the invaders at the wedding. Gwendoline warns Harald, buthe disregards her words . His men are massacred , andhe is beatendown ; whereupon she snatches his knife, stabs herself, and joins herdeath-song to his. The score is virile and forceful, and the work isthe best French attem pt at the dramatic Wagnerian vein . A lateropera , Le Roi malgré Lui,

”was lighter and more humorous in

style. Other works by Chabrier include the orchestral “Espafia,”

the “Marche Joyeuse ,” music to Mendes’ “Femme de Tabarin ,

the choral Su lamite,” some piano pieces,/anda few oddly humor

ous songs.Gustave Charpentier, born in 1860, has some socialistic ideas, and

has taken great interest in the Montmartre laborersf This shows inhis cantata ,

“La Couronnement déla Muse , and in his best opera ,

Louise .

” The heroine of that opera is a poor working-girl , wholoves the poet Julien, but is prevented from marrying him by herparents, who think him too wild. A street scene and a workroom

FRANCK AND MODERN FRANCE 259

scene show Julien taking Louise away to a life of free love. They livevery happily for a tim e . Then her mother brings her hom e, allnthat her father is sick ; and the pair try to coerce her. She finallyleaves them ,

while the father curses Paris and its balefulinfluence.The plot is som ewhat confused in its m oral , but the underlying ideais a protest against the hard conditions of a working-girl

’s life. Themusic is realistic, even including street cries at tim es.

“Ja lien, incerta in ways a sequel to “Louise,

”has a very weak plot. Char

pentier’

s other works include the suite “Impressions d’

Italie and

the cantata “La Vie du Poete . He writes his own librettos.Alfred Bruneau , born in 1857, won an early success withL

’

Attaque du Moulin,” treating a story of the Franco-Prussian

War. Since then he has set m any allegorica l subjects from Zola ’sworks ; but their m usic is rather heavy-handed .

Ernest Chausson (1855—99) might have becom e very great if hiscareer hadnot been cut short by a fatal bicycle accident. His chiefwork is the opera “Le Roi Arthus.” Other com positions include thesym phonic poem “Viviane,

” the tone-pictures “Solitude dans lesBois ” and Soir de Fete ,

”a poem for violin and orchestra , som e

cham ber m usic, and various songs . His style is most charm inglyexpressive, andhis harmonies richly attractive.Gabriel Pierné, born in 1863 , is best known by his interesting cantata “The Children’s Crusade.” Other voca l-orchestral works byhim are

“The Children atBethlehem ”andthe oratorio “St. Francis

of Assisi.PaulDukas , born in 1865, won fam e in the orchestral field by his

scherzo entitled “L ’

Apprenti Sorcier.

” This illustrates Goethe’sballad of the sorcerer’s apprentice, who made a broom bring bucketsof water constantly, but forgot how to stop it. The com position isstrongly effective in style, and fu ll of hum orous touches . His opera“Ariane et Barbe-Bleue” presents Bluebeard ’s earlier wives as

spiritless creatures, while Ariane is more independent andprogressive, and leads them to freedom. Other works by Dukas are a

sym phony, overtures to King Lear” and Gotz von Berlichingen,”

the ballet Le Péri,”a piano sonata , andsm aller pieces.

Henri Duparc has been active in the field of oratorio. Guy deRopartz has devoted himself to orchestral and cham ber music.Pierre de Bréville has written in allthese styles , and composed a


mass also . Arthur Coquard is known in opera . René de Boisdefi'

re

has produced a symphony, an oratorio , andother large com positions .Lou is Bourgau lt-Ducoudray composed operas and orchestral works,andbecam e an authority on folk-music. Am ong the women AugustaHolm es (of Irish descent) wrote large symphonic odes andan opera ;Cecile Chaminade has produced ambitious com positions like thelyr ic symphony

“Calirrhoe,

”but is better known by her da inty

piano pieces and songs ; while Gabriella Ferrari has become knownin orchestral and operatic work.

Operas that have received som e notice in France and elsewhereare

“Ela ine,” by Herman Bemberg ; Camille Erlanger

’

s“Polish

Jew and“Aphrodite ” ;

“La Cabrera ,

” by Gabriel Dupont ;“Monna Vanna ,

” by Henri Février ; Reynaldo Hahn’s “Nausicaa ”

La Habanera ,

” by Raou l Laparra ; Fernand LeBorne’

s“Giron

dins “Le Chem ineau ,

” by Xavier Leroux ; Daria ,

” by GeorgesMarty ;Charles Lefebvre

’

5 Judith and QuoVadis,” by Jean Nou

gues. Other French opera com posers are Félix Fourdrain, PhilippeGaubert, An dré Gedalge, Georges Hue, Baron Frédéric d

’

Erlanger,

Eugene d’

Harcourt, Charles Lenepveu , JulesMazellier, AndreMessager, Edm ond Missa , Max d

’

Ollone, Georges Palicot, Em ile Pessard , Henri Raband , Samuel Rousseau , Gustave Samazeuilh, Em ilePaladilhe, Charles Silver, Antoine Sim on , and Paul Vidal . Composers who have kept more solely to the orchestral field are theconductors Cam ille Chevillard and Edouard Colonne, Henri-PaulBiisser, Roger Ducasse, Paul Ladm irault, Jean Lem a ire, AlbericMagnard (killed in thewar in Albert Roussel , Georges Sporck,Charles Tournemire, Richard Vinée, G . Witkowsky, and AndréWormser. Gustave Sandrehas composed chamber works ; GabrielGrovlez writes for piano ; and Jean Baptiste Faure is known byPalm Branches” andother songs . Nearly allof these men are alive

andactive at the present writing.


was The Prisoner of the Caucasus, based on a Pushkin poem . Hisrea l reputation began with “William Ratcliff,

” produced in 1869.

But Cui had criticised others so unsparingly that it was now tim efor him to receive his own m edicine . The work was freely atta ckedat first, though it gained m ore success later on . It does not correspond to Cui

’s wri tten principles, but seem s midway between lyricanddramatic opera . Tschaikovsky ca lls themusic too deliberate , andnot spontaneous enough .

“Angelo ” is based on a Victor Hugoplay, dea ling with the same subject tha t Ponchielli used in

“La Gio

conda .

” This is Cu i’s m ost representative work ; and he confirm edthat estima te him self in a note sent to the present writer some yearsago.

“The Saracen ” is based on the Duma s book entitled CharlesVII chez ses Grands Vasseaux,

”and conta ins good love-scenes be

tween that king andAgnes Sorel . “Le Filibustier is a com edy ona Richepin libretto .

“Mam’selle Fifi” is a one-actwork on a Mau

passant story, while A Feast in Tim e of Plague” is another single

actwork.

“The Capta in ’s Daughter” treats another Pushkin sub

ject. Cui wrote also sym phonies, orchestral scherzos, choruses,songs , and piano pieces. His style is not very distinctive or individua l .AW (1834—87) was another of theBalakirev group , which com prised five famous names . Borodin wasdescended from the princes of Im eretia , who in turn claim ed KingDavid as one of their ancestors . Like many Russian composers.Borodin had a profession, and he became well known in medicineand chemistry. He was also active in furthering educa tion forwomen . He considered music an avoca tion merely, andwould not atfirst publish any works . Yet he wrote several when quite young,producing a flute-and-pian o piece at thirteen , and a string sextetsoon after. In 1862 he joined Balakirev’

s circle, andbegan to compose in earnest . His first symphony met with a pleasing reception.

He followed this by numerous songs, including La Princesse Eudormie,

” “La Vieille Chanson

,

”and others of interest. These are

often rather som bre in color, and Borodin showed him self a m as

ter of gloom and dissonance . At this tim e he composed one act

of “Mlada ,

”a com posite work by him self , Cui, Moussorgsky,

andRim sky-Korsakov. This idea of cooperation was also adoptedby younger men, who paid homage to the publisher Belaieffby

THE RUSSIAN SCHOOL 963

producing m ovem ents of a string quartet on the notes B , La , F.

Borodin wrote a second sym phony, and part of a third , which wasfinished by Glazounov. He com posed other orchestra l pieces, twoorigina l quartets, and som e piano m usic. His “Steppenskizze

”was

the first new-Russian work to becom e known in Am erica . It is anorchestral com position depicting the loneliness of the Steppes, thepassing of a caravan with its varied noises and weird songs, andthe return of silence and loneliness .ButBorodin’s m ost im portant work was his sing le opera , Prince

Igor.

” This is based on an old Russian epic, dealing with Igor’s ex

pedition against the Polovtsi. A prologue s how the prince and hisson Vladimir leading their arm y away , in spite of the portent of aneclipse ;whi le the Princess Y aroslavna is left to rule with her brother,Prince Galitsky . The first act shows Galitsky

’

s misrule, and hisefforts to underm ine her influence ; but at the news of Igor

’s defeat,the people renew their loyalty to her. The second and third actstake place in the enem y’s camp . The noble leader, Konchak , has adaughter, with whom Vladimir falls in love. A banquet to the captive serves to introduce dances , choruses , and grea t scenic effects.By the aid of another captive, Ovlour, who plies the guards withdrink, Igor escapes ; but the leader

’s daughter holds Vladimir back,and is afterwards married to him . In the last act the lam entingY aroslavna sees Igor return . The m usic of this opera shows muchclear m elody, andm any strong scenes. The com poserwrote it piecemea l , working only when he was unable to give his m edical lectures.It was left unfinished ; but the obliging Rim sky-Korsakov put in theorchestration , while Glazounov, who had heard Borodin go overthe work at the piano, wrote the overture from mem ory.

Modest Petrovitch Moussorgsky (1839—81) was decidedly thebad bm oup . He was tra ined in m ilitary science

, butdrifted about from one post to another, andfinally gave upgovernm ent work. In m usic, too , he was little am enable to discipline, though he atoned for this by displaying marked originality.

His life showed the savage excesses so often found among the Slavs ;but his music expressed their strong passions and deep em otions .Meeting Borodin in 1862 , be attached himself to the associates, andim bibed their principles . He lacked the sim ple routine that com esfrom training ; but the formless style of his music did not obscure its


striking and original character. He has been ca lled a born poet, expressing his grea t passions in a medium that he had not mastered .

His rugged strength is evident in many com positions, for piano ororchestra as well asfor the stage. His orchestral Intermezzo and“Night on Calvary” show this quality. His Hebrew choruses, suchas“The Defeat of Sennacherib,

”are a lso strong works. His piano

pieces include the “Tableaux d ’une Exposition,” while his songs

conta in many forceful numbers. Buthe is best known by his operas .His early works in this form include some “CEdipus

” music, a set

ting of Sa lammbo,” “The Match-Maker,

”and the comic scenes

entitled “The Fa ir at Soroschini.” But his “Boris Godunov ” and“Khovantchina

”are of greater power.

“Boris Godunov” is founded on a Pushkin drama . Boris, havingkilled the Czarevitch Dimitri , has his men incite the populace tooffer him the crown . A coronation scene follows. The next act

shows Gregory and other monks, with Gregory planning to pretendthat he is Dimitri , the rightful ruler, whom Boris had killed . ThePoles support his claim . Another act shows Boris in his family ; butthe news of the False Demetrius ” begins to drive him m ad. In thelast act, the people follow the pretender, while Boris is left deserted ,his madness ending in dea th .

Khovantchina is based on the existence of the Old Believers,who followed early and incorrect Scriptural versions with fanaticism . The story brings out the contrast between them andthe newer,more civilized Russians. Prince Khovantsky and his Streltsy

(archers) represent the old ideas, and fina lly immola te themselvesrather than surrender.

Nicola i Andreievitch Rimsky-Korsakov (1844—1908) was by all

odds the greatest of the nationalists, even though Moussorgskysometimes excelled him in savage power. Like his compeers, he tookup government work, graduating from the naval school andservingfor a time atsea . In later years he hadthe rank of adm iral , andwasin charge of the marine bands. But he made music his life-work.

While on a voyage, begun in 1863 , he wrote a sym phony, said to bethe first work in that form by a Russian. In the autumn of 1865hejoined Balakirev’

s circle, composing soon afterward the symphonicpicture “Sadko,

” the programm e symphony “Antar,”andhis first

opera , The Maid of Pskov.

” Accepting a post in the St. Petersburg


her mother grants, she returns her lover’s ardor but in that moment

a ray of sunlight falls upon her, and she melts away.

“Mlada ,

” first done in collabora tion , was also com pleted by thecom poser alone. It is based on a ninth-century historica l episode .“Chr istm as-Eve Revels” trea ts the story of Vakula the Sm ith.

Mozart and Salieri” is practica lly a short dramatic scene.Sadko,

” based on an epic of the Novgorod set, shows that individual trying to ca tch goldfish on a wager, and charming the SeaKing with his Gussla m usic. Afterward he sets sail with ships andgoods, and is thrown overboard as a Jonah when a storm arises. Hehas adventures at the bottom of the sea , where the Sea -King wishesone of his daughters to marry the newcomer. His Gussla playingshakes the sea andearth, and is only stopped when the instrument issm ashed . Ultimately he returns to home and hearth.

“The Czar’s Betrothed,”again based on a Mey drama, shows

Griaznoi in love with Martha , who is betrothed to Lykov. Griaznoi

gets a potion which he thinks will insure her love. The Czar Ivansees her, andchooses her as his bride. Griaznoi gives her the potion,but a rival has changed it for one that makes her insane andugly.

The rival finally confesses, andGriaznoi stabs her, qu itting the sceneafter imploring Martha ’s pardon . This is one of the com poser’s verybest works, the score showing a charming fluency united with a m ostinteresting handling of folk-music. The beautiful overture is widely

The Czar Saltan treats that monarch’s meeting with three sisters, his marriage to the youngest, andthe jealousy of the other two.It is brilliantly orchestrated , using folk-melodies and gu iding mo

Servilia deals with Christianity in ancient Rom e.The Immortal Kastchei” tells of a wizard of that nam e, whose

daughter redeems herself by letting fa ll a tear, which happens tocontain the Wizard ’s fate . The action dea ls also with the rescue ofthe Czarevna from his power. When this was first performed , thecom poser hadbeen dropped from the Conservatory ; andhis friendsmade the opera a pretext for giving him ovations andgood-W ill .

Pan Voyevode” is the story of a Polish noble who parts lovers to

get the girl for himself. At the wedding feast, he takes poison meant

THE RUSSIAN SCHOOL 267

The Invisible City is a legendary affair. The heroine, Fevronia , is captured ather wedding by Tartars ; but they are scared offby a reflection of the invisible city seen in a lake. Fevronia is thenca lled by the prince who loved her, andjoins him in the lastinghappiness of dea th.

The Go lden Cock is a bird that crows whenever danger threatens . It is given to King Dodon by an astrologer. Its crowing causeshim to send his sons to meet the trouble, and later to follow himself.The danger turns out to be a beautiful woman , the Queen of Shemakha , who fascinates the king, although his sons had quarrelledover her and killed ea ch other. She laughs at him , but fina lly becomes his bride, andproves heartless .The leader of a later generation is Alexander Constantinovitch

Glazounov, who was born at St. Petersburg in 1865. He studiedwith Rimsky-Korsakov, andat eighteen wrote a sym phony, whichwas given by Liszt atWeim ar. Since then Glazounov has producedseven simi lar works, his sixth symphony being especially melodiousand pleasing. He com posed a lso several sym phonic poem s , whi checho the joy of spring, the charm of the forest, the spell of the sea ,

the attraction of the Orient, or the majesty of the historic Kremlin .

Another of these treats the story of Stenka Rasine, the Volga piratewho carried off a princess. Glazounov produced a Triumphal Marchfor our Chicago Exposition, anda Coronation Canta ta for the Czar.

Other orchestra l works by him are the Greek and Carnival Overtures , the

“Middle Ages ” suite , and the glowing Overture Solennelle .” His opus numbers , nearly 100, include m any other large compositions, such as su ites or orchestral cantatas . His cham ber worksand sm aller pieces show m uch m elodic charm . He has not triedopera , but his ballets, such as

“Raym onda”and

“The Seasons ,”

hold the stage well . “Raym onda ” is the story of a Crusader’s wifewho remains faithful in his absence in sp ite of a rival ’s attentions .A recent work by Glazounov is som e strong incidenta l m usic to thesacred drama “The King of the Jews.”

Anton StepanovitchArensky (1861—1906)was another Rimskypupil . While teaching in Moscow, Arensky produced the operaA Dream on the Volga.

” He com posed also the one-act Raphae l ,”

andthe ba llet “A Night in Egypt ” ; buthis bestwork was the opera“NalandDamajanti.

” This treats of a mythica l king who loses his


sweetheart and his lands while gambling, under the influence of awicked god , but regains them later.

Sergei Rachmaninov, born in 1873 at Novgorod, is known by hispicturesque preludes andother works for piano . He has com posed afew operas, including

“Aleko ” and The Miser Knight.” His symphonic poem The Isle of the Dead,

” illustrating a Boecklin pa inting, is an admirable picture of gloom. His other works include asymphony, the cantata

“Spring,” two piano concertos, and some

cham ber m usic.Sergei Taneiev (1856—1915) com posed four symphonies, a few

overtures, string quartets , and several choruses ; but he becamebest known through his Oresteia ,

”a lofty operatic trilogy, in eight

scenes, based on the works of iEschylus. Alexander Taneiev, hisnephew, is another orchestral composer in Russia .

Ippolitov-Ivanov, active in Moscow, used Hebrew melodies in hisOpera “Ruth ,

”and put much tender expression into his

“Assya .

”

His other productions include su ites and choruses .Michael Ivanov com posed incidenta l music, a symphony, a tri

um phaloverture , the ballet The Vestal ,”andthe operas “Sabawa ”

and“The Feast of Potemkin .

”

Edward Napravnik, a Bohem ian living at St. Petersburg, wrotethe operas “Nijui-Novgorod,

” “Harold,”

Doubrovsky ,

”and

“Francesca .

Paul Blaram berg’

s operas consist of The Mummers,” “The

Roussalka-Maiden,” “Mary of Burgundy,

” “Toushino,

”and The

Wave.”

Alexander Gretschaninov composed the opera Dobrynia and

some incidental m usic.Vladim irReb ikovhas produced In the Storm and The Christ

mas Tree ,”as well as the so-called m imodrame Genius andDeath .

Nicolai Soloviev com posed severa l operas of somewhat restrainedcharacter, as well as an overture andthe symphonic poem RussiansandMongols .”

Sergei Vassilenko’s City of Kitezh treats the subject alreadydescribed as “The Invisible City.

”

Operas of som e success in Russia areKazatchenko’

s Prince Serebriani ” and

“Pan Sotnik ” ; Korestchenko

’

s“Belshazzar’s Feast,

”

The Angel of Death,”and

“The Ice Palace ” ; and Kochetov’

s


com positions in the shorter forms ; while others who have worked inthese are Alphéraki, Amani, Grodsky , Blumenfeld, Artsiboutchev,

Gabrilovitch, Karganov, Kastalski, Pogojev, andWarlam ov. VictorEwald andAlexander Winkler have written chamber music

,while

Em ilMlynarski has composed violin works.

XXIX

OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS

IN the last four decades, Italy has done m uch to put herselfabreast of other m usica l nations . She has no genius of the first rank,as Strauss is the only living m an who could by any courtesy be included in that class . But she has revived her traditions of operaticsupremacy, and has also produced a sma ll but earnest group oforchestra l com posers.The verismo (rea listic) school of opera was founded by Mascagni .

Born in 1863 , he was the son of a baker, andwas destined for thelaw. He studied piano and other musica l subjects in secret. Whenfourteen he was discovered atthis work, andlocked up by his father ;but an uncle rescued him , anda friend aided him to take lessons atMilan . He became leader of sm all operatic troupes, until

“RusticChiva lry

” won him a comfortable prize from the Sonzognofirm , and

an international reputation . Since then he has composed many otheroperas,

“L

’

Am ico Fritz,” “

I Rantzau ,

” “Ratcliff,” “Silvano,

”

Iris ,” “Le Maschere,

”Isabeau ,

” etc . Butnone of these was successful; and

“Le Maschere ” was even hissed because of its rem inis

cences of Puccini.“Rustic Chivalry has for its heroine Santuzza , betrayed and

deserted by Turi ddu . She tells Alfio of an intrigue that Turiddu iscarrying on with Alfio’

s wife Lola . The two then meet, andTuridduis killed . The music is endowed with a vivid strength that seem ed arevelation in Ita ly. While Germ an composers were m aking heavyimitations of the inim itable Wagner, this work led to a school thatwas wholly succes sful , andwell suited to modern needs of rapidityin action. Its one-act length, after the size of Wagner’s works, madeit seem like a short story in com parison with a novel . Som e of thebest points in the music are Turiddu ’

s“Siciliana ” (sung from be

hind the curtain as part of the prelude), the broad and noblechurch service (

“Regina Lola ’s solo My King of Roses,”

andthe lively Brindisi,”or drinking-chorus . The sugary intermezzo

has becom e widely known.


Ruggiero Leoncavallo, born in 1858, began by composing Chatterton,

”atfirst a fa ilure, butwell received afterward . He produced

also an ambitious tri logy “Crepusculum ,

” dealing with the Medici .But he did not become wi dely known until he wrote “I Pagliacci ”

(“The Strolling in imita tion of Mascagnr 3 style. Thisopera became fam ous in m any lands. Like Mascagni , Leoncavallohas failed in later works, such as

“Boheme,” “Trilby,

” “Zaza ,

”

and“Roland of Berlin . For the last of these he was chosen com

poser by the German Ka iser, who wrote the libretto.IPagliacci ,

” with an excellent libretto by the composer himself,opens with the arrivalof the strolling players at a village. Tonio,the clown , overhears Nedda , the leader

’s wife, planning elopementwith the villager Silvio. As Nedda hadrepulsed Tonio’s former advances, he now revenges himself by bringing the leader, Canio, onthe scene, but preventing him from identifying the interloper. Thesecond actshows the play within the play, given before the villagers.This is based on a plot much similar to what has happened ; andwhen Canio asks Nedda the name of her unknown lover, his passionbecomes real instead of mimic. At last he stabs her. Silvio , rushingfrom the audience, meets a similar fate. The music is much strongerthan that of “Rustic Chiva lry,

” though in the same school . Theprologue (for baritone), the chorus of the first act, Ganio

’s intenselystrong lam ent after seeing Nedda ’s perfidy, and the dramatic closeof the play are the chief points in a score that is often stronglydrama tic.The verismo school is not merely realistic, but is devoted to a

tragic sort of realism that is found in the somewhat crude andelemental lives ofthe lower classes . Love, jealousy, andrevenge are itschief assets . But its strength of expression has made it importantin contem porary opera . Other com posers of the school are Giordano

“Mala Vita , and“Mme . Sans Spinelli (

“ABasso Tasca A Santa. Coronaro (

“Festa a

andCesare Rossi ItaloMontemezzi chosea higher subject in his “Love of Three Kings,

” which treats of agirl who was betrothed to a mediaeval prince, but forced into a marriage with his conqueror. She still loves the prince, and the suspi

cions of her husband ’s blind father lead to discovery and tragedy.

Cilea’

s“Arlesiana ” and

“Adriana Lecouvreur” are in older style.


would not love him if he were brave enough to stea l for her thejewels on the Madonna ’s statue. She listens with delight to a ser

enade by Rafaello ; but Gennaro does actually bring the jewels .She puts them on, and is lost in ecstasy. The third act, however,shows her fleeing from Gennaro , and coming to Rafaello

’s retreat.He is shocked by her sacrilege in wearing the jewels, and casts heroff. She rushes away to plunge into the sea ; while Gennaro, coming after her, stabs himself because of remorse. The overture consists sim ply of three pistol-shots ; but the festiva l scenes of the firstact are carried out in a large style. The lyrics are smoothly attraetive, and the climax duly tragic, though the brigands

’

revels beforeit are too much spun out.

The chief figure in recent Italian opera is Giacom o Puccini .Born in 1858, of a musica l family, he soon attracted attention ; andVerdi nam ed the young man as his probable successor.

“Le Villi ,

” produced by Puccini in 1884 , was really the origin ofthe short operas. The Villi , or Wilis, are spirits of betrothed butdeserted maidens ; and they seek to lure their betrayers to death .

The scene is la id in a Black Forest village, where Robert lovesAnna . Learning of an inheritance, he goes to Mainz , where he forgets Anna and starts an intrigue. She dies broken-hearted . WhenRobert returns he is caught in the Wilis’ dance, andwhirled aboutuntil he falls l ifeless .“Edgar, appearing in 1889 , has a hero who loves a beautiful

gypsy. Tiring of her, he leaves her mounta in retreat and becomesa soldier. Returning hom e, he is charmed by a village maiden whohas loved him from the first ; but his happiness is short, for thevengeful gypsy stabs her rival . This Ita lian ized “Carmen” wasnot a great success .Manon Lescaut, founded on Prevost

’s novel , has some strongscenes. In the first act Manon flees with Des Grieux rather thanenter a convent. In the second act, she leaves him ; andwhen shereturns, her rich protector revenges himself by having her consigned to prison . The third act shows the em barkation of fema leconvicts forAm erica , the monotonous roll-ca ll m aking an impressivebackground to the im passioned dia logue. The last act is a longlove-scene, ending in Manon’s dea th .

“La Boheme,

” based on Murger’s Vie de Boheme, shows the

OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS 275

four gifted butpoverty-stri cken associates in their attic of the LatinQuarter. Rodolfo, the poet, falls in love with Mim i . At the ca féof the second act, Musetta returns to her fa ithfulMarcel . Thethird act brings jealousies and quarrels ; while in the last actMim ireturns to die in Rodolfo’s arms. The music has a haunting sweetness

, and the plot seem s to give the touch of nature that m akes thewhole world kin .

“Tosca ,based on Sardou ’

s play, shows that heroine’s love for

Mario, and the latter’s troubles resu lting from his protection of a

politica l refugee . Scarpia , the wicked official in control , has Marioarrested , andtortures him to make Tosca minister to his (Scarpia

’

s)

pleasure . When Tosca pretends to yield , he writes an order forMario’s execution, which he alleges is to be only pretended . Meanwhile

,Tosca secretes a knife, and when Scarpia com es to her she

stabs him . She then (Act III) goes to tell Mario that his executionwill be only pretence ; but the treacherous Scarpia had directed hissoldiers to fire real cartri dges, after all. Mario is killed, andToscathrows herself from the battlem ents to escape capture for havingstabbed Scarpia . The score is rea listic, and follows the sense of thewords faithfully, even if it is hardly definite enough to stand alone,asWagner’s music does. Tosca ’s lament in Act II (

“Vissi d ’ arte ” )is an effective solo number.

“Madama Butterfly” has a Japanese heroine. An American official, amusing himself with her, goes through a Japanese marriageceremony, which she naturally considers binding. Left a lone, she isshown later living with her son anda m aid , andanim ated by a touching fa ith in the return of her husband . The consul tries to show her aletter from the absent one , butfinally does not dare to do so ; andonlyon the officer’s return does she see that he has rated her merely as apastim e, andm arried a girl of his own nation. Then she kills herself.“The Girl of the Golden West” is based on the Belasco play of

that name, in which Minnie, beloved by allin the Western camp ,fa lls in love with an admirer who com es as a stranger. When heproves to be the highwayman whom allare hunting, she protectshim . When he is captured later, she saves him from being lynched ,and departs with him to start life anew elsewhere. The m usic contains two Indian songs, one of which (that of the homesick miner)seems hardly in place .


The leader among the new Ita lian orchestra l com posers was Giovanni Sgam ba ti (1843 He produced symphonies, cham berWorks, overtures, a piano concerto, andmany lesser pieces of various sorts . His early efforts met with encouragement from Wagner.

Other Ita lian orchestral composers include Giuseppe Martucci,Eugenio di Pirani, Edgardo Del Valle de Paz, Ettore Pinelli, SilvioLazzari, the Am erican-known Martin Roeder, Luigi Torchi thecritic, the la te violinist Antonio Bazzini, the pianist Lu igi Romaniello, the Sicilian Antonio Scontrino, Leone Sinigaglia ,

the masscom poser Alessandro Busi, andAmilcare Zanella .

Ferrucio Busoni has become a modernist, after writing admirablefugues in his youth . His music to “Turandot” has been called byone critic the best example of modernism yet produced .

Marco Enrico Bossi, born in 1861, is known as an organist andteacher. His one-act opera “Paqu ita ” took a prize. He has composed also a symphonic poem , an overture, an organ concerto (givenat our Chicago Fa ir), the dramatic oratorio

“Christus,” the can

tata “Paradise Lost,”andmany other works . He is a leader in the

orchestra l field , and is intensely modern .

Don Lorenzo Perosi has been especially successful in composingoratorios andother worksfor the Catholic service. Born in 1872 , hehas been very active. His trilogy The Passion of Christ” (the LastSupper, the Sermon on the Mount, and the Crucifixion) made himknown through Ita ly. Later works of his include the two-part“Moses,

” “The Transfiguration,” “The Annunciation,

”and

“TheRa ising of Lazarus .” Perosi’s brother Marziano has composed an

opera , The Last Days of Pom peii .”

Sirnonetti is an excellent Ita lian violin composer.Ita ly hada lm ost no concert halls in 1850; and even the churches

were content to use operatic airs with sacred words. In the sixties,an orchestral concert organized by Pinelli earned fourteen lire, fromwhich sixty performers were to be paid . Sgambati produced a Beethoven symphony in Rome, but had to pay for it himself. Suchabsurd conditions are now relegated to the past ; and Italy hasregained some musical influence.Spanish composers are grea tly devoted to the Zarzuela , which is a

nationa l form of light but pleasing andbrilliant comic opera . Amongthose who have worked recently in this form are Larrocl1a, Arri eta ,


resemblance to the German master. Composers like Smetana , hissuccessor Dvorak, Huber, andeven Raff, are rated a little below thehighest standard . They have produced much good music, but theydo not quite reach the high level of the greatest masters .Sm etana married the pianist Katharin Kolar, and with her help

founded a music school . Hewas active also as a conductor ; butcomposition was really his life-work. While visiting Liszt he heard Herbeck assert that the Czechs were not original, butmerely reproductive ; andhe determ ined to disprove this . He succeeded admira bly,though the world is not yet as familiar as it should be with hisoperas .Sm etana

’

s instrumental works include a Festival Overture, a

Trium ph Sym phony, andmany symphonic poem s . The latter werebegun by “Richard III,

” which was followed by “Wallenstein’sCamp ” and Hakon Jarl. Best known , however, is the cycle of sixsuch works known as “My Country.

” This consists of “Vysehrad,”

in which the minstrel Lum ir is pictured as evoking the past glories oftha t fortress ;

“Vltava ,” the Moldau , comes next, and is a favorite

concert num ber ;“Sarka trea ts of the legendary Amazon of tha t

name ; Bohemia’s Groves andMeadows is the fourth in the group ;

“Tabor depicts the cam p of the Hussite soldiers ; and“Blanik

” isthe mounta in where they are supposed to sleep, in readiness to awakeat their country’s need .

Sm etana’

s first opera , The Brandenburgers in Bohemia , earnedfor him the reproach of trying to make Bohemian music Wagnerian .

Nettled by this , he produced the bright com edy“The Bartered

Bride,” which is not only origina l in style, but remarkably attrae

tive . When it was brought to foreign notice, at an 1892 fa ir inVienna , the critics asked , How is it possible that such a genius hasbeen unknown so long? ” A return to the serious and tragic vein resulted in “Dalibor,

”another success. “Two Widows,

” “The Kiss,”

and“The Secret” are lighter in style ; while

“Libusa and

“TheDevil’s Wa ll ” are strongly drama tic. In passing, one m ay sta te thatthe composer’s nam e shou ld be accented on the first syllable .Antonin Dvoi’ak (1841—1904) showed an early love for music. Attwelve he planned to surprise his relatives with an orchestral polka ;andas he forgot to allow for the transposing instruments, the resu ltwas even more surprising than he expected . He supported himself


for a time in Prague, andatlength won the governm ent aidfor needygeniuses by some early com positions . He sta ted that he spent histim e in “hard study, occasional composition, much revision, a greatdea l of thinking, and little eating.

” After his marriage he som etimes sa id that he ate less and thought more than ever.

An early Opera ,Konig undK6hler,

”was attacked as being ultra

Wagnerian . Rewritten in a simpler and m ore nationa l sty le, itmade a success, although its composer ridiculed his unintelligentpublic. His later operas, such as

“Wanda ,

” “Selma Sedlak ,” “The

Jacobins,” “Kate and the Devil ” and

“Arm ida,”are almost all

nationa l in style. “Dim itri ” treats of the false Demetri us tha tMoussorgsky made so famous .Dvofak

’

s overtures “Carnival , and Nature,and others) are given occasiona lly on concert programm es. His“Stabat Mater,

” well received in London, led to an English stay,andthe com position of the successful canta ta The Spectre’s Bride.”

A later canta ta ,

“Saint Ludm illa,”was a com parative failure ; and

this fact may have inspired Dvoi'ak’

s remark,“The English do not

love music ; they respect it.His American sojourn inspired him to produce the beautiful New

World Symphony,” the grea test of his works in that form . He used

the negro songs as the true American folk-music, andmade them esthat echoed their styles effectively. The negro music is not alldevoted to the sm ooth vein em ployed by Stephen C . Foster. It ispla intively expressive at times, lively atothers, and in certa in examples weirdly impressive. Dvofak used allthese styles, andproduceda master-work.

Zdenko Fib ich (1850—1900) was another Bohemian leader. Hisoperas receive a lmost as much attention as those of Smetana.

His work in melodrama (the trilogy“Hippodam ia ”) has been men

tioned elsewhere .Em il Nikolaus, Freiherr von Reznicek, works atVienna. He

,like

many others, was destined for law, butdeserted itfor m usic. He became known by his operas, Die Jungfrau von Orleans,

” Satanella ,

” “Em erich Fortunat, the vivacious “Donna Diana , and“Till Eulenspiegel .

” His early orchestral works, such as his overtures and the Tragic Sym phony,

” were fa irly conservative ; buthislater symphonic poems,

“Schlemihl ” and“Der Sieger, place him


among the m odern programm e radica ls. He handles the fu ll orchestra with adm irable control and skill .Am ong Bohem ian com posers, Josef Suk, son-in-law of Dvof'ak,

produced the “Fa iry Tale” Su ite. JosefMraczek has composed anopera ,

“The Dream , and the radical orchestral humoresque en

titled Max andMoritz,” which depicts the adventures of two bad

boys well known in German literature. Heinrich Kaan-Albest hascomposed several ballets and the sym phonic poem “Sakuntala .

”

Josef Nesvera , a wri ter of masses, won a success with his opera “Perdita .

” Other Bohemian opera composers areHrimaly,Jiranek, Kad

letz, Kovai'ovic, Malat, Navratil, Ostrcil, Prochazka, Prokop,Reuter, Rozkosny, Sebor, Trnecek, and Skuhersky. Of these,Jiranek, Navratil, and Trneéek have entered the orchestral field.

Still other Bohem ian orchestral com posers include Abert, Laska ,

Nedbal, Novacek, Novak, andPri b ik.

Hungary has its school of native Opera , brought into being by theDopplers, andFranz Erkel . The latter

’s “Hunyadi Laszlo” is verypopular. Other Hungari an opera composers include his son GeorgeErkel , Andreas Bartay, Farkas, Hubay, Jarno, Mihalovitch,

Poldini, Rekay, Sztojanovics, Szabados, and Count Geza Zichy, theone-armed pianist. Some of these have produced orchestral worksa lso. Erwin Lendvai has com posed a radica l sym phony. Ernst vonDohnanyi has gained much renown by overtures, concertos, a symphony, and the pantom im e

“Pierrette’s Veil .” Mihalovitch has

won fame by sym phonies and orchestral ballads . Other Hungarianorchestral composers include Bartok, Buttikay, Korbay, Szekely,andVavrinecz. Horvath and Joseffy have produced piano music,while Nachez andRem enyi composed for the violin .

Roumania is represented by Georges Enesco in the orchestra l field ,Theodor Flondor in opera , and Franz Kneisel in the violin world .

Xaver andPhilipp Scharwenka , well known in Berlin, are of Polish origin. The form er has wri tten the opera “Mataswintha ,

”a

sym phony, and three piano concertos ; while the latter is creditedwith chora l cantatas, symphonies, a suite, an overture, and manylesser works.Moritz Moszkowski is another German composer of Polish de

scent. His com positions include an opera ,

“Boabdil , the symphonic poem “Joan ofArc,

” two orchestral suites, a piano concerto


andmany smaller works . He seems able to assume many styles, ashis piano cycle “Aus aller Herren Lander” will show. He is full ofhumor, andsta tes as other accom plishments that he can

“play billiards, chess, dom inoes, and violin, and can ride, imitate canarybirds, andrelate jokes in the Saxon dialect.

”

Paderewski is widely known as a composer because of his minuetand other pieces . He has written the gypsy opera “Manru,

”a long

sym phony, and a piano concerto, the last of which wins successwhen he takes the solo part.Other Polish opera com posers include Gavronski , Jarecki, Kazyn

ski, Koczalski , Melcer, Mignard , Moniuszko, Opienski , Rozycki ,and Stalkowsky . Polish orchestral com posers include Karlwicz,Maszynski , Novoviejski , Statkowsky , Novakovski , Dobrzynski ,De Kontski , Chopin

’s pupil Mikuli, Soltys, Zelenski , Kurpinski ,and Z ienta rski .

In Belgium , a recent leader was Peter Benoit (1834 Hecomposed operas andother works, butwas best known by his greatcantatas . These include “Oorlog

” “Lucifer,” De

Schelde,” “De Rhyn ,

” “Prom etheus, and a Rubens cantata .

They have been described as“great decorative pictures in tone

,

suggesting vistas of grand palaces , arm ies in battle array , rich fieldsof gra in , m ystic visions of the spirit world, or gorgeous tri umphalmarches .”

Paul Gilson, born in 1865, is another Belgian leader. His symphonic sketches entitled La Mer

” made him well known . Thesepicture sunrise at sea , the rollicking music of the sailors , a lovescene with departure , and a tem pest. The cantata “Francesca daRim ini ” is another strong work by Gilson . The lovers are condemned by Minos , and taunte d by dem ons in the Inferno. Francesca

’

s prayer finally wins pity for her ; but she will not acceptmercy without Paolo, and decides to stay with him . Other worksby Gilson include the oratorio “Moses

,

” the operas “PrincessSunshine,

” “The Adventurers,”

and“The Demon

,

” incidenta lmusic, orchestral works with declama tion, overtures, fantasies,su ites , andmany other compositions .Guillaum e Lekeu (1870—94) showed much prom ise in his brief

career. He produced symphonic poems,chamber works, and lesser

pieces, often tinged with gloom, but usua lly very effective.


Edgar Tinel ’s chief composition is the oratorio Franciscus.This is a three-part work showing Francis of Assisi as young nobleman , as monk , and as saint in heaven . Tinel’s “Saint Godelive”

is another successful oratorio. He has written also orchestral piecesand cantatas .

Jan Blockx (1851- 1912 ) produced orchestral works of varioussorts, but was best known by the ballet

“Milenka and by hisoperas . Of the latter,

“The Princess of the Inn ” meets with mostsuccess. Its heroine, Reinilde, loves Merlyn, and refuses Marcus ;whereupon Marcus plans to ruin Merlyn, by means of Rita , an

innkeeper’s daughter. Rita ’s discarded lover Rabo becomes jealous, andkills Merlyn . Reinilde is then ready to kill Rita , but decides that a life of remorse will be a grea ter punishm ent for her.

Other Blockx operas are the one-act “Iels Vergeten ,

” the operacom ique “Maitre Martin,

” “La Fiancée de la Mer, and

“ThylUylenspiegel.

Am ong Belgian operatic composers, Keurvels has producedPari s,

” “Rolla ,

”and

“Hamlet” ; Wambach has composed “Nathans Parabel ,

”as well as oratorios and a symphonic poem ; the

works of Dupu is include “Moina ” and“Cour d’

Ognon”; Vlee

shouwer is a Blockx pupil ;Van Duyse is credited with seven operas ;Waelput

’

s“Stella ” is better known than his four sym phonies ;

Raway’

s“Neon” and Freya ” are ambitious works ; Van den

Eeden’

s Rhena has been well received ; Juliet Folville, a leaderamong the wom en, has composed

“Atala and many orchestralworks ; Em ile Mathieu has written incidenta l music as well asoperas ; while other active opera composers include Callaerts, Daneau , Kaiser, Lebrun, Neuville , Paque, Radoux, Rasse, Ratez, Vander Meulen , and Verhulst. Other Belgians deserving mention invarious fields are Gevaert, organist and teacher ; Huberti, an ora

torio composer ; Lenaerts, who has composed cantatas ; and ingeneral orchestral work, Mailly , Mestdagh, Ryelandt, Ruefer,Thiebaut, Tilman, Vreuls, andWouters.In Holland , Richard Hol was for many years a leader, famous

for his national hymn and for symphonies, cantatas, and othercompositions. Julius Roentgen also composed orchestral works.Van’t Kruis has been very active in producing overtures and symphonies. Other Dutch orchestral com posers areAverkamp, Coenen,


With these five men worked a number of others, such as theMacFarren brothers, Sir Frederick Bridge (known as the “Westminster Bridge, because he is organ ist in Westm inster Abbey),Parratt, Barnett, Lloyd, Corder, Cusins, and Williams . On thewhole

,the school had worthy aims, but lacked deep inspiration .

Ernest Newman once sa id that men of the Bridge-Mackenzie typecould no m ore hatch outa new school than a hen could hatch hardboiled eggs . This is too severe a criticism , but its point is correct.English hymnology received an impetus from Wesley, whose

work was carr ied forward excellently by Sta iner, Barnby, Webb,and others .Sir Edward Elgar, born in 1857, is the leader of a newer and less

academic style. The story goes that when he was sent to school ,and asked by a tea cher what his name was, he replied ,

“EdwardElgar.

” Add the sir ,” dem anded the pedagogue, wishing to instil

principles of respect ; whereupon the boy replied ,“Sir Edward El

gar.

”But he has now atta ined knighthood in reality, an honor

won by the value of his works.In childhood he delighted in his father’s organ-playing atWor

cester. He was largely self-taught in music, and for practice incom position he wrote a sym phony with Mozart’s G~m inor work asa m odel , making his them es and other divisions of the same sizeas Mozart’s . Of instruction books he once sa id,

“I have read them ,

and I still live.” But he approved of Mozart’s “Thorough-BassSchool.”

His early cantata , The Black Knight, was given at a Worces

ter festiva l . Other cantatas , written as an ou tcome of the first one,were “The Light of Life ,

” “Caractacus,”

and“Sir Olaf.

” HisEnigma variations for orchestra , each describing a friend , form a

very attractivework , andearned him recognition in London. Thefirstof his oratorios,

“The Dream of Gerontius,” won him international

fame. Later compositions in this form by him are“The Apostles ”

and The Kingdom .

” Other voca l works of Elgar’

s are, Scenesfrom the Bavarian Highlands,

” “The Banner of Saint George,”

Lux Chr isti ,”anda Te Deum . For orchestra he has written sev

eral overtures “In the South ,”and

some effective Pom p and Circumstance” marches, incidenta lmusic to “Diarm id andGrania

,

”a Coronation March, and the Sea


Pictures, for solo voice with orchestra . In recent years he has goneover to the radica ls . His two sym phonies are rather abstruse,though the finale of the second is very impressive. His violin concerto is full of difficulties.Joseph Holbrooke, born in 1878, is another radical . His opera ,The Chi ldren of Don,

” is to be made the first of a Trilogy. For

orchestra ,som etim es with voices , he has written

“The Raven,”

“The Skeleton in Arm or,” “Ulalum e,

” the bizarre but effectiveQueenMab ,

”anda Poe Sym phony. His works are not sufficiently

tuneful for rea l success.Frederick Delius , born in 1863 , is another modernist. His Brigg

Fa ir ” introduces old English m elodies ; but his other works, suchas“Appalachia ,

” “The Dance of Life,” “A Mass of Life ” (with

voices),“Sea Drift,

” “Paris ,”and

“The Song of the High Hills,”

are fragm entary andbizarre in their harm onies .Cyril Meir Scott, born in 1879 , is one of the few com posers who

can handle m odern effects in an interesting way. His harm oniesare novel , and intri ca te enough ; buthe bu ilds them into works tha thave beauty and coherence. He is known in America by som e ofhis interesting piano pieces . Buthe has com posed in the larger formstoo

,producing a symphony, a pian o concerto, three overtures, and

som e effective cham ber m usic.Another radica l who has done good work is Granville Bantock,born in 1868 . His early efforts resulted in the one-actoperas Caedmar

”and The Pearl of Iran,

”as well as a vast setting of Southey’s

poem ,

“The Curse of Kehama ,

” in twenty-four orchestral num bers.He com posed also a cantata , The Pi re-Worshippers ,

”andthe over

tures Saul and The Pierrot of the Minu te .” The latter is ratherfragm enta ry . Recently he has tried to develop a symphonic formfor voices alone, his

“Atalanta in Calydon having four movem entsanddividing the voca l forces into twelve groups.With Bantock have been associated William Wallace, composerof a Creation Symphony, a choral sym phony, six sym phonic poem s,the opera “Brassolis,

”and other works ; Erskine Allon, whose or

chestralballad “Annie of Lochroyan ,

” cantata “The Oak of Geismar, and overture “The Maid of Colonsay ” have made his earlydeath a subject for great regret ; Reginald Steggall, who has com

posed several scenes ; Stanley Hawley, who has become known by


his melodramas ; andArthur Hinton, whose Triumph of Caesar,Endym ion ” su ite, andpiano concerto are effective works.Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (1875—1912 ) was the son of a fu ll

blooded negro physician of West Africa and an English mother.

His works are expressive and im passioned in style. His cantata“Hiawatha ,

” in several parts, shows mu ch beauty. Other voca lorchestra l works by him are an oratorio, The Atonement,

” thecantata “Endym ion’s Dream ,

”and A Tale of Old Japan .

” Hisorchestral works consist of a Solemn Prelude, the Herod music, andother numbers. He com posed also effective songs, piano pieces,and violin works.

V Sir Arthur Seym our Sullivan (1842—1900) was a conservative instyle. Known on several continents by his successfu l light operas,he excelled also in a m ore serious vein, with such works as the oratorios

“The Prodigal Son ,” “The Martyr of Antioch

,

”and

“TheGolden Legend,

” the canta ta “Kenilworth,

”a Te Deum , some

overtures, m uch incidenta l m usic, the opera Ivanhoe , anda symphony. His songs are widely known,

“The Lost Chord ” being anespecially broad and effective solo.With Sullivan may be classed the opera com posers Alfred Cellier

and Edward Solom on ; but Edward German (really Germ an Edward Jones) is now better known than either. He has composedtwo symphonies, buthas won his greatest recognition by incidentalmusic to vari ous Shakespearian and other plays. His dances fromthe Henry VIII music are widely popu lar. He finished Su llivan ’s“Em erald Isle, and composed “The Rival Poets ” and

“MerrieEngland . He has employed the folk-song style with markedsuccess.The English folk-music is direct and lively in style, being mostly

in major. The Scotch folk-songs, with their use of the pentatonicsca le, are even more attractive. The Welsh songs are much likethe Scotch, and the Irish often have odd but impressive harmonies.While Russian folk-songs show the greatest variety of style and

mode, those of Grea t Brita in are attractive also.The English orchestral composers are now very numerous. Many

of the following should have special mention , if space would permit.A list of the chief names includes Arthur Somervell, FrederickCliffe, Arthur Hervey, Robert Bridges, Herbert Bunning, Samuel

THE musica l life of the American colonies came from small beginnings . Virginia had its Cavalier songs, butdid not develop theminto an origina l school ; while Massachusetts was at first devotedsolely to psalms , even hymns being barred atfirst. Its early scholarspublished the “Bay Psa lm Book ,

”anddisputed learnedly over who

should be allowed to sing . When hym ns came into use, they wereat first “lined out, each line being read before it was sung, sincenot allthe church-goers possessed books. This sometimes producedrather strange effects, as in the hymn which began ,

The Lordwillcom e, andhe willnot”

and continued ,Keep silence, but speak out.

In the eighteenth century, concerts began in such centres as Boston

,New York , Philadelphia , and Charleston. These are well de

scribed by Oscar G . Sonneck in his Early Concert Life in America .

”

The first Am erican composer was probably Francis Hopkinson

(1737 He graduated at Princeton , and in 1759 began a collec

tion into which he put several origina l songs . In a much later set,dedicated to Washington , he definitely cla ims the honor of being thefirst American composer. His only rival was James Lyon, the m inister, who graduated at the sam e college, com posed commencementodes, andpublished the hym n collection Urania ” in 1761. WilliamBillings (1746 of Boston, was a composer of somewha t moreadvanced style. He was a tanner’s apprentice at first, but he soonbegan cha lking musica l exercises on the sides of leather. By 1770he published an original collection,

“The New England PsalmSinger,

” which established his reputa tion. In later years he workedat“fugue-tunes” ; andwhile his fugal effects were very flimsy, his

preface showed that he understood the nature andbeauty of counterpoint. Billings was the man who was asked whether snoring was

AMERICA 289

vocal or instrumenta l m usic ; but history does nRgive his reply.

Other hymn com posers , of later date, were Oliver Holden, SamuelHolyoke, Jacob Kim ba ll , Henry Kem ble Oliver, Daniel Read , andLowell Mason . In m ore recent years, William Bradbury composedhym ns and cantatas ; the evangelist Ira D . Sankey wrote m anvhym n-tunes ; andHart Pease Danks produced hym ns as well as thefam iliar “Silver threads am ong the gold .

”

In the early part of the nineteenth century cam e the developm entof orchestras and singing societies, as well as the advent of operaRompes ; William Henry Fry (1813—64) composed the opera “Leonora ” in 1845, though it was not given until 1858 . In 1863 he finished another opera , Notre Dame de Paris. George F. Bristow

(1825—98) com posed Rip van Winkle” in 1855. Both m en wroteinstrum ental works, which were perform ed by Jullien on an Am eri

The national songs OfAmerica are largely borrowed . The melodyof “Yankee Doodle ” came from English sources, andwas adaptedby Dr. Shuckburgh to his words satiri zing the Colonia ls in the OldFrenchWar. It was at first a British tune, and not taken by thecolonies until near the end of the Revolution. Am erica ” is borrowed directly from “God save the king ,

”a tune that is used in

many countri es . “Ha il , Colum bia is original , but not a source forpride. Itwas first known as The President’s March .

” The m elodyof The Star-Spangled Banner” is taken from an old English drinking-song,

“To Anacreon in Heaven,” which expla ins its awkwardly

large com pass andbold outbursts . The CivilWar, however, broughtforth good native songs . “Glory Hallelujah ” was originally a

Southern camp-m eeting hym n, known as“Say, brothers, will you

meet us.

”Itwas adopted by the soldiers at Fort Warren , Boston,

with words made up to tease one of their m em bers , named JohnBrown . When these m en m arched to the front, they sang the songon their way, andm ade it instantly popular. Two years later, JuliaWard Howe wrote new words for it. Ifthe North got its best warsong from the South , it paid the debt fully ;for Dixie

”was a North

ern affair, com posed by Dan Emmett as a m instrel’s walk-around

in New York .M w ote The Battle-Cry of Freedomand other war rm e successes ; while Henry Clay Work producedthe ever-popular “Marching through Georgia .

” H . L. Schreiner


and A. E . Blackmar wrote Southern war-songs of decided spiri t.Stephen Collins Foster’s songs show the planta tion style. After thewar, the growing m usical atmosphere in our larger cities, especiallyNew York , Boston, Cincinnati, andChicago, resulted in the developm ent of composers whose work is m ore ambitious in style, and

more in line with the grea t European models. Valuable influencewas exerted by the pianist William Mason andthe conductor Theodore Thomas .A leader am ong American orchestral composerswas John KnowlesPaine (1839 Born atPortland, Ma ine, he studied in Berlin ,and became known in both Germany andAm erica by his organconcerts. In 1862 he became head of the music departm ent at Harvard College, where he worked until his dea th. In 1867 his Massin D won a Berlin success . This was followed by the American production of his oratorio “St. Peter,

”a work of much skill and also

much difficulty. Pa ine’s first sym phony, in C-minor, was performedby Thomas ; but his second , the

“Spring Symphony, proved a

grea ter success . At the Philadelphia Exposition of 1876 , his“Cen

tennialHymn ” showed more inspiration than Wagner’s blatan t“Centennial March .

” Pa ine’s sym phonic poem The Tem pest”

proved to be another interesting work . His music to the “(EdipusTyrannus” of Sophocles was lofty, dignified , and thoroughly effective. This was the best Am erican composition of its time. Pa inewrote a lso such voca l-orchestra l works as “Phoebus, arise,

” “TheNativity,

” the Song of Promise,”and the Colum bus March and

Hymn . Another symphonic poem by him was“An Island Fan

tasy ,

” com posed after a painting of the Isles of Shoa ls by J.AppletonBrown . The m usic to The Birds ofAristophaneswas good , thoughhardly equa l to “(Edipus Paine composed an opera , Azara ,

based on the old Trouvere story of “Aucassin etNicolette. It conta ins much beautiful m usic, but is not essentially dramatic, as thecomposer’s forte was a more conservative style.Edward AlexanderMacDowell(1861—1908)was held to be Ameri

ca’

s best com poser. He studied in Germany, and taught atDarmstadt. In la ter years he was in charge of the music departm ent atColumbia College. MacDowell

’

smusic is earnest, im passioned , andexpres sive. His studies with Raff res ulted in giving him a commandof melodic utterance. He was not a stri ct classicist, butput into the

AMERICA 291

old forms the freedom that m odern standards allow. His two grea tpiano concertos have been frequently played by Mm e. Carrefio.

The same is true of his sonatas , which are remarkably effectiveworks in the m odern free form . The first of these is the dram atic“sonata tragica the second is the sonata eroica ,

” inscribedwith the words Flos regum Arthurus

”

; the third , dedica ted toGrieg, has been ca lled by Huneker

“An epic of rainbow and thunder while the later Keltic Sonata bears witness to its composer’sScotch ancestry. MacDowell

’

s orchestra l works include the symphonic poems Ham let,

” “Ophelia ,

”and the beautiful “Lancelot

andElaine” ; the Indian Suite, based on real Indian m elodies ;“The

Saracens ,” “The Lovely Alda , two fragm ents of the

“Song of Roland ,

”anda later suite, often given in Germ any , consisting of

“In

a Haunted Forest,” “Sum m er Idyl ,

” “In October,

” “The Shepherdess’s Song,

”and Forest Spiri ts . The Indian Sui te naturally

shows the composer’s own orchestral use of the them es. There hasbeen m uch di scussion as to whether Indian or negro music is therea l folk-m usic of the United Sta tes . The latter carries off the palm ,

for two reasons . In the first place, Indian m usic is not known tom any people, and consequently does not have the wide appea l oftrue folk-m usic ; andin the second place, it is m erely unison m elody,so that in instrumental use it derives its character from the individual com poser’s harm onies . Arthur Farwell has used Indian m el

odies effectively for piano , but the harm onies are his own ; while thevery beautiful chords of Charles Wakefield Cadman would un

doubtedly sound strange to the Indians whose songs he uses as m el

odies . MacDowellwrote “An Indian Lodge” for piano , but it isno m ore folk-m usic than his other piano works, the “WoodlandSketches,

” the “Sea Pieces ,”or the earlier andm ore classica l piano

suites . MacDowellis known also by m any beautiful songs , varyingin style from the em otion of “Thy Beam ing Eyes

” to the som breforce of “The Eagle.” Especially effective are the Eight Songs(OD containing The Sea ,

” which shows a noble breadth ofeffect, and the delicate “Midsumm er Lullaby .

”

George Whitfield Chadwick , born at Lowell, Massachusetts , in1854 , studied with his elder brother atfirst. He began compositionwhile a pupil at the Lawrence High School ; andsom e of the danceshe produced then were used later in his successful m usical comedy


Tabasco . Studies at the New England Conservatory resultedin the com position of orchestral works andpiano trios . Chadwick ’sfather wished him to begin a business career ; but the young m an

made music his life-work by starting outasmusic teacher in a Michigan college. There he earned m oney enough for serious study at

Leipsic, under Reinecke and Jadassohn . Since his return , he hasbeen teacher andmusical director at the New England Conservatory. His “Rip Van Winkle ” Overture and two string quartetsdate from his German student days, andreceived m uch praise. HisMelpom ene ” Overture unites classic dignity with tragic power in

a way that deserves the highest recognition .

“Thalia ” is an overture to the m use of com edy, while

“Euterpe is a later offering tothe m use of dancing. The Adona is Overture is another work ofnobly expressive character. Chadwick has written three symphonies, the second of which made use of planta tion effects long beforeDvof‘ak came to Am erica to work in the sam e field . Chadwick hassometim es used this flavor in his cham b er works, of which a pianoquintet and a later stri ng quartet deserve mention. His Judith ”

is an ambitious sacred opera , though so far it has been given onlyin oratorio form.

“Phoenix Exp irans,” “The Lily Nymph ,

”and

“Noel ” are successful canta tas . Later orchestra l works include aSyrnphonietta (conta ining the wildly American

“Vagroma Suite Sym phonique, the sym phonic poem Cleopatra ,

”anda later

one,“Aphrodite .” The last-nam ed , inspired by a beautifu l head

of the goddess that is now in the Boston Art Museum , portraysscenes that m ight have taken place before the statue when it stoodin its tem ple. The music suggests sacred dances ; a storm at sea ;

the thank-offerings of rescued m ari ners ; temple services ; m oonlitsolitude ; and other appropriate ideas. Chadwick’s many songsconta in such gems as “Allah ,

” “Sora is

’ Song,” the “Song from the

Persian ,”and the “Bedou in Love-Song. His Tarn o’ Shanter,

”

a sym phonic sketch in Scottish style, was performed with success in1915.

Horatio Parker, born at Auburndale, Massachusetts, in 1863 ,did not become interested in music until the age of fourteen. Thenhe began asking many questions about it, and devoted himself tostudy with Chadwick, and with Rheinberger at Munich . On hisreturn he became musical director in various schools, tea cher in the


works, which are highly prized , include a piano qu intet, a stringquartet, a piano tri o, andan excellent violin sonata . Another work,for orchestra , is the effective symphonic prologue to Dante

’s storyof Francesca da Rimini. Foote’s cantatas , such as

“The Skeletonin Armor” and

“The Wreck of the Hesperus ,”are made of worthy

music, but the words are som etimes spun out, and repea ted toomuch . His songs include many favorites, such as the “Irish FolkSong

, or“When icicles hang by the wall .”

Henry Kimball Hadley, born at Som ervi lle, Massachusetts, in1871, studied with Chadwick in Boston andMandycewski in Vienna . The four movements of his “Youth and Life” symphonyseem to typify aspiration, sorrow, high spiri ts, and triumph .

“TheSeasons” is another symphony, dividing naturally into four movements. A still later symphony,

“North , East, South , andWest,”

boxes the compass in excellent fashion, portraying the ruggednessof the North , the mystery of the Orient, the lively jollity of theSouth , and the victorious spiri t of the golden West. Hadley

’s overtures include “Hector and Andromache,

” “In Bohemia ,

”and

“Herod .

” His ballet music has been arranged in su ites. He produced the opera “Safie” in Germany ; while

“The Atonement ofPan ,

” composed for the high jinks ” of the San Francisco Bohemian Club , is practically another opera . He has produced chambermusic of rea l value, and a number of artistic songs ; but he seemsto prefer the larger forms. “Lelewala ” is an early canta ta thatbrings in Niagara .

“Merlin andVivian ” is a lyric work of dramatictendencies , for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra .

“The Fate ofPrincess Kiyo ” is another canta ta , this time for women

’s voices .Most advanced , however, are his symphonic poems, consisting of“Salom e ” and“The Culprit Fay.

” In the former, the largest modern orchestra is handled with Strauss-like control and power ofexpression . The latter is based on a poem by Joseph RodmanDrake, aimed to show that American rivers andscenes should havetheir poetic legends. The culprit fay, disgraced by the glance of amortalmaiden’s eye, rega ins his sta tus by voyaging in a musselshell boat to obta in the glistening drop of water from a leapingsturgeon andthe spark from a falling star. After a successful return.he joins the fa iry dance that ends with cock-crow. In the music,Hadley has given many effective suggestions, such as the grace of

AMERICA 295

the fa iri es, the culprit’s troubles, the immensity of sea andsky, the

joyful return, and the fina l dance.Frederick Shepard Converse, born at Newton, Massachusetts,

in 1871, is another orchestral andoperatic leader. Two of his symphonic poem s ,

“The Festival ofPan ” and“Endymion’s Narra

tive,”are inspiredby the poetry of Keats . Both are effective enough,

but rather contem plative in style. More dramatic is“Ormazd,

”

which depicts the conflict between the followers of that beneficentdeity and the forces of the wicked Ahriman .

“Night and Day”

and“The Mystic Trumpeter” were inspired by Walt Whitman ’s

poems . Other instrum enta l works by Converse are an early symphony

,given while he studied with Rheinberger at Munich ; the

concert overture “Youth ” ; a violin concerto ; and two string quartets . He has com posed a lso the oratorio “Job ,

” the baritone ba li

lad La Belle Dam e Sans Merci,”and incidentalm usic to Percy

Mackaye’

s Joan of Arc .

”But he is known m ost widely by his

operas , The Pipe of Desire and The Sacrifice.” He is now working at “Beauty and the Beast.”

The Pipe of Desire " beg ins with revels of the Elves, who decidethat their favorite peasant Iolan sha ll be allowed to see them ,

in‘

sp ite of the warnings of the Old One, their king. The latter playshis sacred pipe , and thus forces even Iolan to dance ; but in revengeIolan seizes the pipe. The peasant will not give it back until itsnotes have shown him a vision of his desire, a fertile farm, anda

com fortable hom e in which wife andchildren await him. He callshis beloved , Naoia , to com e to him . Because of the pipe’s power,she has to obey ; but the journey is so long that she dies in the armsof Iolan, who is thus punished for attem pting to obta in supernatural power. The delica te, contemplative style ofthe music isalmost too refined for stage success.The Sacrifice ” dea ls with the renunciation of an American cap

ta in (Burton) who loves a Spanish girl (Chonita ) duri ng the takingof Cal ifornia by the United States . The plot is based on a storyby Lieut. H . A. Wise. Chonita in rea lity loves Berna], her country-3man . The first act conta ins an impressive Indian prophecy, anattractive song by Chonita , and an impassioned love—duet. Thesecond act, in the interior of a m ission bu ilding, begins with a

'

spirited soldiers ’ chorus and a piquant dance of gypsy andMexi


can girls . When the chapel em pties, Chonita enters, and sings amelodious prayer. Berna], who is rea lly outlawed , is discovered indisguise ; he tries to kill Burton, butChonita throws herself betweenthe m en , and is wounded . The third act shows Chonita recovering,andBurton planning to free Berna] for her. When som e Mexicansarrange a surprise, he lets him self be killed , so that Bernal ’s freedom will be assured . The work has much viri lity, but moves

An earlier American opera composer was Frederic Grant Gleason (1848 His works include the cantata “The Culpri t Fay,

”

the orchestral compositions “Edris ” and“The Song of Life,

and the operas “Otho Visconti and Montezuma .

”

Victor Herbert, born at Dublin in 1859, has made himself thoroughly American . He has composed symphonic poems , a

’celloconcerto, a su ite romantique, andmany light operas as well as thegrand opera “Natoma.

” Even in his light operas he usually includes som e serious number, such as the Bridal Chorus in “TheRed Mill.” He has been a well-known ’cello player.“Natoma is based on an Indian subject. Natoma is the servant

of Barbara , who is loved by Paul Merrill, whom she prefers, andby Alvarado ; while the ha lf-breed Castro admires Natoma , wholoves Merrill hopelessly. When the unwelcome su itors are refused,

Castro arranges for Alvarado to kidnap Barbara . The second actshows a festival , under cover of which Alvarado is to act; butNatoma ,

dancing the dagger dan ce with Castro, rushes by him and

stabs Alvarado, seeking sanctuary in a church . Here (Act III)Natoma ’s vengeful ideas are calmed down , and she becom es a nun.

The score conta ins both Indian and Spanish color, with brilliantfes tival effects in the second act. A shorter opera by Herbert is theone-act“Madeleine.”

With Herbert in light opera belong Regina ld de Koven, whoseRobin Hood ” and

“Maid Marian” are worthy works. Here, too ,should be mentioned John Philip Sousa, writer ofm arches and

the opera “El Capitan .

”

Walter Johannes Dam rosch, son of Leopold Damrosch , wrote aManila Te Deum. In opera his “Scarlet Letter” was earnest,but not inspired .

“The Senator” is a successful musica l comedy.

His latest effort is Cyrano,” which is set with a fair share of humor.


Harvey Worthington Loomis, born at Brooklyn in 1865, has

hundreds of works in manuscript, bes ides having published manycom positions . An early piano concertowas the result of study withDvofak . He has composed several canta tas, such as The FairyHill,

”for children . He has been active in the field of melodrama ,

writing backgrounds (which he sometimes ca lls“Musica l Symbol

ism ”) for

“Sanda lphon” and other poems . His many pantomimesinclude such diverse subjects as “The Enchanted Fountain,

”Her

Revenge,”and

“In Old New Amsterdam.

” “The Maid of Athens”

and“The Burglar’s Bride” are burlesque operas. His Tragedy

of Death ,” partly voca l andpartly melodramatic, is a striking work.

It shows a mother’s efforts to save her child before Death can takeit from the Garden of Souls to Heaven ; while Undines and Fatesparticipate with effective choruses . In piano works and songs,Loomis shows a remarkable originality . His hunt for novelty issometimes too restless, but his work is always interesting.

J. Remington Fairlam b (1837—1908) left his opera “Leonellain manuscript. He studied at Paris ; was consu l at Zuri ch underLincoln ; andreceived a medal from the King of Wiir'ttemberg for aTe Deum with double chorus andorchestra . Hewrote sacred music,andparts of later operas .Other composers who have operas in manuscript areArthur Bird,

Harry Rowe Shelley, Alexander Hull , Johann H . Beck, E . F.

Schneider, W. H . Neidlinger, Jules Jordan , Gaston Borch , and

W. Franke-Harling. The last four have written songs. Hull hascomposed a manuscript symphony, andhas published

“Java ” forfu ll orchestra and piano. He has under way the operas

“Paoloand Francesca ” and

“Merlin andVivien.

” His songs and pianoworks show very interesting effects of modernism , his harmoniesbeing novel and attractive. Bird has composed the comic opera“Daphne,

” the ballet “Riibezahl,”a sym phony, and three suites .

Homer Moore, of St. Lou is, has planned an Am erican operatic tri logy,

“The New World,” “The Pilgrims,

”and

“The Puritans .”

Charles Martin Loefi’ler, born atMiilhausen in 1861, is now an

American citizen. His works are radica lly modern , being full of thequicklys hanging harmonic effects that have been ca lled

“musicalstippling,

”and that make the works of Debussy so chaotic to con

servative ears. Loefiier’s works include a su ite anda divertimento

ALE RICA 299

for violin and orchestra , a’cello concerto, and the orchestral tone

poems , The Death of Tintagiles,” “

La Villanelle du Diable,”

“La Bonne Chanson,

”and

“A Pagan Poem.

” “The Dea th ofTintagiles

” is admirably expressive, and“La Bonne Chanson” a

work of infinite sweetness.Another composer of foreign birth is Gustav Strube, born at

Ballenstedt in 1867. He became known as violinist and conductorin Boston. His works include overtures (

“The Ma id of Orleans ”

and symphonies (the second being a strong work), a setof orchestral variations, two violin concertos , a

’cello concerto,chamber music, and the symphonic poems ,

“Longing,” “

Fan

tastic Dance," “Echo et Narcisse” and

“Die Lorelei.” He usesthe intr ica te harmonic style of the modernists ; but his work isdirect and virile, where that of Debussy is often shadowy and

vague.Another foreigner active in Boston is AndréMaquarre, a Belgianby birth . He isfirstflutistin the Sym phony Orchestra . Hehas com

posed operas , but is known in Ameri ca by orchestral works, such as“Sur les Fala ises .”

Otto Urack ,

’cellist in the Boston orches tra until reca lled by theEuropean war in 1914, composed a melodious symphony.

Bruno Oscar Klein (1858—1911) was a German who composed theopera “Kenilworth ” and sma ller works.Pietro Tirindelli is another foreign-born operatic com poser.Louis Maa s (1852 born at Wiesbaden, was inspired by

America to write concertos, overtures, suites, and the symphony“On the Prairies."

Rudolf Friml, born in Prague but living in New York, hascomposed several ba llets, a number of Operas (including TheFirefly various songs, and instrum enta l pieces of novel andpleasing character.

Other foreigners who have composed orchestral music in AmericaareW. C . Seeboeck , Fritz Stahlberg, the Chicago conductor Fie derick Stock , Arthur Hartmann (who came to America when twomonths old), Anton Hegner, the Dane Carl Busch , the DutchmanJohn A. Broekhoven, andthe Englishman Horace Wadham Nicholl .

Baermann, Richard Pohlig , Will C . Macfarlane, Arthur Claassen,


Henry Eichheim , Nicholas J. Elsenheim er, Lou is Victor Saar, Frederick Brandeis, Robert Goldbeck, Richard Hoffm an, Karl Miiller,Sebastian Bach Mills, P. A . Schnecker, Otto Floersheim, JuliusEichberg, andEm ilio Agramonte.Otis Bardwell Boise, of Ohio, who lived abroad and in Baltimore,

produced a symphony, two overtures, anda piano concerto .

Another American choosing to live abroad is George TempletonStrong, born at New York in 1855. Of his sym phonies , the

“Sintram,

” No. 2 has been highly pra ised . He has written a lso cantatas , such as The Haunted Mill,

”and symphonic poems.

Howard A. Brockway, born at Brooklyn in 1870, keeps his symphonies in manuscript. He is known byhis excellent Sylvan Su itefor orchestra , an orchestral Ballade, andmany violin works, including some that are practica lly concertos.Edgar Stillman Kelley, born in Wisconsin in 1857 studied in Chi

cago and in Germany. His setting of “Puritania ” is remarkablypleasing, and better than the usual light opera work . His “Mac

bet music, made over into a suite, is more earnest anddrama tic ;while the incidenta l music to “Ben Hur ” adds m uch to that stri kingplay. In songs, such as Eldorado and Israfel,

” Kelleyhas shownmarked melodic gifts ; whi le his

“Lady picking Mulberries ” is a successfuladoption of the Chinese style. Duri ng a recent stay abroadhe earned very favorable notices with his piano qu intet, Op . 20, and

string quartet, Op . 25. A la ter work is his “New England Symphony, the movements of which illustrate appropriate quota tionsfrom the “Log of the Mayflower.

“Chr istmas Eve with Alice ” isa set of dainty orchestral pictures.Dudley Buck (1839—1900) belonged to an earlier generation, and

composed before modernism hadgained its hold. His works includethe opera Deseret,

” orchestral pieces , canta tas such as“The Voy

age of Colum bus”and The Light of Asia ,

”anda set of five sacred

cantatas known as “The Christian Year.” His style, naturally, wasconservative.WilliamW. Gilchrist born in 1846, is another of the pioneers. His

psa lms , canta tas , and Song of Thanksgiving” have orchestral ac

Ernest R . Kroeger, born at St. Louis in 1862 , has produced a

symphony, the symphonic poem “Sardanapa lus,”a“Hiawatha ”


by his songs, such as the cycle Floriana andthe Barrack-RoomBallads.

”

Rubin Goldmark , nephew of the European Goldmark, was bornatNew York in 1872 . For orchestra he has written a theme andvariations, a

“Hiawatha ” overture, and the symphonic poem“Samson and Dalila .

” His string quartet won a prize ; while anearlier piano tri o causedDvofak to say,

“There are now two Goldmarks.Henry Holden Huss, born at Newark in 1862 , seems to favor H

as an initia l ; for he married Hildegard Hoffmann. He has produceda piano concerto, a violin concerto, songs with orchestra, chambermusic, and lesser pieces.Edwin Grasse, the blind violinist, was born atNew York in 1884 .

He has composed a sym phony, a suite, andmany violin works.Another violinist-composer is Eugene Gruenberg, known in Boston as a teacher. He, too , has composed a symphony.

Arthur Farwell, born at St. Paul in 1872 , is devoted to Indian melodies . They even figure in his Cornell

” overture, side by side withcollege songs. They are more in place in his other orchestral pictures, such as

“The Doma in of Hurahan ,

” “Dawn,”and the “Na

vajoWar Dance.” His songs vary in style ; but his piano pieces arealmost always based on Indian themes.Among other American orchestral composers (taken in alphabeti

calorder, to avoid dispu tes over precedence), John CarverAlden haswritten a piano concerto . Maurice Arnold is responsible for overtures and Planta tion Dances.” Percy Lee Atherton has composeda tone-poem entitled “Noon in the Forest,

”and several symphonic

movements . HomerW. Bartletthas produced a violin Concertstiickand shorter pieces. Johann H . Beck, of Cleveland , numbers amonghis works the manuscript music-drama Salammbo ” and severalovertures. John Spencer Camp, of Hartford , is responsible for cantatas as well as orchestra l works. Philip Greeley Clapp has writtenthe tone-poem “Norge ” anda symphony, very learned , but too dissonan t. Hugh A. Clarke presides over the music department at theUniversity of Pennsylvania . H . Clough-Leighter has composed anorchestral cantata , andmany fluent songs. Arthur M . Curry hasproduced the symphony “Ata la ,

” based on Chateaubriand ’s tragedy. Henry M . Dunham has composed for organ and orchestra.

AMERICA 303

Henry F. Gilbert has written a Comedy Overture and other worksbased on negro themes . A. J. Goodrich is known as a theorist.William E . Haesche, of New Haven, has composed a sym phony,a“Wald-Idyll ,

”and the sym phonic poem “Fri thjof." Edward B .

Hill has set pantomimes. Ernest Hutches on, the pianist, is creditedwith a piano concerto and the tone-poem “Merlin and Vivien .

”

Harry Patterson Hopkins is a symphonist. Nathaniel Irving Hyattis the composer of an “EnochArden” overture. Carl V. Lachmund

’

s

Japanese Overture was praised by Theodore Thomas. Daniel Gregory Mason wrote orchestral music of much interest for the impressive Cape Cod Pageant. Homer Norris has composed canta tas andan overture. Arne Oldberg , in charge of music at the NorthwesternUniversity, numbers among his works symphonies, concertos, anddignified chamber music. Nathaniel Clifford Page is known for hisincidenta l music. E . A. Parsons has com posed a piano concerto .Henry Bickford Pasm ore is responsible for a march, an overture, a

Niagara sym phony, for orchestra and military band. SmithNewell Penfield is an overture composer. Ellsworth C . Phelps hasproduced a “Hiawatha ” symphony and the sacred opera “David .

”

John Powell, of Richmond, is known by a violin concerto . Silas G .

Pratt has worked industri ously in the largest forms, composing programme symphonies and su ites, and having his operas

“Zenobia ”

and“Lucille " given with success in Chicago. Cornelius Ruebner,

music professor at Columbia College, has entered the sym phonicfield . Ernest Schelling, the pianist, made clever use of

“Dixie” and“The Suwanee River” in his fantasie for piano and orchestra. Ed

ward Faber Schneider, ofOmaha ,haswritten anAutumn Symphony.

The Nuptials of Attila , andthe large canta ta entitled The Cityin the Sea ,

”allof which show an interesting handling of modern har

monic complexity. David Stanley Smith includes among his manyorchestral works a sym phony and the symphonic sketch PrinceHal.

” Albert Augustus Stanley has com posed a symphony entitled“The Soul ’s Awakening,

”and the symphonic poem

“Attis .” Humphrey J. Stewart has produced the su ite “California Scenes.”

Frank Taft has won success with a “Marche Symphonique.” RichardHenry Warren is an organist as well as an orchestral composer.


Mortimer Wilson is well known in Atlanta . In addition to these,many others are entering the field as graduates from our foremostmusical conservatories.Among the wom en, Mrs. H. H . A. Beach is the leader of the na

tives. Her Gaelic Symphony is bu ilt on broad lines, while her masswi th orchestra is another large work. She has published The Roseof Avontown ”

and other canta tas, and is well known through herpiano works and expressive songs.Mme. Helen Hopekirk

’

s piano concerto and Concertstuck are ofunusual value, and show rare musicianship. Her violin sonata isanother worthy work. Her

“Iona Memories, for piano, andmanyof her songs also, bear witness to her Scottish birth .

Mrs. Clara Kathleen Rogers (Clara Doria) is another orchestralcomposer of foreign birth .

Margaret Ruthven Lang has heard two of her three overtures performed. Her published works consist chiefly ofpiano pieces andsongs, the latter including My Lady Jacqueminot,

“Eros,“Ghosts,

” “Prelude,” “

Tryste Noe “Northward,”and sim ilar

Among otherAmerican women, Helen Hood has composed worthychamber music. Edith Noyes Porter has worked in the same field,with occasiona l orchestral excursions. Mabel Daniels has composeda Ballade for baritone and orchestra , andwon prizes with hersolo songs. Laura Sedgwick Collins is another who has essayed theclassica l forms . Marguerite Melville is still another com poser ofchamber music. Fannie Dillon is sa id to have large works in manuscript. Ju lia Rive-King andFannie Bloomfield Zeisler have writtenpiano works. Mrs. Mary Carr Moore, composer of songs, has inmanuscript the opera “Narcissa ,

” dea ling with the adventures ofNarcissa Prentiss, who marriedMarcus Whitman, went with him tothe Pacific Coast on missionary work, andwas massacred there byIndians. Mary Turner Salterhas written many remarkably interesting songs, of much musica l value, a recent success being the tragic“Cry of Rachel .

” Gena Branscom be’s songs , such as the cycle “ALute of Jade,

” show unusua l poetic beauty. Patty Stair, the pianist,has excelled in both hum orous andserious songs. The lyrics of Harriet Ware and Lola Carrier Worrell have been frequently heard atAm erican recita ls. Mary Knight Wood

’s songs are freshly sponte


Other American song composers, in alphabetica l order, are James C.

Bartlett, the late Fred Field Bullard of“Stein Song” fame, Charles

H . Dana ,William H . Dana , L. R . Dressler, William Arms Fisher,

Hallett Gilberte, Victor Harri s, Frank S . Hastings, Rupert Hughes,Herbert Johnson, William Spencer Johnson, John A. Loud , H . C.

MacDougall, A.A.Mack, Malcolm D .McMillan , George L. Osgood,

H . R. Palmer, Winthrop L. Rogers,Walter Morse Rummel , ArthurRyder, Lily Strickland, Arthur W. Thayer, Everett H . Titcomb,Stephen Townsend, R . S . Willis, and G . D . Wilson. Other namesdeserving mention in an American list, for various reasons, are F.

Addison Porter, Bra inard, Dia l, Alexander Russell, Carl Engel,Benjamin Lambord, Henry Waller, William Schuyler, Chester Ide,Caroline Walker, andWilliam McCoy, many of whom have hadworks published by the patri otic Wa-Wan Press.

While the first edition of the present book was in press, John'Alden Carpenter entered the orchestralfield with a large workentitled “Adventures in a Perambulator. It pictures the impresasions of an infant, and is divided into six movements for full modernorchestra .

“En Voiture ” forms a rather dignified introduction,with rhythmic suggestions of the moving perambulator.

“ThePoliceman” is shown chatting with the nurse and stalking aboutwith heavy steps. “The Hurdy-Gurdy

” is suggested most hum orously by two xylophones against the orchestra , and they revel inpopular tunes until reprimanded by the ponderous policeman. TheLake is a most charming picture of rippling wavelets, andforms anadmirable contrast to the preceding bits of humor.

“Dogs” are

heard barking on various instruments ; and“Dreams” bring a

qu ieter conclusion. The score shows a wonderful mastery of orchestraltechnique, and full measure of inspiration. This one work

PART III

MUSICAL FORM


appreciate, is the variety of rhythm ic effect to be found in goodmusic. He will very seldom com e across the pla in unvarnished seesaw that pervades popu lar m usic.Daniel Gregory Mason illustrates this point by citing poetry. He

rightly sta tes that without metre music would be formless ; but onthe other hand he is just as correct in protesting against the monotonousdum , dum ,dum that arises from having the rhythm too lackingin change. Variety of effect is desired ; andat the same time this variety should not prevent a larger sense of un ity from characterizingan entire work. In poetry, Keats is cited as an example of the avoidance of monotony ; andthe point is well brought out by the following

A thing ofbeauty is a joy for ever.

Its loveliness increases ; itwillneverPass into nothingness ; but stillwillkeepA bower quietfor us, anda sleepFullofsweetdreams, andhealth, and quiet breathing.

The delicate rhythm of these lines , and their skilfulavoidance ofanything monotonous in accent, is plainly evident. Mason illustrates the same point in music by citing the original and the fina lsta te of the Opening melody in the slow movement of Beethoven’sfifth symphony. An examination will show that the finished workhas much more variety.

A glance at the first line of this music, which is the originalideathat Beethoven wrote down , will show that it is fairly regu lar. Twonotes on the third bea t of the measure begin both ha lves of the melody, anda note on the first beat, followed by one on the second, end

MELODY AND APPRECIATION 311

them in each case. More than this, the second half is practica lly thesame as the first half, exceptfor the fact that it is given a tone higher.

Looking at the theme in its fina l shape, we may notice muchgrea ter variety of rhythm. There is slightly less resemblan ce between the two whole measures in each half-theme ; then the secondhalf is made to begin with three notes instead of two ; while the ending of the second half, still on the first two beats of the measure, ismade to consist of three notes that seem to shift the accent along tothe second bea t. All these changes in a them e of only four bars showthat Beethoven was a careful worker ; but they also indi ca te that thebest music has variety of rhythm as well as a large unity pervadingthe whole. The little changes add to the variety, while leavingenough regularity to m ake the theme still very swingy.

The music of the grea t com posers is rhythmic enough, andmanyexamples of their work might be cited to prove this. One could taphis feet to the accents of Beethoven ’s Seventh Symphony

, or nearlyallof Wagner’s Prelude to The Mastersingers,

”or the final chorus

of Bach ’s “St. Ma tthew Passion.

” Even the second movem ent ofTschaikovsky’s “Pathetic Symphony,

” which has the unusua l number of five beats to each measure, is made rhythm ies lly attractive bythe skill of its com poser ; while the march in the third movem ent iscom pelling in its swinginess. There is no lack of rhythm in the classics, when once the listener has shaken himself free from the toosimple andmonotonous effects of commonplace music.Taking up the question of melody, the student will find its appre

ciation governed by somewhat simi lar rules. Much of the populararticle, and even a grea t dea l of fairly good music, has its melodydivided off in phrases that su it the conventiona l rhythm of equalparts. While this division is often usefu l , it should not be the onlyone

, any more than a succession of eight-syllabled lines in iambictetrameter (known as

“long metre” in the hymn-books) should bethe only kind of poetry to receive widespread attention.

In place of m elody, good music som etimes consists rather of whatmight be ca lled melodiousness. It is tuneful and m elodic, but notlimited by being forced to suit a comm onplace rhythm . Instead ofcoming in cut-and-dried lengths, like so much macaroni, it is givento us in su itable andpleasing variety.

As an example, the reader may look again at the final form of the


Beethoven theme printed above. It is not exactly a tune, but it istuneful . It is not cast in any cut-and-dried shape ; for after the fourOpening bars cited above we find added rhythm ic variations thatallow the melody to take a free andattractive shape .Many passag es in classica l music show a markedmelodic character,

in addition to a clear rhythm. Such passages are very much in place.The good com poser does not stri ve to make his music needlessly uglyor involved . Melody forms a valuable part of his assets . What hedoes do is to use melodic passages in ba lance against others, or in contrast with them. There may be in one part of a piece a tender melody, and in another a set of fiery chords, or sombre phrases, or rushing themes of unrest. A good example of such contrast is found inthe ErneralMarch” by Chopin , in which the gloomy andpowerfu lchords of the march are put in contrast with the smooth, song-likesection that forms the m iddle part of the work. Com posers, then, donot often follow any one simple style of melody, butaim to usemorethan one style, and bring out in their works the beauty that comesfrom variety, andthe strength of structure that depends upon artistic balance and contrast.The listener must, therefore, educate himself to see the beauty of

different kinds of music. To quote a few examples on the spur of themoment, he will find a bright anddainty opening theme in the finaleof Beethoven’s first symphony ; an infinitely beautifulserenity inthe passage beginning the second sym phony of Brahms ; a halfpathetic happiness in the second them e of the first movement inSchubert’s “Unfinished ” Sym phony ; a wild , almost savage gloomin the first rapid theme of Tscha ikovsky ’s fifth symphony ; or intense chords that seem to have very little melody at the start ofBrahms’ first symphony.

For variety, one may inspect such a song as Schubert’s Wan

derer.

”It begins with an almost forbidding style, when the wan

derer m entions the hard conditions of “flood and field . Thencomes a tenderly pathetic passage of regret athis many tri als andfew bits of happiness . This is followed by a brightly rhythm i c melody as the traveller rem embers with joy his own home-land ; but itends in sudden suggestion of doubtwhen he cries, “0 land , whereart thou? ” Then once more is heard the them e of regret. After thiscomes a ghostly suggestion of an answer to his eternal question of


hearer’s intellectual sense of fitness .“Such development may take

the entire them e for treatm ent, or a sing le phrase, or even a simplefigure. The figure is the shortest recognizable bit of music. It m ay

consist of as few as two notes ; and such a two-noted figure m ay befound on the second and third beats of nearly every measure inSchuett

’

s“Reverie, filling out the melodic pauses . Beethoven’s

ninth symphony begins with a two-noted iambic figure ; and thescherzo of the same work conta ins a three-noted dactylic figure.For musica l treatment or development, a figure should usually belonger than this, though it is quite possible for a com poser to workup two-note effects .Still another method of treating melodies is by contrapunta l

imitation, which has been previously mentioned . This consists ofallowing a theme, or subject, or even a figure, to be used in partmus1c, appearing first in one voice and then in another, and making a tonal design by its well-balanced and orderly recurrences.Such work will be trea ted in the chapter on “Contrapunta lForms .”

Harmony is the science of chords and chord-progressions. Here,perhaps, the taste of the non-m usician is more lacking than in otherways, and less amenable to training . The comparative monotony ofharmony in popu lar music is evident when one considers how muchof it consists simply of the “three chords ” learned on the banjoand other sim ilar instrum ents. These are the tonic , on the firstsca le-degree ; the dominant, on the fifth ; andthe subdominant, onthe fourth .

1 Here again the good composer will show his abilityby using even these chords in a more tasteful andartistic fashionthan is found in the work of the hack writer who grinds outpopulartrash . Incidentally, the author does not mean to imply tha t allpopu lar music is trash ; but some of it is, and the public is seldomable to know the difference. Examples of simple chord-work fromthe classics m ay be found in the first rapid theme of Beethoven

’sseventh symphony ; the choruses behind the scenes in the first actof Gounod ’s “Faust” ; or the opening theme in the finale of thefirst Brahms sym phony. The hearer, then, must learn to discrim ina te between artistic and inartistic harmony, and to judge whether

For inform ation about chords, scales, etc., see the chapter on How to read

music,”in PartVofthis volum e.

MELODY AND APPRECIATION 315

the chords of a piece are brought out in pleasing su ccession or

merely thrown together carelessly andwithout plan.

There are different styles of harmony, and the hearer shouldlearn to appreciate them. Just why certain harmonies producecerta in effects on the brain is a deep psychologica l question that hasnot yet been thoroughly answered . Association has som ething todo with the judging of music as a whole ; but it does not account foreverything. The more rapid rhythms are brighter than the slowones, and high-pitched notes more cheerful than low ones. Inharmony, however, no such clear rule is found . The apprecia tionof harmony consists in a perception of the relationship betweensuccessive chords . This relationship m ay be kept simple, or

smoothed into delica te adjustment, or even made abstruse . Amusica l example will show the difference between the first twostyles. The opening voca l phrase of Bach’s song,

“0 heart ever

faithful , has the same notes as the first line of Jensen’s “Murmuring breeze ” ; but the Bach work has sim ple and direct harmonies

(the three chords aga in), while the Jensen lyric varies the tonicchord by chromatic a ltera tions. There is a marked variety in therhythm of the two voice parts andaccompaniments but even allowing for tha t, there is a noticeable difference in the harmony too .

Changes of chords m ay be slight or abrupt. In the first case ,nearly allthe notes of one chord are held for the next ; while in thesecond

,there is very little connection . As long as the hearer is able

to perceive the relationship, whether it is close or distant, he willcontinue to apprecia te the m usic in a grea ter or less degree ; butwhenthe chord-sequence passes beyond the range of hisperceptivepowers,it will become a chaos of unrelated sounds, a mass of unm eaningdiscord. Some of the more involved classics have this effect on thelistener who has not cultivated his sense of harmony ; but after heeduca tes himself by continued hearing of good works, he beginsto find order emerging from the apparent harmonic chaos. There istherefore only one rea l way for the student to develop his tastefor good harmony ; he must put himself in a musica l atm osphere,and listen to the best pieces until he learns to appreciate them.

This growth in appreciation is som ething that follows naturallyon the frequent hearing of good music ; and even the great composers have not been exempt from its improving influence, as a


com parison of their youthful productions with their more matureones will show.

As stated above , melody, harmony, andrhythm are more or lessinextricably blended into one organic whole. Especially is this trueof melody and harmony ; so that a melody will usua lly suggest tothe musician the harmonies that might go with it.One limitation of popu lar music is noticeable in our own country,

if not in certa in others ; that consists in the too continuous use ofthe major mode. There is much beauty in the minor m ode. Sometimes it is devoted to effects of sadness and pathos, while at othertimes it is made to show the most delicate grace. The opening themeof Mendelssohn ’s “Hebrides ” overture is of the latter character,andhas been cited as a perfect reflection of its subject. The underlying rhythm ofthe low notes gives the large pulsation of the waves ;while little rippling figures above, surging to different heights, givea perfect suggestion of the wavelets that chase one another on thesurface of the larger billows. In Mendelssohn’s Scotch Symphonythe minor mode of the first and last movements is made to show a

most wonderfu l var iety of effects . The tra ining in appreciation ofthis mode is a necessary part of every auditor’s educa tion .

It will be seen from allthese considerations that the composerhas a far vaster field to work in than the manufacture of conventionalpopular music . The grea t composer m ay handle many stylesof melody, balancing one aga inst another in actua l design ; he m ay

vary melodic Work by contrasting it with wholly different styles,such as development or contrapuntal imitation ; and he m ay giveto his entire work a variety and originality of harmony that canmake it glow with ever-changing beauty . It stands to reason thatthe only way to learn to appreciate good music is to hear it. Butif the listener knows What to look for, his task will surely be madeeasier ; and this section is planned as a guide for him.


the outer notes of a figure (upper and lower) are the ones to bea ltered . Even a two-note figure may be altered in this way. For

example, in Liza Lehmann’s song “The Cuckoo,

” that bird callsin notes a third apart ; but once or twice, for purposes of harmony,the interva l is changed into a fourth.

3 . By contraction . As a reverse of the preceding method,the in

tervals of a figure may be made sma ller.

4 . By augmentation . A figure m ay be given in notes of largervalue than before.5. By dim inution. A figure may be given in notes of smaller

value.6 . By repetition. Certa in notes of the figure may be repeated in

the necessary num ber of sm aller notes.7. By om ission . Part of a figure m ay be given instead of the

whole. For example, in the a llegretto of the second Brahms sym

phony there is a very rhythmic figure,

which gradually tra ils off into nothingness by the repetition ofthe C alone, on the second beat of two or three measures, while theaccompanim ent softens anddies away.

8 . By change oforder. The sequence of the notes may be altered .

This is not a common procedure, as it is apt to make the figure nurecognizable.9 . By reversion . A figure may be played through backwards.10. By inversion , or contrary motion . A figure may be inverted,

having its upward intervals changed to downward ones, and vice

versa . An exam ple of inversion with reversion and contraction isfound in the finale of the first Brahms sym phony

,where the figure

becomes

11. By elaboration . A figure may be made more intrica te by theaddition of new notes .12 . By simplification . This is the reverse of the preceding.

13. By ornamentation . Turns,trills

, and other embellishmentsmay be put into the figure.14 . By rhythm ic im itation. The rhythm of a figure may be imi

tatedon a single note, or by an instrument of no pitch , like the bass

FIGURES AND PHRASES 319

drum or triangle. The latter starts a them e in Liszt’s E-flat pianoconcerto by giving its rhythm.

15. By rhythm ic alteration . This might com e under repetition,

or elaboration, or sim plifica tion, but m ay be classed as a separatemethod . Thus in the Brahms allegretto mentioned above,

becomes

becomes

As already shown by example, combinations of any of the foregoing processes may be em ployed .

It is by means of som e or allof these devices that a com posercreates the musica l structure known as development, in which thefigures of one or more them es are used in various ways to bu ild upan im pressive tonal edifice. But figure treatm ent has many moreuses than this . It may be called upon for the creation of the themesthemselves , though not allmelodies show figure repetition. Figures m ay also be interwoven into the accom paniment of them es .The student may now get a clearer understanding of figure treat

ment by inspection of certa in works.First of alllet him take the opening movement of Beethoven’s

fifth symphony. The writer has that work in the Litolffedition,arranged for piano solo by Winkler, but the number of bars willbe the same in any good edition .

The first two bars show the figure on which much of this movement is based . It is a virile figure, having been expla ined by Beethoven as the knocking of Fate at the door, a lthough on an

other occasion he claimed that he hadheard this rhythm poundedout when a belated and intoxica ted reveller had returned home to

seek admission. The figure runs thus

In later use the last note is som etimes held for its full value, andsometim es made an eighth-note to permit of a recurrence of thefigure immediately after.

In bars the figure is repeated, transposed downward . Inbars 6—9 three occurrences of the figure, the second contracted , andthe last two transposed, make the first phrase of the chief theme.


Bars 10—13 are similarly formed , the figure being now expanded inthe first case, as well as contracted in the second . Bars 14—19 showfirst an a ltered figure, the third note being now between the secondand fourth in pitch , and then an inversion of the a ltered figure ; thea lteration appearing three times and the inversion twice. The nexttwo bars have a chord each , ending the first theme with what isknown as a ha lf-cadence, a close on the dom inant chord insteadof the tonic. In bars 21—24 the figure is repea ted separately, as atfirst. Then for two groups of four bars each it appears (in variouspositions) in three downward recurrences , the last one contracted,andone inverted and expanded occurrence. From bar 33 to bar 44it is worked into a long upward progression, the third note of theinverted figure being a ltered , and the later measures of this groupshowing a sequence . Bars 44—56 show three four-measure groupsof downward progressions. A repetition of the figure, from bar 59,serves to usher in a second theme, starting in bar 63 . This is notbu ilt of the origina l figure at all; but we see the latter forcing itsway into the accom panim ent, and not letting itself be forgotten.

It appears in the left-hand part in bars 65, 69, 73, 77, 81, 84, 86,88, 90 and92 . Its rhythm is slightly suggested by the running passage from bar 95 to bar 110. In the la tter bar it comes back unm is

takably, and from then on is used to build up the close of the firstsection, which is marked for repeat after bar 124.

In the first m ovement of a symphony, the exposition of the themesshou ld be followed by a section of development. This is found tobe the case here, though the four-note figure has been used so constantly that almost allthe movement seems to be a development ofit. Bars 125—128 announce the figure (first transposed , then contracted also) as a sort of introduction to this section . The figure isthen employed in various ways. For a time the chief theme is suggested ; then in bar 141 a downward progression begins, still builtof the figure material ; while from bar 159 to bar 167 inclusive thefigure is imitated in altered shape, without repeated notes ; andfrom there on to bar 179 the figure is rhythm ica lly imita ted inchords, with more or less change. From that point on other materialpredomina tes, but in bar 240 the figure is introduced prominentlyonce more, andreiterated as a signa l for the end of the developmentand the beginning of the usual restatement of the original themes.


next two ; the third pa ir has a new phrase ; but the fourth pair usesthe original phrase once aga in.

The com poser may ba lance phrases in instrumenta l compositionsif he desires . He may follow one phrase of conventiona l length withanother of the same length , or he may make the second phrase m uchlonger than the first, which must be kept fairly short. He is notcompelled to write in the style of balanced phrases unless he chooses ;but if he does adopt this style, he may produce attractive worksin it.A section made out of two such ba lanced phrases is known to

musicians as a period . It is sometimes ca lled a theme, but tha tterm has other applica tions, so that the word period is adopted inthis work, for the sake of clearness.Periods may vary from the sim plest to the most complex. The

first half of “Drink to me only with thine eyes ,

”or of “The Last

Rose of Summer,” shows a period in which both phrases are alike.

Not much different is the first half of “Ann ie Laurie,” in whi ch the

second phrase is the same as the first except for an alteration of thefinal note, which brings an effect of completeness. In

“My OldKentucky Home,

” the second phrase is changed only slightly more.A little more difference is found between the first two phrases of“Yankee Doodle.” Most well-known songs show this resem blancebetween their first and second phrase . In piano music, the resemblance need not be so close ; and we may find in Mendelssohn’sHunting Song, after the obviously separate introduction, a fourbar phrase followed by a second phrase that lasts through twentybars. Incidenta lly, phrases used in forming periods are almost neverless than four bars in length , and often longer.

Any piece m ay have an introduction, varying in length or scope.In the “Hunting Song” it is a little prelude-like phrase of less thanfive bars ; while in Beethoven

’s Sonata Pathétique” it is a largesection, forming a complete contrast with the rapid themes tha tfollow it.Any piece may also have a coda , or musical postscript bringmgit to a close (andsometim es a climax) after the demands of the formhave a lready been satisfied. The coda is free in shape , but establishes the key of the piece to which it belongs, and brings it to a.clear ending.

FIGURES AND PHRASES 323

The very short introductions to some of Mendelssohn ’s Songswithout Words,

” sounding like piano phrases before the start of anactual song, are som etim es spoken of as preludes. When they recurat the end of such a piece, they are then ca lled postludes. Both arefound in the piece known as “Consolation .

Itwill be seen by referring to the songs cited that more than oneperiod is used ordinarily. It is possible to have a piece consist of asingle period . The German folk-song known as The Broken Ring,

”

or sometimes as “The Mill in the Valley,” is a single-period form.

Its second phrase is lengthened by repetition in a somewhat alteredform ; and the song consists of only two phrases . A certa in pianoprelude by Scriab ine shows a single-period structure ; but it islengthened by an introduction anda coda .

Most of the songs cited end with a phrase from the first part.Annie Laurie” is an exception, having its second period independent ofthe material of the first ; but such instances are comparatively rare in popu lar songs.The songs mentioned show a two-period form ; but more than

two periods may be used in some cases, or the two m ay be differently arranged . It is also permissible for a com poser to balance aperiod at certain times by a passage of contrasted style. The ordinary period has two phrases, ca lled antecedent andconsequent, thesecond one seem ing to answer and complete the first. But musicdoes not need to be confined to this structure ; and a period m aysometim es be followed by a free episode. The forms in common useare described in the next chapter.

THE SONG—FORMSCOMPOSERS have a very prevalent habit of repeating themselves

as much as possible . They write a theme, and a lternate it withother music, but Often insist on bringing back the origina l them eagain , partly to give a finished and balanced effect to their work.

They are very fond Ofdoing this in the song-form s ; the rondos arenam ed from the procedure ; and even in the freer sonata form thethem es are followed by a development Oftheir ma terial, which inturn is succeeded by a repeat of the themes.The shortest song-form in common use consists of two periods,

each having a first phrase, known as the antecedent, and a secondphrase, known as the consequent. In the two-period independentform, the phrases Ofthe second period aremade of wholly new material . In the two-period form with partial return, the consequent ofthe second period is derived from a phrase of the first, with nochange or only slight alterations . The partia l-retum form is muchmore popu lar than the independent form, because of the tendencyshown by com posers to end as they began . Even when they usethe two independent periods, they may suggest the original sectionby employing some of its material in a coda .

The best single volume for the study of the song-forms is thecollection of Mendelssohn’s “Songs without Words .” In these, anexam ple of the two-part independent form is seen in no . 6, the firstVenetian Gondola Song. As its title would imply, it is soothinglyrhythm ic, being in 6/8 time. An introduction defines the rhythm .

The first period begins on the last bea t of the seventh measure. Itsantecedent is four measures long, while the consequent is prolongedto six measures, and ends on a cadence in the dominant key. Alonger section of new material follows

,having an antecedent Of

eight measures and a consequent of nine. The piece could end at

that point ; but the com poser, following the preva lent impulse ofletting som e of the opening material return, added a coda basedon the phrases of the first period .


the first note Ofthe postlude are played at the same time. This isone of several little devices for making a piece unified in effect.Such overlapping is ca lled compression .

The “Funeral March , no . 27, is another three-part song-form .

A prelude Offour bars precedes the first period , which begins at theend of the fourth fu ll measure. This period has four-bar phrasesfor antecedent and consequent. It is then repeated , being writtenoutwith fuller harmony than atfirst. An episode follows, with twofour-bar phrases, but no cadence , and four extra measures givingthe rhythm and style of the prelude. These serve as a returningpassage to bring back the original period , now set with still broaderharmony, andprolonged four measures by a delayed cadence. Fourmeasures of postlude follow, echoing the rhythm of the prelude.Variety is shown also by the “Spinning Song,

” no. 34. An introduction Ofalmost two bars is followed by a period of two fourbar phrases, ending in the dominant. A nineteen-bar episode isfollowed by a return of the period , this time with an altered consequent of eight bars, ending in the proper key. Episode and returnof period are repeated , but now the episode is in minor instead ofmajor, for variety. A sixteen-bar coda ends the piece.The use Ofa countertheme is shown in “The Return ,

no . 41 Of

the set. It has a four-bar prelude and postlude, starting with a

repea ted octave figure that is skilfully echoed in the ma in body ofthe work . The first peri od, beginning with three occurrences Ofthesame eighth-note chord , consists Oftwo four-bar phrases, endingin the dominant key. The countertheme, beginning with the thirdchord in the twelfth full m easure-is also built of two four-barphrases,ending with a cadence in the relative minor Ofthe dominant. Thefirst period returns, with its consequent altered and extended to

The abbreviated three-division form m ay be illustrated by no.19, ca lled

“On the Seashore.” The first period begins in the lasthalf of the third bar, andhas a four-bar antecedent followed by

‘a

four-bar consequent. After a thirteen-bar episode, the return showsonly a single phrase instead of a two-phrased period . This phraseis lengthened to six bars, but it is indubitably not a period .

A similar abbreviated return is found in Schuett’s “Reverie.In that piece, cited for its constant use of a two-noted figure, an

THE SONG—FORMS 327

eight-bar antecedent and a consequent Ofthe same length are re

placed , in the return, by a single ten-measure phrase using the same

A summary of the song-forms willgive the following tableTwo-division independentform . A period , followed by another

period made of independent ma terial . Either period may be

peated by itself.Two-division form with partialreturn . A period , followed by

another period having a new antecedent, but the consequent repeated or deri ved from a. phrase in the first period . Either periodmay be repea ted by itself.

other period of new material, whi ch is in turn succeeded by a recurrence of the first period , at times with altered consequent. The firstperiod may be repea ted alone if desired , or the second and thirdparts repea ted together, or both repeats made if required . In rareexamples a counterthem e may be repea ted alone.Three-division form with episode. The same as the preceding,

but instead of a countertheme (having antecedent, consequent, andcadence) there is an episode, lacking some or allof these points, andbeing in a more or less free sty le.Three-division abbreviated form . The same as either Ofthe two

preceding forms , but having the return of the first period alteredinto a sing le phrase instead Ofa complete period .

Larger pieces are made from these sim ple song-forms by unitingthem in a three division cycle, just as the single periods of a threedivision song-form are grouped . In other words, many pieces aremade on the plan Ofa complete song-form followed by anothercom plete song-form , which in turn is followed by a recurrence of thefirst song-form, either wholly or in part. Such a piece is known asa song-form with tri o, and the second song-form is called the trio.In the old days, when groups of similar instruments appeared inalternating selections , it was often rea lly a trio. Thus in som e ofLully

’s music we find three flutes giving a piece in contrast to the

more constant violin work . The name has been kept, andhas cometo be used for a contras ting section Ofsong-form . The trio is generally marked by a change of key, usually being in the subdom inant, though sometimes it is in the dom inant.


Either the first song-form or the tri o m ay be of several shapes.But it manifestly wou ld not do to have a sing le-period form for

both the song-form and the trio , as that would result in a simplethree-part song-form. The single-period form is more Often foundin the tri o than in the first section, though it is not very frequentin either case.Song-form with tri o is probably the most familiar Ofallthe forms

to the general public. About allthe popular dances and marchesare written in this form. As a rule, such pieces show rather longantecedents andconsequents . The waltz is apt to have ea ch phraseconsist of sixteen m easures instead of the usual eight. A very littletra ining should enable even the non-musica l reader to analyze thepopular examples of the form , and pick out the periods, or recognize the tri o, with fair certa inty.

In song-form with tri o , as always, there may be introduction orcoda or both . There may also be transition or returning passagesat any desired point.If the first song-form does not return as a whole after the tri o,

the piece is described as a song-form and tri o with abbreviatedreturn. The abbreviation m ay be made to avoid monotony if theperiods are too long or too similar. Another device to give varietyis found in Scharwenka ’s “Polish Dance” andMeyer-Helm trnd’s“Dance .

” In both works, when the return of the first song-formis nearly over, a bit of the tri o is interpolated before the close of thepiece.In the Oldgavottes , the tri o was Often of musette-like character,

having a drone-bass effect as Ofbagpipes. This style Oftri o maybe found in the Meyer-Helm und

“Dance,” where it is in admirable

contrast with the rest of the piece.Schubert’s first Military March may be cited as a clear example

of song-form with trio. The opening song-form begins with a fan

fare-like introduction of six measures. The first period , which follows, consists of sixteen bars in two equa l phrases . It is repeated .

After its second ending come four bars of fanfare suggestion as

transition. Then a countertheme follows, with a four-bar antece

dent and a twelve-bar consequent, ending in a perfect cadence onthe dominant. This bri ngs a return of the first period, with conse


return is not suggested clearly, being one of style rather than form .

An extra phrase after the second repea t is evidently a returningpassage.The song-form Ofthe beginning comes back. It is now given with

out repeat, andwithout return after the countertheme, which nowleads directly into the coda .

Contrasts Ofstyle as well as materia l make this movement veryattractive. The first song-form is strong and rhythmic ; the firsttrio a dainty web of echoing chords ; and the second trio in brisk,running style.Examples of song-form with two tri os are found in Mendelssohn’s

works ; and the student will find pleasure in analyzing for himselfthe familiar Wedding March and the “Priests’ March ” from“Athalie,

” which are both in this form.

THE RONDOS

THE rondos resemble the song-forms in certa in ways. They consist of a chief theme, or ma in section, which alterna tes with one ormore other sections . The main section, however, is not necessarilya single period . Itmay be a complete song-form in itself, or may beentirely free in shape . In the old rondos of Haydn andMozart, andeven in those of Beethoven , the them es are usua lly clean-cut, andeach section is in som e fairly defin ite form . Even when this is thecase, the rondo differs from the song-forms , for in rondos the firstsection, or chief them e, is em phas ized and made more prominent than in song-forms, allthe other sections being brought intodefinite contrast with it. But in many cases the rondo shows morefreedom of shape than the song-forms. When this characteristicis found, it will be seen tha t a rondo may have its sections blendedinto a much more unified whole than can be Obtained from thesong-forms .The so-called first rondo consists of a main section, a side section,

anda return Ofthe ma in section. The side section andma in sectionmay be repea ted together, just like the second and third parts of athree-division song-form ; and in this case the shape is ca lled firstrondo extended by repeats. A coda m ay always occur at the end ofa rondo, or an introduction at the beginning ; andthe unified character of the rondo often makes transition and returning passagespracticable.As an example Offirst rondo , the slow movement OfBeethoven

’sfirst piano sonata (Op . 2 , no. 1) may be inspected by the student.It shows a fairly clear structure. The first sixteen measures form a

first section. New material makes a clear side section. Then thefirst section returns, quite clearly, and is prolonged into a coda .

Some analysts have ca lled this movement a song-form ; but theevidence seems contrary to their verdict. The first sixteen barsseem more like a two-period form than a single period ; and if the


two-period structure is admitted, then the side section is too episodicalto be a tri o.A clear example Of first rondo form may be found in the

adagio m ovem ent of Mozart’s sonata in D , no. 15 in the Litolffcollection .

Clementi’s Rondo in the key of F is another very clear example.The piece is divided into two well-marked sections, both in a free,running style. After the second section is finished , a DC . markbrings the return of the first section.

Any section of a rondo may be repea ted by itself. Som etimesthe first theme is repea ted on its first appearance ; but that isscarcely necessary, as its recurrence in the form will insure its re

ceiving suflicient attention .

The first rondo may often approach very near to the three-division song-form .

“Anitra ’s Dance,” from Grieg

’

s“Peer Gynt”

suite, andPoldini

’

s“Poupée Valsante,

” have been chosen to illustrate this point.In Anitra ’s Dance, the first section, coming after a brief intro

duction,is a sixteen-bar period , repeated . The side section may

with perfect propriety be called a long episode. The first periodreturns in due order, and the episode is repea ted with the returnof them e. The general unity of style in the piece suggests therondo idea , even though the divisions are not unlike those of thesong -form . Incidentally, the student will note that the returnedthem e has a prolonged antecedent, instead of an altered consequent,to make it end in the proper key. This is a very unusua l procedure.In Poldini’s “Dancing Doll,

” the same structure is apparent,a short introduction, a single period repea ted , an episodica l sidesection, anda return Oftheme, the last two divisions being repeatedtogether. This work has a long coda , based on the thematic materia l already used . This coda is rather too large for a simple songform, and its use of the earlier ma terial gives the piece a rondosuggestion.

Chopin’s Nocturne in G, Op . 37, no . 2 , is an example Ofthe firstrondo extended by recurrences, if not literalrepeats. The first section, of about two pages in the usua l editions, is not in periodicshape, but is based almost wholly on the material of the first threeor fourmeasures. The side section, sostenuto, is of song-like charac


no disagreem ent about the name. In the five-part song-form, thesimplest second rondo, allsections are of about equal importance.An exam ple of this five-part single-period structure m ay be foundin Moszkowski ’s Spanish Dance, Op . 12 , no. 1. The others of thisset are song-forms with trio, but in the first dance the five-periodarrangem ent is clearly present. Other exam ples are found in the fina lmovem ents of Mozart’s first two piano sonatas (Litolffedition).Beethoven’s “Fiir Elise” is a clear example of second rondo . In

this piece the first section consists Ofa short three-division songform . Then follow in order the first side them e, the first return, thesecond side them e, and the fina l return of theme. There are re

turning passages after the side themes .The slow movement Of Beethoven’s Sonata Pathétique ” is

another very clear example of second rondo. The student shouldfind no difficu lty in noticing its divisions .Grieg

’

s“Norwegian Brida l Procession is again in single-period

divisions, with the first side section repea ted .

Mozart’s Rondo in A-m inor illustrates the use of embellishments .An unusua l structure is found in Berthold Tours’ Gavotte Moderne. Such a dance is usually a song-form with tri o. The trio isfound in proper shape in this piece ; but instead of the song-form at

the start, there is a little rondo. This consists Ofan eight-bar theme,an eight-bar episode, a four-bar partia l return of the theme, asecond side them e of nine measures, and a full return of theme.Rondo with trio is not a recognized form. The musician will say thatit does not exist ; just as the farmer, on seeing a giraffefor the firsttime, refused to believe his eyes, and exclaimed ,

“There ain ’t nosuch anim a l .” But composers often rise superior to rules, and produce many unusua l forms .The so-ca lled third rondo is like the second, with an additiona l

return Ofthe first side section and the main section, to finish thework . This is not frequently used .

The Oldrondo, as exemplified by C . P. E . Bach , andothers of hisperiod , consisted of a chief theme that occurred a number of tim es,in contrast with any convenient number of side them es. In this connection , the use of the term rondo instead Offive-part song-form isjustified by the early composers, who always gave such works the

THE RONDOS 335

Anything that cannot be classed elsewhere is apparently putamong the rondos, if possible. Thus Mozart

’s “Alla Turca ” m ovement seem s atfirst sight to be much like a song-form and tri o. But

an extra them e is added, both after the song-form and the trio,which makes the piece a som ewhat irregular first rondo.Another sort of rondo is illustrated by Sinding’s Rustle Of

Spring.

”Itwill be seen on exam ination that this is based wholly on

two periods. They are given first with the m elody in the left hand,and a running em broidery of tones in the right. Then they appearas massive chords for the right hand . Then they return as at first,in the left hand . Even if it is adm itted that the periods of a twopart song-form may som etim es be repea ted together instead Ofseparately, there are too m any repeats in the Sinding piece to allow itto be classed as a song-form . The work is ca lled a rondo on twothem es . It does not follow that allrondos on two them es are likethis one in shape ; butallsuch pieces will be made up of a treatmentof two them es, or sections, that cannot well be classified with themore usual rondos . The rondo on three themes exists also .

In allrondos, the chief idea is a recurrence of one ma in theme orsection, with one or more side sections in contrast with it. Whilesom e rondos show a periodic structure, there are a lso rondos inwhich the sections are Offreer style, and blended into one anotherso as to give a more unified effect than would be possible in the song

XXXV

THE SONATA—ALLEGRO FORM

THE works OfDom enico Scarlatti, Galuppi, Paradisi, Kuhnau,and C . P. E . Bach brought about a gradual development of thesonata , until it took shape in the hands in Haydn and Mozart.The distinctive qua lity of the sonata consists in the shape of its firstmovem ent ; and as this first movement is genera lly an allegro, theshape is mentioned here as sonata -allegro form. The sonata consists Ofvarious m ovements, whose contrasts of style admit of muchartistic excellence . The same excellence is found in the form usedin the first movem ent.The sonata -allegro form is first Ofalldivided into three main

parts. These are the exposition, or first playing of the themes used ;the development, or building up of a tonalstructure from the material in the themes ; and the recapitulation, or return of them es. Ifdesired , a middle part, of new material , may be substituted for thedevelopm ent ; but com posers do not usually make this substitution without some good reason.

The them es used in a sonata may be much freer than those of asong-form. It is this variety of materia l in sonata themes thatmakes the piano sonatas of Beethoven so great. There is practica llyno limit to the power and expression that the composer may putinto such themes .The principle of contrast is introduced in the exposition ; for the

them es, three in number, m ay be of different styles . In general, thechief them e, or first theme, is expected to be bold and resolute incharacter, while the second theme should be more lyri ca l and tender. Between the two is a short tributary passage, Ofmodu latorycharacter. After the second theme comes a short closing theme,usually of brilliant style. The exposition is always marked for repeat, so that the themes may be clearly suggested to the hearer ;but the modern tendency is to do away with many repea ts . Inpiano sonatas the exposition is still usua lly given twice

,though in

symphonies the repea t is optional with the conductor.


1. Chief theme, in the tonic minor. Tributary passage, leadingto a half cadence in the relative major.

2 . Second them e, in the relative major.

3 . Closing theme or them es, in the relative major.

4 . Development, free in style and key.

5. Return of chief theme, in tonic minor.

6 . Return of side theme, in tonic minor or major.

Closing theme or them es, in tonic minor.

If there is a coda , division 7 may be in the tonic major, allowingthe coda to establish the tonic minor key.

Another form of sonata allegro in minor allows divisions 2 and 3to occur in the dominant minor, instead of the relative major. Inthe return , divisions 6 and7 will then occur in the tonic minor.

To illustrate the sonata allegro in ma jor, the Mozart Sonata inF (no. 3 in the Litolffcollection), m ay be analyzed here :Chief theme, in F, measures 1—22 . Tributary, here a theme, lead

ing from D-minor to a ha lf cadence in C , measures 22—40.

Second them e, in C , measures 41—86. From measure 56 sometri butary modulation appears, but the ending is on the proper key.

Closing theme in C , measures 86—93. All three themes repea ted .

Middle part, Ofnew material , in different keys, ending on thedom inant seventh chord of F, measures 94—132 .

Recapitu lation. Chief them e, in F, measures 133—154. Sidetheme, ending this time in F, m easures 154—176 .

Second theme, now in F, measures 177—222 . Tributary workbegins atmeasure 192 .

Closing theme, now in F, measures 222—229 .

The first m ovement of Haydn’s Sonata in D (no . 7 in Ten Celebrated Sonatas”) is ana lyzed here as another example of the form

q

Chief theme, an 8-bar period , ending in a full cadence. Tributary,8 bars ending with a half cadence in the tonic.Second theme, 19 measures long, in A .

Closing theme, a little over five bars, in A.

Development, 20 measures .Return Ofchief theme, in D, somewhat altered and extended.Tributary passage altered to 6 measures.Second theme, much as before, but now in D .

THE SONATA—ALLEGRO FORM 339

Closing theme as before, but now in D .

As a clear example of the sona ta a llegro in the usual minor form ,

the opening movem ent of Beethoven’s first sonata (Op . 2 , no . 1) isnow ana lyzed :Chief theme, in F-minor, measures 1—8. Tributary, with half

Second theme, in A-flat-major, measures 204 1.

Closing them e, in A-flat-major, measures 41—48. All repeated .

Developm ent, founded largely on the main figure of the chiefthem e, and modula tory, measures 49—93. Returning passage,measures 93—100.

Return of chief theme, F-minor, measures 101—108. Tributarypassage , with modulations altered, measures 108—119.

Second them e, now in F-minor, measures 119—140.

Closing theme, extended , now in F-minor, measures 140—152 .

The first movem ent of Beethoven’s “Sonata Pathétique is anexcellent exam ple of Beethoven’s union of form with expressivepower. Knowing his love of liberty and his high conception of humanity, this movem ent seems a lm ost like a tone-picture of man

’sstruggle wi th adversity.

The introduction that begins the work is gloom y and tragic inthe extreme. Then come the them es, powerful enough to suggestalmost any sort of effort or com bat. The seventeen-bar chief them eand the twenty-three-bar tri butary are literally fu ll of fight. Thethirty-eight bars of the side them e are less tumultuous, but the longthirty-three-bar closing them e soon grows com bative aga in . Struggle, sadness , andrenewed effort are what the them es seem to typify.

A returning passage leads to the repeat, and a transition passageto the development. When the latter begins, four measures of thesad introduction are heard. Then renewed struggle is suggestedby the development, starting with the opening figure of the chiefthem e . The recapitulation follows, with a transition to the coda .

The latter begins with the introduction figure, whi ch is here madesuggestive of utter weakness by the omission Ofan accented chord .

Just at the finish, however, the true Beethoven spirit of defianceshows itself ; and the movem ent ends with one more rush of thechief-theme figure, like a last command to fight on, even againstfate itself.


The finale OfBeethoven’s first piano sonata (Op . 2 , no. 1) is agood example of the sonata-allegro form with the themes appearingin the dominant minor instead of the relative major. The movement being in F-m inor, the second and closing themes appear firstin C-minor, andreturn later in F-minor. Such constant minor effectswould be apt to produce monotony if unrelieved so Beethoven putin a middle part instead of a development, and wrote it fluentlyin major for purposes of contrast. After it ends, a returning passage leads to the recapitulation.

The sonatas of Mozart andHaydn show clearness of form , anda

light but pleasing cheerfu lness . Those of Beethoven have muchmore dramatic power. Weber’s sonatas were highly prized , but arenot Often heard now. Liszt’s sonata , and those of MacDowell, are

free in form , and in the modern style. The last five sonatas of Beethoven , too , are free in shape . They are tremendously broad pianorhapsodies in style and spirit, and have been aptly spoken of as“veiled symphonies.” Butwhile the la ter Beethoven and the modern radicals dispensed with stri ct form, it must not be forgottenthat their genius entitled them to liberty of thought andexpression.

The student of to-day will do well to study form thoroughly, andappreciate allits possibilities. He should be able to master formbefore he discards it, if he wishes to excel in composition.


of a Beethoven anda Mozart sonata have been cited previously asfirst rondos . The slow m ovement of Beethoven’s “Sonata Pathetique ” has been m entioned as a second rondo. The 5/4 m ovem entof Tscha ikovsky’s “Sym phonie Pathétique ” is an example of alarge song-form with tri o ; andminuets are regularly in this form .

The slow m ovem ent of Beethoven ’s first sym phony is an illustrationof the use of sonata a llegro .

The so-ca lled sonata rondo varies the sonata -allegro form by theprinciple of the rondo, i .e., the frequent appearance of the chiefthem e. There is usually no repeat in a sonata rondo . The them eappears twice more than in sonata form , once at the end of theexposition

, and once at the end of the recapitulation . The divisionsof the sonata rondo are therefore chief theme, second theme, closingthem e, chief them e, development, chief theme, second them e, closing them e, and chief theme. An example of the sonata rondomay be found in the finale of Beethoven

’s “Sonata Pathétique .”

The sonatina form is a short, prim itive sonata a llegro. It beginswith two them es, a chief them e and a side them e, contrasted and

joined like those of the sonata allegro, but rather lighter in style.Usually there is no development. The recapitu la tion consists ofthe two themes, this tim e both in the tonic key. The sonatina mayhave two or three movem ents . Clem enti wrote a number of worksin this form , which the student m ay inspect for purposes of analysis. The sonatina form may be used for a sonata movement.The sonatina rondo consists Ofthem e , second theme in the proper

related key, them e, second theme in the tonic, and theme again .

This form a lso may be used in a sonata movem ent.Variations of a them e have been a favorite form wi th the great

composers . Beethoven, Brahms , Elgar , Reger, Tschaikovsky, andothers have made a separate work of this form , the Brahms variations on a Haydn theme being especially beautiful . Beethovenused variations in the finale of his Eroica Symphony, in the slowmovem ent of his piano sonata (Op . 14, no . and in the slowmovement of his “Kreutzer Sonata for violin and piano . Variationsenable a composer to show his mastery over different styles of writing . There is always danger of their growing into a mere technicaldisplay ; and the composer must guard against this fau lt.The minuet movement Ofthe Old symphonies was regularly in

OTHER SONATA MOVEMENTS 343

the shape of song-form with trio . The minuet in Beethoven’s firstsym phony is a case in point. Beethoven substituted the scherzofor the minuet, and in his later sym phonies made it very brusqueand strong. In the scherzo the dance-like character of the themesis absent, the trea tment is fairly free , and development is permissible. Butmany scherzo movem ents keep to the song—form and tri ostructure. Schumann has been quoted as using the song-form withtwo trios in the scherzo of his first symphony. The scherzo is nowtrea ted as an independent piano piece, and works in this form byKullak and Chopin may be investigated by the student.Brahm s replaced the scherzo by the intermezzo. This is still

much like a song-form with tri o. The first part generally consistsof two them es, as in the song-form. A tri o follows, in contrastedstyle. The earlier themes do not return as a whole, butare replacedby a coda conta ining rem iniscences of them.

The m inuet is properly in 3 4 rhythm ; but the scherzo and intermezzo may be in any su itable rhythm , a lthough most scherzos arein 3 4 rhythm .

The finale is usually a brilliant movement. Yet every rule hasexceptions , and we find Tscha ikovsky ending his

“SymphoniePathétique” with a very mournful slow movem ent. But this isonly one of the cases that prove the rule.In the tim e of Haydn andMozart, the finale was Often a light,

jovia l m ovement in rondo form . Even Beethoven followed the earlier custom in the finale of his first sym phony. This style of endingwas evidently taken from the Old su ite, which closed with a rollicking gigue, or j ig.

In Beethoven’s second symphony he ended the work with morepower ; while in his third, he used variations that were bu ilt up intoa grand climax. The fifth sym phony finale is another trem endouslypowerful m ovem ent, before which the rondos of Haydn andMozartmay hide their dim inished heads . The finale of Beethoven

’s seventhsym phony is a riot of speed and liveliness . The eighth closes m oreconventionally, but the ninth aga in ends powerfully, having variations that bring in the choral work described in a previous chapter.

Besides variations, the sonata form is som etimes used in the fina le,or even the sonata rondo, as a lready illustrated. The fina le of Beethoven

’

s sonata Op . 7 is a sonata rondo. The finales of Op . 2 ,


no . 1, and of the fifth symphony, are in sonata form . The sonatasOp. 109 and Op. 111 end with varia tions . The sona ta Op . 106,

known as the “Grand Sona ta ,” closes with a fugue. The fugue was

sometimes used as a finale by Haydn andMozart, while Lachneremployed it in his suite Op . 113.

The full possibilities of the sonata form should now be apparentto the reader. The complete sona ta consists Offour movementswhich show the utmost variety Ofsty le, andallow the com poser tomake the most artistic contrasts .In the first movem ent, the themes themselves are of varying

character, allowing the com poser to balance them in excellentfashion . The exposition is then put in contrast with the development, in which the thema tic material m ay be woven and interwovento form an exquisite design, or worked up to a grand climax.

Against this movement, usually somewhat intellectual in character, is placed the lyri ca l and expressive em otion of the slow movement. Here feeling is paramount, and sim plicity is Often the keynote.Following this comes the scherzo or its equivalent, again a

com plete change in style. Now everything is playful and light, orelse bizarre or brusque in effect.The finale brings still another change. In some degree it is a

reversion to the style of the first movement. But as a general rulethe finale is made dashing and brilliant, while the first movementwas more earnest and serious .In allthe later m ovem ents, the composer has such choice of form

that he shou ld be able to give the fullest expression to his musica lideas . Even in the first movement, there is sufficient freedom within the form for him to develop his thoughts unhampered . The variety and artistic possibilities of the sonata and symphony haveresulted in music of the utmost value, music that com es as a revelation to the cultivated hearer, and appeals to hishighest emotionsin a language that is said to begin where speech ends.


this requ irem ent adm irably. Schubert avoided the concerto , andeven in his sym phonies it Often seems as if the musical ideas werethinly disgu ised songs . Schumann

’s massive chord-style was pianistic enough, but not unsu ited for orchestra l use also ; andhis pianoconcerto shows the proper ba lance, even though his instrumentation is Often poor. Chopin , on the other hand, was more exclusivelydevoted to an expressive melodic style. As a result, his concertosseem like piano solos with incidental orchestral accompaniment.Symphonies andconcertos can be bu ilt on a far grander sca le than

piano sonatas . In the first place, the variety of orchestral coloringis very great. A piano piece in comparison with an orchestra] workhas been likened to a black-and-white drawing beside an Oilpa inting ; and the compari son is certa inly just. In piano work, too , thenum ber Ofnotes is limited to the ability that can be shown by a

single pa ir Ofhands ; while in the orchestra a chord m ay consist ofmany notes . This increases the possibilities Ofdramatic effect. Inorchestral music, too, development is carri ed to a grea ter extentthan in piano m usic.Chamber music is very Often wri tten in sonata form . The termchamber music” is derived from the Ita lian words musica di

cam era , in contradistinction to musica di chiesa , or church music.It was played atfirst only in the chambers of wea lthy am ateurs.All music for combinations of instruments smaller than an orchestra is ca lled chamber music. The most common form is the stringquartet, consisting Ofa first and second violin , a viola , anda

’cello.Piano quartets, with piano, violin, viola , and

’cello , are fa irly numerous ; and piano tri os, with violin,

’cello, andpiano, are still more so .

Many sonatas have been wri tten for single instruments with piano.The piano qu intet adds the keyboard to the instrum ents of thestring quartet. Various combinations for strings and woodwindhave been employed ; while even the brass instruments are usedoccasionally. In chamber music the grandeur Ofthe orchestra isabsent ; but this is atoned for by a clear and interesting leading Ofthe parts. Thus a string quartet may be a work of consumma teskill , in spite of its Often having an apparently simple effect.Overtures are Often written in sonata-a llegro form . In such cases

there isusuallyno repeatOfthe exposition . Som e overtures have littledevelopment, the chief interest lying in the well-contrasted themes.

THE ORCHESTRAL FORMS 7

One Ofthe earliest styles of this form was known as the Frenchoverture . In fact the word overture com es directly from the French

,

Oped an overture consisting of a slow movement followed withoutpause by a quick one. The slow section was a fairly short introduction, while the rapid part was Often a fugue. Handel used this formin the overture to his “Messiah . Sometimes the French com posersfollowed the rapid section with a moderately slow dance movem ent,which was held to be part of the form.

The classica l overture has the sona ta-a llegro shape , with no repeatof the exposition. Mozart’s opera overtures, such as those to

“DonGiovanni,

” The Marriage of Figaro,” etc ., are in this form .

Weber used the form , slightly modified , in his Freischutz,” “Eury

anthe,”and

“Oberon ” overtures, and at the same time chose thethemes from the music of the operas that followed.

The drama tic overture a ims to give a suggestion or an epitomeof the opera that follows it. Such overtures were not restr icted inform . They were originated by Gluck, who sometimes kept themseparate, but generally allowed them to lead directly into theopera . At times they approached the sonata-allegro form in shape.Beethoven adopted the dramatic overture with evident preferencefor it, andhis

“Leonora no. for the opera “Fi delio,” is an excel

lent example. Beethoven always kept the overture as a separatepiece. Beethoven’s other overtures, too , are rea lly dramatic, thoughthe one to “Egm ont approaches the classica l overture in form .

The concert overture resembles the classical overture in following the sonata-allegro form . It derives its name from the fact thatit is not attached to any opera or play, but is a separate com position intended for concert performance. Mendelssohn brought thisform into prominence, his

“Hebrides ” and Sea-Calm and Prosperons Voyag e

” overtures being unconnected with any dram atic

The medley overture , used by Herold, Auber, and others, hasno definite form ,

but is merely a string of melodies drawn from theOpera that is to follow it. The tunes and sections are put togetherwithout any regard for definite form ; but the composer usually seesto it that they are well contrasted and arranged to make a climax


The Wagnerian Prelude, or Vorspiel, is an outgrowth Of thedramatic overture. ButWagner’s preludes are so varied in formand effect that they deserve a separate classifica tion. Sometimes ,as in the Meistersinger” Prelude, he foreshadowed the plot Oftheopera itself ; while on other occasions, as in the Prelude to

“Lohengrin,

” he lim ited him self to a simpler suggestion, the coming andgoing of the Holy Grail. The Vorspielleads directly into the operathat follows it.Liszt andothers have developed the symphony along the lines of

programm e music, and even invented a new form, the symphonicpoem, to satisfy their desires and enable them to devote themselveswholly to programm e effects. As stated in a previous chapter, programme music is music tha t tries to portray definite scenes or events .Very Often the title is a sufficient clue. Thus in Liszt’s “Faust”

Sym phony, the first m ovem ent typifies Faust, the second , Mar

guerite, and the third , Mephistopheles .The sym phonic poem is a free orchestral form . There are no laws

governing its shape, except those of good taste , or those of public taste, one might better say. Yet com posers generally choosepoetic subjects , so that they are enabled to write expressive or

drama tic music. In the sym phonic poem, form thus becomes anindividua l matter. Yet the general laws hold good still. Theremust be suffi cient balance, contrast, and growth toward a climax.There m ust also be good music. Very many works by contemporarycom posers are heard once or twice, andthen la id aside as uninteresting. In allthe modern struggle for suggestive tona l effects

,inspira

tion has not yet been made unnecessary by mere skill . Talent, orgenius , is still a desideratum .

Liszt chose excellent subjects for his symphonic poems,—sub

jects tha t enabled him to give free rein to his creative ability . Hismost glorious work,

“Les Preludes,

” illustrates a sentence of Lamartine, which shows that the varied phas es of life, such as love, happiness, or glory, are alla prelude to eternity. In

“Tasso, Lamento eTrionfo,

” the strong contrast between the two parts of the work isbrought into notice at once by the title. The “Battle of the Huns ,

”

after a painting by Kaulbach , is another suggestive subject.Richard Strauss has gone farthest afield in programme music ;

and he cla ims that the time will come when music can give a de


worked purposely in the suite form, writing eight examples of it.Most famous am ong Lachner’s suites is the one conta ining his wellknown march and an orchestral fugue. In such suites the form ofthe first m ovement m ay som etim es approach the sonata a llegro ;but the style is not necessarily as elevated as in symphony. Theother m ovem ents may have any of the forms enumerated in thepreceding chapter.

Of the suites bu ilt up from incidentalor other music, Grieg’

s two

Peer Gynt” su ites and Bizet’s two “Arlésienne” suites are thebest known . There is no attempt at sonata-allegro form in theseworks . Bizet’s two compositions, taken from music to Daudet

’

s

play, begin in frankly melodious fashion ; while the first Grieg workopens with a tone-picture of a “Morning Mood ” that certainlysuggests sunrise and the growing light of day. Another well-knownsu ite is the Nutcracker, by Tschaikovsky, taken from one of hisba llets .The divertim ento is somewhat like the suite, but even more light

and informal in character. Tschaikovsky made it a single suitemovement.The serenade was formerly held to be a piece or set of pieces play

able in the evening. It thus became som ewhat like the divertimento. Volkmann ’s Serenade for string orchestra is an example.The old su ite, com posed of dances and similar movements, will

be described in the following chapter.In allthese works the composers took care to give the proper

balance between the styles of the different movements.

XXXVIII

DANCES AND PIANO STYLES

DANCING has existed from the earliest times ; and it probablyorigina ted, among prehistoric races, from pantomime intended tobe descriptive Ofhunting or martia l scenes . Many Ofthe earlyreligions adopted dancing as part of their cerem onial ; but in historic tim es it has always been an independent art as well .i Circular dances are found to have existed among the old sun

worshippers . The Biblica l dance about the Golden Calf, or tha taround the bull Apis, show the same character. A similar roundformation existed in the German “Reigen of early mediaeval times,which survive in children’s games, such as

“Little Sally Waters”

and others of the sort.The Grecian dances and the Roman pantomime, described in an

earlier chapter, had little effect on mediaeval dancing. The art received scant encouragem ent duri ng the dark ages ; but the Troubadours andMinnesingers brought in their train a revival of dancingas well as of song. In Germany, a quick dance was often followedby a slow one, while a later return Ofthe quick movement broughtabout a first rondo effect. In France, the French overture developedfrom a slow dance followed by a rapid one. There were various religious dances, Ofm ore or less influence on the popular branch of theart. The Flagellants hada penitential dance, which they employedin times of plague or other ca lamity.

The sta tely Saraband arose directly from the dance of the Spanish altar-boys on Holy Thursday. It was a slow dance in triple

A dance that is now not clearly understood is the English MorrisDance. Som e claim that the title com es from Morisco, and indica tesa Moorish origin , if not a relation to the Spanish Fandango. InEngland it was merged into an Old pantom im e celebrating RobinHood . The Morris

,Dance could be made to progress from place

to place ; andWill Kem pe once danced it from London to Norwich.


In modern times, Edward German composed a very pleasing Morri sDance in his music to “Henry VIII .”

The Hornpipe, once cherished by sailors, was originally an English shepherds’ dance, the horn being really a shepherd’s pipe, asshown by the name English horn . The Hornpipe was a lively dance

Another rustic dance in England was the Hay, or Hey. This wasa circular arrangement, much used atMay

-Day gatherings. WhenShakespeare makes Ti tan ia say, Come, now, a roundel anda fairysong,

” the roundel refers to the circular Hay. Sometim es wordswere sung to it.In “Much Ado about Nothing, Beatrice remarks that Wooing,

wedding, and repenting is a Scottish jig, a measure, and a cinquepace.” The jig, in various nations, was a lively 6/8 or 12/8 movement. It was often ca lled “Gigue,

” from the German word Geige,meaning fiddle ; and that instrument was well suited to the rapidsty le of the dance. The Gigue was typica l Ofthe lover

’s haste. TheMeasure, derived from

“Passe -Mezzo,”or medium step , was more

qu iet and regular. When Lochinvar exclaims,“Now tread we a

Measure,” he refers to this dance, and not to a bar of music. Its

even course typifies qu iet marri ed life, according to Beatrice. TheCinque-Pace (cinque-pas) was an irregular five-step affair, aptlyillustrating the break-up of domestic harmony.

Somewhat slower varieties of the Gigue were known as the Loureand the Canary.

The Gaillard was a more graceful dance,though still fairly lively.

In Italy and Fran ce it was known, from its Roman origin, as theRom anesca ; andLiszt

’s piano arrangement of thi s Oldsinging-dancewill show the graceful style of its music. In even rhythm,

it flowsalong smoothly at first, but hurries before the close. Evidently theGaillard demanded some agility ;for an OldEnglish letter says, OurGalliardes are so curious that thei are notfor my daunsyng , for theiare so full of tri ckes and tournes, that he which hath no more butthe plaineSinguepace is no betteraccumptedOfthan averiebom gler.

”

The Tordion, or Tourdion, was much like the Gaillard, butslower and smoother.

Another dance mentioned by Shakespeare is the Dump . But thewords

“Play me some merry dump areparadoxica l, since the Dump


The Pavane was also slow and sta tely , but in even rhythm .

The Chaconne was another slow and dignified dance. It was

usually in tri ple rhythm,though examples in even rhythm have

been found. It is best known now through Bach’s fam ous Cha

conne for violin a lone.The Passacaglia was a slow dance in tri ple rhythm, much likethe Chaconne, but more often in minor. It was given with muchexaggeration and bombast, the couples succeeding one another ina fashion that is now found in the cake-walk. Som e derive the nam efrom pasar calle, which is Spanish for walking along the street ; butothers trace it to passo gallo, or rooster step .

The old su ite was composed of several of these early dances . Theusual succession was Allemande, Courante, Saraband, and Gigue,which suggests the general style of a symphony with the slow movement com ing third . Butmany other movem ents were permissible.Between the Saraband and the Gigue, Interrnezzi were som etimesintroduced . These were usually dances of moderate pace, like theGavotte or Minuet, which would be in su fficient contrast with theslow tem po preceding them andthe rapid tempo that followed. Themiddle movem ents could be varied . Ifthis was done by m eans ofslight embellishm ents , the variationwas known as LesAgréments,

”

while a more decided a lteration was ca lled a Double. Certa in movements that were not dances Often entered the su ite. A fugue wasperm issible. Often it came after a Toccata , a brilliant piece full oftechnica l display. Less am bitious than the Toccata was the Toccatina . The Air was a sim ple m elody, while the Burlesca was playfu lin style. Som ewhat like the Burlesca was the Scherzo , not to beconfused with the sym phonic movement of the sam e nam e. Thesuite could begin with a prelude, known under the various namesOfIntrada , Pream bule, Fantasia , Overture, or even Sinfonia . Thelast word was often applied to any interlude , such as the Sym phonyin Bach’s “Christmas Oratorio, or the Pastoral Sym phony inHandel’s “Messiah .

” In Bach’s B-minor Su ite is a charming m ovement entitled “Badinerie,

” which consists Ofsome delightfullychattering flute work aga inst an orchestral background. The Partita was an early name for the su ite itself.In more recent times, Germany has given to music the L

'

andIer,

or country dance Ofwaltz type. The waltz itself was developed in

DANCES AND PIANO STYLES 355

Germ any, a cotillion being still known as a German , while the danceitself was the Deutsche. The waltz has been developed into a pianoform , not su itable for dancing, by Chopin , Rubinstein, and others.The wa ltz is written in 3/4 time, but played as if composed inrhythm instead.

Spa in has been devoted to the dance for many centuries . Mostpopular in that coun try is the Fandango, a 3/4 or 3 8 affair aecompanied by castanets . Loca l varieties of this are the Malaguena

,

Rondena , Granadina , and Murciana.. The Andalusian Cachuchais another dance in tri ple rhythm, this time fa irly rapid . Still another dance of the sam e sort is the Jota . The Bolero is a dance ofmoderate pace, in 3/4 rhythm, accompanied by castanets in certa inalternations of large andsma ll notes . Som etim es the Bolero conta insa Tirana , which is a passage of gentle 6/8 m elody. The Seguedillais m ore rapid , and in 6 8 rhythm . Other nationa l Spanish dances ofthis sort are the Ja leo and Guaracha . The Spanish gypsies use an

attractive 3 8 dance called the Polo Gitano . The Habar‘iera (Havana ise), adopted by Spa in from Cuba , is in moderate tempo, andusually in triple rhythm , though the one in Bizet

’s opera Carmenshows even rhythm , with frequent tri plets.Ita ly has given music the Tarantella , a swift, running dance in

6/8 rhythm . It is sa id that this dance was nam ed from the tarantu la ,

as its fiery style would incite people to the exertion of rapiddancing that was held necessary in curing that spider’s bite ; butthe Italian tarantula was evidently not the tropica l one. The Salta rello is an Ita lian dance of sim ilar style, but conta ining m ore skipsthan the Tarantella . Mendelssohn ended his Ita lian Sym phonywith a Sa ltarello . The Furlana , or Forlane, is a rapid 6/8 affair ofVenetian origin ,much used by the gondoliers. Ponchielli em ployed itin “La Gioconda ,

”andWolf-Ferrari did the same in “The Jewels of

the Madonna .

” The Siciliano was a pastoralSicilian dance, or dancesong

,of gentle andsoothing character, in slow 6 8 or 12 8 rhythm .

Am ong the dances of Provence, the Farandole is best known, because ofBizet’s use of it in his “Arlésienne” m usic. It is a lively,rapid dance, som etimes in 4 4 rhythm, but occasionally in 6/8 . TheFranca ise denotes a graceful French dance in rhythm . TheGalop is a very quick dance, generally 2 4, though other rhythmsare som etimes used .


Among Slavic dances, the Cracovienne (Krakowiak) is a Polishdance in rhythm . The Varsovienne is in moderate rhythm.

The Polacca is similar to this, but somewhat quicker. This mustnot be confused with the Polka , which is the Bohem ian Pulka , a

rapid dance in even rhythm . RaffandRubinstein composed polkas,but the dance does not Offer many musica l possibilities. TheMazurka (Masurek) is a Polish dance in tri ple rhythm and rathercapricious style. Ithas frequent accents on the second bea t of themeasure, which the dancers emphasize by a kick. The Polka Ma

zurka is about the same in style, though slower, andwith the unex

pectedaccents on the third bea t. The Polka Redowa is faster, andhas no unusua l accents. The Redowa itself sometim es alternates

and measures . The Czardas, or Csardas, is a fiery Hungarian dance. Most stately of allis the Polona ise, origina lly a dignifieddance-parade in which the Poles marched before their leader,John Sobieski, when he was given the Polish crown . Chopin madeexcellent use of both Polonaise andMazurka .

Norway offers the Springdans (3/4) and the Ha lling (2/ bothillustrated in the shorter works of Grieg. The latter is a boisterousaffa ir for men only, at which the performers try to kick the lowrafters of the barn or other building where they dance.Russia has many folk-dances . The one exerting most influence

on music is the lively dance for men known as the Kamarinskaia ,which Tschaikovsky made into a symphonic movem ent.Scotland is suggested by the Schottische, or

“Scotch Dance.This is a slow dance in even rhythm, having a number of shortnotes in each bar, to which the performers take three moderatesteps and two quick ones. The Reel is a very animated affa ir, inrapid even rhythm. The Strathspey is somewhat slower, andhaswhat is known as the Scotch snap, a sixteenth note followed bya dotted eighth note. The Contra-Dance, or Country Dance, knownin England and other lands, is a rustic affa ir, much used in formercenturies, and somewhat resembling our Virginia Reel ; for thedancers were placed in opposite rows, andmade to go through certa in figures accompanied by rapid four-bar or eight-bar phrases inthe music. The Quickstep was a sort Ofmarch in very rapid 6/8rhythm. The Quadrille was originally a French dance, consistingof five movements, which were entitled La Pantalon, La Poule,


part structure, the first part, or Lassan, being slow andvery melancholy, while the last part, the Friska, is wild andfiery.

The Prelude is a short piece in free form wri tten to precedeanother piece. Thus a Prelude precedes each Fugue in Bach ’s“Well-tempered Clavichord .

” Chopin trea ted the Prelude as a separate form, and its free, im passioned sty le suited his genius well.The Reverie is a dreamy, tender com position , Often in one Ofthe

song-forms .The Romanza is a piece expressing romantic feeling, if not a iming

at an actual story. It may be written in one of the song-form s orrondos , but is usually free in style.The Poeme is similar to the Romanza .

The Le’gende carries with it a suggestion of legendary romance,or supernatural mystery. Wieniawski ’s Légende for violin and

piano is an adm irable example.The Ballade is another work in poetic and emotiona l style, with

some degree of narrative suggestion. Chopin’s Ba llades are goodexamples .The Ita lian term Balla ta sometimes means Ballade, but is m ore

often a dances ong or dance-like piece.The Novelette, a title well used by Schumann , is a piece com

posed of sections so striking and characteristic that they seem totell a story.

The Novellozza carries with it a humorous suggestion . Godard’

s

Novellozza is an adm irable illustration.

The Cabaletta is a pleasingly melodious piece, of fa irly simplestyle, with an accompaniment of tri plets or other notes that willsuggest a galloping horse .The Nocturne is a piece in emotiona l style representing the

poetic feelings aroused by evening or night. Field was a pioneer inthis form, but Chopin’s Nocturnes soon drew attention away fromthose of the earlier composer.

The Berceuse is a cradle-song, generally with a lulling 6/8 rhythm.

Chopin ’s Berceuse is an example.The Serenade is an evening song of melodious character , suggesting a love-song. Both Serenade andNocturne once referred simplyto music for evening use.

DANCES AND PIANO STYLES 359

The Aubade is a morning song. Liszt’s transcription of Schubert’s “Hark, hark, the lark

” is an instrumentalexample .The Pastorale is a piece of rustic suggestion.

The Barcarolle is an Ita lian boa t-song, suggested in instrumenta lmusic. It is generally in swingy 6/8 rhythm.

The Gondoliera is sim ilar to the Barcarolle, but carri es a defin itesuggestion of Venetian effects.The Cavatina is a sm ooth , attractive melody in voca l music, andin piano music must keep the same style. Raff’s expressive Cavatina for piano and violin is an excellent illustration.

The Elegie, or Dirge, is a melodious piece of sad or mournful

The Song Without Words is a short melodious piece of song-likecharacter, com posed definitely in one of the song-form s .The Mom ent Musica l is a short piece of m elodious style.The Bagatelle, meaning

“trifle,” is a short and simple piece.

The Album blatt, or Album Leaf, is a short piece of improvisationalcharacter, such as one might write in an album .

The Im prom ptu is another piece of marked improvisational style.The Etude is primarily a technica l study, but may be made of

interesting music. Chopin ’s Etudes are examples in point, beingstudies in the sense that a pa inter’s sketches are studies.The Intermezzo is a short piece in free style, generally found between others.The Entr ’acte is a piece to be played between the acts of an

opera . Som etim es such a piece is known a lso as an Intermezzo ; butthe latter m ay occur at other pla ces, as the Intermezzo in Mas

cagni’

s“Rustic Chivalry” will show.

The Potpourri is a medley in which various fragm ents of a m usicalwork are strung together in continuous shape. Potpourris fromthe famous operas are the most common exam ples .The Pasticcio is a medley Ofanother sort, made up of various

single pieces. In an Operatic pasticcio, words are set to m elodies al

ready existing separately. The Pasticcio may be based on works ofm ore than one com poser. Orefice

’

s Opera “Chopin ” is an exam pleOfthe Pasticcio. In that work, Orefice took various Chopin pieces,and blended them into an Opera by adding suitable words .

XXXIX

THE VOCAL FORMS

THE larger forms enum erated in the preceding chapters are notused in voca l music. Voca l rondos exist, in second rondo form ; butthey are never very intri ca te in construction. Many songs are written in the song-forms , while some Show the Shape of song-form withtri o ; but vocal music has forms and styles of its own .

Alessandro Scarlatti developed the da capo aria , and used it inhis operas . This is practica lly a voca l song-form with tri o, consisting of a section, an alterna ting section, and the repea t of the firstsection. An example of this shape is found in the solo He wasdespised , from Handel

’s “Messiah.

” Sometimes there is only a

partia l return .

Opera at first gave an important place to recitative, which ismusica l declamation much resembling speech , though a lways with adefinite pitch. As early as Handel ’s time there were two varieties,

recitativo secco, with no support except occasional chords , andrecitativo stromentato, with a much fuller and more varied aecompaniment. Both kinds are present in

“Com fort ye,

” the openingnumber of The Messiah .

” The accompanied recitative comes first,the change appearingwith thewords, The voice Ofhim that crieth .

”

The songs of Handel ’s time were classed in five varieties ,—aria

di bravura , aria di portamento, aria di mezzo carattere, aria parlante,and aria cantabile.

The first of these, the aria di bravura , was a imed to display voca ltechnique. The old solos of this sort, such as Handel ’s “Ev’ry valley” or“Why do the nations so furiously rage” (in

“The Messiahmake grea t demands on a singer’s ability to give rapid roulades inclean-cut style. These arias are full of beautiful music, whereinthey are superior to the meaning less brilliance of certa in showyscenes in Italian opera . The aria di bravura was usua lly givento a fem ale voice,

“Rejoice grea tly ” being a good example inThe Messiah.

”


Separate com position. Mendelssohn ’s Infelice is an independentscena .

The hymn is a song or part-song, with accompaniment, set tothe words ofsome sacred poem . Hymns are divided into phrasescorresponding with the lines of the poem. For four-line stanzas,most hymns are in the Sing le-period form, antecedent and conse

quent each extending for two lines. Eight-line settings of hym nsare usually in the two-period form, som etimes independent, andsom etimes with partial return . The metre Ofhymns is shown byletters or numbers. S.M., or short metre, describes an iambic hymnwith four-line stanzas, each of which consists of six, Six, eight, andsix syllables respectively in the lines. C .M ., or common metre, hasfour iambic lines containing respectively eight, six, eight, and sixsyllables . L .M., or long metre, consists wholly of eight-syllablediambic lines. The letter D after any of the above signifies doublelength stanzas, and calls for an eight-line tune. Other metres arealm ost always shown by figures . A Single figure will do if allthelines are equal ; as, for instance, 73 , signifying seven-syllabled(trochaic) lines . If the lines are not allequal, it is customary togive the number of syllables in each line ; as, for instance, 8 : 7 : 8z7,in which (trochaic) lines of eight andseven syllables are alternated .

In some cases the letters P.M. are used to signify pecu liar metre.The anthem is a part~song set to sacred words, with accompani

ment. Anthems are usually much more am bitious and varied instyle than hymns . They are Often sung by a choir, which will takeallthe parts ; whereas a hymn , ifsung by a congregation, is usuallygiven wholly in the soprano part, as a unison melody.

Chants and canticles form a part of vari ous church services.The canticles or other music in plain-song, or plain-chant, make

use of the Gregorian modes.In the time Ofthe contrapuntal schools, music was alm ost eutirely vocal. Counterpoint, in its simplest Significance, means partwri ting .

Among the contrapuntal forms used for voice, the motet was a

sacred part-song. It has been derived from motus, ormovement, andfrom mot, meaning the sacred Word.

The madrigal was the chief rival of the motet. The name hasbeen derived from madre, meaning mother, and explained as desig

THE VOCAL FORMS 363

nating a song in praise of the Virgin ; but this definition is not final,since madrigals treated Secular subjects also. In the madrigal, themelody, or cantus, was usually divided among the vari ous parts ,instead of being kept to one voice. A true madrigalwas always sungwithout accom paniment. The term is Often misapplied .

‘

The chorales of Luther’s time and later were very strong and

rugged in char acter. They Often contained suggestions of the harmonic style, anda more definite melodic structure than was com

But the most important vocal form Ofthe contrapuntal periodwas the mass . The composers’ fondness for masses , and their useof popular tunes in them, has been mentioned already. Massesare wri tten by modern com posers also ; but these are usually les sstri ctly contrapuntal than the older works.The chief divisions of the mass are the Kyrie Lord , have

the Gloria (containing also the“Qui tollis,

” “Quoniam ,

”

and“Cum Sancto the Credo (having as subdivisions

“Et incarnatus,

” “Et resurrexit,

”and the Sanctus ; the

Benedictus ; the Agnus Dei ; and the Dona nobis . The varyingemotions of the Latin words used in these divisions enable composers to treat the form with due variety and contrast Ofstyle.The Requi em mass is generally shorter. It omits the Gloria, and

contains instead a “Requiem aeternam,

” “Lux saterna ,”and Dies

iris.

” The last division is a thirteenth-century poem describing the

The Stabat Mater is another mediaeval Latin poem, depicting

Horatio Parker made an adm irable setting of the early Latinpoem entitled “Hora Novissima .

” This work is rea lly an oratorio.

Shorter Latin poems that are Often set include “Veni Crea tor,”

ing the various phases of som e Biblical subject or event. Such a

work consists Ofsolos, ensembles of more than one voice, choruses,and even instrumenta l interludes. Two styles of oratorio are used ,being known as the epic andthe dramatic. In the form er the singersmerely narrate the text in its voca l guise ; but in the latter style,each singer represents a certa in character. Handel ’s “Messiah”


is epic,while his Samson is dramatic. Mendelssohn combined

the two styles in his “Sa int Pa and“Elijah .

”

The Passion is an oratorio dea ling with the martyrdom of Christ.The best example is the “Sa int Matthew Passion,

” by Bach .

The cantata is a voca l work somewhat Similar to the oratorio ingenera l aspect, but treating a secular subject. Cantatas are usuallyshorter than oratorios, though not necessarily so ; and they are generally less contrapuntal. Sacred cantatas exist, treating religioussubjects in a brief or informa l manner.

The traditions of Handel andMendelssohn have made Englandthe home of oratorio and cantata . In Germany the epic cantatasof Max Bruch, such as Frithj of,

” “Odysseus, and“Arminius,

”

deserve especial mention .

The English composer Granville Bantock has recently endeav

ored to found a new form, consisting of separate movements forvoices alone. His “Ata lanta in Calydon” divides the voices intoseveral groups, andtreats the various groups much as an orchestralwork would treat its individual instrum enta l parts . The composition is in four sections, andthe contrasts of style aremuch like thoseOfthe symphonic movements .Stri ctly speaking, melodrama is not a voca l form . It is music

set as an accompaniment to spoken words, and demands a readerinstead of a singer. Schumann’s melodrama passages in “Man

fred addexcellent orchestral music to parts of Byron’s poem ; whilethe Enoch Arden ” of Richard Strauss places a striking pianoaccompaniment against Tennyson’s words . The Bohem ian composer Fib ich has set an entire trilogy,

“Hippodamia ,

” in thisfashion. Melodrama is one of the few forms that have not yet received the attention they deserve.The Singspiel, with music either as a setting for the important

parts of a drama or as a diversion in the unimportant parts, hasbeen described already, in connection with early opera .

The opera itself is too free in style to be ca lled a definite form ;but the different schools of opera Show various distinctive charac~teristics. Peri, and the Florentines who helped him , meant operato be declamatory, with the music heightening the effect of theaction . But Opera grew away from that idea], and by the time OfHandel, it was practica lly a singing-concert, with a conventional


WHEN the layman learns that counterpoint is Simply part-writing,he takes the statement lightly. The student, however, who hasbeen through a course in the heart-breaking rules that govern theleading of the parts, appreciates the fact that counterpoint is animportant branch Ofmusic. The composer finds a knowledge ofcounterpoint almost indispensable ; and the reader will remem berthat Schubert planned a thorough course in this branch just before

While composers in the harmonic style make use of counterpointin a passing way, and allow suggestions of it to strengthen theirworks, there are also certain contrapuntal forms that are whollyindependent of the harmonic style. Counterpoint is the science ofcombining melodies, instead ofsupporting a melody by chords.Counterpoint is classified into five different vari eties . In the first

order, the different parts Show note against note. In counterpointof the second order, two (or sometimes three) notes of discant

(accompanying part) are used for each one in the cantus firmus(fixed theme). The third order shows four notes against one. Thefourth variety consists Ofsyncopated counterpoint, in which eachnote of the discant begins when a note of the cantus is half done.The fifth variety, florid counterpoint, makes use of allthe preceding kinds in a single com position .

Good examples of counterpoint as used in harmonic works m ay

be found in the last part of the first section of the slow movementin Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony, and also in the latter part ofWagner’s“Tannh

’

auser ” March, where fairly rapid andregular bassnotes are used against the return of the first theme, in chords.Counterpoint of the third order is suggested by both examples.When two voices, or parts, are wri tten in counterpoint, it is pos

sible for the composer to make them of such a nature that they canbe transposed as a whole with reference to each other, andmade to


exchange positions. One part m ay be transposed an octave whilethe other stays in its original position ; or the same result can bereached by having one part move up a fifth while the other is transposed down by a fourth ; or one may move up and the other downan octave. Such an inversion of parts is called double counterpoint.In the cases suggested , the change in relative position would

always be in octaves ; and the transposition is spoken of as doublecounterpoint at the octave. But other intervals m ay be used instead ofthe octave. Double counterpoint at the tenth is frequentlyfound in the old works.Double counterpoint may be accompanied by one '

0 1' more

free parts in other voices.Triple counterpoint would consist of three parts inverted in any

order. This is much harder to wri te than double counterpoint.Even higher orders than tri ple counterpoint m ay exist.Im ita tion is Often used in counterpoint. That consists Ofthe em

ploym ent Ofthe same figure or figures in more than one part, atdifferent tim es.One part m ay be made to serve as its own accompaniment, by

having the same material start in a second voice after it has alreadybegun in the first. As stated earlier in this work, such a use of athem e or m elody for its own accompanim ent is called a canon. Thesecond part usually begins one or two m easures after the first hasbegun . The second part m ay start at any desired interval from thefirst, mak ing a canon at that interval . Ifthe parts begin an octaveapart, a canon at the octave results. In Jadassohn’

s PianoforteAlbum (Op. are a number of canons, some of which are at theseventh , or other intervals. A canon at the unison m ay exist, thesecond part starting the theme on the same note with which it began . An example of such procedure is found in Marzials

’

s duet incanon entitled Fri endship.

” In this the voices take the samemelody,one voice beginning a m easure later than the other. But if one voiceis male and one fem ale, the song becomes a canon at the octave.The Old puzzle canons were des cribed in the chapter on the con

trapuntalschools. The melody of a crab canon, it will be remembered , is accompan ied by the same melody sung backwards. Thiscanon was sometimes known as the canon per recte etretro. It m ay

also be restated that the phrase “Out of light, darkness, or vice


versa, meant that the white (hollow) notes of a melody were to beused in accompaniment as black (solid) notes, having a differenttime value, or viceversa .

The study of the contrapuntal forms is one that usually arousesthe pupil’s enthusiasm . Only a few illustrations and analyses canbe given here ; butby the understanding of these the student shou ldbe enabled to continue by himself, and analyze allthe music thathe studies.If the student will look at the second of Bach ’s Fifteen Two-Part

Inventions,he will find examples of var ious points mentioned in the

foregoing paragraphs . In the first place, the ten opening measuresform a canon. The lower voice uses the sam e material as the uppervoice does, at an interval Ofan octave downward . By having thelower voice start two measures after the upper one, a canon is madein whi ch the lower voice uses eight measures of the material foundin the upper voice. Then there is a change. One part moves downan eleventh , and the other up a fifth , making double counterpointat the octave (really the double octave). The m aterial is thenstarted by the lower part, while now it is the upper part that enterstwo m easures later with the canonic accom paniment, after fillingin free material for these two measures . When the second canonends, two measures of modulatory character are found , with thelower part in the first one becoming the upper part in the second.

T he next four measures Show similar contrapuntal changes ; andafter them the piece closes.An inspection of other Inventions in the set will show that suchpieces are not allcast in the sam e mould . The Invention m ay bedefined as a short contrapuntal piece, som ewhat in the informalstyle Ofan improvisation, but always aimed to show ingenu ity.

Most varied and interesting of allthe contrapuntal forms is thefugue. The nam e comes from the Latin word fuga , meaning a

flight ; and different voices take up the fugal themes successively,in a manner that makes the term appropriate enough . The fugueis built up from one or two thematic ideas , which are woven and

interwoven into an intricate andbeautiful tonal design.

The fugue consists of material of three sorts, exposition, strettos, and episodes. The exposition comes first, after which strettosand episodes alternate with one another.


Strettos are canons m ade by the appearance of subject or answerin different voices, starting at different times . Such canons mayoccasionally use the theme in more than two voices, thus making acanon Ofm ore than two parts. At the end of the fifth fugue in volum e IIof the Well-tempered Clavichord there is a stretto whichruns through four voices .Other treatments of subject and answer are calledrepercussions.The exposition leads into a first episode, which ends in a passing

cadence. After this the first stretto appears. Then come otherepisodes

,followed in each case by other strettos, until finally the

fugue ends with what is called the coda-episode. In a stri ct fugue,the number of strettos and episodes is arranged by rule, and theirkeys determined in the same way. There m ay be also a counterexposition, giving answer and subject in a reversed succession of

voices, just after the first episode.Fugues m ay be classified in a number of ways1. A fugue is known by the number of voices that it uses ; as, forinstance, a four-voiced fugue, a three-voiced fugue, etc.2 . A fugue m ay have more than one subject, a sing le fugue hav

ing one, a double fugue two in succession, etc.3 . When the answer uses exactly the sam e intervals as the sub

ject, the fugue is called a real fugue ; but if the intervals are at allaltered in the answer, to keep it in the key, or

“tone,” the fugue is

known as a tonal fugue.4. Fugues m ay sometimes be classed by the scales they use ; asdiatonic fugues, without accidentals ; chromatic fugues , with a sub

jectwholly chromatic ; or even fugues named after one of the Gregorian tones when such a sca le is employed .

5. Fugues are classified also by any treatment given to the answer. This m ay be augmented , inverted , or otherwise changed,giving rise to augmented, inverted , or other fugues .6 . Fugues are classed as strict or free, according to whether theydo or do not follow the key-schedule and number of strettos andepisodes prescribed by the rules for a strict fugue. These rules areseldom respected now, but they m ay be found in the text-books onfugal composition.

A free fugue is by no means necessarily simpler than a stri ct one.The fugues in the “Well-tempered Clavichord ” are very free for

THE CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS 371

the most part ; but at the same tim e they Show the greatest ori ginality , and the most marked contrapuntal ski ll . In som e of them thecountersubject is worked up along wi th the subject ; in others thereis no real countersubject ; whi le still others are com posed of doubleor tri ple coun terpoint instead of strettos and episodes . But everyone of them is alm ost wholly derived by contrapuntal transformations of the material in its exposition.

A fugato passage is a passage that suggests fugal treatment.For a clear example of fugue, the reader m ay look at no . 7 in

volum e II Ofthe “Well-tempered Clavichord .

” It is found to be afour-voiced fugue, with a single subject ; it is a tonal fugue, becausethe answer deviates once from the intervals of the subject ; it is notan augmented , inverted , or otherwise altered fugue ; and lastly, it

The parts enter from the lowest upward . The subject lasts forsix bars, and ends on the first note of the next bar, the answer beginning while this final note of the subject is sounded . The answerstarts with a fourth instead of a fifth , but follows the subject in allits later intervals . In spite of a sim ilarity in the accom paniment tothe subject or answer, there is no rea l countersubject. The answerdoes not overlap when it ends , and there is even a brief interlude,in m easure 13, before the subject enters in the alto voice. The sam einterlude recurs before the soprano voice enters with the answer.

When the exposition ends, on the first beat Ofbar 25, the first episode continues it to a cadence three measures later. There is no

pause at this cadence, however ; and in bar 28 the tenor voice startsthe answer, with its first note shortened so that it fills only the lasthalf of the measure . In bar 29 the subject enters in the bass part,making a stretto . In bar 31 the upper two voices stop, giving thisstretto full prom inence . In measure 35, the alto starts the answer,while the soprano begins the subject in the next measure, forminganother stretto. Ih'om bar 42 onward an episode is found , fairlyfree in shape , but conforming to the general sty le of the precedingwork. In bar 51 the subject reappears in a repercussion, taken bythe tenor voice in the subdom inant key. After this, in b ar 57, theanswer begins in the soprano ; while the subject, entering in the


bass part in the next measure, forms another stretto. This strettois the final one ; and it is made maj estica lly prominent by the useOfthe two outside voices, while the two middle voices addstrengthby their accompaniment. The subject ends on the first beat of bar64, and the coda-episode then closes the work. Thus this fugue ischiefly made of three com plete canons .Sometimes a climax is brought about, near the end of a fugue,

by the use of what is known as an organ point, or pedal point. Thisis a long-sustained note in the bass, over which the other parts prooecd continuously.

In fugue no. 5 of the above-mentioned volume a different stru cture is found. This is a four-voiced, Single, and free fugue ; but examination Shows that it is real instead of tonal. The subject consistsOfthe first nine notes, andends on the first half of the third beat inthe second measure. The exposition is consequently very short,and the fugue is found to consist chiefly of strettos and episodes.Strettos will be found in bars 14, 21 (three voices), 27 33 , and 44 .

The episodes, it will be noted, are made up chiefly of the subjectmaterial . Sometimes the subject or answer appears in a single partduring these episodes ; but more Often they are bu ilt largely or

wholly Ofa figure taken directly from the last four notes of the subject. The student wi ll find it an interesting exercise to mark with

pencil every appearance of this figure.The final stretto of this fugue has been cited already as going

through allfour voices ; but it merits still closer attention . Examination will Show that the theme enters successively in the soprano,alto, tenor, and bass voices ; that the time-interval between oneappearance and the next is always the sam e ; and that the sca ledegree difference between one appearance and the next is also keptthe sam e. The scale-intervalbetween successive appearances of thethem e is always a third, though an extra octave is added betweenthe alto and tenor parts . Such a stretto, in which the time-intervalsand the scale-degree differences are kept equal while the them eappears in allvoices in su ccession, is ca lled a stretto maestrale, or

masterly stretto. In the exam ple cited , it occupies less than threemeasures ; and this will serve to illustrate the fact that a seemingly simple contrapuntal passage m ay show the most varied and

intricate beauty to those who have learned to appreciate it. The

THE INSTRUMENTS


violin , by slight pitch vari ations, but gave in addition a varyingpower Oftone, greatest when the string was tightest. This tremoloeffect (Bebung) made the clavichord very expressive. Beethoventri ed to imitate it on the piano by alternately pressing andreleasingthe soft pedal ; buthe did not succeed. The clavichord tone, thoughsoft

,is of an infinitely appealing sweetness.

In the spinet-harpsichord type , the keys were provided withquills, or jacks, which plucked the stri ng in passing as each keywas played . The jacks were sometimes made of leather instead of

The smallest instrument of this type was known as the octavina,and consisted ofa Single octave of keys in a small box. The virginals, which wholly superseded the Older clavicytherium , was stillbox-like in Shape, buthadfour octaves. It could give music of someworth ; and the English Virginal school Ofcomposers, who flour ishedin and after the Elizabethan age, wrote pieces of astonishingbreadth and value for this little instrument. The name virginalscame from the fact that the instrument was a favorite with younggirls . As the qu ill passed over its stri ng to pluck it, a scraping noisewas usually audible ; and this made the historian Burney descri bethe tone as “a scratch with a sound at the end Ofit.”

The nam e spinet is derived either from spina , a thorn , in suggestion of the pointed qui lls, or from Spinetti , a Venetian maker. Thespinet was sometimes square, butmore Often harp-shaped , like ourgrand pianos . While the virginals was a mere box set .on a table,the spinet had legs of its own . Its longer strings gave a fu ller tone,though still somewhat light.The early harpsichords had a compass of less than five octaves.

But the instrument grew, until we find such makers as the Ruckersor Taskin producing harpsichords with two large keyboards and

half-a-dozen pedals. The double harpsichord had two strings (andtwo qu ills)for each tone. The second keyboard had jacks of different material from the first, to Obtain a different tone-quality . Thevari ous pedals could make one quill effective instead of two, orcouple the two manuals together, or cause the sounding of any notewith the octave above or below. Thus the harpsichord had a greatvari ety Ofeffects , and was a worthy instrument, even though itstone was somewhat tin-panny.

THE PIANO AND ITS PREDECESSORS 379

There was an upright spinet called the clavicytherium , whichmust not be confused with the earlier instrument of that name.The piano (German, clavier; French , pianoforte; Italian, piano

forte) differs from allthese instruments in going back to the hamm eridea used in the dulcimer. Such a hammer-action was first broughtout by the Italian Cristofori, at Padua in 1711. Similar inventionswere claimed by the Frenchman Marius, the Germ an Schroeter,and the Englishman Wood ; but Cristofori deserves the real credit.The ear ly pianos had two strings to a note where ours have three .

As a result of this , the old term ca lling for soft pedal was una corda ,

or one stri ng, the other being thrown outof action by the soft pedal.Now we should say due corde, as two strings are left in action whenthe soft pedal takes one out. On the old pianos, due corde signifieda release of the soft pedal. At present this is ca lled for by thewords tre cards.

The piano did not at once displace the older instruments . Thiswas especially true of the clavi chord , on which the soft, tendertones were wholly different from the piano quality. Bach kept tothe clavichord , whi le the harpsichord continued to hold its owneven in Mozart’s time. It was Beethoven who turned the scaledefinitely in favor of the piano ; for his broad andmassive effectswere too strong for the harpsichord .

The piano of tod ay may be grand , square, or upright in Shape,though the square pianos are not now manufactured . The uppernotes have three strings to a tone, the lowest notes having one and

some other low notes two. The deepest strings are wound withcopper wire, to m ake them heavy enough to be strung tightly without getting too high a pitch . The tension increases as the pitch Ofthe stri ngs rises. To hold allthis pull , m odern pianos are providedwith metal frames . One end of each wire is fastened around a pin ,which m ay be turned by a piano-hammer,

” causing a tighteningor loosening of the (wire) strings. The other end of each stringgoes over a bridge that rests upon the sounding-board , which is ofspruce front andmaple back. When a piano key is played , it worksas a lever, and throws up a felt-covered hammer against the strings.There is a complicated “action” governing the hammer, whichallows it to fall back a little after it hits the strings. When the keyis played , it also raises Offthe strings a felt damper, so that the


hammer stroke causes free vibrations. When the key is released,

this damper drops back upon the strings and stops the tone. Thekey itself moves in a way governed by oval pins that extend intofelt-lined cavities on its under side.The dam per pedal of the piano, Often miscalled the loud pedal ,

operates by moving allthe dampers up off the strings. The highestnotes have no dampers, as their tones are made short by the extrem e tightness of the wires . But allexcept these have dampers.When the dampers are lifted off the strings, the tones will not onlylast until they die away of them selves, butwill make some of theother strings vibrate in sympathy with them . Low notes will lastlonger than high ones when the damper pedal is used .

The soft pedal Operates in different ways, according to the sty leof piano used . In grand pianos, it shifts the action to one side, sothat the hammers strike only two stri ngs out of three . In uprightpianos, it usually moves the hammers SO near to the wires that theirstroke lacks the power obtained by a long swing. In the squarepiano , the soft pedal sometimes muffles the tone by making tonguesof soft leather or felt come between the hammer and the strings.In allcases the Object is to soften the tone.Some pianos have a sostenuto pedal, which will hold notes only

if it is put into use after they have been played . The performerm ay thus strike a note or chord that he wishes to sustain , and then

putdown the sostenuto pedal , after which the tone will last, eventhough he releases the keys anduses his hands elsewhere.Other instruments have bass dam per pedals, which will sustain

allthe lower tones of the piano, but none of the higher ones.It will be seen from the mechanism of the piano that after a note

has been played , and the hammer has dropped back from thestrings, the player can in no way influence the quality of the tone.Yet it is not unusual for great artists to be seen wiggling their fingers on the key, as if they expected in some mysterious way to makethe tone expressive by such procedure. There are differences in thequality of tones, but these are caused by the varying degrees ofstrength with which the key is struck in the first place.There are at present two main methods Ofpiano practice ,

that of finger-strength , represented by Leschetizky, and that Of

weight, represented by Breithaupt. There is little doubt of the


sufficiently equipped . In other words, he is able to pound the pianoso forcibly that even the best instrument will give forth only a

blur of noise . The artistic effects are obtained by control andvariation Ofpower, not by abuse of it.The same is true of speed . The pianist does not usually play a

piece as fast as he can , but takes the pace suited to the work, andgives it expression by changes of speed as well as of power. Byusing the proper accelerations and retards, and the most effectivechanges of pace, as wellas proper accents andbalance Offorce, thepianist m ay bring much out of a piece, andmake it notably expressive. The hearer m ay always ask himself questions on these points.Does the performer make the right contrasts Ofspeed and power,or are they minimized or exaggerated too much? Does he bringout the melody and form of a piece properly? Or is it over-emphasized

, Or left obscure? Variations in power, vari ations in Speed , andthe proper use of control and contrast, are what the bearer musttrain himself to notice and estim ate . He will then be able to tellwhether a performance is qu iet or passionate, repressed or exag

gerated , well-balanced or eccentric. He can also tell whether thepianist is stri ving to interpret a piece logica lly, or trying to displayhis own powers at the expense of the composer’s mean ing. The useor abuse of the pedal is another point worthy of attention.

z The nature of the piece played is often a guide, as different schoolsof piano music require different treatm ent. Thus the early sonatasof Scarlatti, and the music of Couperin , Rameau, and others oftheir sort, demand a light ease of control and more than usualdirectness in style. The Mozart pieces admit of more expression ,though still direct and straightforward . With Beethoven’s greatsonatas the dram atic element plays a more prominent part. Inconnection with these there has been much discussion over the fitness or unfitness Ofrubato . That is a change of pace within themeasure or phrase, a prolonging of certain notes at the expense ofothers for the sake Ofexpression. Paderewski claims that Beethoven

’

s works should have rubato ; but the young pianist wi ll dowell to use it in very moderate quantities. Modern works of theLiszt type m ay be given the fullest degree of dram atic expression.

Works of contrapuntal character demand a special treatment oftheir own. They are based on a system of part-writing, in which

THE PIANO AND ITS PREDECESSORS 383

each part, or voice, has its own importance. In harmonic (homophonic) music, there is one chief melody, supported by an aecompanim ent of chords. In stri ct counterpoint, such as is found in thefugue, each voice has its own melodic line, andthe voices blend witheach other, like colored strands twisted to form a vari egated rope .There are many pieces that come between the two extrem es, andhave some contra punta l (polyphonic, or many-voiced) effects whilebeing mostly harmonic in style, or viceversa .

In polyphonic music, such as the fugues of Bach, Mendelssohn ,

and others, the pianist must bring out each part. Instead of havinga single m elody to be made prominent against a background ofchords andharmonies, he now has several melodies, which must bebalanced against each other in such a way that the important partsof allare brought out. This is hard work, and its success marks the

But in spite of general rules, there is still much latitude in therendering of a piece . We m ay, therefore, judge the pianist by hisown individualwork. If he plays with control andvariety of speedand power, brings out his them es expressively without

“teari ngthem to tatters,

”and balances section against section, or voice

against voice, in proper fashion, expressing the very best effectsof which a piece is capable, then we m ay feel sure that he is a greatartist.1

The use of electricity to vibrate wires has been embodied in an

instrument known as the choralcelo. This looks like a double upright piano. Electri c magnets , controlled by properly interruptedcurrents , attract and release the wires, thus making them vibrateat the desired rates . The result is a very pure and pleasing tonequa lity , of flute-like or organ-like character. The choralcelo has

also an ordinary piano action, which may be used by itself or incom bination with the electri cally produced tones. Recent immove

ments in the instrument include the use of bars, pla tes, and chainsOfvarious sizes, which give many pleasing tone-colors.

1For an estim ate ofthework ofcertain players, see the chapter Som eFamous

Pianists,” in this work.

THE organ (German , Orgel; French , orgue; Italian, organo) hasbeen ca lled the king Ofinstruments ; but ifthe title is correct, it has

hada much longer reign than usually falls to the lot of royalty.

The just designs of the poet Collins seemed tothink Superior to “Cecilia’s m ingled world of sound,

”hadno place

for the organ , unless we accept as a primitive organ the syrinx, orset OfPan-pipes . That the organ sometimes took such a small formis shown by the regals OfMonteverde

’

s seventeenth-century orchestra, which was a tiny portable organ somewhat resem bling thesyrinx . The larger stationary organ ofMonteverde

’

sday was knownas the positive ; and this term ~ is still kept to describe the choirorgan in France andGermany.

1 Rome had a som ewhat mysterious water-organ , worked by bydrauliopressure . Its construction is not now known, in sp ite of references to it by Vitruvius andothers.The Eastern Empire kept the organ , though with human instead

of hydraulic motor power. In the eighth century, the ByzantineEmperor sent an organ as a present to King Pepin of Fra nce . Theseearly organs were noisy affairs, without the selective power thatcomes with the use of stops ; andwhen a note was played , allthepipes of that pitch gave their tone together. It is on record thata lady at Charlemagne’s court was driven crazy by hearing theorgan unexpectedly for the first tim e. A century or more later,the organ at Winchester, England, was described by the monkWulstan as having “a noise like thunder.

The idea Ofstops grew up gradually in the middle ages. Stopsdepend on the simple principle Ofhaving two operations necessary,instead of one, to let the air into an organ pipe. Pressing down akey must be preceded by a drawing out, or other adjustment, of thestop. Each stop operates a bar, known as a slider, which keeps itsset Ofpipes closed until certain holes in the slider are brought directly under the corresponding pipe openings. After one or more


sma ll to give the sca le, halving the length always giving an octavehigher, and so on. But on the organ a set is also designated by thelength of pipe connected with the key known as great C , two octaves below the middle C of the piano . An open pipe about eightfeet long will give this note. Any series of pipes sounding the pitchof the note played is called , from this, an eight-foot series ; andtones .

that sound the pitch of the key played are called eight-foot tones.This is thus a designation for those pipes that sound the pitch of thekey played , even though the pipes above great C are shorter thaneight feet

, and those sounding below it are longer. The other figuresused to designate sets of organ pipes enable us ,to compare themwith the eight-foot sets

, or stops . Thus a sixteen-foot stop is onewhose pipes may be twice as large, for the same pitch , as those of aneight-foot set ; atany rate, the sixteen-foot set must sound an octavedeeper, for any given key, than the eight-foot set. There are thirty‘

two-foot sets of pipes, that sound an octave deeper yet for. a givenkey. It will thus be seen that one key on the organ, unlike one onthe piano, may give several different tones. The eight-foot stopsare ca lled foundations, and the sixteen-foot stops doubles , whilestops smaller than eight feet are known as mutations . Of thesesmaller stops, the four-foot sounds an octave above the key played,andthe two-foot two octaves above it. The interval of a fifth is usedalso , a stop of five anda third feet giving a fifth above the foundations, while one of two andtwo thirds feet gives an octave anda fifth(the twelfth) above the foundations. There are also stops of ten andtwo thirds feet, giving the fifth above the doubles ; but these areused chiefly for the pedals. Sets of two or three ranks of very sma llpipes, sounding together, are ca lled furniture or mixture. They areused in com bination with heavy tones, to brighten them . Thedoubles and foundations are often played together, with enoughmutation andm ixture to get the desired effect. The fifth is neverused alone, but is combined with other stops to brighten them.

It will be seen on reflection that a single large organ will havea great number of pipes. Each of the five manuals , as well as thepedals, will have many stops ; andeach stop represents a set of pipesusually conta ining one for each key. The organ at the town building in Sydney, like the still larger one recently erected atLiverpool,has about ten thousand pipes.

THE ORGAN 387

Pipes may be open or closed , the latter being stopped at one endandsounding an octave deeper than open pipes of the same length.

Pipes may be wide or narrow in proportion to their length, the narrow ones giving the more brilliant tone. Pipes m ay be m ade ofwood or of m etal. Finally, they may be provided with reed mouthpieces, or simply have air-openings instead , being known as flue

pipes. The organ builder combines allthese possibilities so as toproduce the maximum variety in tone-color. Incidentally, his instrument has to be “voiced ” to the church or hall where it is setup. This consists in trying out allthe tones, andm aking them even

or stop , which are reenforced when their wave-length happens tofit the building, would sound too loud.

Stainer, in his book on the organ, g ives a classification of thestops that is quoted here for reference. His table is still useful,though descriptions of other stops m ay be found in the works ofHopkins andRim bault, or Audsley.

MANUAL FLUE STOPS

Double stoppeddiapason or bourdon . .Soft andsweet.

Double gam ba or contra gam ba Reedy, generally soft.Double (open) diapason m etal Fullri ch tone.

iwt 1.ie c ac

Cl et flute.Soft and sweet.

Hohlfl’

ote. Sweet, but fuller-toned.

Dulciana.Soft andreedy.

Keraulophon .

Gam ba or violda gam ba

Spitzfldte.Thin anddelicate.

Viold’am our .

Sm allopen diapason More powerful.Large open diapason Fulland rich.

Belldiapason .

Flute apavillon .Very rich, full, andvery reedy.

Gam ba (full-toned) or bellgam ba .

Flute.

Sweet andbright.

Reedy andvery bright.

388

am .

82-ft.


Very bright, but fluty.

Bright and full-toned.Quint, full-tone ; adds breadth anddignity in com bination.

Twelfth, full-tone; adds richness in com bination .

Echo com et Soft in com bination.

Adds fulhi ess.

MANUAL REED STOPS

Tenoroon or contra oboe. Soft and rich; generally on theDouble bassoon. swellorgan .

Double trum pet.Trom bone. Full-toned andrich.

Contra posaune.

Oboe(orchestral).Clannet. Ofspecialquality oftone; genCorno di bassetto. erally used independently as

Cor Anglais. solo stops.

Vox hum ana.

gautboy, soft andsweet; usedon Swellas foundation stop.orn .

Fullandrich on swell.

Posaune.

Trom ba.

Loud andrich.

Harm onic trum pet. Very loud and brilliant onub a m irab ihs. highwind pres sure.Octave hautboy Bright.Clanon Very bright.

PEDAL FLUE STOPSSub-bass, double stoppeddiapason, or contra bourdon. Very soft, little

except m com bination.

Double diapason. Rich and full, lowest notes used in com bination.

Bourdon (16-ft. toneViolone.

Soft andm ost useful.Fullandheavy .

St!? ped flute (8 4W Sweet and soft; generally useVIO onceno. flu

Full-toned; m ost useful tostrengthen bass.

Fifteenth or super-octave Adds brightness.

Quint, produces a very heavy tone in com bination.

.Adds brightness.

Contra fagottoContra posaune.

Contre bom barde.


tones on the manuals, andsixteen-foot on the peda ls . An open diapason increases the tone, while the addition of other eight-foot andfour-foot stops brings fair power. For loud notes, the doubles areused to add the lower octave, while still more foundations, mutations, andmixtures are thrown in.

The auditor, then , will look most of allfor quality of tone whenhearing the instrument. If he can see the player manipula te thestops

,so much the better ; but he can hear changes of any impor

tance in the tone. He will find himself able, with very few trials,to tell whether the deep sixteen-foot stops are present or absent;andhe may even learn to detect the presence andprobable amountof mutation stops. There are not many special points of fingertechnique for him to watch ; the performer

’s touch must simply beclear enough, and quick enough, to get a clean-cut entrance of thewind into the pipes ; while he plays the pedals with a heel-and-toemovement that does not challenge attention. But ifthe playerhandles his registration properly, he will give broad effects andbu ild up grand climaxes that fully justify the organ’s claim to aregal title.

THE human voice (German, Stimme; French, voix; Ita lian , voce)is an instrument of the same type as the oboe or bassoon. Theseinstruments have what is known as a double-reed mouthpiece ; andin sim ilar fashion the throat is provided with two m embranes calledthe voca l cords, which swing toward and away from each otherwhen producing a tone, and let out successive air-puffs of the requisite number per second for the pitch of the note sung.

The lungs and the m uscles controlling them supply the necessary

haled without im pediment. Butwhen the vocal cords are in action,closing the throat except for the release of air-puffs, the musclescontrolling the lungs may be in definite action, forcing the air outif a tone of any volume is to be obta ined.

The muscles governing the lungs act in three ways. The dia

phragm , a broad flat-arched muscle at the base of the lungs, contracts downward to inhale air, and relaxes upward to let the air beexhaled, or even pushes upward in making a tone. The rib-muscles

another sort of inhalation may be made by lifting the chest andelongating the lungs upward by means of the shoulders . There is agreat dea l of discussion as to what is the best method of breathingfor singers ; but many of them are now agreed thatan enlargem entof the lower ribs, helped by a slight back-expansion and raising ofthe shoulder-blades ,

is the proper method of inha lation. The student may train his back in brea thing by inhaling in a sitting position

,leaning forward until the face alm ost touches the knees . After

the inhalation , the burden of action in tone-producing is shifted tothe diaphragm,

which controls the tone best during exhalation.

Breathing by the diaphragm is the m ost wholesome procedure inordinary life ; but the singer must train for special results .The larynx, which may be felt as the Adam’s-apple , is the


apparatus at the top of the wind-pipe (trachea) that acts asvibrating mouthpiece in producing a tone. The larynx consists of severalcartilages, united by muscles andcovered by membranes, the Wholebeing suspended from the hyoid, or tongue, bone.Lowest of allis the cri coid cartilage, named from the Greek to

show its resemblance to a Signet-ring. This is joined to the top ofthe windpipe by a circular ligament. The widest (highest) part isin the back.

The thyroid cartilage is much larger. It rests on top of the cricoid, and forms the main part of the Adam

’s-apple. It is not acomplete ring

, but is shaped much like two square shields facingdiagonally forward. The back ends are joined by the thyro-hyoidmembrane. From the back ends rise rod-like projections connecting the cartilage to the hyoid bone. At the upper front part of thiscartilage is the flexible tongue known as the epiglottis. When weswallow food, the epiglottis bends back to let the food pass over it,across the top of the larynx, to the gullet, or (esophagus, whi ch isbehind the windpipe .On top of the high back part of the cricoid cartilage are two little

hillocks known as the arytenoid cartilages. On top of these are thetwo very small Santorini cartilages, and beside the arytenoids arethe two tiny Wrisberg cartilages.The vocal cords are membranes, one on each side of the larynx,

looking not unlike the halves of a drum membrane, with an openslit or passage, ca lled the glottis, extending from front to back.

When the cords are loose, this slit is more like a round hole. Thefront end of the cords is attached to the thyroid cartilage, and theback ends are united to the arytenoid cartilages, one to each . Whenthe cords are tightened by the muscles governing the cartilages, theslit becomes narrow enough to make the air escape in the intermittent puffs needed to produce a tone. The cords are sm ooth m em

branes of grayish-white color, though inflammation may makethem redor cover them with lumpy nodules.Above the vocal cords are two so-called false vocal cords , andbetween the two pairs are recesses known as the Morgagni pockets.The use of the false cords and pockets is not clearly understood .

Some think they direct the tone upward through the throat. Othersbelieve that they make the tone-quality soft and ri ch . Still others


Adam’s-apple, which carries the front ends of the cords , rises also,and takes a stiffer and stiffer position, demanding more andmoremuscular effort. To sing high notes in the chest register (with chestqua lity) is very fatiguing . The chest notes in a man’s voice havethe fulness and qua lity obtained in ordinary shouting.If the singer uses the so-ca lled head register, he will obtain a tone

of much sm oother quality. To get such head tones, the throatmust be left lax, and the nose open. Such tones are often developedby humming through the nose . In these , the authorities tell us, thevoca l cords vibrate more in a la teral direction. like a pin that isstuck in a wall and twanged. The head register requires none ofthe fatiguing stiffening of the throat that is needed for chest notes.Ithas a much sm oother quality of tone, being almost like the falsettovoice in character. In reality , the falsetto is simply a very high partof the head register. The head tones have nothing of the gruff character of the shout, buthave the smoother, lighter quality of a whine.The good singer will use the head tones as much as the nature of

his voice perm its . With men, this blending of a maximum of headquality with the tone m ay be done atallpitches, butmore especiallyin the high ones. Sir Morell Mackenzie said that sopranos use a

maximum of chest register, while contraltos depend much more onhead quality for their high notes. But this statement is many yearsold, and probably the sopranos now make a much greater use ofthe head register than formerly.

Oertel studied head tones by means of an instrument ca lled the

arrangement of mirrors enabling an observer to see into the throat.The former is based on the idea of a revolving plate wi th a hole init, permitting vision only when the hole reaches a certa in spot inits path of revolution. If the stroboscope revolves, for example,250 times a second, and the vocal cords under the laryngoscope arevibrating 251 times a second , then each revolution of the stroboscope will show the cords in a position slightly advanced from thatseen previously. In this way a sort of moving picture is obta inedshowing the vocal cords in action apparently at the rate of one vibration per second. By using this , Oertel found that in head tonesthe voca l cords were divided into segments lengthwise

,the segments

THE VOICE 395

In the later sections on tubular instruments, it is shown that the

as the pitch . The vocal cords are controlled by m uscles, while the

the voca l cords give any rate of vibration that they can, and thelength of the vi brating air-column will vary in accordance with theirrate . Butwhere the air-wave in a clarinet, for instance, is four timesthe length of the tube, that of a vocaltone m ay be many moretimes the length from voca l cords to lips. Yet there is som e shortcuing of the air-colum n in the throat as the pitch is raised. Withchest tones, the thyroid cartilage shortens the air-space by risingas the pitch rises ; and chest-singers often throw the head back forhigh notes. For head tones, there seems to be a lowering of the upperpart of the larynx toward the cords, producing the sensation of“drinking in ” the tone .All this no doubt leads to rather abstruse considerations. Thereis

,however, much room for further investigation of the larynx in

action ; and the reader may not find it amiss to have these hintsof what the investigator’s problems are like.From the hearer ’s point of view, too, the above items may be of

value. He can watch what method of breathing a singer adopts,or te ll whether he or she blends head and chest tones skilfully.

Voices are classified in many ways. Taking them in general divisions from the bottom up, we have the basso profundo, the basso

cantante, the baritone, the tenore robusto, the (lyric) tenore di grazia,the contralto , the mezzo-soprano, and the full soprano.The voice of the basso profundo is full anddeep , while that of the

basso cantante is smoother and more fluent. Simi larly, the tenore

robusto has a voice of heroic proportions ,while the lyric tenor (tenore

di grazia) has less strength , butmore smoothness and sweetness oftone. The sacchari ne quality of the lyric tenor

’s tones is apt to growmonotonous ; and it caused Von Bi

‘

rlow to remark that“Tenor is

not a voice, but a disease .” The true contralto (alto) voice, too,

is broad and strong in qua lity, while that of a m ezzo-soprano withalm ost the same range is more lyrica l . Sopranos have the same division

,the strong voices being suited to the dramatic school, while

them ore fluent andsmooth voices of the so-called colorature sopranoscan be managed with the most brilliant flexibility. The last-named


voices are those that are displayed in the runs, embellishments, andrapid passages of the conventional mad-scenes in Italian opera ofthe Rossini or Donizetti school .Men’s voices sing music in the G clef an octave lower than it is

wri tten.

Voca l execution is a matter in which the singer must keep upconstant practice. In the piano field, Rubinstein is alleged to havesaid, IfIneglect practice one day, I know it ; two days, my friendsknow it ; and three days, the public knows it.

” Something of thesort is true of the singer also.The singer must not only practise execution, buthe must developtone quality as well. Where the pianist cannot vary his tone-color,the singer can modify his tones noticeably by practice. A goodvoice is in part a natural gift ; but it may be much improved, andin some cases singers have attained success without it. Thus LudWig Wullner, renowned for his rendering of German art-songs, ob<tains his effects by his mastery of technica l management, andadvertises himself as “the singer without a voice.”

When judging of a singer, the listener may firs t of allnote thequality of his voice. If the performer is a man , the voice may be ofeither lyri c or robust style ; if a woman, her tones may be broadlydramatic, or may have the pure, clear qua lity of the voix blanche,

”

the clean-cut, somewhat cold tone-color shown by certain colorature

Breathing and breath management are worthy of notice. Doesthe singer breathe naturally, with only the slightest pause, andnoapparent effort? Or does he make hard work of it? Also

,does he

pause for breath at the proper times, or does he let his inhalationsdivide the phrases wrongly? In some songs

,there is little chance

for the vocalist to go astray. In the old Handel airs, however, suchas Ev’ry valley, in

“The Messiah , there are long roulades, inwhich any misjudgment would receive its full share of prominence.The quality of tone is kept at its best if the tone is given proper

resonance by the nose, andmore especially by the mouth . We hearmany teachers tell their pupils to “focus the tone on the teeth .

”

This does not mean that the teeth have any share in the tone, butthat the student is to let the tone resound clearly andnot be smothered by the mouth or throa t.

WHILE the piano demands the maximum amount of effort fromthe performer, the violin (German , Geige; French, violon; Italian ,

violino) is the instrument that is capable of the greatest var iety ofexpression . Like the human voice, it m ay echo every em otion .

The origin of the violin, as already intimated , is shrouded inmystery. The rebab of Arabia ,

the ravonastron of India , the earlyWelsh harp known as the crwth, or even the primitive instrumentsof Africa , may have played their part in its development. Greilsam er, a B e nch authority, now cla ims that it may have come fromthe kithara ,

because of the expansion of one of the latter’s sides

to a violin-like body in certa in early mediaeval specimens.The term fiddle, also viol , is derived from the Latin fidz

'

cula,

meaning a stri nged instrument. The early viols , whi ch came intogeneral use in the tim e of the Jongleurs, were flatter in shape thanthe present violin . Their tone was different, being less incisive andbrilliant, but m ore ca lmly sweet and pla intive . Viols of varioussizes remained in use some time after the violin had developed.

When the early sixteenth-century music is revived for modern ears,the viols are often used in place of violins, andwith very pleasingeffect if heard with harpsichord , for example.Gasparo da Salo and the Amati family were pioneers in violin

making, the former living in the Tyrol and the latter in Crem ona .

Andrea Amati, the pioneer in the Crem ona manufacture, was bornin 1520. His two sons Antonio andGeronimo continued the work,but it was brought to greater perfection by the latter’s son Nicolo.The last-named was the teacher of the greatest of violin-makers,Antonio Stradivarius (1650 Another famous family of violinmakers was that of Guarnerius, of whom Joseph (1683ca lled Del Jesu , is known through having one of his instrumentsused by the great Paganini . Other famous violin-makers were theMagginis, the Ruggieris , the Guadagninis, the Cerutis, andStorioni.

THE VIOLIN 399

The violins of these men are valued for their excellence of tone.This comes in part from age, or rather continued use ; because theconstan t vibration of the violin-box makes it give tones of constantly increas ing fulness andpurity . Butage is not the only quality,else allthe old instruments would be equally good . There weresecrets in the making andusing of the varnish

,the seasoning of the

wood , and so on. These points , or others of the sort, are still opento discovery, and modern makers som etimes produce unusual results. Thus a famous New York firm , whi ch exhibited som e of itsnew violins at a Vienna fair , was refused the prize, at first, on theground that its instruments were too good to be really new.

The chief parts of a violin are the body andneck, made of mapleor pine ; a thin wooden bridge of maple, supporting the strings ; anebony bar into which the stri ngs are knotted beyond the bridge ;an ebony finger-board over which they run ; a peg-box, in whichthe ends of the stri ngs are wrapped around pegs that are used fortuning ; and the four strings themselves . The strings are ca lledcatgut ; but in the instrumental field, at least, the cat is innocent,as the strings come from the sheep or the goat when not artificia llymade . The deepest string is wound with wire . With the violincomes a bow of horsehair, and a metal or wooden clamp (the mute,or sordino). The bow is drawn over the stri ngs to set them in motion , whereupon the vibrations are transferred by the bridge tothe body of the instrument, which acts as a sounding-board , andvibrates in sym pa thy with the stri ng, but much more powerfully.

The m ute is stuck on the bridge in clothesp in-fashion when in use,and dim inishes the volume of tone by letting less powerful vibrations reach the sounding-box. The mu ted tone is pecu liarly sweetas well as soft. When the mute is to be puton or taken off, the composer always puts some rests into the player ’s part, so that he mayhave time to dig the mute from his vest pocket and adjust it onthe bridge, or to reverse the process.

cending order, beginning with the G just below m iddle C . Sincemaking a string shorter causes it to give a higher tone, the playerm ay get tones of higher pitch than that of the whole string (openstring ) by pressing his finger on it, at different distances from the

peg-box ; in which m sc the part of the string between the bridge


and the player’s finger is what vibrates andgives the tone. In prin

ciple it is simple, but in practice the procedure is varied anddifficult

.The violinist's left hand, which is used to finger the stri ngs,

is trained to a most delica te perfection of activity, a perfectionthat is injured by the slightest bruise, so that the performer m aynot indulge in anything so violent as baseball, for instan ce. The useof the bow

,too

,demands a perfect adjustm ent of arm , wrist, hand,

and fingers . So it must have been a very ignorant man who said,when asked if he could play the violin , I don

’t know ; I never tried .

”

The violinist,when playing, supports the neck of his instrument

in the hollow between the thumb and first finger of his left hand.This brings his four fingers over the strings in such a way that anyone of them may press the string against the finger-board, knownas“stopping” the string. When the hand is nearest to the peg

box,it is in wha t is called the first position. By moving in toward

the body of the violin , so that each finger gives a note one tonehigher than before, it reaches the second position. In ordinaryp laying, six positions are used . For the upper positions, or for anynote stillhigher on the E-stri ng, the fingers must do some reaching,as the body of the instrument prevents the hand from moving inas a whole. In Beethoven’s time the com pass of the violin wasconsidered to be one tone over three octaves. Since then the composers have ca lled for still higher notes from it ; andWagner, inthe music depicting the Holy Grail in the prelude to Lohengrin,

”

demanded unusua lly high tones, whose thin , clear quality, blendedwith flute notes, gave an excellent picture of celestia l bliss.In this case Wagner used what are known as harmonics, besides

employing the ordinary tones . Harmonics , known also as overtones or upper partia ls, are formed when a string of the violin ismade to vibrate in fractiona l parts instead of in one large swingalong its entire length. To produce such an effect, the playertouches the string lightly at a certai n point instead of pressing itdown firmly. If he touches the string in the middle, it vibrates inha lves, sounding an octave higher than if it vibrated as a whole.Iftouched one-third of its length from the peg-box end , it vibratesin thirds , giving a still higher tone ; and the pitch m ay be still further ra ised by making the string divide into fourths , fifths, etc .The playing of harmonics is one of the points in which a good


very successfu lly the rustling s andmurmurings of the forest. Suchprocedure (divis'i) is common now with allthe orchestral instruments

,and produces a much broader or more massive tone than

the older method of scoring for un ison parts.

The violin tremolo, which is so often heard in our melodramaswhen the villain is about to kill the heroine, or some other bloodcurdling event takes place , is produced on a single tone by swingingthe bow rapidly to andfro on the stri ng. This effect was ori ginatedby Monteverde in the seventeenth century ; though if he hadknown to what base uses it would come, he might have refrainedfrom inventing it.The vibrato is used to give a series of apparent swells and sub

sidences to a single sm ooth tone. It is caused in rea lity by slightregular changes in pitch , for in producing it the player sways hishand rhythmically andmore or less rapidly while keeping his finger

Staccato notes, which are short and quick, may be produced bythe stopping of the bow on the string, in which case the tone ceasesat once . Such a stacca to is ca lled “détachée,

”or“martella

Another stacca to is produced by letting the bow drop on thestri ng andrebound quickly by its own elasticity. This is known asthe “flying stacca to ” or

“arco saltando.

When the string is lightly brushed and the bow lifted off it between each tone, the so-ca lled

“spicca to ” is produced .

The violin strings may be plucked , like those of a guitar. Thisprocedure, known as

“pizzica to,”may be used for guitar-like ac

companim ents, but it has a mysterious and stri king effect that isvaluable for its own sake also. Skilful solo players will sometimesgive pieces that demand pizzica to effects in combination withbowing ; andwhile a tone of the usual sort is going on

,they will be

seen to pluck a string also with one of the free fingers of the lefthand. The pizzica to, like the tremolo, was invented by Monteverde.A tone produced by tapping the string with the back of the bowis ca lled “col legno,

” meaning “with the wood . This effect is toolight for solo use, and is rare even in orchestral work.

The mute, or sordino, has been mentioned above . The mutedtone is too smoothly sweet for lengthy use

,but in short passages

THE VIOLIN 403

itmakes a good contrast to the more brilliant tones of the unmuted

Trills are produced by a rapid alternation of two notes, the lowerone being held, or consisting of an open tone, while the upper oneis played andreleased very quickly.

The glissando is the effect produced when a finger is slid alongthe string while the bow is playing on it. This procedure andothersare often burlesqued in vaudeville, but when properly used are de

Em bellishments of various sorts , such as turns , trills, mordents,and rapid runs, are much used in violin music. The player

’s lefthand is continually in action , anda close watch of its nim ble fingerswill show a constant overcom ing of difficulties that are not allrecognized as such by the ear a lone.The violin is capable of expressing every emotion, from thedeepest pathos to the wildest gayety or the utmost frenzy. Its use

as a solo instrument is widespread , and it plays the most im portant part in the orchestra . It lends itself to the expression of everyshade of feeling, andwhile many instruments have only one or twodistinctive tone-colors, the violin possesses them all.

A very great deal of this expressive power depends on the performer’s use

' of the bow. This is a ma tter of life-long attention fromthe student’s earliest days. The fingers stop the stri ngs to get thecorrect pitch ; but it is always the infinite variety in the speed andpressure of the bow that brings out the tone-quality. The broadand beautiful notes of an Ysaye or a Kreisler depend wholly uponthe correct andartistic use of the bow.

In the orchestra ,the first of the violin players, known as the

Concertmeister,”ranks next to the conductor him self, andshould

be able to replace the latter if necessary. He is always a performerof high merit, and best able to play the solo passages that aboundin modern scores.Som etimes specialtimings of the violin are used . Thus SaintSa ’

ens , in his“Danse Macabre,

” depicting the skeletons dancingat midnight, had a solo violin tuned with its upper string a sem itone flat. This gave a peculiarly weird effect when Death beganto tune up his violin for the skeletons

’ dance. Paganini would oftentune allhis stri ngs a semitone too high, and finger the pieces a


sem itone lower than they were written, combining the correct pitchwith the brilliance obta ined from tight strings. Many others haveused special effects in tuning.When the layman attends a violin recital , he willbe able to notice

many of the points enumerated here. He will almost surelymuch double-stopping, many harmonics, pizzicato passages, andother bits of technica l display. These he may follow in part withthe eye

,by watching the fingers of the player’s left hand . But the

artist’s chief glory is to be judged by the ear. If he shows breadthand purity of tone, true expressive power, rea l delicacy of feeling,and an emotional warmth that is well marked without beingduly exaggerated, then he is truly great.


The viola plays the third part in the string quartet, which consists of a first andsecond violin, a viola , anda violoncello. This doesnot mean that it is always below the two violins in pitch, for thestri ng quartet depends upon interest and variety in the leading ofits four parts, and sometimes the viola may be playing the highestnote of a chord. In orchestral work the viola has much the sameduty. It is often ca lled upon for its special tone-color, but usuallyit is found playing in four-part harmony with the first and secondviolins and the violoncellos. In the eighteenth century its role wasmore humble, and it was often compelled to follow the bass viol.Yet Gluck gave a strong example of its power in his Iphigenie enTauride.” In that work Orestes, pursued by theM es, sinks downovercome in prison ; but the gloom y mutteri ng of the violas showsthat his rest is due not to peace of mind, but to exhaustion .

The viola d’

amore is not really a viola , but belongs to the old Violtype, and is nearly obsolete now. It had seven catgut stri ngs andseven steel strings vibrating in sympathy with them. Its sweettones are ca lled for in the music of Bach’s time, but are very infrequently demanded in later works . Loeffler, however, used them inhis “Mort de Tintagiles.

”

An attempt has been made to substitute for the present viola aninstrum ent with brighter tone. A German musician named Ritterbrought out a large affa ir, which he called the viola alta , butwhichthe musica l world now knows as the Ritter viola . It is half as largeagain as the ordinary viola . For this reason its tones are brilliantand resonant, as its size gives the required depth in pitch withoutthe need of having the stri ngs thickened . Orchestras have notadopted it, because it is too large ; and only men with very longarms can play it. As a whole, music is the most conservative of thearts ; and even a successful innovation is not adopted for manyyears .The Violoncello, or

’cello (German , Violoncell; French, violoncelle;Italian , violoncello) , takes the fourth part among the strings, bothin the quartet of solo instruments and in the orchestra . Of coursein the latter case any instrument may be used for a solo or obbltgatopassage, whenever a composer desires to make its tone-color prominent but in tutti passages , when allthe instruments play together,it takes the low notes of the string group. The name should never

I . MANDOLIN , 2 LUTE , 3 VIOLA D ’ AMORE , 4 VIOL IN . 5 BANJO ,6 VIOLA ,

7. VIOLONCELLO ; 8 GUITAR , 9 . HARP , 10 CONTRABASS


from the instruments he used, andmade them speak out in theirmost characteri stic tones.In solo execution, allthe technica l points of the violin are prae

ticable on the ’cello . There are, however, certain lim itations . Thusdouble-stopping is regula ted by the size of the instrument, and intervals practicable on the violin or viola are often impossible on the’cello . Arpeggio chords for the ’cello m ust be written wi th due re

gard for the size of the human hand, and generally include at leastone open string . Trem olo, vibrato, and glissando effects are easilyobta ined . The m u te can play its part. Arco sa ltando and otherdevices of bowing are perfectly applicable. The pizzica to is excellent, as the long strings ofthe

’cello give a fu ll tone when plucked .

Harmonics of good quality may be played , especially on the upperstring, where they resem ble muted violin tones in effect. Artificialharmonics on the ’cello are limited by the performer’s reach.

They are not often called for, though Verdi used them very efl'

ec

tively in the Nile scene of“Mda .

”

The ’cello is a favorite instrument in orchestral expression . Cherubini wrote three rea l parts for his ’cellos in the opening scene of hisOpera Fan iska .

” Rossini ca lled for five solo ’cellos in the “WilliamTell” Overture, though the passage is now genera lly arranged forone. The ’cello is very effective with the voice, as in the song “Bethou faithfulunto death ,

” from Mendelssohn’s oratorio “SaintPaul .

’Cello playing was of slow growth, as the old six-stri nged vtoldagamba was hard to displace. But the more powerfu l ’cello toneblended better with the violins, and the instrument came into usein the time of Corelli andTartini , while Haydn and others pla cedit in the stri ng quartet. The French player Duport introducedchromatic fingering, an im portant step forward . 80 well didDuport play the ’cello that Volta ire said to him

, Y ou make mebelieve in miracles ; for you can crea te a nightingale out of an ox .

”

At this time it was customary for players to display their abilityby performing difficu lt violin pieces, such as Tartini’s “Tri lle duDiable,

” on the ’cello. But the most wonderfulmaster of the instrum ent was by allodds Adrien Francois Servais, who lived until1866. His compositions are tremendously difficult, like those of

OTHER BOWED INSTRUMENTS 409

The contrabass , or double-bass, or double-bass viol (German ,

Kontrabass; French, contre basse; Ita lian, contrabasso), form erlyknown in Ita ly as the violone, is the largest of the bowed instruments . Its size, which is its most striking fea ture, was em phasizedby the old English custom of giving trios with one such instrument ; the travelling perform er would play on it, and add a secondpart with his voice, while a third part came from the voice of a boyconcea led in the instrument. The English contrabasses used to havethree strings , but those now in large orchestras have four . They aretuned in fourths to the notes, E , A, D, and G, the first being thelowest E on the piano. The compass runs nearly to middle C . Bycomm on consent, contrabass music is written an octave higher thanthe actual pitch, to avoid the use of m any extra lines below thestaff (leger lines). It therefore sounds an octave lower than it is

Specia l tunings are sometim es demanded . Thus Berlioz advisesthat half the contrabasses be tuned differently from the rest. Wag

ner, at the beginning of his“Rheingold ,

”has the contrabass play

ers tune their lowest strings to E-flat, which is held as a su s tainedbass for wavy harmonies tha t represent the flowing of the river.

Beethoven went even further down , and called for a low C , a

fact which led the German Karl Otho to bring out a five-stringedcontrabass with C for its lowest tone. The thickness of the stri ngsnecessitates great strength to stop them ; and double-stopping isalm ost im possible unless one of the tones com es from an openstring. In orchestra l work , of course, the contrabasses may bedivided into parts , as at the beginning of Tschaikovsky

’s PatheticSym phony.

”

The tone-color of the contrabass is heavy, gruff, ponderous . Ittakes the bass part in the orchestra , but it may be used in solo passages with telling significance. It m ay a lso be used to burlesque theeffects of lighter instrum ents. In swift passages it can never be entirely clear ; for its long, heavy strings are slow to cease vibrating.

Yet Mendelssohn , in his setting of the l14th Psalm, has the con

trabass play sixteenth-notes at a metronom e mark of 116 for aquarter-note, giving a rate of 464 notes per minute in the playing.

Another hard nutfor the contrabass player to crack is the aecom

paniment to Mozart’s song “Per questa bella mano,

” in which


the chord effects and high notes suggest that the music might havebeen played two octaves lower than written.

Solo playing on the contrabass would seem at first sight to haveallthe delicacy that an elephant would display while dancing . Thecontrabass harmonics are of little value ; the mute produces nochange in qua lity ; the repeated notes and tremolo are effectiveenough , and the pizzicato excellently strong ; but the tone-qua lityseems too heavy for solo work . Yet there have been great solo performers on the contrabass, such as Dragonetti or Bottesini . Dra

gonetti possessed a fine instrument, upon which he could obtainmany stri king effects. It was with this contrabass tha t he im itatedthe approach of a thunderstorm, scaring the monks of San Giustina ,near Padua , until they came out of their cells in the dead of night.The pizzicato has been well used by Weber, in the overture toDer Freischutz,

” in which piece it gives a stri kingly sombre effectjust after the opening horn quartet. Rossini , in the overture to William Tell , divi des the contrabasses to obtain effects of pizzica toand bowing combined . Another famous use of the contrabass pizzicato is found in the Symphonie Fantastique of Berlioz, where thehero , after being led by jealousy to murderhis sweetheart, is m archedto execution . Bach used the contrabass well in “Ye lightnings, yethunders,

”andGluck employed it in glissando passages to im ita te

the barking of Cerebus in Orpheus.” ButBeethoven , who broughtout most wonderfully the possibilities of his instruments, was thefirst to make the contrabass im portant in the orchestra . At the end

'ofhis Fourth Sym phony is a rapid contrabass passage that demandsallthe players’ skill .When this work first came out, Weber, often at odds with the

more serious and irascible Beethoven,wrote a satire on the contra

bass passage, which was printed in a musical periodica l . He pictured a concert hall , in which this symphony had just been performed . After the departure of the musicians , the instrumentscame to life, andbegan to hold an indignation meeting against themerciless composer who forced them to do such hard work. Whenthe sma ller instruments had aired their grievances , the contrabassarose gravely, and said ,

“Your troubles may be real enough ; butwhat do you think of mine? Instead of letting me proceed in a quietandorderly manner, as befits my dignity, this intolerable composer


The contrabass, then, may be used for the most part as a humbledrudge, giving the bass parts of the orchestra l music. But it hascapabilities, and the great composer will sometimes give it passagesthat are of the utmost importance and significance.

XLVI

PLUCKED—STRING INSTRUMENTS

OF those instruments whose strings are plucked instead of beingrubbed by a bow, the most important by far is the harp (German ,Harfe; French, harpe ,’ Italian, arpa). It undoubtedly originatedfrom the twanging bow-string of early savages ; and the nanga , amodern form of negro harp, is practica lly a bow with five stringsinstead of one. Nearly allthe ancient races hadharps of som e form ;and as the harp was the best instrument known in old tim es, itsuse was ascribed to celestial beings as well as m ortals. The ancientharps varied in Size and number of strings ; but as they lacked thevertica l pillar that makes our harp a triangle, they must have beenhard to keep in tune . The Hebrew harp , or Kinnor, was probablycopied from the Egyptian instrument while the Greek wordkithara has been translated indifferently as harp, lyre, lute, or

guitar.The Irish claim to have originated the harp. Undoubtedly the

oriental harps were earlier, though the Roman legions brought theIrish harp back from Brita in. Its use in the Apu lian city of Arpimayhave given the instrument its name, thoughMaxMuller claim sa Teutonic origin for the term. The ancient races of the east gavethe instrum ent various names, while the Germanic tribes knew itunder its present appellation.

The old Irish harp , in its largest form, had three rows of strings,two outer rows of twenty-nine each giving diatonic tones, while themiddle row of twenty gave the chromatic interva ls . The instrumentexisted in other forms, andas late as 1608 we find Monteverde ca lling for a “double harp ,

” evidently with two rows of strings. Thetri ple form lasted until nearly 1800.

The old laws of Wales mention the use of the harp as one of threepoints that distinguished the freeman from the slave ; andpretenders were often discovered by their unskilful use of it. Only the king,his musicians, andthe gentlemen of the rea lm could own a harp ; and


Slaves were forbidden even to touch the instrument. The harp wasexem pt from seizure for debt, asits loss was presumed to mean degradation to the ranks of the slaves. The Welsh musica l festivals,or Eistedfodds, were originally very important affa irs, participatedin by those who hadreached the rank of chief minstrel . Candidateshad to pass a three-years’ initiation, and other periods of practicefor higher degrees .The Anglo-Saxons cherished the harp, andrespected the wander

ing minstrel . As early as the year 495, when Colgrin was besiegedin York, his brother went through the hostile camp disguised as aminstrel to get the information that enabled him to relieve the place.A similar story is told of King Alfred , who disguised himself as a

harper to enter the Danish camp. At festivals it was customary forthe guests to Sing andplay in turn . Once the poet Caedmon, whohadneglected music for more purely intellectual accom plishments,found himself unable to play when his turn came in such a gathering ; whereupon he rose from the table andwent home to hide hisshame.The Minnesingers of Germany made frequent use of the harp,

instead of the guitar that the Troubadours sometimes favored . Theeffect m ay be seen in Wagner’s in which the con~testants indulge in a tournament of song.

In England the lute andviol gradually replaced the harp , whilethe spinet and virginals, which were smaller forms of the harpsichord, drove it still further into obscurity . Yet in 1720 Handelcalled for harp music in his oratorio “Esther, the parts being performed by two Welsh harpists.The invention of pedals for the harp has been ascribed to Hoch

brucker in 1720, and Paul Velter, in 1730. The modern concertharp , however, is the work of Sebastian Erard , who perfected it in1810. This has what are known as double-action pedals . The harpis tuned in the scale of C-flat when its strings are open. There areseven pedals, one for each note of the sca le. Pressing a pedal halfway down will cause a set of meta l pins on revolving discs to clampallthe stri ngs giving that note , and raise the pitch a semitone byshortening the length of the string. Thus for the key of C allthepedals wou ld be depressed half-way; while forA-flat, as an instance,the peda ls for C, F, andG would be pressed down, the others not.


Tim e hath laidhis hand upon m y heart,Gently, not sm iting it,But as the harper lays his open palmUpon the strings, to deaden their vibration.

If the harp stringsare plucked near the end instead of the middle,a more twangy tone, with more overtones, is the result. Harp trillsare possible, but not much used . The harp glissando is a sweepa long the strings. The tremolo , or repetition of a single note, is ohtained by tuning two adjacent stri ngs to the same pitch , exceptfor the notes D , G, andA. In similar fashion a harp m ay be tunedso that a sweep of its stri ngs will give the chord of minor thirds instead of a sca le. The harp has the fullest andrichest tone of alltheplucked-string instruments, and is well suited to accompany thevorce.Bach did not use the early harp, and Handel gave it very few

trials . Beethoven employed it only once, in Prometheus .” Weberwould not use the im proved harp in any of his operas ; but Spohrwrote much for it. This m ay have been a matter of domestic aswell asmusica l harmony ;for he marri ed the harpist Dorette Scheidler, andwrote many sonatas for harp andviolin , in which she tookthe former instrument while he played the latter. Berlioz, in hisChilde Harold Symphony

,produced bell effects by combining harp

andhorn or harp andflute . Across the channel , Cowen used muchharp work to add loca l color to his Welsh Symphony.

To-day the harp has given way to the more popu lar piano ; but inErard

’

s time it held its own. Once its popularity was threatenedby the guitar, when a troupe of Spanish players toured England ;butErard was equal to the occasion. He bought a large number ofguitars, andpresented them, with a printed method, to clerks, shopgirls , and so on . When the fashionable people saw the new instrument in the hands of such humble folk , they at once gave uptheir newly-formed plans of learning it, andcontinued to buy Erardharps.In 1898 the French firm of Pleyel, Wolff Co . brought out a chro

matic harp. Its strings are arranged in two sets,chromatic and

diatonic ; andthey slant so as to cross each other in the middle. Thisinstrument has good tones, as its strings are always open, andneedno pedals ; but it has not become very popular as yet.The guitar is not considered to belong to the orchestra . Some

PLUCKED—STRING INSTRUMENTS 417

times it is used for specia l effects, as in the accom paniment of Almaviva ’s air in Rossini’s “Barber of Seville” ; but the grea t composersca ll for it never. Paganini , who once gave up the violin for theguitar while he was guest of a certain noble lady, wrote quartetsfor strings with guitar ; but these works have not made any greatimpression. The guitar tones are rather too soft for combination ororchestral work ; so they are used chiefly in solos or to accom panythe voice.The guitar has Six strings, of which three are usually ca tgut and

the others (the lower three) made of silk wound with fine wire. Theyare tuned in fourths with one third, giving the notes E , A, D , G , B ,

andE in ascending order. The lowest E as written is the one justbelow middle C , but the guitar is a transposing instrum ent, andsounds an octave deeper than the wri tten part. For Sharp keysthe stringsmay be tuned to E , B , E ,G-sharp , B , andE . On the neckare frets (little horizonta l ridges), to show where the stri ngs are tobe pressed . The fingering is done by the left hand ; the little fingerrests on the face of the instrument, while the other three fingerstake the upper stri ngs and the thumb the lower ones . The stringsare plucked by the thumb andfingers of the right hand , andmaybe played either in the chord sty le or in more open, running fashion.

The tones of the instrum ent are dreamy andmelancholy in character. The guitar, like the mandolin and banjo, is too often devotedto commonplace music ; but there is a good guitar repertoire, and

Hawanan uku lele is a sma ll instrument of guitar-like shape andtone quality.

The mandolin comes in several forms , but the most usual one hasfour pairs of strings, tuned like the violin strings. The lowest pa irare ca tgut covered with silver wire , the next two copper, the thirdpa ir steel , and the upper ones catgut. They are played by a pick,or plectrum. The mandolin can give chords , but is more effectivein rapid melodic work . Its tones are thin and tangy in quality, butoriginal and striking enough in effect. Composers call for it occasionally, andMozart used it in

“Don Giovanni” to accom pany thatamorous hero’s serenade, though nowadays the violin pizzicato is


This passage figured in an anecdote of Joachim, the greatviolinist

.Hewas to play it once atLeipsic ; but just before he began , some

one,probably a conservatory pupil , managed to get some split peas

into the sounding-box of the instrument. Instead of the usualdainty pizzicato runs, the soloist produced an unexpected series ofsudden rattlings. This illustrated the fact that the tone of the instrument is caused by the vibrations of the sounding-box, andnot

the strings alone ; but probably the artist was too surprised at thetim e to care much about acoustical principles.The banjo is essentia lly an American product. Some derive it from

the bandore, and others from the Senegambian bania , but whereever the name came from, the instrument was perfected in theUnited States. It carries a negro suggestion, but is more used inreality by white men than by negroes. It consists of a flattambourine-like parchment sound-board (if the term board is permissible),held by a flat hollow cylinder of metal ; a long neck, with frets ; andfive strings . The latter are tuned upward from the A just belowmiddle C , and give, in ascending order, the notes A, E , G-Sharp,B

, andE . The Bass—tuned-to-B style is the same except that thelowest string is ra ised a tone. Six-str inged banjos exist, but are notcommon. The banjo quality is rather tin-panny. The instrumenthas not entered the orchestra .

The Russian balala ika is a three-stringed affair with a triangularwooden sound-box. This instrument comes in various Sizes. It isnot powerfu l in solo work ; but bands composed of balalaikas havean excellent effect. Its tone resembles that of the guitar.

The lute is now obsolete, butwas an important instrument twoor three centuries ago. Sometimes it hada large pear-shaped body,andas many as thirteen or more pa irs of strings. As each pair hadto be tuned into unison, as with the mandolin to-day,Mattheson

claimed that if a lute-player lived to the age of eighty, he must havespent sixty years of his life in tuning his instrument. ElizabethanEngland had some gifted lute composers, such as Dowland and

Ford . The lute gave rise to systems of musica l writing known as

tablatures, which represented the music by some characters otherthan the usua l staffnotation. For the lute , the tablatures consistedof numbers showing where the stri ngs were to be fingered . The lutemusic was light in character, but very dainty andattractive.

XLVII

FLUTE AND PICCOLO

THE great antiquity of the flute, and its prom inence in Romanmusic, has been already described . It must be kept in mind, however

,that the term flute, as used by the ancients, often included

instruments with reed mouthpieces of various sorts, like our oboes,clarinets, etc.In old tim es som e of the flutes were held straight out from the

mouth, andplayed by direct blowing into the tube . This type wasknown as the flute-a-bec, and afterwards ca lled beak flute from itsresem blance to a bird’s beak . Som etimes such a flute wou ld branchinto two tubes, in whi ch case one may have played a drone-bassaccom panim ent.The use of the flute in the Grecian games has been a lready men

tioned. Flute-playing was considered part of the necessary edu

cation of the rich Greek youths. Great flute-players grew verypopu lar, andthe account of their rivahi es reads very much like thestory of opera singers’ disagreements in our own day. At one tim eAlcibiades checked the growing popu larity of the flute som ewhat,refusing to play the instrument because he feared that the largemouthpiece wou ld spoil the shape of his mouth . His prestige was sogreat that he altered the fashion for a tim e ; butsom e unknown flutemaker obviated the difficulty by producing a flute with a smallerm outhpiece than usua l. Flutes were much prized

,the most ornate

ones selling for sum s as great as three thousand dollars. The salaries of the best professional players were also very large. One ofthem , Nichom achus, earned by his playing enough money to buyan irmnense collection of jewels. Even thea trica l flute-players werewell pa id , receiving more from the choregus (director) than allthemembers of the chorus . This must have been a comfortable sa lary ;for the Athenians hada proverb stating that the way to ruin a manwas to have him made a choregus.Egypt had its flute music a lso. In the year 280 B .C Ptolemy

FLUTE AND PICCOLO 421

Philadelphus gave a grea t festival atAlexandria , with singers, kithara players, andflutists, amounting to six hundred in all. A centurylater, Ptolemy Physcon was a great patron of flute music. He evidently had his full share of

“temperament” ; for on marrying hisbrother’s wife he killed the latter’s son, andafter a later marri agewith his niece (then his step-daughter) he despatched allthe family. Probably he regarded m usic as a sola ce for fam i ly troubles .After another century came Ptolemy Au letes, father of Cleopatra ,

his surname of “flute-lover” showing his fondness for that instrument.In Rom e, flutes were used on almost every public occasion . They

were employed at funerals, but the ostenta tion and luxury of theseevents grew so great that a law was passed limiting the num ber offlute-players to ten ateach funeral . The flutewas used a lso as a pitchpipe ; many grea t orators, including Caius Gracchus, would have aslave stand behind them , while they spoke, and sound a flute atintervals to give them the proper pitch for their declamatory efforts .In mediaeval tim es the flute was rather overshadowed in im por

tance by the harps and viols of the Troubadours. But it continued in use nevertheless , in both the straight andthe traverse form .

The latter, in which the tube is held sidewise, became known gradually as the German flute . The old English beak flute was knownas the recorders, and is mentioned by Shakespeare in

“Hamlet.”

The recorder type of flute hada large hole in the tube , covered withthin bladder, giving it a distinctive tone-color. In the time of HenryVII it was described as producing the best effects in the m iddle register, but manifold fingering and stops bringeth high notes fromits clear tones.”

Another royal devotee of the flute was Frederick the Great. In1728 , while still crown prince, he heard the famous flute-playerQuantz at Berlin , andwas so captivated that he arr anged imm edi

ately to have the great performer visit him periodica lly and teachhim the flute . The old king, Frederick I , was a narrow martinetwho cared nothing for art, so the lessons were taken under difficulties . Once the king threatened that if the lessons were not stoppedhe would break the flute over his son’s head and hang the teacher.

It is pretty sure that he would have done this ; for once, when theprince ran away from his father’s harsh rule, the latter hadhim con


demned to dea th as a deserter, andspared him only at the intercession of the English am bassador. Itwas therefore with no little fearthat the royal pupil andhis teacher saw the old king approach during a la ter lesson. All that saved the situation was a friendly chimney

, up which Quantz was forced to crawl . But better days were instore, andwhen the prince became king he made Quantz the courtcom poser. Frederick was a good musician and com poser himself,writing operas and playing the flute with m uch taste. For aecom

panist he had another famous protegé, Carl Philip EmanuelBach , a son of the great John Sebastian Bach .

The old form of concert flute (German , Flote; French, fldte; Ita lian , flauto) was a slightly tapered tube , with a large hole near oneend serving as mouthpiece, and six finger-holes near the other end.

With the finger-holes closed, the flute sounds D above mi ddle C. .

As the tone is produced by the vibration of the air-column in thetube, the opening of the finger-holes, beginning farthest from the ‘

mouthpiece, will continually shorten the column of air, and givehigher tones. The six holes are so located as to sound the diatonicsca le of D . There are also keys which m ay be pressed , resu lting inthe formation of sharps and flats. Two extra keys give the D-flat

andC below the lowest D . By increasing the force of blowing,the‘

player can make the air-colurrm divide into halves,giving a new

sca le an octave higher than the first one ; and still harder blowingcauses a further subdivision, andhigher notes yet. The com pass ofthe flute is ra ted at three octaves . The action of the flute andotherwind instruments is described in detail in the chapter on Acoustics.”

On the old flute it was rather hard for the player to manage allthe holes and keys. To do away with such difficulties

,Theobald

Boehm improved the flute , in 1832 , by a new system of rings andlevers, in combina tion with keys, which brought the fingering intomuch smaller space than before. The Boehm flute has a cylindricaltube.When Boehm took his improved instrument to show to Rossini

,

he found that composer shaving. While waiting in the anteroom;Boehm started to demonstrate the worth of his invention by playing allsorts of trills , runs, and roulades , including many that wereimpossible on the older instrument. Rossini listened with growingwonder, andat last rushed in wi th the soap still on his face. “You


on the other hand, admired the sm ooth flute tones very greatly.

In his Reformation Sym phony, when he wished to form a gradualclimax on the chorale “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott,

” he startedby giving the m elody to the flutes alone, an effect that was rea llytoo soft

, although the later climax of course brought fu ll power.

Among solo flute composers, the name of Kuhlau is so prominentthat he has been ca lled “The Beethoven of the Flu te.” A m orerecent flute devotee was the poet Sidney Lanier, who m ade therather too partisan prophecy that the time wou ld com e when or

chestras would have as m any flutes as violins. Two flutes wereenough for the early classical com posers, but now three, and evenfour, are used in the standard orchestras .There are atpresent no flutes of lower compass than the one here

described . The flauto d’

amore, which sounded a minor third lowerthan our flute, is now obsolete. Massenet hada bass flute made, afourth lower than ours, but it is not in common use. It is probablethat this deep instrument in the flute fam ily will be a success, forthe soft, smooth quality of its tone sounds well in the low notes.It is som etimes ca lled the alto flute.There is a flute , rarely used , which is a semitone higher than the

ordinary flute . This is called the D-flat flute, from the pitch of itslowest note. There is also an instrument with E-flatfor its lowestnote . This is ca lled the tierce flute , and its crystalline tones werewell used by Gade in “The Crusaders . In keeping the fingeringthe same on allthree kinds of flute, the pitch will vary ; and in orderto make the pitch the same when different flutes are used , the fingering must be varied . Thus the fingering for C would give E-flat

on the E-flat flute ; and in order to make this flute actually sound

the C , the fingering for the A below would have to be used . Thus

its part must be written at that same interval below where it isto sound, in order to prevent alterations in fingering. This pointwi ll be more fully treated in connection with the clarinets .The piccolo (German , kleine Flote; French , petite flate; Italian,

half-size flute, giving tones an octave above those of the flute. Itsfull Italian name,flautopiccolo, means simply

“little flute .” It is a

FLUTE AND PICCOLO 425.

part. In the orchestra , the piccolo is sometimes interchangeablewith one of the flutes, the flute-player using the sm a ller instrumentfor a time. As the piccolo transposes up an octave, he fingers it

tras have a separate player for the piccolo. The compass of thepiccolo is nearly three octaves. It begins with D instead of C (anoctave above the lowest flute D), and extends up to the highest Bon the piano. Any tone above that is too piercingly shrill to be useful.

As the last sentence suggests, the piccolo is the shr illest of theorchestra l instruments . Its keenly brilliant tone-color is almostalways ca lled for in picturing wild , frenzied merriment or inferna lrevelry. Like the flute, it has three distinct registers . Its loweroctave is too weak andhollow for orchestral use ; its second octaveis bright and joyous ; while its upper notes have the piercing qualitythat gives the inferna l suggestion to this “imp of the orchestra .

The high notes may a lso give a martial effect, as in Meyerbeer’s

“Huguenots”and in the cadence of Beethoven’s “Egmont” Over

ture. Gluck , in his“Iphigenie in Tauris,

” pictured the frenzy ofthe barbarous Scythians by using piccolo with violin, tam bourine,and cymbals . Beethoven made rising notes on the piccolo portraythe wind in the storm of his Pastora l Sym phony. But it can havesofter uses, as in the aria

“Ye pretty warbling choirs, from Handel ’s “Acis andGalatea .

”

Usually one piccolo is more than enough for its purpose . But

Weber, by using two a third apart, produced an inimitably diabolicsneer in Caspar’s drinking-song, from

“Der Freischutz.

” Spontini,in his “Fernando Cortez,

”used two piccolos, with a lmost every

thing else that would make a noise, to picture the march of theMexicans . Berlioz, who was very fond of exaggerated infernal pictures , called for three piccolos in the third part of his Faust,

”and

even added the shrill tones of an E-flat clarinet.There are two transposing piccolos , giving still higher tones ; but

these are restri cted to m ilitary bands.The flageolet is a sm all andshrill survival of the old straight-flute

type . It is not used in the orchestra , though Mozart, in his Entfiihrung aus dem Serail ,

” called for a flageolet in G, sounding a


The tiny and innocent appearance of the flageolet once misled anon-musical minister who used it to illustrate his point. He wasspeaking of bu ilding a character thoroughly in its sma llest details,and mentioned the orchestra as an example. “During a certa inrehearsal,

” he said,“the director suddenly rapped on his desk to

demand a halt, and said ,‘Flageolet, you were silent.

’ In the m idstof allthe mingled sounds, he had noticed the absence of one tinyflageolet.

” Unfortunately for his illustration, that one little instrument cou ld make more noise than alm ost all the others together ; andnone buta deaf m an cou ld fail to note the differencebetween its presence andabsence in the music.


penetrating quality, still somewhat nasal ; while the highest notes arethin andmore piercing. As the oboe resembles a shepherd’s pipe,it is admirably suited to portray effects of pastoral simplicity. Itis also used to picture rustic merriment. Still another effect, arising from the artless simplicity of its tones, is that of pathos andgrief.The older oboe, retained in som e foreign orchestras, is fuller and

more nasal ; but the lighter tone of our instrument is amply effec

tive, andhas been aptly likened to a silver thread in the orchestral

web of sound.

Unlike most wind instruments, the oboe demands less than thenatural amount of breath. The player, therefore, has too little workfor his lungs ; and in long passages he must pause to exhale beforetaking breath to start again. The older composers often wrote longoboe passages, which the performer has to divide into sections.Schumann once made the same error ; and in the second of his threeRomances for oboe andpiano there is a passage of eighty-four barswithout a rest.There is not much solo music for the oboe. In addition to the

Schumann pieces, there are six concertos for it by Handel ; one byMozart, now lost ; another by Kalliwoda ; and a four-movementtrio by Beethoven for two oboes and an English horn. Among recent com posers, Arthur Foote has produced a set of three piecesfor oboe andpiano.In orchestral music the situation is different, and the incisive

tone of the oboe makes it a favorite. The scores of Handel are fullof striking passages for it, and in his time it came near being a rivalto the violin. The old com posers, in fact, hadmany more wind instruments than we use, and sometimes there were nearly as manyoboes as violins . With Haydn the oboe 18 more of a solo instrument,in light and playfu l melodies. It 1s often used antiphonally withthe bassoon in the musette-like trios found 1n his symphonies ; butit is employed also in “The Seasons” to represent

'

the crowing ofthe cock. Saint-Sae’ns used it in similar fashion in his “DanseMacabre, where the dance of the riotous skeletons com es to anabrupt end at dawn . Mozart employed the oboe freely, and in hisTwelfth Mass (providing he wrote that work) there is a fam oussolo passage for it. Gluck used the oboe effectively in his operasto represent pathos.

1 BASSOON , 2 OBOE ; 3 BASS CLARINET ; 4 BASSET HORN ,5 CLARINET ,

6 . OLD FLUTE 7 SAXOPHONE 8 ENGL ISH HORN , 9 BOEHM FLUTE


oboe di caccia , a fifth (sometimes a sixth) below our instrument.This was in use as late as Haydn

’s day , andwe even find Rossinica lling for it in his

“William Tell ” Overture, to im itate the alpinehorn when giving the “Ranz des Vaches,

” though this passage isnow given by the English horn .

The English horn (German , EnglischesHo m; French , cor anglais;Italian , com o inglese) is sim ply an oboe half as large again as thesmaller instrument ; and in consequence of its size, its pitch is afifth lower. When the oboe player had to take the English hornalso , the music for the latter was written a fifth higher than it wasto sound , so that the oboe fingering could be used , while the size ofthe instrum ent gave the low pitch desired . Thus for a piece in Dthe English horn part would be written a fifth higher, in A, butwou ld sound in D . At present a separate m an is needed in large orchestras for the English horn , so the part could be written in theproper key and played by him accordingly ; but the custom of usingthe transposition has not yet been changed .

The English horn is not really a horn, but is named from the oldshepherd ’s pipe used in England andknown as the hom pipe. Thisis mentioned by Chaucer, in his

“Romaunt of the Rose, in thelines

Controve he wolde, and foule fayle,With hornpipes ofCornewaile.

”

The word controve means to compose, andhas the same root as“Trouvere .” Some claim that the instrument was the “cornpipe,

”

made from cornsta lks , just as the chalumeau was named from theLatin columns, a reed . But the corn m ay also come from the Latincornu , a horn, as is the case with the word cornet.The natural sca le of the English horn is that of G—major, starting

just below middle C . It has extra keys which extend its com passdownward to E . Its upward limit is the B-flat two and a halfoctaves higher. The lowest scale of G comes from the naturaltones ; the next scale is produced from the first overtone, obta inedby harder blowing ; while the highest notes are obtained by crossfingering, opening the bolas near the mouthpiece, and stoppingothers, to obta in still shorter vibrating air-columns .The tone quality of the English horn is qu ieter andmore solid

than that of the oboe. In place of the oboe ’s appealing pathos we

OBOE AND ENGLISH HORN 43]

have here a dreamy m elancholy. The middle and lower register ises pecia lly full , rich, and sonorous. The earlier masters used thisinstrument very little. It is now admitted to Bach’s music, butonly to replace the oboe di caccia . Haydn and Mozart ca lled forit a very few times . Beethoven may have used it in the trio withtwo oboes, but more probably called for an oboe di caccia . Schubert

,Weber, andMendelssohn did not write for it atall. It would

have been m ost appropriate after the storm in the Pastoral Symphony, instead ofthe clarinet-horn combination that Beethovenused . Schumann avoided the English horn for the most part, buthe gave it one prom inent passage in his “Manfred ,” where thathero hears a shepherd’s pipe in the Alps. The “pipes in the liberalair,

”about which the hero pauses to moralize, are well represented

by the English horn. Cowen used the instrument excellently inhis Scandinavian Symphony, where it depicts the loneliness of theimpressive fiords. The French composers showed m ore appreciationof the instrument, andMeyerbeer gave it due prominence in thefourth act of his “Huguenots .” Wagner understood its use inpastoral scenes, and in Tannhauser,

” when the hero emergesfrom the Mounta in of Venus, he finds an excellent English hornplayer tending sheep in the fields near by. An expressive Englishhorn them e is found in the slow m ovement of Dvorak’

s beautifulNew World ” Symphony. In m odern orchestras the English hornis regarded as indispensable. Sibelius uses it most adm irably in his“Swan of Tuonela , a mythica l bird that sings m oumfully whilefloating on the River of Death.

There have been attempts to make double-bass oboes, deeperthan the English horn ; but these have not yet been successful . Asmall oboe in E-flat, found in some bands, is a m inor third higherthan the ordinary instrument.The musette is an instrument somewhat like a bagpipe , butwith

two pipes where the latter has three. It has the very penetratingquality of the sm all double-reed instruments. The bagpipe, whichhas two tubes giving a drone-bass while the third , or chanter, playsthe melody, has been found in many forms , such as the ordinaryHighland bagpipe , the old Germ an Sackpfeife, the French cornemuse,the bignou of Brittany, the Calabrian zampogna , and the old Irishbagpipe, allblown by the mouth ; while the French musette, the


Lowland bagpipe, and some other forms, were blown by thebellows.The Heckelphone, made by the German Heckel , is practica lly a

baritone oboe , nearly an octave lower than the ordinary oboe . Its

double reed is between those of the English horn and the bassoonin size. The Heckelclarind, invented by the same maker, has thesingle reed of the clarinets. It was intended for the English hornsolo in the third act of “Tristan .

” The tarogato is another conica lwooden pipe with clarinet reed , andhas been used for the same purpose.


the highest to the lowest, they a lter the pitch of any written noteby thirds. The highest clef is the so-ca lled French violin clef, placing the G above m iddle C on the lowest line of the staff. This clefis not used now. The usua l G-clef puts this G on the second line ofthe staff, with middle C on the first line below. Then there is a setof C-clefs, placing middle C on the various lines of the staff. WithC on the lowest line we have the soprano clef ; on the second, themezzo-soprano ; on the third , the alto ; andon the fourth , the tenor.

The baritone clef brings the F below middle C on the third line ofthe staff; while the bass clef puts this F on the next line above that,next to the top line. The G~clefand the bass clef are used in pianomusic, but for orchestral work some of the others are ca lled for,notably the alto and tenor clefs. Any change of clefs has for itsobject the keeping of the notes on or near the staff, so that therewill be no need for many extra lines (leger lines) above or belowthe staff. The C-clefs were often employed in old voca l music.Rapid passages on the bassoon sound best in its natural key of

G, or in closely related keys. Trills are practicable, though not onevery note. Staccato notes have a good effect, as in the allegroof Beethoven ’s Fourth Sym phony. But in general the tone-color ofthe instrument is so striking that the composer need only writepassages of straightforward character for it, without making it dotechnical tricks.In Cam bert

’

s Pom one, given at Paris in 1671, we find thebassoon used merely as a bass instrument. But the introduction ofstill lower instruments, and the improvement in the bassoon’supper (vox humana) notes, has left it free for special effects .Handel used the bassoon little, though in his

“Sau l ” he gave iteffective phrases when the Witch of Endor ra ised the ghost of Samuel . Bach som etim es let it do a little m ore than reinforce the basspart. But it did not com e into its own until the tim e of Haydn, whoused its expressive upper notes very freely. Mozart employed itscom ic effects in the G-minor symphony, by making it imitate aviolin figure.Beethoven showed unusual fondness for the bassoon, and it was

rea lly his favorite instrument. He ca lled for it continually, andevidently understood its tone-color absolutely. In the first movem entof his Eighth Symphony it is used with exquisite humor ; but its most

THE BASSOONS 435

comica l effects are shown in the scherzo of the Pastoral (sixth) Symphony. In this is a picture of village revelry, in which a rustic bandtakes part. The bassoon player of the band is inspired by the occasion, and

"

perhaps by something more definitely exhilarating. He isdepicted as having seen better days, being now condemned to playon an instrument which has only three keys left. These keys giveF, C , andF in descending order ; andthe bassoonist com es in heavilywith them every time they are needed , and even indulges in themonce or twice when they cou ld be spared .

The humor of the grea t composers would form a book in itself,and not the least important part of it would be that dea ling withthe com ica l effects they have produced with the instruments . ThusMozart once wrote a “Musikalischer Spass ,

”or m usica l joke, in

which he pictured a young com poser struggling to write an am bitious piece. The weak character of the them es, and the flimsy attempts at developm ent, are duly portrayed ; and at the end

,when

the neophyte tries to introduce the complex form of a fugue, he issoon tangled up , andhas to cover his retreat with a blare of noise.Where Beethoven used the bassoon in rather grotesque fashion,Mendelssohn handled it more da intily. The latter com poser gavethe bassoon many hits of inim itable humor in his “MidsummerNight’s Dream” music. Most noticeable among them are the qua intclowns’ march for two bassoons a third apart ; the im itation of arustic band in the funera l march , with the bassoon making a ludierous cadence by itself on a low note ; and, in the overture, the braying ofthe transformed Bottom.

Wagner’s sense of hum or wins unbounded admiration, and in hisMastersingers of Nuremberg it is worthy to rank with that of aShakespeare or an Ar istophanes. The libretto , which he wrote, issuch a superb com edy that it has become a textbook in the Germanschools . But the score, too , is full of delightful passages, such as

the tapping of Sachs’s hamm er while he listens to Beckmesser, theconfusion of themes in the riot scene , the discordant horn of thewatchmen, the pa infu l attempts of the beaten Beckm esser to sitdown , or the latter

’s fearfu l and wonderful efforts to recollect themelody of the prize song. But the wood-Wind ’s share of fun comesin the long prelude. Here the story of the opera is foreshadowed ,and the music shows how the narrow masters fail at first to recog


nize the freer genius of the hero, Walther, who tries to enter theirguild in order to win a bride. After Walther’s first song has beensuggested , the masters

’ them e reasserts itself. It is given to thewood-wind group, and made to sound inimitably fussy and selfconceited . Fragm ents ofWalther’s tria l-song recur, but are constantly interrupted by bits of the masters

’ theme, until there ispractically a free fight in the orchestra , ca lmed only by the appearance of Walther’s second trial-song , which the masters ultimatelycrown with a prize. In allthis the bassoon plays a most prominentpart.The French composers used the bassoon freely, Cherubini writ

ing a great solo for it in his “Médée.

” Meyerbeer, in“Robert le

Diable,” used the hollow middle register with blood-curdling effect

in the scene where the hero plucks a branch of cypress from hismother’s grave, amid the ghosts of faithless nuns. Berlioz, with hisusual wholesa le tendencies, ca lled for seven bassoons in his

“Dam

nation de Faust. But he showed that he knew the instrument byhis use of it in the fourth movement of his “Symphonie Fantastique,

” where it gives a wonderful picture of the insistent footsteps of the crowd surging about the victim on his way to thescaffold . Ambroise Thom as em ployed the bassoon to representCaliban in his ballet “The Tempest,

”and our own Professor John

K. Pa ine did the same in his sym phonic poem on that subject.A more recent French composer to use the bassoon with infinitehum or is Paul Dukas. In his “Apprenti Sorcier,

” picturing themagician’s pupil who made a broom produce a torrent of waterbut forgot how to shut it off, various skips and passages on thebassoon lend an inim itably com ic flavor to the rushing of the waterand the gron apprehensions of the unlucky apprentice.There is a smaller size of bassoon , known as the basson qu inte

because it sounds a fifth higher than the ordinary instrument. Itis used as a transposing instrument, and therefore must be writtena fifth lower than desired , to allow of the same fingering as the usualinstrument. It is not used in the orchestra , and is not of great importance, since its upper register is much like the tone of the Englishhorn .

The contrabassoon (double bassoon) is a still larger and deeperinstrument of the double-reed family. It has a tapering tube about

L

THE CLARINETS

WHILE the instruments of the oboe family have two bits of reedin their mouthpieces, the clarinets have only one. This is a broadstrip , narrowing at the top to a very sharp edge. It is attached tothe mouthpiece of the instrument by two meta llic bands providedwith screws. The player presses the end of the reed against hislower lip while performing, andthe vibrations of the reed cause theair-column in the tube to vibrate also, andproduce the tone.The early instruments known as shawms, and probably some of

the old Greek auloi , were of this type. But the clarinet as we knowit is due to Johann Christopher Denner, of Nuremburg, who perfected it in 1690. This instrument was improved by Stadler, ofVienna , andby Sax, of Paris ; but it is not sui ted for the Boehm sys

tem of keys. The main part of its tube is cylindrical, which hassome effect ; but the size of the reed is really responsible. While theflute andoboe act like open pipes , the clarinet behaves like a stoppedpipe, closed at one end . One result is a deeper pitch

,the clarinet

sounding an octave below a flute of the same size ; while anothereffect is found in the fact that stopped pipes do not give the oddnumbered harmonics . This point is explained in the chapter on“Acoustics.” The first harmonic , an octave above the normal tonein pitch , is used to get a second octave scale in the flute or oboe ;but it does not exist on the clarinet. The over-blowing in the lattercase causes the air-column to vibrate in thirds instead of halves

,

giving a rise in pitch of a twelfth instead of an octave. Thus a fingering based on octaves must be supplemented in some way.

The clarinet (German, Klarinette; French , clarinette; Italian ,clarino) has six finger-holes , played by three fingers on each hand .

These give the scale of G major, a fifth below that of the flute.There are extra keys to close holes at the end away from the mou thpiece, thus lengthening the air-column and lowering the compassto the E below middle C. The usual keys for sharps and flats are

THE CLARINETS 439

present, completing a scale from G to F-sharp. By overblowingthe lowest E , the B a twelfth above it is produced ; but between theF-sharp and the B are four semitones which must be obtai ned byspecial devi ces. One of these is produced by lifting the thumb offan extra finger-hole, while the other three are provided for by keyswhich Open holes near the mouthpiece. The fingering begins againat the twelfth instead of the octave, while the highest tones are produced by cross-fingering .

The compass of the clarinet is from E below middle C to the Cthree octaves above it. This com pass is divided into four registers,though som e authorities speak of only three. The natural scale,som etim as including the “medium” notes with special keys, iscalled the chalumeau register, after the obsolete instrument of thatname. It has a rich, full , andsom ewhat reedy tone. The acute register is the scale which the keys obta in from the harmonic of thetwelfth ; while the upper register includes the highest notes.With its many registers, the clarinet is also capable of many gradations in power of tone. This makes it the most expressive of thewood-wind group. Owing to the complex fingering, it is hard to playthe C clarinet in keys containing many sharps or flats. Many trillsare practicable, but in certain signatures som e of these become impossible, as the finger would have to skip from key to key. Rapidpassages in the medium register are impracticable because of thefingering ; while passages that cross and recross the “break, or

change in pressure of blowing, can never be played at allswiftly.

In these changes there is always danger that the tone may breakinto harsh noises, called

“couacs.To obviate these difficulties, the clarinet is made in several

pitches . The one already described is called the clarinet in C. For

flat keys there is a B-flat clarinet, sounding a tone lower ; and forsharp keys an A clarinet, a minor third lower. As the Germansspeak of our B-flat as B (our B being called H), Germ an scores willcall for the B clarinet, meaning what we know as the B-flat instru

The two lower clarinets are transposing instruments. The samefingering that gives C on the C clari net would give B-flat andA onthe two lower instruments . So, to keep the fingering the sam e, thepart for the B-flat clarinet is written a tone above where the instru


ment will m ake it sound , andfor the A clarinet a minor third above.The same player will use these different instruments in differentpieces ; so that here, at least, the transposition is still of use to theplayer. But modern perform ers could dispense with it ; andmanyefforts are now being made to do away with such transpositions,and have allparts written as they sound, even though the playerhas to alter his fingering. At present, if a piece in D ca lls for theAclarinet the part must be written in F (andfingered for F) to soundin D . For a piece in E , the A clarinet wou ld be fingered as if for G,

thus making the player figure for only one sharp , whereas foursharps wou ld be necessary ifthe C clarinet were used . But if theclarinet partwere written in E andm eant to sound there, the player,using the A clarinet, cou ld play it just as eas ily, as he would knowinstantly that he would need the G fingering anyway.

It will be seen from allthis tha t orchestral keys, unlike those onthe piano, are limited by the nature of certain instruments . Thekeys with few sharps or flats are most practicable. Of course otherconsiderations guide the com poser, such as bringing out the bestregisters of certain instruments ; but he ought not to ca ll for suchkeys as G~flat, or D-flat, or B , for exam ple. Some of Liszt

’s Hungarian Rhapsodies, when taken from the piano and scored for or

chestra , are purposely transposed , to make the instrumental work

Composers favor the B-flat clarinet, and after that the A clarinet, because both of them have a sweeter andricher tone than theinstrument in C . The tone-color of the clarinet is weird andsombrein the chalumeau register, and fu ll and clear in the second scale.The clarinet, like the oboe , is influenced by heat, and the player

must blow into the tube to warm it up before he starts. The processof tuning an orchestra is not the m ost agreeable in the world, although a Chinese dignitary once applauded it andpreferred it tothe later numbers that he heard . The oboe, as already sta ted , givesthe pitch by sounding a prolonged and repeated A . The stringplayers then get their A-strings to this pitch, after which they tunethe others in a series of empty fifths and fourths that would shocka harmony teacher. Then the clarinetists begin “tootling” on theirinstrum ents, to warm up the tubes andadjust them to the pitch .

The other wood-wind instruments do the same, while grunts from


but he is not allowed to rest even then. An extra movem ent showshis reception into the infernal regions. In this movement the Eflat clarinet aids the piccolo in making the revels truly satanic. TheF clarinet, still more piercing, was formerly employed by Germanmilitary bands ; while that in A-flat, the shrillest instrument in existence, is used in Austria .

Tenor clarinets exist, which transpose a fifth and a sixth downward , but the former is practically the same as the basset horn .

The basset horn thus bear the same relation to the C clarinet as theEnglish horn does to the oboe . The basset horn is a transposinginstrument, with a compass beginning an octave below middle C .

It is less brilliant than the clarinet, but has a sombre richness oftone well su ited to religious or funerea l subjects . Mozartused it wellin his Requ iem, in which the only reed instruments are two bassethorns andtwo bassoons. He em ployed it also in the temple scene ofThe Magic Flute .”

The bass clarinet is a still larger and deeper instrument of thisfam ily. It has a crook for the mouthpiece and a large bell at theother end . The usual form sounds an octave below the B-flat clarinet. It is treated as a transposing instrument, sounding a ninthlower than written. A bass clarinet in C exists, andWagner calledfor a deeper one in A. The compass of the B-flat instrument rangesfrom the D , nearly two octaves below middle C , to the F an octaveand a half above that C . The highest notes are seldom used . Thelower register, corresponding to the chalumeau of the clarinet, isthe best. It is excellent in combination , andm ay be made to haveeither the weird quality of the chalumeau or the solemn effect ofan organ pipe. It has been well used by Meyerbeer in his “Huguenots” and it even takes the melody for a time in the coronationmarch from his “Prophete .

”

In recent years a Parisian maker named Besson has produced a

clarinet an octave deeper than the preceding, known as the pedalclarinet. This instrument can reach the lowest D on the piano .

Like the double reed , the clarinet reed has been adapted to brasstubes. The resu lting instruments are known as saxophones, fromthe name of their inventor, Adolphe Sax. The saxophones come inseveral sizes , and resemble the clarinets in appearance . The saxophones have tapering mbes, and unlike the clarinets, can produce

THE CLARINETS 443

allthe overtones. The fingering, therefore, resembles that of theoboe. There are in alltwelve varieties of saxophone, in the six

of sopranino, soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, and bass. Allthe instruments except the one in C are transposing. Theymuch used in the French military bands, but have not entered theorchestra . Gevaert describes the saxophone color as “a voice richandpenetrating, the rather veiled quality of which partakes at onceof the ’cello , the English horn , andthe clarinet, with more fu lness oftone.” Thus it would almost seem to be an orchestra in itself .Bizet, in his ever-beautifu l

“Arlésienne” music, wrote a charming

melody for the alto saxophone in E-flat, with orchestra ; but up tothe present very few have followed this lead.

LI

HORNS, TRUMPETS, AND CORNETS

THE wood-wind group of instruments derive their tone from thevibration of reeds. even the flute being considered to have an air

reed, or space of com pressed air near the blow-hole acting like a

reed . In the brass instrum ents there is no such device. The playerpresses his lips against a brass mouthpiece, and blows through a

narrow opening between them . Ifhis lips are loose, no tone willresult ; but if he stiffens them , they vibrate regularly, and transmittheir vibrations to the air column in the tube . By increas ing thestiffness of the lips, the player can m ake them vibrate more qu ickly,and cause the air-column to subdivide, giving overtones . Whileonly a few such overtones are used in the wood-wind group (ohta ined by increased force of blowing), a much larger number ofovertones can be produced on the brass instrum ents. In the socalled natural instrum ents, such as the bugle or the Waldhorn

(forest horn), these overtones (harm onics) are the only notes thatcan be obta ined . On the valve instrum ents there are valves (keys)which act by throwing in extra sections of tubing and lowering thepitch. Still other brass instrum ents , such as the trom bone andslidetrumpet, are m ade with inner andou ter tubes, so that the length oftube used can be altered by pulling or pushing, as with a telescope.The mouthpiece of the brass instruments is a metal cup , or cone,against which the lips are pressed .

The simplest brass instrum ent is the natural horn , or Waldhorn.

This is merely a tube with a m outhpiece . Horns of this sort havebeen known from ancient tim es . They were much used for m ilitarysignals, and in the middle ages for hunting calls. The sim plesthorn of to-day, the post-horn. consists of a m outhpiece and a

straight tube . The hunting-horn was bent in a single curve at first,and later on in a threefold circle, so that it could be hung on theshoulder. Lou is XV, with his master of the hunt, systematizedthe horn-calls, giving a meaning to each, andm aking some of themquite intri cate .

HORNS, TRIM ETS, AND CORNETS 445

The horn (German , Horn ; French, cor; Italian, corno) was usedas an orchestra l instrum ent by Scarlatti , Bach , andHandel , whileGossec introduced it in Paris . It seem s strange to think that thehorn was opposed atfirst ;for now its smooth tones are highly prizedamong the orchestral colors . Yet when it first entered the orchestra ,

it was considered coarse and vu lgar, and unfit to m ingle with themore delica te violins and oboes.The natura l horn, without keys or valves, is an expanding tube,

curved upon itself , having a tapering mouthpiece at the narrowend

, anda large bell , or expanded opening, at the other end . Whenthe player puts his lips firmly aga inst the m outhpiece and blowsto m ake them vibrate, he producas only the harmonic series, without ever being able to get the fundamenta l note from which theharmonics are derived . Thus a tube eight feet long should give theC two octaves below m iddle C ; but the eight-foot horn (C-alto)starts with the C only one octave below middle C , which is the firstharm onic of its series. This series consists of the following notes ,in ascending order : C , G , C , E , G, B-flat, C , D , E , F-sharp , G ,

andso on in decreasing interva ls . Itmay be stated in passing thatthe bugle cannot sound even the first harmonic with any goodeffect

, but begins with the second . Thus its tones have intervals corresponding to the notes G, C , E , and G in ascendingorder.

The lack of intermedia te notes in the lower register of the naturalhorn prevents the solo player from getting any real melody. But

as horns exist in many keys, orchestral composers could ca ll forhorns in severa l keys, and combine them into chords. The C-a ltohorn , little used now, is the highest of the fam ily, and is written asit sounds . The lower horns , transposing downward in accordancewith their pitch, are in B-flat a lto , A, A-flat, G , F, E , E-flat, D , C ,

and B-flat basso , the last transposing downward a major ninth .

The natural horns are provided with crooks of various sizes, or inrare cases a slide, which m ay alter the length of the tube and eu

able the player to get allkeys.The lowest horn is eighteen feet long. As longer tubes give more

overtones, it follows that the compass of the lower horns is greaterthan that of the higher ones . But the low notes sound best on theshorter instruments. The natural tones are best on the horns in


F,E

, andE-flat. Extrem e interva ls are not easy on the horn, as

they imply a sudden andgreat change in force of blowing andstiffness of lips. Trills are practicable only in the high register, the compass of these horns being nearly three octaves .The beauty of the horn tones is seen in nearly every orchestral

piece.Among the m ost famous examples is the great horn passage

in the scherzo of Beethoven’s “Heroic Sym phony.

” In the finaleof Schubert’s C-m ajor symphony these instruments com e in softly,like “horns of elf-land , faintly blowing,

”and gradually swell into

the richest of harmonies . The horn quartet in “Der Freischutz”

is another well-known exam ple ; and still another is found in thethird movement of Mendelssohn ’s Ital ian Symphony.

The performer must influence the tones of the horn by insertinghis hand into the bell, more or less deeply, and relaxing his lips.The lowest open note can thus be lowered by severa l sem itones, thenew notes being called factitious, or artificial . The upper harmonics are similarly treated , andfor deep insertions the tone is ca lledstopped

, or muted . Such tones have a veiled qua lity, but whenblown loudly becom e very harsh andug ly. Muted horn tones arefreely used to picture evil , as when Faust is asked to sign the contract with Mephistopheles, in Gounod

’s opera , or when Siegfriedis killed , in the second act of Wagner’sMassenet found a clever use for muted horns when he let themrepresent the cracked village bell in the Angelus movem ent of his“Scenes Pittoresques .The valve horn now replaces the na tural form , and gives tones

that are a lmost as good , though some difference is caused by thevalves , or ventils . These are three in number. The first valvethrows into use enough extra tubing to lower the pitch a tone ; thesecond will lower the pitch a sem itone , and the third , a tone andaha lf. The first two played together give about the same resu lt asthe third , butare som etimes used in preference , as the third is playedby a weak finger. The largest interval between two horn tones isthe fifth between the first and second harmonics . Again taking theC horn as an illustration , this interval will be from the lowest Cto the G above it. Now on the valve horn the second valve willlower the G to F-sharp ; the first will lower it to F ; the third (or thefirst andsecond), to E ; the second and third to E-flat; the first and


InMonteverde’

s tim e we find two kinds of trumpet, the clarino

(clarion), a sma ll, high instrument, and the tromba , larger and

deeper. The m usic of Bach andHandel shows this distinction, theso-ca lled “Clarinbl

'

aser” taking the upper parts, while the

“Princi

palbl’

aser gave the lower notes. The “Clarinblaser” had a shallowmouthpiece, by the aid of which they could give the most brilliantpassages. In the classica l peri od of Haydn , Mozart, and Beethoven, the trumpet was less prom inent. Wagner employed it well insome of his operas, though it has not regained its old-time brilliance. The trumpet, like the horn , is provided with a mute, apear-shaped affair that can be held in the bell in place of the perform er’s fist. Muted trum pets are not much used , though Wagnerhad them imita te the tiny trumpets of the toy-makers ’ guild inDie Meistersinger. The usua l color of the trum pet is bold andmartial , and its ringing fanfares can be heard easily through thetones of an entire orchestra .

The older com posers were fond of writing duets for voice andtrumpet. Such a duet, for bass, is

“The trum pet sha ll sound,” in

Handel ’s “Mes siah .

” Another instance is the song “Let the bri ghtseraphim , this tim e for soprano. The trumpet does not alwayswin in such a com parison. Thus the great basso Lablache coulddominate an entire orchestra with his voice. The famous tenorFarinelli once out-sang a trumpet, andheld his tones much longerthan those the trum peter could give. Mrs. Billington, the fam ousEnglish soprano , so exceeded the trum pet in volume of tone thatonce a conductor and trumpeter almost came to blows because ofthe latter’s inability to balance her voice.The natural trumpet has been modified by slides and by va lves.

Thomas Harper, a famous English trumpeter of the eighteenth century, used the slide trumpet, in which the tube has a double jointso that it can be elongated slightly

,like the trombone, though drawn

toward the player. The slide can be used to correct certa in harmonics that are out of pitch with our scale, such as the sixth and thetenth , which wou ld be the B-flatand the F-sharp in the series fromC , given above. The va lve trumpet has three valves, similar to thoseof the horn . The old florid passages can be readily played with theaid of the va lves , but the natural (open) tones are still the best inquality. Wagner has used a bass trumpet, a valve instrument an

HORNS, TRUMPETS, AND CORNETS 449

octave deeper than the usual form ; but its tones lack the nobility ofthe higher trum pets .The cornet, known also as the cornet-a-pistons , is a tapering brass

tube a little over four feet in leng th, andwith a bore that is noticeably wide in proportion. Its natural key is B-flat, though crooksm ay be usedto set it in A, A-flat, or G. It is treatedlike the trans

posing instruments ofthe wood-wind, having its part written in Cwhen the key in which it is set is used . The small size of the com etmakes it sound an octave higher than the trumpet in the sam e key.

Thus when the trummt and cornet play the same sca le, the com etis giving lower harmonics, based on a higher fundam enta l note, thanthat of the trum pet. From this it follows that there will be fewerchanges of blowing on the com et, andmore notes, in a given sca le,derived from a single harm onic. This is the cause of the greatfluency shown by the

p

cornet in comparison with the trum pet. Thecornetist can give rapid passages, trills, and other em bellishmentswith great ease.The tone-color of the com et is below that of the trumpet in value.

Where the trumpet tones are bold and clear, those of the com etsound blatant and vulgar, although the skilful cornetist will makeits notes sound fairly agreeable . Cornets are so much easier to playthan trumpets tha t many sma ll orchestras make this substitution ;but when a rea lly good conductor com es a long, he will insist on

the com et and reca lling the trumpet.I

iThe tone-color ofthe com et is due in part to the width of its tube , and in part to itsmouthpiece, which is a deeper cup than that of the trum pet. Sometimes the performers put a com et mouthpiece on a trum pet tube .The cornet has been used brilliantly in Italian opera . The Frenchcom posers have at times employed the instrument for its own color ;but it has never been rea lly accepted in the orchestra . Berlioz,with his usua l fondness for novelty, tried cornets and trum pets incom bina tion . He cla imed that this gave a good effect, but latercom posers have not agreed with him . Meanwhile the fluent character of the com et makes it a favorite at popular concerts, where ithas no rea l rival.

LII

TROMBONES AND TUBAS

THE trombone, like the trumpet, is of ancient origin . The principle of the slide, or elongation of tubes within tubes, has beenascribed to Tyrtaeus, in 685 B .C., and even to the mythical Osiris.Such slides have not been found in ancient relics, but the earlywriters describe them . Arcadius, writing in A.D. 200, used as a similethe contri vance that cou ld make the autos elongate. Another ancient passage, attri buted to Apuleius, sta tes that when the channels

(canales) of the trumpet (tuba ) are moved in or out by the righthand, different musica l sounds are produced .

At the close of the middle ages, trombones were well known inGermany, Hans Menschelbeing a celebrated trombone maker in1520. A century later, Praetorius gave pictures of trom bones insizes corresponding to the a lto, tenor, bass, and contrabass instrument. Bach used these various sizes , as well as a still smaller so

prano trombone. The soprano trombone stood in B-flat, its firstharmonic being a tone below middle C . This , like the other forms,was sometim as used to reenforce the voice part in concerted music.The alto trom bone was a fourth lower, in F. The tenor trombone,the one usually em ployed now, is a fifth lower yet, in B-flat, with itsfirst harmonic a ninth below middle C ; while the bass trombone isin G , F, or E-flat. Wagner ca lled for a contrabass trombone, anoctave below the tenor form. With the use of the slide, it can getdown to the lowest E on our pianos ; and this tonal growl is found inthe opera of “Siegfried.

”

The name trom bone (German , Posaune; French , trom bone;

Ita lian, trombone) comes from tromba , andmeans a large trumpet,just as violone means a large viol . The old English name of sackbutis sa id to have been derived from the Moorish word sacabuche, meaning pump ; and this term is dec idedly expressive in suggesting theplayer’s motions as he draws the slide in or out. This slide is entirelyseparate from the rest of the instrument. It is a long tube doubledon itself in the form of a narrow U. Both ends of the U fit over


The use of the slide makes fa irly rapid passages possible on thetrom bone, especially if they lie largely in one harmonic series, and

can be blown without much change of position. Passages that demand the same harmonic in different positions, or that do not haveany abrupt change in blowing, are limited in speed only by thestrength of the performer’s arm as he moves the slide. Rapid execution m ay be used by a solo player to dazzle an audience ; but inorchestra l work the trom bone is trea ted more slowly.

The trombone is a most im portant instrument in picturi ng heroicemotions

, as its tones in orchestral work may be made grand and

noble. It may portray alm ost every broad em otion, from sacredcalm to the wildest strains of martial glory. Ithas also a portentousand threatening quality, and its sombre tones are thus excellentlyfitted for tragic effects also.

The threa tening color of the trombone has been well used byGluck to accom pany the chorus of the Furies in his “Iphigenie inTauris. In his “Alceste, a lso, they give a wrathfulchord in re

sponse to Alceste’

s defiance of the powers of dea th . Mozart obtaineda similar effect in Don Giovanni,

” where that hero’s riba ldinvita tion to the statue of his victim to sup with him brings anunexpected acceptance, amid trombone chords of solemn warning.

The im pressive quality of the trombones is present also in the religious service of “The Magic Flute. Beethoven knew something ofthe instrument, butdid not use it in his earlier works. Itentered thesym phonic orchestra when hewrote his Fifth Sym phony ; buthere, asin the Sixth, it does not play an important part. When Beethoven

’scareer was nearly over, in 1823, he put many eager questions to avisiting trom bone player, inqu iri ng especially about the use of theinstrum ent in high passages. His resu ltant knowledge is shown inthe Ninth Sym phony, and in a letter that he wrote afterwards to hispublisher Schott. Having occasion to make a com plaint in the letter,he ended it with a few lines of ha lf-hum orous abuse, andadded to hissignature a trombone tri ll, with the word m inacciando (threateningly), on a bit of sta ff scored for the sixteen-footbass instrument.Mendelssohn admired the trombone very much, reserving it for themost solemn occasions . Schubert obtained good effects by using softtrombone tones aga inst the strings . The wholesa le Berlioz, in picturing the Day of Judgment in his Requiem, ca lled for four extra

TROMBONES AND TUBAS

groups of brasses, including trom bones. His score required a com

plete band of strings, four flutes, two oboes, four clarinets , eightbassoons, an English horn, twelve brass horns , four cornets, sixteentenor trombones, two tubas, four ophicleides, twelve trumpets,sixteen kettledrums, two bass drums , three pairs of cym bals, and a

gong, certa inly enough instruments to represent the crack ofdoom . Trom bone chords make an admirably tri umphant effect inLiszt’s “Tasso .

”

A valve trom bone exists , which has no slide, but obta ins its scaleby m eans of ventils, or pistons, similar to those used on the otherbrass instruments . This is easier to play than the slide form , and

admits of more rapid execution. But this advantage is m ore thanoffset by its inferiority of tone-color. For this reasonmost orchestrasdo not use it ; and it is found chiefly in military bands.The modern tuba (Germ an , Tube; French, tuba; Ita lian, tuba),

like the trombone, exists in many sizes. There are six of these,soprano, alto, tenor, bari tone, bass, and contrabass . The sm allermembers of this family are not found in the orchestra , but take partin mi litary bands, especially in France, under the nam e of saxhorns . The tenor tuba , anda small-bored baritone instrum ent, areca lled alt-horns. The two lowest instruments are known as tubas,andused in modern orchestral scores.The bass tuba , or bom bardon, is the usual form employed . It

consists of a rather wide tapering brass tube, curved in a fairly shortand rounded oblong, and provided with a mouthpiece like that ofthe trom bone. Ithas the usual pistons, or valves, but is providedwith an extra one that lowers the pitch a fourth . The four pistonsthus enable the player to produce a sca le of an octave below any

given open tone on the instrum ent. Sometimes a combination ofpistons will throw a tone off its proper pitch, but as the tuba isplayed with compara tively loose lips, the perform er can correct suchtones by regulating his blowing. In passing, it m ay be sa id of valvesthat as a general rule they injure tonequality som ewhat by makingthe air-column pass through too manycurves , each piston lengthening the tube by making the air go through a short additional curvedsection of tube .The bass tuba can give the lowest E-flat on the piano , and stands

in the key of that note. Its deeper tones are full , and som ewhat


forcible, a lmost brutal , in qua lity. Its compass extends upwardabout two anda halfoctaves. A form of tenor tuba , known as theeuphonium,

sounds a fifth higher, in the key of B-flat, andis in unison with the tenor trombone. Its notes are weaker than those ofbombardon. The contrabass tuba is an octave lower than the eu

phonium , andgives gruff, heavy notes. Wagner gave an impetus tothe use of tubas, calling for five in his Trilogy. Here the two basstubas are in F instead of E-flat. Thep rb a has been used as bass forthree trombones in four-part harmony. It often takes the bass partof the brass group, sometimes in unison with the deeper trombones ;and it has even been em ployed as a bass for strings.The tuba has not the smooth quality of the trombone, but its

gruff harshness can be made very effective.!Wagner employed thistone-color in the first act of “Die Walkiire,

” to picture the fiercecharacter of Hunding. The weary Siegmund, driven by storm and

pursuit, has taken refuge in Hunding’

s forest hut. Soon the footsteps of the returning warri or are heard outside ; and just as he euters the door, the four tubas play the short, pregnant motive thatrepresents him in themusic. The effect of these tubas by themselvesis im pressively savage. In “Siegfried ,

” when the hero has found thela ir of the dragon , that redoubtable monster utters many dragoninecurses on the tubas , before meeting a well-merited death .

The group of keyed bugles was at one time much in evidence, butis not now found in the orchestra . Its most prominent member wasthe ophicleide, used until recent years, but now superseded by thetuba . The name ophicleide is derived from two Greek words meaning key and serpent, which describe the instrument appropriately,as it had a curved form andwas provided with keys. Alto ophi

cleides exist, but their quality was unpleasant, andtheir pitch inaccurate. Bass ophicleides in C and in B-flat were frequently employed , while a contrabass form, still deeper, demanded excessivelung power. The ophicleide tone is powerful and obtrusive, anddoes not blend well with other instruments, which is one reason whyit has given way to the tubas. But it is often found in old scores. Infairly recent times Schumann used it in his Paradise andthe Penbut its most famous employment is in Mendelssohn ’s Midsummer Night’s Dream ” music, where it gives a comica l picture of thesnores produced by Bottom the weaver in his drunken slumber.

LIII

INSTRUMENTS or PERCUSSION

THE preceding instruments have been more or less suited to melodic work, andhave been played by bowing, plucking, or blowing.

Besides these there are a large number of instru ments which are

simply struck with a drumstick, hammer, or similar object, andwhich are mostly incapable of melody.lInstruments that are struckare known as percussion instruments, and sometimes alluded to inan orchestra as the battery. The instruments of percussion may befurther divided into those that have a definite pitch andthose thatdo not.Byfar the m ost im portant are the kettledrums (German, Pauken

French, tim bales; Italian , These consist of hollow hemi

spheres ofcopper, supported on tri pods, and covered with a parchment ca lled the head . This head is attached to the body of the drumby a metal ring, in which are screws that m aybe used to tighten orloosen it. The kettledrum, or sim ply drum, as it is often ca lled inthe orchestra , has a defin ite pitch , in spite of its drum-like character ; andthe screws are used to tune it.Not only does the kettledrum have pitch, buta skilful player can

make its tone vary in quality also. Two pa irs of drumsticks com ewith it, one pa ir of wood andthe other with tips of fairly soft sponge .Sometim es a third pair, tipped with lea ther, is used ; while Straussonce called for birch rods. These different kinds of stick give different sorts of tone ; and the

'

performer can also vary the tone bystri king atdifferent places . A stroke near the Side gives the sharpestandbrightest tone, while one in the middle is duller. The usualspotchosen is about halfway between these two. The drum m ay also bemuffled , for which purpose it is covered by a piece of cloth , whichwill deaden and shorten the tone .In the orchestra are at least two kettledrums, of different sizes

and pitches, played by one performer.

‘

The larger drum can betuned to any note of the fifth between F and C , an octave below

l. SNARE DRUM ,2 TRIANGLE , 3 CHINESE GONG ,

4 . GLOCKENSPIEL ; 5 CASTANETS ,

6. XY LOPHONE ,7. KETTLEDRUMS ,

8 BASS DRUM , 9 CY MBA LS 10. CELESTA.


system of levers ; but it has not proven a success. Pfundt also published a kettledrum method . He became able to produce remarkably fine tones. Once, however, he created an unusua l effect. Hewas very miserly, and dunned a fellow-performer unmercifully forthe return of a small loan . The latter fina lly brought the money inpennies, and spread them secretly around the rim of the drum ; sothat Pfundt’s first stroke was followed by an unexpected shower of

The kettledrummer has few notes and long rests in orchestralmusic. He should count these, but in practice he either knows themusic, or has a bit of it wri tten out to give him the cue, or gets thesignalfrom the conductor. There is a story that the kettledrumm erof Richter’s Vienna orchestra could count automatica lly, which euabled him to go outfor refreshment in long pauses and return ontime ; but it sounds a little apocryphal. There is no rea l solo repertoirefor the instrument. Yet the English drumm er Gordon Cleatherwrote a concerto for kettledrums, and rapped it out in front of theorchestra on six drums of vari ous pitch . The German composerTausch wrote a similar work ca lling for five drums.Paderewski has perfected an affair that he ca lls the tonitruone,

which he has used in some of his works to imita te thunder. But thenew instrument has not replaced the kettledrum for this purpose.The subject of storms suggests the wind machine, used by Richard

Strauss in his “Don Quixote. This contrivance, borrowed fromthe theatre, consists of a simple sheet of canvas held against a re

volving cylinder. As the cylinder increases in speed , the rea listicsound grows higher in pitch , andviceversa. It is used in the passagerepresenting Don Quixote’s blindfold flight in the air.The bass drum (German, grosse Trommel; French , grosse caisse;Ita lian, gran cassa) has not the definite pitch of the kettledrum .

Bass drums are used for their aidin a rhythmic capacity . They areplayed with different sticks, one sma ll and one large ; while theFrench have a stick ca lled the mailloche, which is held in the middleby the player andhas a knob on each end. A roll on the bass drummay a lso be given with the kettledrum sticks. Berlioz, Verdi, andothers have tri ed to obtain definite pitch on the bass drum, butwithout success.

INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION 459

(German, Heine Trommel; French , tambour; Ita lian, tam buro), canbe suitably used for martial scenes . It can give both single taps andlong rolls, and can aid in working up great climaxes, such as thescene of the benediction of the poniards in Meyerbeer’s “Buguenots.

” An oddly dull andrattling sound can be produced by playing

A medium-sized drum exists, known‘

as the tenor drum. Thetambourine (Basque drum) is practiwlly a very flatM with oneend open. It is struck by the hand, though the performer may varythis effect by rubbing it with his thumb. It has bits of metal attached, which give a j ingling noise when it is struck. The tambourineis used in connection with Spanish or gypsy efl

'

ects, while Berliozemployed it also in his Roman Carn ival Overture and his “ChildeHarold ” Symphony.Bells (Germ an, Glocken; French, cloches; Italian, campane) are

used , when desired , as instruments of definite pitchg Wagner, in his“Parsifal ,

”has a stri king four-toned bell figure, but in this case the

sounds come from steel bars struck by hammers . Some composershave used a piano note from behind the scenes to give bell effects.Tschaikovsky ’s overture which celebrates the Russian victory over Napoleon, was first given atan outdoor festival , with rea lca thedral bells joining in the jubilant finale. Long steel tubes areoften used for bell notes . An actual bell may be used in som e cases ;but the tone of a large hellis not always pure.The Glockenspiel , or carillon, is a set of flat steel plates, giving a

seriesof sweet, bell-like tones when struck with a m allet. The bellharmonica , in which musica l glasses are struck, has a som ewha tsimilar tone. The Glockenspiel can give entire melodies, though eachof its stri ps can only sound a sing le pitch . Mozart used its saccharinetones in his “Magic Flute ” ; andWagner called for them in theslumber scene of “Die Walkiire,

”as well as at the entrance of

the toy-makers’ guild in “Die Meistersinger.

” The usual compassof the Glockenspiel is about two octaves, beginning an octave abovemiddle C , butwritten an octave lower than it sounds.The celesta is a modern bell instrument, looking much like an

upright piano with the upper four (form erly five) piano octaves.

strument, to strike steel plates placed over wooden resonators.


Tschaikovsky em ployed the celesta with good effect in his CasseNoisette m usic. The dulcitone, or typophone, is somewhat like thecelesta , but less powerfu l.The gong, or tam -tam , is sometimes heard with the orchestra.

Like many large bells, it does not produce a pure tone, but gives anote that is blended with a m ixture of so-ca lled “by-tones .

” Itssharp and noticeable effect has been employed in representing anysudden catastrophe. Soft strokes on the gong produce a weird resu lt. Meyerbeer has called for them in “Robert le Diable,

” to gowith the rising of the ghostly nuns ; andRossini used them in Semiram ide,

” when the tomb of Ninus opens to Show that monarch ’sspirit.Still another bell-like tone comes from the tri angle (German , Tri

angel; French, triangle; Ita lian , triangolo). This is a small steel barbent into tri angular Shape, which is held on a string andplayed bya pencil-like rod from the inside. Its high, tinkling note has no verydefinite pitch . It is used whenever a tinkling effect is desired , andsom etim es merely to mark rhythm. Its proper place is in ratherlight musiclthough it rs found m scores of Haydn, Beethoven, andSchumann. Weber used it to add color to the gypsy scenes in hisPreciosa . Its most important occurrence to date is in Liszt’spiano concerto in E-flat, where it starts a theme by announcing itsrhythm in solo notes .Cymbals (Germ an, Becken; French , cymbales; Ita lian , piatti) con

sist of a pair of round metallic plates, made of copper and tin, to beclashed together by the performer. They are of Orienta l origin ,

coming from either N key or Arabia . Sometim es they are playedby the bass drummer, with one of the pair of plates tied to his instrument ; buta better tone is produced if they are held in the handsandstruck against each other slantingly. Their notes are often considered the same as those of the bass drum, which are with a doublestem when the cymba ls are desired also . The loud tones of the cymbals do not last very long, but they may be stopped abruptlyi ftheplates are held against the performer’s coat. Such loud strokes givean excellent suggestion of combat, or of wild revelry. Wagner usedthem thus in the Venus scenes of Tannh '

auser.

”In the same place

he produced a mysterious tremolo effect by having the two platesrattled together softly. Elsewhere he has created new effects by a

PART V

SPECIAL TOPICS


Domeni co Scarlatti was the pioneer in the early Italian school,introducing many new effects. One of these was cross-hand work.

When he grew old andfat, and unable to reach acrm easily, hedropped the cross-hand work from his compositions. Scarlatti metHandel atVenice, in one of the usual competitions. A draw resultedatthe harpsichord , butHandelwas awarded the victory atthe organ.It is said that after this event Scarlatti would cross himself whenever he heard Handel’s name mentioned .

Muzio Clementi was a leader among the early pianists , hisGradus adPam assum

” being still considered a valuable trainingin technique for the student.Mozartwas a child prodigy in piano playing as well as composing,

and traveled about with his sister, under paternal care, giving concerts when only six years old . When he reached the age of twenty,one critic said of him ,

“Mozart plays with great power, and readswhatever is putbefore him ; but that is allthat can be said. Beecke

is far greater.

” Later on, however, Rieder speaks of Mozart’s bold

flights of fancy,“heavenly harmonies, and skill in improvisation.

Mozart and Clem enti indulged in one of the usual competitions,after which the latter set to work to unite Mozart’s “singing touch”

with his own technical skill.A concert given by Mozart atMantua shows that genius was ex

pected to display itself in many ways. The programme included asym phony of his own ; a piano concerto to be read by him atsight ; asonata to which he should addvariations, with repeat in a new key ;the words of a song, which he should sing, improvising both melodyandaccom paniment ; themes given by the audience, upon which hewould make a sonata and a fugue ; a tri o for which he would improvise the violin part ; andanother of his symphonies .Franz Duschek was a Viennese pianist of the Mozart school . Another wasAnton Eberl , who imitated Mozart

’s style of compositionso well that his works were sometim es said to be by Mozart.Another of this school was Johann Nepomuk Hummel, who stud

ied with Mozart when young. Hummel once visited John Field inSt. Petersburg. As his name was not announced , he pretended tobe merely a hum ble stranger, anxious to hear the greatField . Thelatter played for a time, and then thought of having some amusebment by making his visitor play. Field expected the strumming and

SOME FAMOUS PIANISTS 467

stumbling of some fourth-rater ; but instead , he heard a most brilliant performance, which made him cry out, You must be Hummel. Field played in a rather suave fashion, well suited to thesmooth style of his own nocturnes.Beethoven disp layed the breadth of the Clementi school. He

showed passiona te strength, andmade technique a means to an end.Beethoven improvised wonderfully, and the passing nature of hisextemporizations must be a great loss to art.Daniel Steibeltwas a precocious virtuoso . His later Show-pieces

have caused him to be called a charlatan, buthe hadrea l technique.Once he challenged Beethoven to a contest ; but he ran away afterhearing the great com poser play.

Johann Ladislaus Dussekwas the first to sit sidewise on the stage.He introduced the harmonica , or set of musical glasses invented byBenjamin Franklin.

Johann Baptist Cramer was Beethoven’s favorite,—perhaps because he devoted himself to Beethoven’s works . Cramer Showedenough sp iri t at first, butwhen he grew older his work was called“dry, wooden, harsh , andwithout cantilena .

”

Joseph Woelfl, another rival of Beethoven, hadvery large hands.He

,too , could extemporize readily ; and once, when a passing band

disturbed his tempo, he changed the rhythm to suit that of the band,and kept with it until it was out of hearing. Czem y spoke of“Woelfl, distinguished for bravura playing ; Gelinek, popular because of his brilliant and elegant execution ; andLipansky , a greatsight reader, renowned for his playing of the Bach fugues .

”

Czem y was a good pianist, but better known as a teacher, as hismuch-used “Velocity School would indicate. Among his pupilswere Liszt, Thalberg, andQueen Victoria .

Ferdinand Ries , Beethoven’s pupil, adopted his master

’s powerfu lmethods of expression. The critics often spoke of his rom antic fire,buthis emphatic manner led one of them to call him a woodchopperat the piano.” Ries composed sonatas and concertos, andwrote interesting reminiscences of Beethoven.

Francesco Pollini was a Mozart pupil who became prominent in

Kalkbrenner was another child prodigy, andgrew up into a brilliant, if rather mechanical, performer. The Englishman Cipriani


Potter excelled him in expressive power. Kalkbrenner inventeda guide-bar to support the wrist, but it was not of great use. Mechanicalaids to the hand have never seem ed really effective. Schumann tried to strengthen his fourth fingers by a pulley-and-weightsystem , but only succeeded in injuring his hand . This was theworld’s gain, as it drove him into com position. Few pianists excelin this field

,though Liszt and Rubinstein managed to do so.

Usually the pianist is too busy to com pose well , while the composerdoes not play enough to be a great pianist. The latter case is illustrated by Schubert, who has been mentioned as breaking downseveral tim es in one of his own fantasias .

Ignaz Moscheles, who lived until 1870, was held foremost in hisday. He was precise, exact, and vigorous in his playing, with ac

curate attention to rhythm and accent. These qualities were wellsu ited to the m ore important classics, which he favored . He cou ldnot appreciate the nuances of the romantic school, as exem plified byChopin andLiszt. Mendelssohn was one of his pupils andadm irers.Chopin’s playing was es sentially soft and delicate. Even in his

mom ents of fiery ardor, hisfortissimowas less than that ofMoscheles,

andmuch less than Liszt’s. A critic called Chopin’s performancelight and airy, and said that his fingers

“seemed to glide sidewise,as if alltechnique were a glissando.

” Chopin was naturally a m asterof the rubato that his works demand,—an expressive retarding orhurrying of the m elody over an accompaniment that goes on steadily. In playing, as well as by his compositions, he fairly earned thetitle of the Poet of the Piano .

”

Stephen Heller was another performer of excessive refinement.He was too sensitively organized to be a steady success in public,butwhen in proper mood he played with much grace andvivacity.

Like nearly allthe pianists, he composed for his instrument, producing works that Show m uch sentiment andpoetry.

Adolf Henseltwas a pianist of phenom enal power andexpression.

His legato was rem arkably good , and he com posed special studiesto develop a large reach in this style. His other works include aconcerto, many excellent études, and some attractive solo pieces.He was always nervous at concerts , andretired from public playingin later life. When appearing with an orchestra, he would rush onat the last instant ; andonce he caused great amusement by forget


have broad sweeps of melody combined with great antiphonaleffects for accompaniment. His ori ginal works, too , Show the grea tness of the new style, whether in the broadly powerful sonata or themore delicate “Sermon to the Birds.Liszt was a great admirer of Paganini , and did for piano what

Paganini did for violin, that is, wrote pieces of such brillianceand difficulty that his successors have sometimes been hardlyable to master them. Liszt’s hands were not unduly large, but therapidity of his skips made some of his hearers think that he hadanunheard-ofreach. In 1839, Liszt employed the words

“pianorecitals ” as a new title for his solo concerts .As stated in a preceding chapter, Liszt always made it a point to

uphold the dignity of the musician’s position . But the day hadgoneby when it was possible for geniuses to receive the indignities thatwere heaped upon Mozart. When PrincessMetternich asked Li sztif he haddone well on a certa in tour , and he replied , Madame, Iam in music, not busines s,

” the remark was not nearly so bold as ifit hadbeen made six or seven decades earlier. The French Revolution and the disturbances of 1848 had helped individual freedom.

Beethoven was far more independent in reality ; andwhen some onetalked during a duet given by him and Ries at Count Browne’shouse, he stopped abruptly, and said, I play no more for suchhogs.”

Henri Herz was one of the first great pianists to tour America.

He played his own works for the most part, which were superficiallybrilliant. Once, at Baltimore, he expressed a willingness to improvisc upon themes given by the audience ; but trouble arose, forseveral dozen people tried to give him their favorite theme bywhistling, singing, or Shouting it. In New Orleans he arranged apiece for eight pianos and sixteen performers. When one of theplayers did not appear in time for the concert, he impressed theservices of a lady from one of the boxes. She said she could not play,buthe told her that she would only need to go through the motions.But he forgot a certain passage where allparts hada rest ; and theaudience was pleasantly surprised by seeing her continue in dumbShow while the other players were silent.Gottschalk was more successful in meeting a similar difficulty at

San Francisco . One of his fourteen performers fell ill, andwas re

SOME FAMOUS PIANISTS 471

placed by an insistent substitute who could not play atallwell. Inorder to avoid trouble, Gottschalk had the hammers rem oved fromthe substitute’s piano just before the concert. Gottschalk playedin a romantic style well suited to his own works, which were mostlyexotic tone-pictures of peculiar charm , such as Le Bananier,“La Savane,

”and so on.

But the greatest pianist to tour Am erica was Rubinstein. Hewas a player of leonine temperam ent, and showed the most trem endous emotional power. Hewas not always accurate ; andwhen a ladyauditor once began to cover him with gushing adulation, be re

marked ,“Madame, I could give another concert with the notes I

left out. When he forgot parts of his selections , he would som etimes proceed to improvise until he could get back to a later sectionof the piece in question. He made various tours with the violinistWieniawski . Once , in Boston, the pair drew a very small audience ;andon being asked if they would return for another concert, Wieniawski replied ,

“We fear that if we did so we Should get out of thehabit of playing in public.” Butthey returned after all, andhadthepleasure of appearing before a much larger audience. Rubinstein’sbrother Nicolai was a great pianist also, as well as a conductor andcom poser.

Theodor Les chetizky, known as a world-famous teacher, wasassociated with Rubinstein at first, and toured Europe before settling in Vienna . He played his own pieces, among others .Hans von Bu low was a pupil of Liszt who becam e renowned

partly by playing his master’s works ; buthis taste was eclectic, andhe could excel in allschools . His technique was adm irable, andhisrem arkable memory was of great service to him . He arranged hisprogrammes in a way that almost always helped to improve popu larknowledge andtaste. It isan interesting physiologica l fact that hewas unmusical duri ng childhood , his musica l taste appearing at theage of nine, after he had received a severe blow on the head. Thisblow, it was afterwards found, res ulted in some sort of lesion on hisbrain, which must have had the effect of making it sensitive tovibrations. It would be hasty to adopt a rule that unmusical peopleshould be knocked on the head ; but in this case the blow seem inglychanged its victim into a music-lover.CarlTausig , the son of a pianist, was Liszt

’s best pupil, andgained


such astonishing control over the keyboard that he actually outshone his m aster in certain cases. Tausig was a thorough musicianin the best sense of the word, endowed with a sym pathetic touch,passionate power of expres sion, andrea l artistic balance. His technique was so remarkable that Liszt once ca lled him “the infallible,with fingers of brass . When an ambitious young pianist onceplayed rather poorly for Liszt, the latter exclaim ed ,

“Such playing!And for m e, who have heard Tausig so often!

” Cosima, afterwardsMm e. Wagner, said of Tausig ,

“He has no touch, no individuality ;he is a caricature of Liszt.

”But this was in Tausig

’

s early studentdays, before he matured ; andno doubt Cosima was partial to Lisztbecause he was her father. Tausig died at the age of thirty.

William Mason deserves mention for his valuable work in raisingthe taste of our own country. After study with Moscheles , Dreyschock , andLiszt, he made a well-deserved name by his playing andteaching.

A curiosity among pianists is Count Geza Zichy, of Hungary.

When seventeen years old, he lost his right arm in a hunting accident. But his love for music did not let this prevent him from becom ing a famous pianist. He studied with Liszt untilhe becamea great artist. The repertoire of m usic for the left hand is fairlylarge ; andhe increased it by writing a number of left-hand piecesfor his own use.

Those pianists now before the public may well be left to the tendermercies of the critics . Som e of them grow fam ous as specialists in theworks of one com poser, like De Pachmann ,

who prefers Chopin’sworks . Som e, like Rosenthal and Godowski , are in the virtuosoclass because of their astounding mastery of technique, althoughthey m ay not be lacking in expressive power . Others, like Busoni ,are best in intellectual and classical works. Paderewski’s grea tnessis shown by the fact that he is not a specialist, but succeeds in allschools and styles.Am ong the wom en pianists, Clara Schumann won high regard ,not alonefor her ability as a performer, butfor her service in makingher husband ’s works known to the public. Ernst Pauer, himself agreat performer, m ade a list of the twelve greatest pianists at themiddle of last century, and included three wom en, Clara Schumann, Mme. Clauss-Szavardy, andArabella Goddard . Miss God

LV

SOME FAMOUS SINGERS

A LITTLE over two centuries ago, a young student of singing wentto a famous Italian teacher for lessons . The teacher accepted thepupil , andwrote him out a set of exercises for practice. Althoughthese exercises covered no more than a Single page, the pupil waskept at them for a year. At length he mustered up courage enoughto ask ,

“When m ay I sing?” “Not yet,

”was the reply, andmore

work on the exercises followed . In another year the pupil repeatedhis query, butreceived the same answer, Not yet.” Still a thirdyear was spent on the exercise Sheet, sung with syllables instead ofvowels . Again cam e the ques tion,

“When m ay I sing? This timethe teacher answered,

“Y ou are now the greatest singer in Italy.

”

The teacher was Porpora , the singer Farinelli. Som e doubt has beencast upon this anecdote ; but it des erves to be true, if only as an example showing students how valuable it is for them to stick to theirexercises .Farinelli sang in the operas of Handel , andmade a tremendous

success in England. An enthusiastic woman once spoke of “OneGod , one Church, and one Fari nelli.

” Yet he was not the onlyone,

” though perhaps he was the greatest of his class . Senesino wasanother favorite in England, andwas made the recipient of manyattentions and laudatory verses . Caffarelli , too, grew fam ous. Allof thes e stars belonged to the extinct class of male sopranos, whowere prevented , by surgery, from having the usual change of voiceduring youth. One of them, Bem acchi, founded a famous singingschool.With the adulation that singers of both sexes received , it was no

wonder that som e of them indulged in rivalri es worthy of spoiledchildren. Even tod ay the singers do not alllove one another withgenuine fervor. In Handel ’s time, the greatest disagreem ent camebetween the two most fam ous sopranos , Francesca Cuzzoni andFaustina Bordoni . Each of thes e two supplemented an enthusiastic

SOME FAMOUS SINGERS 475

estimate of her own powers by a low Opinion of her rival’s ; andthematter became so public that the London opera-goers took Sides .The two principals actually came to blows, andbore m arks of eachother ’s prowess when separated. Cuzzoni finally held the field alone,for Faustina m arri ed the com poser Hasse.Cuzzoni was imperious to all, but she met her match in Handel.

Once, when he had everything ready for her at a certa in rehearsa l,she refused to go on. Handel held her outof the window, andthreatened to drop her unless she consented to Sing. In her position (a veryaerial one) she found herself unable to decline, andgave in as gracefully as she could . Such caprices on the part of the Singers were onlya natural result of great public adulation. Cuzzoni

’

s popularity may

be shown by the fact that the dress she wore in “Rodelinda ” wasadopted as a national uniform of feminine youth andbeauty.

Elizabeth Weichsel , better known as Mrs. Billington, is held tohave been the greatest singer ever born in England. Like Farinelli,she could out-sing a trumpet and excel the trum peter in length andpower of tone. Sir Joshua Reynolds painted her in the attitude oflistening to an angel choir above her ; whereupon Handel said,“That is a mistake ; you Should have painted the angels listeningto her.

”

A singer with an unusual range was Lucrezia Agujari, who livedtoward the end of the eighteenth century. She was probably thehighest soprano ever known . The ordinary soprano singer can reachthe second G above middle C . With that G begins the so-called altoctave, running up to Fs harp just below the next G .

“Most highSopranos think they are doing very well if they can reach D or E inaltwith a tone of fair quality . Agujari could sing not only the altoctave, butthe one above it, the altissimo, as far as F, the highestF on the piano. Mozart, who heard her, said that these high noteswere pure and of good quality .

In the beginning of the nineteenth century, Angelica Catalani wasthe leader of the colorature singers. She cou ld give em bellishm entsandfiorituri with such ease that she often sang ornate solos intendedfor the violin. Her accuracy in this caused the Parisians to nickname her “L ’

instrum ent Catalani .’ She had a most m arvellousaccuracy, andcould sing Six distinct intervals within the com pass ofa semitone. She hadlittle artistic conscience, andwould stoop to


almost anything to catch the public ; but her private career wasmarked by uprightness andgenerosity .

Henrietta Sontag was another fam ous singer of the sam e period.

Catalani Said of Sontag, She is first in her style, buther style is notthe first.” This remark should have been som ewhat of a boom erang,for Sontag’s style was sim ilar to Catalani

’

s.

Giuditta Pasta was a more adm irable artist, if not a greatervocalist. Her voice was originally weak , lim ited , andunattractive ;buthard andfaithfu l work enabled her to obtain a compass of overtwo octaves anda rich fulness of tone. She never entirely equalizedallher notes ; but she gave them a dramatic Significance far beyondthe power of even those who were endowed with better voices. Shewas the first to introduce real acting into opera, the most conventionalgestures having served before her advent.Mm e. Maria Malibran andMm e. Pauline Viardot were bothdaughters of Manuel Garcia the elder, and Sisters of the youngerm an of that nam e. All four were famous singers. The father wasexceptionally long-lived, dying in the twentieth century at the ageof a hundred andone.The elder Garcia was a very severe disciplinarian, andsometimes

would even beat his daughters . The neighbors occasionally heardshrieks issuing from the singer’s home ; but they Shrugged theirshoulders andsaid , It is only Monsieur Garcia teaching his daughters to sing.

”

a Maria’s début was brought about by his severity. When she wasseventeen , he was called upon to Sing in a certain performance ofRossini ’s “Otello ” ; and he insisted on her taking the part of Desdemona . She declined, because little time was left for her to preparefor it ; but he made her go on, and threatened that if she did not doher best he would usehis weapon, whichwas a real dagger. Naturallyshe obeyed ; but in the last act, which he gave with great intensity,she hada renewed access of fear. She cried out in terror, For God’ssake, do not kill m e

”; but the audience thought this only a bit of

realistic acting, andapplauded her wildly.

Malibran’s voice was very intractable, but her father’s excellent

tuition enabled her to overcom e its defects , with the aidof constantpractice. She had a very large range, covering both soprano andalto registers ; and this enabled her to charm by variety of effect.


under the m anagem ent of the late (and great) Barnum . Lind wasanother example of the value of hard work. During her youth sheoverworked her voice ; andwhen she came to Garcia for lessons, shebroke down in trying to Sing for him. He said,

“It would be uselessto teach you , for you have no voice left.

” She persuaded him to tryto bring her voice back ; but she hadto start over at the very beginning

,with scales , voca lises, andbreathing exere1ses . In ten months

the damage wasmore than repaired . Her devotion to work is shownby the hours She spent in practising the pronunciation of one Germanword ,

“zerschmettert.”

Mendelssohn admired Lind greatly. Expecting her to sing in hisElijah,

” he put into the solo“Hear ye, Israel

”a high F-Sharp , a

tone especially resonant in her voice. But she could not com e afterall, and the prim and precise Caradori -Allan, who replaced her,found the solo “not ladylike.” Carlyle wrote of Lind ’s performancein “La Som nam bula,

” “She seem ed to me a very true, clean, genuine little creature, with a voice of extraordinary extent. Shesang, acted, etc., with consumm ate fidelity, but hadunfortunatelynothing butmere nonsense to Sing or act.” Carlyle thus showed himself a better critic than most authors, anda refreshing contrast toRuskin, who spoke of

“The Mastersingers” as“baboon-headed

stuff.”

The name of Adelina Patti brings memories of perennial farewelltours . She gave a concert as recently as 1908, which seems wonderfulwhen one rem em bers that her début occurred in 1859. Such along career is am azing, andmeans that the Singer must have takengreat care ofher health, besides havinga strong constitution to beginwith. Patti’s voice, in its prime, was of the most bird-like clearnessandflexibility. She hadno very high ideals of art, but as a colorature Singer she charmed two continents for five decades . Her sisterCarlotta was more dram atic, but did not have a long career.

The health of singers is a valuable commodity that demandsmuch care. They must avoid catching cold, and keep away fromdraughts and dam pness . Even the moisture of a new house m ay

prove harmfu l ; and the Spaniards have a saying that runs,“Give

your newly built house for the first year to your enemy, for the second to your friend , andstay in it yourself only when the third hascome.” Many singers take excessive care of their diet, though here

ADEL INA PA'

I'

I‘

I


Such tributes were fairly earned ; for Lucca was endowed with original genius, and had a sympathetic voice that imparted vitalityto the tamest rOle. Her expressive voice and im passioned actingmade the critics speak of her as “transcendentally hum an.

”

Certa in Singers have grown famous by being identified with a

composer. One of these, Sophie Arnould, deserves mention for hersinging in Gluck’s operas. She displayed a wit and vivacity thatcaptivated our own Franklin. When Piccini was brought to Parisas a rival to Gluck, and both composers set the same libretto ,“Iphigenia in Tauri s ,

” Arnould helped to make Gluck’s work a

success. When her rival in the Piccini work showed traces of intoxication, it was she who said, This is not Iphigenia in Tauris, butIphigenia in Champagne.”

Wilhelm ine Schroeder-Devri ent was identified with the earlierWagnerian performances . She was the first to show the possibilitiesof really dram atic Singing, andshe always made her voice echo theem otion of the text or situation . In her early years she scored a greatsuccess as Leonora in Beethoven’s “Fidelio .

” At first She nearlybroke down with stage fright, but the audience, thinking that heremotion belonged to her tragic part, was loud in its applause. Sheevidentlywas not again troubled with stage fright. In this Opera shehas to give the starving Florestan a crust of bread ; andonce, whenhe forgot to take it, shehadcoolness enough to whisper, What

’

s thematter? Do you want it buttered?

” It is well to get past the daysof stage fright, buta due am ount of nervousness is not at allbad ifit keeps the singer eager to do the best possible work.

Lilli Lehmann is now remem bered by her Wagnerian r61es ; butshe excelled also in the sm oother style of Mozart and the Italians,andPari s critics gave high pra ise to her Slow coloratura . Her Wag

nerian career, like that of the De Reszkes ,Nordica , and others,

showed that Wagner’s m usic did not need to be howled , but couldbe given with smoothness and good method as well as expressive

Som e of the many Wagnerian Singers who deserve mention areNiem ann, Van Dyck, Schott, Winkelmann, Fischer, Scaria , Brandt,Brema , andTernina . Most devoted of them all, if not absolutelythe best Singer , was the full-voiced Amalia Matem a. Her workat Bayreuth and elsewhere was always intended to further the

SOME FAMOUS SINGERS 1

composer’s cause ; andher later poverty, caused partly by her generosity to needy relatives, should be a matter of reproach to Wagner’swidow.

Singers seem to grow either very rich or very poor. Their largesalaries are fairly earned , not merely by excellence in perform ance,but by the long years of faithful study that precede it. Som e arewell-balanced enough to strike an average ; but too many are eitherspendthrifts or misers. The spendthrifts, however, do more goodthan the miserly ones . Once the husband of a close-fistedSingerwasasked how the pair spent their leisure hours . “We econom ize in themorning,

”was the reply, andthen we have a light lunch andgo on

econom izing.

” Matem a was not one of these .Am ong the men, the English Singers must be given full credit for

their excellent pronunciation. Incidentally, we shou ld not attemptopera in English until every mem ber of a cast can manage that language without any foreign accent.An early school of ballad-Singing was well represented by In

cledon, whom Thackeray praises highly in “The Newcom es.

”

Braham exem plified the sam e school at a later date, and found aneasy method of getting rid of his salary by trying to manage anopera company of his own. A story of Braham will illustrate thetri cks som etimes played by mem ory. Once he could not remem berhow to begin

“Sally in our alley,”a popular favorite that he had

sung hundreds of times. Finally he said ,“I ’ve forgotten the first

line” ; whereat nearly the entire audience sang it at him. Suchlapsesm ay come from excitem ent or overwork.

Sim s Reeves was another famous ballad-Singer, known also inopera . His audiences cou ld not be sure of his appearance until heactually came on the stage ; for he would break an engagem ent ifhe were not in best form . Another singer who took good care ofhis voice was Brignoli . Once, when a Boston audience applaudedhim vociferously, the manager suggested an encore, saying thatthe public insisted .

“What do I care,”replied Brignoli ; and he

pointed to his throat, saying,“This is my capital .

Singers are usually trained from early youth ; but they are som etimes discovered later in life . Such a case was that of the cab-driverWachtel , son of a stable-keeper. Once, at an operatic perform ance,the tenor was absent as one of his arias became due. When Wachtel


said he could sing the air, he was taken to the stage ; not becausepeople believed him, but because they thought it would be a goodjoke to have fun athis expense. But Wachtel turned the joke uponthe others by singing so well that he was retained in opera . Hisfavori te rOlewas The Postilion of Longjumeau ,

” in which his earlytraining as cab -driver enabled him to be wholly true to life.One may close this very brief survey by an account of the re

viva if not “discovery,” of Barron Berthaldas an Opera Singer,

an event well remembered in Boston. TheMetropolitan com panyhadannounced Lohengrin.

” Rothm iihlwas to have taken that celestialhero’s part ; butwhen the tim e came, he was not in condition to appear. Alvery was sentfor, butfelt too comfortable, or too com atose,to leave his room . Consternation reigned after this, until some oneremembered that Berthald, who hadsung in Lohengrin

” six yearsbefore, was appearing in “Bonnie Prince Charlie,

”at the Castle

Square Theatre. At once the director rushed to that theatre, nearlya mile away, andrequ isitioned Berthald. An understudy replacedhim in the light Opera , andhe was bundled into a cab headed for theold Boston Theatre, the hom e of grand opera for many seasons . Onthe way, Berthaldstated that he hadnot sung a note of the rOle ofLohengri n for Six years ; but the management would not listen toany objections, and insisted on taking the chance that he wouldremember the part. He was coached on the way, hurried into hisshining armor, andsent outupon the stage. After only an instant

’shesitation, he plunged into the work, and carried it through to theend successfully.

With this partial list of celebrities , the singers may be dismissed .

Those who desire to pursue the subject farther will find material ofrecent date in Henry T. Finck

’

s Success in Music ” ; while the oldercelebrities are treated in H . C . Lahee

’

s“Famous Singers.”


and playing with the most amazing rapidity, correcting the falsepitch of the strings by his fingering. The startled Corelli cried out,Sir, they call m e an archangel !Arcangelo]; but you must be an

arch-devil .Giuseppe Torelli belonged to the sam e period. He helped Corelli

to develop the concerto and the concerto grosso, in which a singleinstrum ent or a group of instrum entswas played against a concertedorchestral or other accom panim ent. Other Italian com poser-performers were Marini, Fontana , Laurenti, and Antonio Veracini ;while Germany produced Briegel, Schm elzer, Pesel, Walther, andothers. Lully was a violinist when he first won recognition in Paris.Giuseppe Tartini, who lived until 1770, shared with Corelli the

honor of being a violin pioneer. He united Corelli’s finished stylewith more vigor, passion, and daring ; and at the sam e tim e he developeda far m ore advanced technique in handling embellishm ents,rapid passages, and double-stopping. He com posed m any famousworks.Italy still continued to hold the lead in the num ber of fam ous

violinists . From the late sixteenth to the late eighteenth century,Italy was preeminent in music, though Bach andHandel had foreshadowed the coming of German suprem acy. It was this early excellence of Italy, in contrast to its later sterility, that m ade VonBiilow say,

“Italy was the cradle of music, and rem ained thecradle.”

The eighteenth century saw Italy’s leadership in the violin worldupheld by such m asters as Vivaldi, Francesco Veracini, Gem iniani,Locatelli, Tessarini, and Souris. Vivaldi expanded the concerto toorchestral Size. Gem iniani wrote an early violin method, based onCorelli

’

s ideas . Veracini was an intense player of the Tartini school.Locatelli was one of the first to use violin tricks and special tuningsin public ;while Somis served asa link between the Italian andFrenchplayers. France produced Leclair andGuignon, the latter of whombecame unpopular by tryingfor a musical m onopoly. Germ any wasthe home of Pisendel, Johann Graun, Franz Benda , Johann Stam itz,and the Italian Giardini .Toward the end of the century, the leadership began to pass.

Pugnani upheld the broad Corelli school in Italy, While Nardinifollowed the brilliant Tartini standards . Greater than either was

VIOLINISTS AND VIOLIN MUSIC 485

Pugnan i’

s pupil Viotti, called the father of modern violin-playing.

ButViotti went to Paris, andstarted a school there. The m em bersof this Paris group were Rodolphe Kreutzer, the German-born artistto whom Beethoven dedicated the Kreutzer Sonata ” ; Pierre Rode,of broad andsym pathetic tone ; andFrancois Baillot, Rode

’s friendand rival . The works of these m en are of great value to-day, andtheir breadth of tone made them the m ost artistic players of theirtim e. The m ore showy technical Side had been represented byPierre Gaviniés, called by Viotti

“the French Tartini.” Italy hadan am azing technical virtuoso in Lolli, of Bergam o . Leopold Mozartmay be m entioned am ong the Germ ans, though he spent m ost ofhis later life in guiding his precocious andfam ous son. Another Germ an violirrist, of Slightly later date, was Andreas Rom berg, composer of symphonies andother works .The violin repertoire by this tim e was of ample proportions. Its

value, too, is Shown by the frequency with which m odern playersdraw upon the old music for their programm es . Kreisler won a

great success with Couperin’

s“Chanson Louis XIII et Pavane,

”

and followed it by pieces from Pugnani and others of his tim e, besides the usualTartini display. Ysaye scored a trem endous triumphwith a Vitali Chaconne for violin and organ, and supplem ented itby an interesting Vivaldi concerto . The old violin music has nearlyasmuch classical value as the fugues of Bach have in the piano reper

While the Paris school developed expressive power, Italy addedto her

.

celebrities the greatest technicalm aster of the violin thatthe world has ever seen Nicolo Paganini. He was not m erely a

virtuoso , for he Showed sym pathy andpathos in Slow work, as wellas matchless brilliance in rapid passages. His ups anddowns of life,and his strange persecutions , in com bination with his marvellousability and odd personality, m ake his life read like a rom ance.Paganini was born at Genoa in 1782 . He was com pelled to practise without m any periods of res t ; andif he hadnot loved the violin,he m ight have been turned against it by parenta l harshness . Asit was, he soon began to spend much tim e andpatience in m astering new difficulties of his own invention. This persistence, and

faithful practice, were probably responsible for his amazing technique. Yet many thought him possessed of some special secret.


In after life, while he stopped at a certain hotel , a guest peeped inat him to discover this secret ; but instead of finding anything unusual , the observer saw only a ta ll, thin m an fingering certain violinchords repeatedly, without using the bow. In his later days, Paganini traded on the reputation that the supposed secret gave him.

It is a strange fact that he made his pupil Catarina Colcagno playwith astonishing brilliance when She was only fifteen ; but his owngrea t knowledge of technique would account for his ability to impart it.He began to play in public himself at the age of thirteen. Three

years later he ran away from hom e, and developed a taste for dissipation and gambling. He devoted some years to the guitar, inconsequence of the preference of a noble lady at whose castle hestayed . The result shows in his quartets for stri ngs and guitar,recently revived . After this he returned to the violin, and beganto investigate the use of single stri ngs . This procedure arose in partfrom his adm iration for a certain lady, for whom he wrote and

played love-dialogues between the first and fourth stri ngs. Hisgreat facility on the G string was developed at this tim e. On a cer

tain occasion, the breaking of an E-String during a concert com

pelled him to play a num ber of difficult pieces on the remainingthree strings.The persistence with which strange stories followed Paganini

was most marked. Even to-day innocent men are sometimes madevictims of waves of popular persecution ; but among the credulousItalian peasantry of a century ago, almost any story would findbelievers. The most comm on idea about Paganini consisted in acertainty that he was a ided by the devil ; andnot a few of his hearers claimed to have seen that satanic individual standing besidethe performer andhelping him .

Paganini ’s excellence on the G string was explained by anotherstory. It was claimed that in a fit of jealousy he hadmurdered hismistress, in consequence of which he hadspent eight years in prison.

He was allowed to keep his violin ; but the dampness of the cellcaused the upper stri ngs to break, finally leaving him only theG-string ; and upon this he was com pelled to play, if he played atall. The simplest investigation proves this story not only false, butimpossible. He lived athome for nearly sixteen years ; andwith the

VIOLINISTS AND VIOLIN MUSIC 487

exception of the guitar period , during which he was easily traced ,hewas constantly before the public. If he committed such a crim ebefore becoming a public perform er, he must have done it at themature age of eight, and had his fam ily and friends agree to pretend that he was athom e studying. Yet in sp ite of its utter lack ofpossibility , the story persisted .

Paganini’s technique was wonderfu l enough to make the credulous ones believe that he must have hadsom e unusual aid, whetherfrom the devil or from som e other obliging spirit. The player’spersonality helped to sustain the idea of strangeness ; for he wastall , thin, and pale, with brusque m anners that heightened hiscadaverous effect. His technique does not appear superhumanwhen looked at from the standpoint of present-day virtuoso playing ; but it must have seem ed trem endously stri king in contrastwith the lesser attainments of his peri od. His ability is proved bymany anecdotes . One of these relates that the Neapolitan artists,jealous of his fame, engaged the young com poser Danna to wri tea violin piece bristling with unheard-ofdifficulties ; andwhen Page,nini arrived , they asked him to read the piece. Paganini saw thetrap they hadset ; buthis ability was so great that the merest glanceat the work enabled him to play it with the utm ost ease. His proficiency in double-stopping, harmonics, left-hand pizzicato, and

G-string work m ust have been m arvellous, to judge from his compositions as well as his press notices. His use of very thin stringsprobably gave him a m astery over harmonics. A favorite trick ofhis , alreadym entioned ,was to tune his instrum ent a sem itone sharp,andtranspose the music a sem itone down, therebygetting the properpitch of a work, but an unusually brilliant qua lity of tone.Paganini has been called ignoble, selfish, self-indulgent, and mi

serly. These accusations are not devoid of truth ; but on one occasion he showed a m ost excellent and discrim inating generosity. It

was in Paris, andhe was at a concert where a new work was givena sym phony by the young and struggling composer nam ed Ber

lioz. Paganini was so im pressed by the work that he sent to itscom poser the sum of twenty thousand francs. It is said that selfindulgence, and the use of a quack medicine, brought on his lastillness and death, which took place in 1840. His body was refused burial at Nice, andwas taken to Parma for interm ent. His


favorite violin, a large Guarnerius, has been kept on exhibition ina Showcase, but would probably be in better condition if playedupon.

There were other Italian violinists after Paganini, such as Polledro, but none of overwhelm ing prominence. Music had reached a

peri od of decadence in Italy, and the public could appreciate nothing higher than the conventional works of the Rossini style. Eventhe Paris school declined , with the death of its leaders ; andfor atim e the sceptre passed to Germany.

Ludwig Spohr, who brought the German school into its leadership

,drew away from the sensational style inaugurated by Paga

nini, andmade breadth andexpressive power prom inent once more.A symphonist of som e greatness, an opera com poser of rom antictendencies, he wrote a num ber of violin concertos, andbrought thatform well along to the large Size and prom inence that it now displays. His excellence as a com poser was som ewhat veiled by mannerisms, such as an excessively chrom atic style.He composed a number of works for violin and harp, the latter

instrum ent being played by Dorette Scheidler, whom he married .

Spohr died in 1859, which brought the school to within six decadesof the present wri ting.

Other German and Austrian m asters were Joseph Mayseder,

Joseph Bohm , Johann Kalliwoda , and Wilhelm Molique, whileKarl Lipinski was a Pole. Ignaz Schuppanzigh, who preceded Spohrin point of time, was a friend of Beethoven .

A French group of the tim e included Alexandre Boucher, Antoine Habeneck, Jacques Mazas , and others. But after the Germ an school hadflourished, the sceptre passed to Belgium . CharlesAuguste de Beriot, the first of the Franco-Belgian school , held theforem ost rank in his day, and continued the ornate and brilliantstyle of Paganini. From the contrast between his work andSpohr ’sit is still held that the German school is solid where the Belgian isbrilliant ; but these distinctions no longer exist. Thus Henri Vieuxtem ps, the successor of De Beriot in Belgium, was still brilliant,but showed m ore breadth.

The German school was carried on by Ferdinand David and

Joseph Joachim . David was concertmaster in the GewandhausOrchestra which Mendelssohn reorganized at Leipsic. Like Vieux


Chaconne, which is a standard test for violinists, is said to beunrivalled .

Other great violinists visit us from time to time, but each of theabove three has at times been considered primus inter pares. Thisarticle is not intended as a catalogue, butaims merely to give a general outline ofviolin developm ent. Many other names m ight havebeen m entioned, in the past as well as the present ; but there is notspace for them here. Those who are alive should not feel slightedby the omission ; and those who are dead are not likely to protest.

LVII

IORCHESTRATION

THOUGH made up of different instruments, the orchestra m ay beregarded as a unit from the point of view of composer, conductor,and audience./The conductor

’s Share in the matter will be treatedin a special chapter, but it has seemed worth while to explain here apart of the com poser’s work, and certain points that the audiencemay look for when hearing orchestral music .Z The orchestra of Bach, although it had m any instruments nowobsolete

,did not give qui te the effect of the full modern orchestra ,

as it lacked many of the deeper instruments , such as the tubas,contrabassoons, andso on.IBach

’s music, therefore, is not overpowering in effect, but flows along naturally and sm oothly. The contrapuntalcharacter of his music (written as if in parts instead ofchords) makes this fluent quality particularly noticeable. In somecases the m odern instruments replace the obsolete ones.Handel’s and Bach’s scores were often merely outlined, or only

partially filled out. In this music the composerwas often the leader,and sat at the harpsichord, or organ, where he could arrange hisown harmonies to suit him self. For modern purposes, some of theold scores have had to be “filled in” by more recent com posers.Thus in the case of the oratorio The Messiah,

” which is givenwidely even to-day, there are two such refurbishings, as alreadystated , one by Mozart and one by Robert FranzThe scores of classica l and modern tim es are com plete, havingbeen wholly finished by their composers ; andfrom them the studentcan trace the growth of the orches tra .

The symphonies of Haydn andMozart led to those of Beethoven,who is the great representative of the classica l period . The classicalorchestra consisted offirst and second violins , violas ,

’cellos ,contrabasses, flutes , som etim es a piccolo, oboes, clarinets , bassoons, horns, trumpets, som etim es trom bones, and kettledrums .With these the composer could give allthe effects he desired .


Taking only the nine symphonies of Beethoven, we find such diversepictures as bird-calls in pastoral surroundings, a thunderstorm, thefuneral march of a dead hero, or the noble antiphonal dialogues ofthe Ninth Symphony. Modern com posers have many m ore instruments ; but they do not give greater music, in spite of its growingcomplexity. Mendelssohn and Schum ann continued to use theclassical forces with few changes ; but after them Berlioz, Liszt,andWagner developed the larger orchestra . Our having a largeorchestra does not Show that the sm aller one is out of date ; forBrahms , in the latter half of the nineteenth century, kept to theclassical forces, and showed that they were amply sufficient forthe creation of noble music.The scores of the classica l period Show the use of sim ple tone

colors or com binations of color. There is none of the mixed, impressionistic quality that came later. The instruments stand out bythemselves , in fairly clear contrast to the

“mingled world of soundin which modern composers work. Am ong many exam ples, onemay quote the oboe in Beethoven

’s orchestral funeral march ; thecontrabass in the finale of his Ninth Symphony ; the clarinet inMozart’s clarinet symphony ; the horns in the closing them e of thefinale of Schubert’s C-m ajor symphony ; or the impressive clarinetpassage before the coda in the finale of Mendelssohn’s Scotch Symphony. This use of simple colors in clear fashion characterizes theclassical music.While the classical composers often divided an instrum ental part,

giving two notes instead of one to a Single kind of instrument, theydid this m ostly in climaxes for full orchestra , anddid not keep it uplong . But modern com posers, using Wagner and Liszt as models,have indulged m uch more freely in this divided writing, sometimesgiving several notes at once to nearly each kind of instrument. Themodern orchestra, too , is much larger than that of classical times.Where Beethoven and Brahm s would use only twelve or thirteenstaffs, the radical of to-day will wri te on m ore than twice that numher. As stated elsewhere, there is a passage, in the

“Heldenleben”

of Richard Strauss , where that composer writes on thirty differentstaffs, and includes as many as forty-Six different notes in a singlechord.

In such modern mixtures of tone, the instrumental colors are


Violoncello. All emotions, but with a more mascu line effectthan those of the violin.

Contrabass. Ponderous, portentous, or som etimes comical byreason of its heaviness.Harp. Celestial or ecstatic effects, or minstrel accom panim ent.Flute. Gentle melancholy in the lower register ; brilliance in

the upper.

Piccolo. Wild , frenzied gayety, or infernal effects ; sometimesused for military suggestion.

Oboe. Rustic gayety ; artless innocence ; gri ef andpathos.English horn . Dream y melancholy ; suggests shepherd

’s pipe.Bassoon. Earnest and som bre in lower register, or grotesquely

com ical ; weird in m iddle register, or like a cry of hum an pain in

Contrabassoon. Deep, impressive, like an organ pipe.Clarinet. Eloquent and tender in middle register, spectral in

Bass clarinet. Som bre. (Basset horn the sam e, with rich tone.)Horn. Romantic, suggesting forest scenes and hunting calls,

or ugly andrepu lsive when m uted.

Trumpet. Bold andmartial .r/I

‘

rom bone. Solemn, im pressive, or menacing.

Tuba . Brutal andpowerful.Kettle-drums . Explosive, rhythmic, or capable of portraying

anxiety andsuspense.Other drums . Military effects.Cym bals. Su ited to the clash of battle, or wild festivity.

Glockenspiel . Tinkling sweetness .Celesta . Effect of light melodious bells .Tam bourine andTriangle. Spanish or Gypsy effects

,festivity.

With these colors athis disposal, the modern com poser is able tocreate many odd effects and fairly definite suggestions. While theolder composers wrote pure music, for the most part, their morerecent successors have become largely devoted to programm e music,or music that tells a story or portrays an event that must be described on a printed programme. For this the many instrumentalcolors are indispensable.When the auditor hears orchestral music of the classical school,he m ay expect clear structure, logical developm ent of them es,artistic effects of contrast, and well-balanced work without exaggeration . In the radical m odern music he m ay look for m ore impressionism more effects of blended colors that are to betaken

ORCHESTRATION 495

as a whole, andnot analyzed into the sim ple colors that made them .

He m ay still seek for artistic symmetry andcontrast, but in a freerform than before. Much of the m odern auditor’s tim e is taken up inlooking at his programm e to watch for coming events in the orchestra . If he can tell just when Don Qu ixote encounters the windmills, or when Mraczek

’

s two bad boys of the orchestra , Max and

Moritz, are chased for killing poultry, he will feel happy with thehappiness of one who solves a puzzle successfully. But that is nottrue musicalenjoym ent. The auditor will do well to learn the plotof the piece before he hears it ; but even then he Should be entitledto look for good music, and not merely follow a string of effectswith a view to seeing what they mean. If the com poser has notgiven good music, he has failed in his duty. Two examples fromStrauss will prove the point. His “Don Qu ixote ” variations, picturing that hero’s adventures, are full of attempts at suggestion,such as the flock of sheep, the air-trip, the upsetting boat, andso on ;but the music is not essentially attractive. On the other hand, his“Death andTransfiguration,

” contrasting the vain struggle againstdeath with the glorious apotheosis beyond, m ay be analyzed justas literally (one comm entator has found two fever-them es), but isperformed andapplauded frequently because its music is grand.

Some of the instrum ental colors m ay seem a little arbitrary tothe beginner ; but after he has learned to pick them out as well as acomposition will permit, he will see that they have a basis of accuracy. With these the composer must do his best ; andif he handlesthem properly, they will glow upon the ear with allthe warmththat the colors of a Titian Show in their appeal to the eye.

LVIII

CONDUCTING

THE art of conducting, in the sense of timekeeping, is very an

cient. In the theatres of Grecian tim es, the duty of leading fellUpon the choregus, who kept the rhythm by tapping an iron Shoeon the floor of the stage. In the Middle Ages, accounts Show theEm peror Charlem agne beating tim e, in sim ilar fashion, by tappingwith a wooden staff. Even down to the present, the violinist wholeads a sm all orchestra , when not playing himself, will conduct bytapping on his violin with the how.

This method of tapping was held responsible for the death ofLu lly, in the seventeenth century. At the performance of one of hisworks, a Te Deum , celebrating the French king

’s recovery fromsickness

,the com poser, who was conducting, m ade such frantic

flourishes with his cane that once he struck his gouty foot insteadof the floor. Inflamm ation followed , andneglect allowed it to turninto gangrene, which proved fatal . It m ay thus be sa id that Lullydied of conducting.

In the music of Handel the com poser (or conductor) usually presided by sitting at the harpsichord, where he cou ld fill out the harmonies andguide allthe effects . Handel won ear ly notice by stepping to this post of honor at a Ham burg opera perform ance whenKeiser, the regular conductor, was absent dodging creditors . Som etimes the organwas used instead of the harpsichord , especially inthe sacred works of Bach .

Haydn andMozart did away with this harpsichord procedure,and the conductors of their works , whoever they were, cou ld paycom plete attention to leading the performers. Haydn conductedhis own music for Prince Esterhazy, in whose servi ce he rem ainedfor m any years. It is Said that once, when the princely patronthought of disbanding his orchestra , Haydn wrote and led a sym

phony in which the players were allowed to cease, one by one, putting out their lights and departing from the room, until only the


only a hundred and sixteen men, and had them allconcealed in a

sunken space in front of the stage.Wagner was a gifted conductor, and the insight this gave himinto the tri vial nature of certain Ita lian operas may have helped inleading him to write better music himself. He was among the firstto conduct freely from mem ory, without using the score. This maysometimes be done by relying on the men a little, andremem beringonly a general outline, suflicient to enable the leader to give cuesto certain instrum ents at the right time. ButWagner had manyscores completely memorized . When he first tried this procedure,with Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, his men were disposed to ridicule him ; but he challenged any of them to play a passage fromany part, andshowed his knowledge by continuing the part after theplayer ceased.

Von Bulow, as leader of the Meiningen Orchestra , went so far asto have his players mem orize their own parts. He was most painstaking in his attention to details of Shading, phrasing, and so on.

His men becam e so proficient that once, when he was unavoidablylate, they began the programm e in his absence, playing the

“Tannhauser” Overture without any conductor, andfinishing it successfully just as he came in.

In general , com posers make poor conductors . Some of those already mentioned are exceptions ; but there are several reasons forthe rule. To begin with, composers are seldom broad enough tojudge the m usic of allothers properly ; andwe see Spohr rating theBeethoven symphonies as dull and uninspired. Then, too , manycomposers lack the needed executive ability. When conducting,they are apt to listen dream ily to the music instead of guiding it.Schumann was especially given to this procedure. It is said ofRichter, who became a great conductor, that when he first took uporchestral leadership, he burned allhis compositions , andmade acup of coffee over the fire.

Among B ench conductors, Lamoureux and Colonne grew ia

mous in the latter part of last century. In Germany, Levi andMottl

were followed by Weingartner, Mahler, Nikisch, Strauss, Muck,Fiedler, and others. Mahler was rem arkably great, being able togive to a piece a continual flow of nuances, that would make oldworks seem new and come with the force of a revelation. Wein

CONDUCTING 499

gartner is best known in opera , where the Italian Toscanini alsodeserves m ention. Richard Strauss inclines to powerful effects , andHausegger is another of the sam e school . In our own country,Theodore Thom as deserved the highest praise for his earnestnessin educating public taste.A conductor plays upon the orchestra just as a pianist plays uponhis instrum ent. Where the latter m ay give a m axim um of ten notesat once, and cause his fingers to give each note the proper emphasis,the form er will have anywhere from twelve to thirty different kindsof instrum ents to look after, andwill em phasize the different partsby m eans of his beat. He is always responsible for the “reading”

of the piece, the shading given to it, the nuances of speed, thecomparative emphas is placed on the different parts, and so on.

Here tradition is som etim es a guide. The classical works, for instance, are to be taken in a fairly straightforward m anner, withoutany attem pt at exaggeration of effects . The sam e is true of theclassicalpiano repertoire, and we find Paderewski causing m uchargum ent by playing the Beethoven sonatas with rubato , whichmeans little caprices in the tim e of a piece. Whenever a conductortries to “m odernize” a Beethoven sym phony in this way, he layshimself open to just criticism , although Mahler som etim es did this.Sir Frederic H . Cowen, in an article on conducting printed inThe Musician ’s Gu ide,

” gives a num ber of rules for the conductor,which m ay well be m entioned here.First of all, the conductor must possess a distinct and reliable

beat, so that the players m ay know definitely what motion he ismaking, and from this what resu lt he wants .The conductor m ust, of course, have a good musical ear, to en

able him to single out any tone of the orchestra, for purposes ofcorrection or alteration.

He m ust have a thorough working knowledge of allthe instruments under him . This does not mean that he Shall be a star perform er on allof them ; usually such knowledge of one or two is allthat he possesses . But he m ust know at least how allthe instruments are played , and be familiar with their compass, color, andcapability in each case. The conductor will find it useful , also, tobe a good pianist ; while he surely needs a clear voice to give directions, even if not trained as a singer.


He m ust be able to read an orchestra l score, andmaster its contents quickly. This is a m atter that dem ands training, for the num

ber of staffs and vari ety of clefs used , to say nothing of the transposing instrum ents, m ake a score very com plicated . The readerwill rem em ber that the viola is written in the alto clef, the trombone som etim es in the tenor clef, andthe other deep instrum ents invarious ways, according to the pitch used ; while the clarinets notin C

,the English born , the horns not in C , and som etim es other

instrum ents, transpose the written note to various intervals. Theconductor m ust not m erely read the notes of a score, but he m ustbe able also to judge what effects will be produced by the instrumenta l com binations used.

The conductor m ust understand the m usic he is leading, and beable to express its intellectual or spiritual m eaning.

He m ust have a full comm and of light and shade, or variationsin speed or dynamic force ; he must be able to m ake his men bringout thes e variations ; and he must be able to phrase artistically.

The balancing of phrases andpassages in just the properway makesallthe difference between a performance that is m erely passableand one that is excellent. The conductor m ust also have a correctidea of tempo. One conductor will take certain m ovem ents sloweror faster than another m an will do ; and naturally one case givesbetter results than the other. Here again tradition helps with theold works, in which exaggerated speed or slowness is out of place.For the rest, the pace is largely a matter of individual temperam ent,though of course it is regulated in a general way by a com poser’sdirections. Thus if a com poser calls for an adagio, it is necessarilya slow m ovem ent ; but som e conductors will make it Slower thanothers do. The nature of the m usic is often useful as a guide, Showing whether or not there is to be any exaggeration of pace. Som etim es the composer shows the exact pace by using a metronomemark, putting at the beginning the letters “M .M .

”

(Maelzel’

s metronom e) and a figure with a note of definite value. This will Showthat the value of the note given shou ld occur a certain num ber oftim es to the m inute, the number being shown by the figure used .

Of course this applies only to the average pace, as there will be

passages to be taken faster or slower, as the conductor’s ideas or

the composer’s marks demand.


accordance with the points given above. In the first place, does hemake good programmes? Does he pick out interesting novelties,and balance them against well-known master-works in such a wayas to gain the most pleasing effect? Then, one m ay ask, is he agood judge of tem po? Does he take the slow movem ents too slow,

anddrag even in rapid m ovements, or viceversa? Then comes theall-im portant question of reading . Are his contrasts in force exaggerated or minimized ; does he make his changes in force graduallyor abruptly ; in speed, also , does he overdo or underdo the contrests, anddoes he make changes too radically or not ; is his phrasing properly expressive, andsufficiently varied to avoid monotony ;does he control his forces well ; does he ever indulge in over-exaggerated effects, in an ill-judged attempt to be original ; does he bringout im portant them es clearly ; and is the sum total of his effects ,the reading of the piece as a whole, spiri ted and beautiful, or dullandineffective? These are a few of the main questions that an auditor m ay ask himself while listening to an orchestral performance.If the conductor is good, if he performs great music with detailedcare, sym pathetic understanding, and due enthusiasm , then onem ay truly adm it that a symphony concert becomes a real feast ofreason andflow of soul .Opera conductors are not always judged by the high standard of

symphonic work ; but som e of them have reached the first rank,nevertheless, as Weingartner andToscanini prove. Opera conduetors have troubles of their own , as they have to keep players andsoloists together, or guide the chorus, besides attending to the instrum ents.

The points of conducting, and the questions enumerated above,apply to opera conductors, but in a lesser degree than to symphonicleaders. The opera conductor is not too anxiousfor delicate nuances,which are som etim es lost in a large auditorium ; but he tries ratherto keep the forces together in a rendering that shall be spiri ted andstriking.

On the whole, then, the conductor earns his salary, even when thatsalary reaches fancy figures. His is the brain that guides the entireorchestra ; andhis is the ability that leads it to success.

SOUND is caused by a disturbance of the atmosphere, which thentransm its itself outward through the air. This takes place by havingeach disturbed air-particle push the one beyond it, so that the disturbance travels outward som ewhat like a stroke through a line ofbilliard ba lls, or an engine

’s push through a train of loosely coupled

Sound is either tone or noise, the former being distinguished fromthe latter by consisting of regular vibrations, where noise is irregular. The push of the air-particles causes hearing by strokes on theeardrum , whereupon certain nerves take the sensation to the brain,which records it as sound. The brain also notes the pitch of thesound, which depends on the num ber of vibrations (im pacts) persecond. The hum an brain can hear such vibrations only betweenthe lim its of 16 per second and per second, from nearlyan octave below the piano to over three octaves above it. Vibrations that are below the lower lim it com e to the ear as separatepuffs, if heard at all; while those above the high lim it are totallyinaudible. The upper limit varies with different people, so thatsom e Can hear tones which others cannot. Certain animals, suchas the cat, have a much higher range than mankind.

One m ay pause here to pay his respects to the question of thesupposed relation between color and pitch. Light waves differwholly from sound waves in being a disturbance of the ether. Insound, the octave above a note has twice as many vibrations asthe note itself ; and judged by this principle, the visible color-scale,from red to violet, is less than an octave, the violet having morevibrations than the red in about the proportion of 73 to 46 . Lightwaves, too, are incomparably m ore frequent, and travel muchfaster, than sound waves . From allthis we m ay draw the conclusion that there is no relation between color and tone. Many musicians have associated the two ; but as we may naturally expect,


from our conclusion, such association is merely a m atter of individualideas, that have no real basis in fact. Investigation will showthat those who associate certain colors with certain tones differhopelessly among themselves as to which color goes with any givennote.Sound will travel in other conductors than air . It m ay be con

ducted through solids, though the vibrations then have to com ethrough the air in the ear-tube to be audible. In water, soundtravels nearly four tim es faster than in air. This fact is appliedin the subm arine bell signals now being adopted for lightshipsand other such places. Steamers are equipped with under-waterreceivers, one on each Side, attached to telephone receivers inthe pilot-house. When the hellis equally audible through bothreceivers, then the steam er is pointed directly toward the lightship,and can figure its proper course from that fact.The speed of sound in air is about 1120 feet per second . It travels

a little slower in dry weather than on dam p days, but is m ore clearlyaudible. It travels quicker through air of low pressure than throughhigh-pressure air. Thus when the barom eter has fallen, just beforea storm, the ordinary sounds of daily life, such as whistles, cartrum blings, and so on, will sound much louder than usual .A sound wave, resulting from an im pulse communicated to the

air, is of a perfectly definite length for each pitch , andm ay be figuredexactly if we know the pitch . Such a wave will consist of crestand trough, the impu lse of pressure that strikes the ear-drum,

and a lower pressure following it, half-way between the pressurecrest in front and the next one coming after it. If a tone has 35vibrations a second , and sound travels 1120 feet a second, a simpledivision will show us that the length of each wave, from onepressure-impu lse to the next, is 32 feet. Deep tones, with longSound-waves , do not travel any fas ter than others ; but they penetrate farther, as shown by ocean-steamer whistles. The distance towhich sound will travel varies greatly with atmospheric conditions .Tyndall showed the existence in the air of what he called acousticclouds, which aid or hinder the progress of a tone when present.These clouds form and change so quickly that their action m ay benoticed during the tolling of a bell. Some of the bell-strokes willsound loud and clear, while others, just before or just after them,


tones,or harmonics, or upper partials, and blend with the main or

fundamental tone whenever it is sounded . Their presence may beshown by a simple experiment with the piano. If separate pieces ofpaper are laid on the strings for each note, and any low note thenplayed loudly with the dam per pedal held, those upper stri ngs thatcorrespond to the pitch of the overtones (except the irregular sixthone)will begin to vibrate of them selves, andwillshake offthe papers.The seri es of overtones, starting from any C as an example, will be,in ascending order , C , G, C , E , G, B-flat, C, D, E , F-sharp, G, A,

B-flat, B , C . The F-sharp , the high A, and the first B-flat will besomewhat off pitch from our scale. The first ten of the series areenough for allpractical use.

The presence of these overtones in varying am ounts is whatcauses the difference in tone-color between different instrumentsor voices. In stringed instruments the quality m ay be vari ed inaccordance with the place where the stri ngs are bowed, plucked , orstruck. The nearer to the middle, the hollower the tone will be ; thenearer to the end, the brighter the tone. The former case gives fewand faint overtones, while the latter makes them more numerousand stronger. If there are too many overtones, the quality willbeincisive and tin-panny,

” like that of the banjo or of a wom -out

piano. An old piano m ay be altered by having its hammers tippedwith new and soft felt, or by having the old felts jabbed with a

needle until soft enough. If harp-strings are plucked near the endinstead of near the centre, their tone will lose fulness and becom etoo twangy. A plucked stri ng gives the most overtones, especiallyifplucked by some hard substance like the pick of a mandolin.

The vibration of strings alone is not powerful enough to causemuch of a tone. They are therefore strung over bridges , or sup

ports , which carry the vibrations to a sound-box or soundingboard. The mute of the violin, when in use, operates by clam pingthe bridge and preventing it from vibrating freely, so that the vibrations reaching the sound-box are weaker than usual , andgive asofter tone. Power of tone depends upon am plitude of vibration,and the mute lessens this . The sound-box must be open to the air,to allow free vibration. Sounding -boards are of course exposed tothe air , and need no holes .

Pythagoras regulated the intervals of the diatonic scale by a

ACOUSTICS 507

fractional system giving what is known as the scale of nature. Inthis the vibrations of the notes, compared with the keynote, werein the following ratios

Nine to eight for the second degree.Five to four for the third degree.Four to three for the fourth degree.Three to two for the fifth degree.

Five to three for the sixth degree.Fifteen to eight for the seventh degree.Two to one for the octave.

By this scale, considering a certain C to have 120 vibrations asecond, the scale above it wou ld be D, 135; E , 150; F, 160; G, 180 ;

A, 200; B , 225; andC (the octave), 240 vibrations a second . Sharpsandflats were held to be nearer to their notes than at present, andnot coinciding, so that A-flat would be higher than G-Sharp, forinstance, in the ratio of 128 to 125. The ratio between a note andits sharp was as 25 to 24 . This scale sounded very sweet andattraetive. It lasted , with Slight changes , until after A.D. 1700. In thisscale the whole-tones are of two different sizes, the ratios being 9 to8 and10 to 9. For this reason, it was not possible to m odu late intokeys with many sharps or flats without making a piece sound outof tune. Willaert hadsuggested a change, in the Sixteenth century ;buthis idea was not taken up until about 1700, whenWerckm eister

(1645—1706 ) suggested a division into twelve equal sem itones . Aspreviously stated, Bach liked this idea , and gave it permanenceby writing the two volum es of his “Well-Tem pered Clavichord ,

”

each volum e containing a prelude and a fugue in every possiblekey. The new scale, which is in use to-day, is known as the

“tem

pered scale.”

The acoustic principles governing air-columns in tubes are a littlemore difficult to the beginner than the stri ng laws ; but they maybe understood by comparing the row of particles in a column to theloosely coupled cars of a long freight train. Tubes like the oboeand flute, and allsim ilar pipes acting like open tubes (such as thebrasses), have a wave length twice the length of the tube. Takingthe freight train as an exam ple, suppose the engine gives a push.

This push travels down the train, which corresponds to the tube ,until it reaches the end. Then the last car tends to leave the train,


but is suddenly hauled up short by its coupling. It thus exerts apull , andthe pull travels back up the train toward the engine. Whenthis pull reaches the engine, the engine is pulled in until it bum psthe nearest car, and pushes it. The push then travels along thetrain as before.If we suppose that the engine, like the vibrating mouthpiece of a

tube,cannot move far from one spot, we m ay imagine that the en

gine’s first push hadmade it rebound , so that it reached the back endof its space just as its push was transm itted to the farthest car. Itthen gives a pull at its end , just as the farther car is transformingthe push it received into a pu ll . The engine’s pull and the pullfrom the other end travel along the train until theymeet. They evenpass each other andcontinue on, though we can im agine the middlecar not m oving when equally pulled from opposite Sides . The train,then, has two pulls travelling through it in opposite directions,which are transformed into two pushes when they reach the end.

Som ething Sim ilar happens in the tube of an open wind instrument. The reed mouthpiece, or the player

’s lips, or the im aginaryair-reed that is supposed to be formed in a flute, gives a push whichtravels down the tube to the open air beyond. As the push goes outof the tube, it sends a pull back through the tube, just as the lastcar did in the case of the train. Meanwhile the reed has vibratedback, andproduced the pull at its end, just as the engine did . Whenthe pull from the other end comes back, it finds the reed ready topush again, andstart a new vibration.

0

While the pu ll goes back through the tube, the originalpush hashadtim e to travel out through the air a distance equal to the tube

’slength. As it is this distance away from the bottom of the tubewhen the next push is given at the top (m outhpiece), it follows thatthere will be twi ce the length of the tube between successive pushes.This constitutes the wave-length . Thus we know that if we make aflute of such Size as to have a two-foot colum n of vibrating air,

the wave-length will be four feet ; and if sound travels 1120 feet asecond, there will be in the flute tone 280 such waves, or vibrations ,per second.

We also know that the air at the ends of the tube is in m otionat constant pressure, while the particles in the m iddle, like the m iddle car of the train, are under varying pressure, first higher andthen


in principle, the two vocal cords acting like a double-reed mouth

A few more bits of imagination will enable the student to finishwith the subject of tubes. In placing holes and keys on the woodwind instruments, these holes are placed at the proper distances tomake the air-column of the different fractionallengths needed forthe pitch of the scale. Thus opening a hole three fifths of the distance from the m outhpiece to the other end wou ld raise the pitch amajor sixth ; two thirds would raise the pitch a fourth, and so on.

As with stri ngs, the vibrations of air-columns vary inversely as theirlength. To get lower notes than usual, holes near the end of themouthpiece are closed, lengthening the air-colum n. The D-flat and

C of the flute are instances . The holes for these are left open,and closed when needed ; while the other holes are naturally closed,and opened when needed .

The form ation of overtones to the exclusion of the fundamenta l,caused by increased force of blowing, makes the air-column sub

divide into fractional parts. Wherever there is free motion at constant pressure, we m ay take such a point as a centre of vibration,halfway between the points where there is change of pressure butno motion. In an open tube, such free motion is found at each end.

When the air-column divides in half, there will be two changingpressure points , at one fourth and three fourths the length of thetube ; one being at high pressure while the other is at low pressure,and vice versa . The constant-pressure-and-free-m otion points areat each end , and in the middle of the tube. Similar subdivisions forhigher overtones always have free-m otion points at each end of thetube, no matter how many more are part way along the tube ; andfrom this we see that allovertones are theoretically possible in opentubes .If a stopped tube is imagined , it will be Seen that the stopped

end is always a point of changing pressure and no m otion, whilethe open end is a point of free motion and constant pressure. Nowif we suppose a wave length of half the usual Size, giving the octavetone of the first harm onic, this wave-length will be twice the tubelength, instead of four tim es its length . The condition for a wavelength of twice the tube was found to be that the tube must be openat both ends, with the point of no motion but varying pressure

ACOUSTICS 511

in the middle. Since this condition is not true of the stopped tube ,which is closed at one end, it follows that the octave harmoniccannot form. Also, any other harmonic that needs to have bothends of the tube open cannot form in a stopped pipe. On the otherhand, those harm onics will appear, in a stopped pipe, which have awave length of such proportion to the tube that one end m ay be ano-m otion point, with changing pressure, while the other end m aybe a constant-pressure point, with free motion. A little figuringwill show that such distance between points of no motion will betwo thirds the tube length, or two fifths, or two sevenths, or anyfraction with an odd-numbered denominator. As the change froma point of high pressure to one of low pressure (from crest to trough)is only half a wave-length, it follows that the whole wave-lengthswill be four thirds, four fifths, four sevenths, the length of thetube, and so on. As the fundam enta l wave-length was four timesthe tube-length, it follows that the harm onics that can form willhave wave-lengths one third, one fifth, one seventh, etc ., as longas the fundamenta l wave-length. As the full harmonic serieshas fractional wave-lengths of one half, one third, one fourth,one fifth, etc. , it will be seen that the odd-numbered harmonicsare absent from a stopped pipe, only the even-numbered ones

The tone quality of pipes is also influenced by their Shape, narrowones being m ore brilliant than wide ones, and conical tubes morebrilliant than cylindrical ones, because the overtones are presentin a larger proportion.

The organ, as stated in a previous chapter, is sometim es providedwith a double rank of pipes, instead of a single one, to produce atrem olo eflect. For this purpose one set of pipes is slightly flat ofthe other set. That m eans that its wave-lengths are Slightly longer .

As two pipes sound for a key, one from each set, the vibrationpuffs from the two, being unequallyfar apart , will reach the auditorat di fferent intervals, though the intervalfor each pipe is constant.The idea m ay be illustrated by imagining two hammers beating,one four tim es a second and the other five times . Their strokeswill coincide once a second. When the vibration-puffs coincide,at regular intervals, they stri ke the ear with increased force, justas the doubled hamm er-stroke would do. Such increases in power,


occurring at regular intervals, are known as beats . They m ay beheard when piano strings get out of tune with one another.

The sound of a tube or pipe, as stated above, is not due to anyair-current passing throug h it, but m erely to the pipe

’s ability toreenforce the vibrations at its mouthpiece. For this reason thepipe m ay be said to vibrate sym pathetically, or in synchronism,

with the m outhpiece. Yet a sapient reporter once made a clearblunder in this m atter, which he m ust have manufactured out ofWhole cloth . In a certain city, a large pipe on one of the well-knownorgans becam e out of order, and would not sound. A m ouse, itseems

,had located a hom e near the flue mouthpiece of the pipe,

and thus interfered with the forming of the vibrations . Here thereporter “got in his fine work,

” describing the affair at length, andstating that the pipe continued silent until the fullest pressure was

put on, after which there was a sudden burst of noise, and themouse’s nest flew outagainst the ceiling. If the reporter hadknownthe nature of flue-pipe vibrations, he would have seen that they arenot due to any strong air-current, and that such an obstructioncould not have been blown out in the way that he claimed .

The vibrations of such air-columns are said to synchronize withthose formed at the mouthpiece. As already stated , any vibratingobject near the mouthpiece will cause a tube to sound, providedthat the vibrations are of the sam e pitch as those that the air-columncan give. If they are of any other rate, the tube will not respond.

This vibration in sym pathy with som ething else vibrating at thesam e rate is ca lled synchronism . The sound-boards andsound-boxesof the string instrum ents are able to synchronize with differenttones, thus reenforcing allnotes played on such instruments . Thoseinstrum ents that have a second set of strings, vibrating in sym

pathy with the first, depend upon this synchronism. The stringscorresponding to the overtones of a piano note, whenever the noteis held by the dam per pedal, will vibrate in sym pathy with thoseovertones . This synchronism is quite a delicate matter, a few vibrations too much or too little causing it to vanish almost wholly.

Objects in a room will often vibrate in synchronism with a certa intone. The writer rem embers a vocal duet, heard in private, atwhichthe sounding of a high note caused a gas globe to be shattered intofragments . The heat from a gas flam e will sometimes crack such a


length or width of the building in which the organ is set up . Theair in the room will vibrate in sympathy with such notes , andmakethem seem stronger than the rest ; a result that the maker obviatesby weakening the tone of the pipes in question. It is possible tovoice a piano to suit the room or hall containing it.The acoustics of halls is a m atter not well understood. In Paris,

the hall of the Conservatoire is old, irregular, andbadly ventilated ;but it is excellent acoustically, and the authorities will allow noimprovements, for fear of injuring this excellence. The Trocadero,also in Paris , was bu ilt on the idea that sound would be reflectedlike light ; but it proved a failure . Sound tra vels through the airsomewhat as waves progress in the ocean. It will bend aroundcorners andobstacles, and thus differs from light in its action. The

‘

excellence of buildings with semi-oval roofs, such as the Salt LakeCity Tabernacle, is due to the fact that the sound waves swish alongthe curves with the impetus that waves show when washing up a

sloping beach . The ancients m ay have known more about acousticsthan we do ; for the remains of their open-air buildings show seatssloped at an angle that helps the acoustic effect.Echoes are som etimes a source of trouble. A certain Boston

church, when taken over from the builders, was found to have aperfect echo, which naturally rendered preaching im possible in thebuilding. The church members cou ld not remedy the defect. Another set ofowners, who bought the edifice at a low figure, finallyelim inated the echo by floor and roof alterations, com bined withthe stringing of wires and the building of a gallery. But the entireproceeding was a

“rule-of-thum b ” affair, and showed that we still

have much to learn about architectural acoustics .

LX

HOW TO READ MUSIC

IN an earlier chapter, the rise of notation was discussed. Herethe notation of to-day is described , for the benefit of those who wishto learn to read the notes from the printed page.The notes on the piano are named by groups of twelve

,called

octaves . The thirteenth note upward from any given note (counting the given note as one) is called the octave of that note ; whilethe thirteenth note downward from any given note is the octavebelow it.On piano and organ keyboards, the groups of twelve adjacent

keys consist of five black ones and seven white ones . There is ablack key between white ones except for two places in the group.

As a result, the five black keys seem grouped in two and in three,with a white key between the black ones in each case.The white note just below the group of two black keys is known

as C . The letters A, B , C, D , E , F, andG are used to name thewhite keys . The deepest notes are at the left, the highest at theright as one faces the keyboard . Each A is of course the secondwhite note below each C, each D the first white note above the C

’s,andso on .

Each black key is known either as the sharp of the white keyjust below it, or the flat of the white key just above it.For writing or printing these notes, a staff of five parallel lines

is used . A sign representing a letter a note) is put on one ofthe lines of this staff, to show the position of the note nam ed . Thissign is called a clef. Both the lines and the spaces of the staffareused , so the position of a note on one of these lines or spaces willdeterm ine what note it is .Three clefs are used , signifying the Fbelow middle C of the piano,

middle C itself , and the G just above middle C.

On full-sized pianos , the lowes t note is A. This A, with the B-flat

andB just above it, are known as belonging to what is called the


sub -contra octave. The C ’s,from left to right, are known as contra ,

great, sm all , one-line, two-line, three-line, four-line, andfive-line.Middle C is the sam e as one-line C . The eleven keys next aboveeach C are described by the same adjective used for the C . Thus wecan locate any note on the piano by its name great F, three-lineD-sharp, two-line A-flat, etc. The so-called international pitchgives two-line C vibrations per second , while philosophica lpitch gives it 512 . Concert pitch is variable, but always high.

The sign for a sharp or a flat is placed before the note, the stafflines and spaces being devoted to the white keys. The sign for asharp is it, andfor a flat, b. The sign for a double-sharp, som etimes used , is x. The sign for a double flat is simply two flats, bl) .When any of these signs have been in force andare to be neutralized,a single natural sign is used . The natural sign is h. For a singlesharp after a double sharp, is used ; and for a single flat after adouble flat, til? is used .

Illustrations are now given, on staffs using the three differentclefs.

G clef. Middle One-line Two-line One-line Diatonic scale ofC.

C. D—sharp. A-fiat. C D E F G A B C

C Clef(alto) . Middle C. SmallA-nat. One-line B . One-line E—flat. SmallF—sharp.

F Clef. Middle 0 . Sm allF-sharp. Great B-flat. Great F. Great D-sharp.

The F clef is now usually fixed in position , though it has been usedon the third line of the staff, instead of the fourth. In its regularplace it is called the bass clef, while on the third line it is known asthe baritone clef. The C clef m ay be placed on the first (lowest),second, third , or fourth line of the staff, in which case it is knownrespectively as the soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, or tenor clef. TheG clef always places one-line G on the second line of the staff, though


Seconds,thirds, sixths, or sevenths are spoken of as major, minor,

and sometimes augm ented and dim inished .

From C upward to B , or any other seventh of that size, is a majorseventh ; from G upward to F, or any seventh of that size, is a minorseventh ; while from C-sharp upward to B-flat, or any seventh ofthat size, is a dim inished seventh. From C to A, G to E , or any

sixth of that size, is a major sixth ; from C toA-flat, or G-sharp to E,

or E to C , or any sixth of that size, is a minor sixth . Theoretically,from C-sharp to A-flatwould be a diminished sixth ; butthis wou ldbe the same in size as a perfect fifth. Browning, in A Toccata ofGaluppi,

” wrote of “Sixths, diminished, sigh on sigh”; but that

would be a succession of fifths in reality, and such a progression wasstrictly forbidden by the harmony teachers. To resume, the intervalfrom C to E , D to F-sharp , or any third of that size, is a major

third ; while from C to E-flat, D to F, C-sharp to E , or any third ofthat size, is a minor third. From D to E , G to A, E to F-sharp

, or

any second of that size, is a major second (whole tone) ; from E to F,G toA-flat, C-sharp to D , or any second of that size, is a minor second ; while from F to G~sharp, or any interval of that size, is anaugmented second. Some illustrations are given below.

3 3 8a a g '5 ' m a

u’

g u .l5 8g

.

if!: E“ g ‘

5. “g 8 ? 35:22 "

SE E: 9 ; fig 5g 5 ? s a ga 52 a s: a s“

aszfs é s é ms q a G a m a: s a n e; s s a s se s

The se-called major scale, starting with any one of the twelvenotes in the octave, consists of the following interva ls, in ascendingorder tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, sem itone. Thescale of C major is therefore C ,

D,E

,F

,G

,A, B ,

C , and consistswholly of white keys. But when we attem pt to form a major scaleon any note other than C , we find that some black keys must beused to keep the scale-intervals correct. Thus the scale of G majorneeds F-sharp instead of F ; while the scale of F major needs B-flat

instead of B . The sharps or flats needed for any given scale (key)are putwith the clef at the beginning of each staff, and are knownin that place as the signature. The keys needing sharps areG, D, A,

HOW TO READ MUSIC 519

E , B , andF-sharp. The sharps needed number from one to six, inthe following order F-sharp, C-sharp, G-sharp, D-sharp, Asharp , andE-sharp , the last being really the note F. The key of Gdemands F-sharp ; the key of D , F-sharp and C-sharp ; and so on.

The keys needing flats are F, B-flat, E-flat, A-flat, D-flat, andG

flat, the last being the sam e as F-sharp . The flats needed,in order,

are B-flat, E-flat, A-flat, D-flat, G~flat, andC-flat, the last being thesame as B . The key of F needs B-flat; the key of B-flatneeds B-flat

and E-flat; and so on. The keys of C-flat and C-sharp exist, butare rarely used .

Any sharps or flats used elsewhere than in the signature are

called accidenta ls . These rem ain in force to the end of their m easure ; they m ay affect a note held from one measure into the next.Usually an accidental is held to affect any octave of the note altered; but such octave notes should rea lly have the accidentalswri tten in. Accidentals shou ld be used in allcases where any possible doubt might be caused by their absence.

E-nat.

Each major scale has rela ted to it a minor scale, which keepsthe same signature , butbegins andends two scale degrees below themajor scale , i .e., a third below, or a sixth above. Thus C majorhasthe scale of A minor as its relative scale, D major has B minor, Aflatm ajor has F minor, andso on .

If a sca le is named only by its keynote, the major scale is meant.There are two varieties of minor scale, the harm onic and the me

lodic. The harmonic minor has the intervals of tone, semitone, tone,tone, sem itone, augmented second, and sem itone. The harmonic Aminor scale would thus be A, B , C , D , E , F, G-sharp, andA. Themelodic m inor has different intervals in two cases, according towhether the sca le ascends or descends. Its ascending intervals aretone, sem itone, tone, tone, tone, tone, and semitone. The melodicscale of A m inor, ascending, will therefore consist of A, B , C , D , E ,

F-sharp, G-sharp, andA. In descending, its notes areA, G , F, E , D ,


C,B

, andA . The relative minor of any major scale begins on thesixth degree of the latter. Som e exam ples are given below.

D-m inor, harmonic. C-m inor, harm onic.

C m inor, melodic.

B—m inor, harm onic .

B-m inor, m elodic.

The choice of a key is not m ade at random . On the piano, highkeys are more brilliant, lower ones more solid . In voca l music, therange of the voices must be considered . In the orchestra , many instrum ents are easiest to play in those keys that have the fewestsharps or flats .Som e musicians associate certain em otions with certain keys.

Such ideas aremerely individual whims, andno two systems agree.

The major andminor sca les are the ones commonly used in ourmusic ; but others exist, andare som etimes em ployed by composers.The Gregorian scales , or tones, have been described in the section

on the evolution of m usic. They are still em ployed in the servicesof the Catholic Church . At times a com poser will introduce musicwri tten in these scales , to give a religious effect or suggestion .

The Hungarian gypsy scale has been used by Schubert, Liszt,Paderewski , and other com posers. This scale is like the harmonicminor, with an additional augmented second and sem itone insteadof two tones. Its interva ls correspond with those of a scale consisting of A, B , C , D-sharp, E , F, G-sharp, andA . Its effects are


asmany lines as there would have been flags on each separate note.Any note m ay be replaced by a rest, which indicates a pause of acertain duration. The vari ous notes, with their Am erican namesabove andEnglish names below, are given on page 521. Each noteis followed by a rest of the same value as the note . 256th notes havebeen used , but are uncommon. Beethoven and others have used128th notes .So-called cadenza notes have no definite value, but are

grouped together by joined stems to fill a certain space as a whole.These m ay be found in the works of Liszt, Chopin, andothers . Thenotes usually fill one or more measures , though it is not alwaysnecessary to compress them into exact time. The result is a freerunning phrase, which the performer m ay take at any suitable pace.

Cadenza notes are always printed in a sm aller size than ordinarynotes.Artificial groups may be made by joining an unusual number ofnotes with a slur, andplacing above it a figure equaling the numberof notes . This means that such a number of equal notes m ust beplayed in the tim e-value of the place that they occupy in the measure. An artificial group usua lly occupies some simple fraction of ameasure, or of a beat.The simplest of such groups is one consisting of two artificial

notes to replace three normal ones. The two are written in the nextlarger denomination than the three, and joined by a slur with thefigure 2 above it.The slur, which will be discussed later, is a slightly curved line

placed horizontally, or nearly so , above or below the notes that it isintended to influence.Most common am ong artificial groups is the triplet, in whichthree notes are played to replace two. The three are wri tten in thesame denom ination that the two would have. It is possible for a

triplet to consist of two notes,the first having twice the value of the

other, or viceversa .

By artificial grouping, four notes may be made to replace three.Any num ber of notes m ay be made into an artificial group . But

if the number is large, it is customary to write the notes as cadenzanotes, with no figure added above.The sextolet is a group of six notes replacing four of the same de

How TO READ MUSIC 523

nomination. The true sextolet is taken either as one group, with theaccent on the first note of the six , or as three groups of two notes,bringing an accent on the first, third, and fifth notes . A sextoletthat divides into halves is wrongly written, and should have beenmade into two triplets . Even the greatest composers have been careless in this matter, andhave m ade this mistake hundreds of times.Som e examples of artificial groupings are given here, in single

Triplets. Doublet.

Septolet. Septolet.

Sextolet, correctly played. Large group.

The m easure consists of a value that is determ ined by figuresplaced at the beginning of a piece, or at any place where a change invalue is desired. In the latter case, it is usual to let the figures com ejust after a double bar line, or an unusually thick line.The figures are always in the form of a fraction, the upper num

ber showing how many notes of a certain value m ake up a measure,and the lower num ber telling what that value is. Thus 4 4 m eansmeasures of a value equal to four quarter notes ; 3 8 means m easures of a value equal to three eighth notes ; and so on. The fraction4/4 is equal to uni ty, which wou ld be simpler to write ; but theform er must be used , because it im plies accents in certain parts ofthe m easure. The sign used to replace is not the letter C , but two thirds of a circle. In the old days the m onksheld triple rhythm perfect, because it suggested the holy Trinity ; and they represented it by a circle. Even (double) rhythmwas only two thirds of the triple rhythm , andwas represented by


that much of the complete circle. The 4 4 rhythm is known also

as comm on time. For tim e the sign is used , andfor

tim e or

EThe rhythm is

called alla breve, and the 4/2 issom etimes spoken of as

“long alla breve.In even rhythm s the m easure divides naturally into halves ; but

in the simplest cases the halves themselves are sing le beats. Whenthe halves subdivide evenly one might speak of the rhythm as

double even rhythm ,though this distinction is not m ade. Even

rhythms include and

Triple rhythms are those in which the m easure divides naturallyinto three beats . They include 3/1, and 3/16 .

Com pound even rhythms are those in which the measure dividesinto halves or quarters, and these in turn divide into three parts.Exam ples of such rhythm are

and 24 16.

Compound triple rhythms are those in which the m easure dividesinto thirds , and each part subdivides again into thirds . Examplesof this are 9/4 , and 9/16 . Even 1878 has been used, and accented like a 3/4 measure with double triplets.Peculiar rhythms are those in which the measure divides into five

or seven parts. They include and

At first sight itwould seem that the number of beats in a measurewould determ ine its speed , and that the printing of these beats innotes of larger or sm aller denominations would denote the pace.As a matter of fact, a 3 8 piece with a slow tem po mark might beslower than a 3/4 piece with a rapid tem po mark ; but usually thesm aller denominations call for greater speed , anda certain lightnessof style.Com plex rhythm s occur in certain compositions . These are m ade

by the playing together of measures made up of dissim ilar rhythms .Accents in music are either natural or artificial . The natura l accents are those that come at definite tim es to show the rhythm ofthe measure. Ar tificial accents are those that aremarked especially,by certain letters or signs .In the simple even rhythms, with two beats to the measure, the

first beat is accented slightly. The same is true when there are


An increase in power is called for by the word crescendo, or itsabbreviation cresc. ,

followed by a long dotted line extending untilthe desired climax of power is reached . Such a gradual increase inpower may be called for also by the use of two lines that start froma single point and diverge gradually to show increas ing loudness.For the reverse effect, a gradual softening m ay be called for by thewords decrescendo or dim inuendo, or by the abbrevia tions decresc. ordim ,

followed by the dotted line of desired length ; or the softeningm ay be marked by two lines that start a little distance apart andgradually converge to a single point.An increase of pace is called for by the words pinmosso. A grad

ualincrease is called for by the word accelerando, or its abbreviation accel. A sudden decrease of pace is demanded by the wordsmeno mosso; and a gradual decrease by the word ritardando or its

abbreviation rit. A number of the most important terms used inmusic have been defined in the following chapter, and they m ay beinvestigated whenever necessary.

The tem po marks, showing about what general speed is desired,are tabulated here for reference . From the slowest to the fastest,they are grave, gravely, heavily ; largo, largely, broadly ; larghetto,less broadly ; adagio, slowly ; andante, fairly slow-m oving ; andantino,less slow than andante; modcrato, ata moderate pace allegretto, somewhat lively ; allegro, lively, fast ; presto, very fast ; and prestissimo,faster yet, the most rapid tempo of all. Andante andandantino are'

not used in their strict Italian sense.The artificial accents are those that have to be marked in espe

cially wherever desired . The two signs Aand both call for a loudaccent. Either one m ay be used in a com position ; but if both areused atdifferent places in the same piece, then the form er calls for alouder accent than the latter. Accent is implied by staccato, or by anextra stem on a note . Accent is called for by the letters sf, sfz, or

fz, which are abbreviations of the word sforzando or forzando. The

letters sfi'

z, coming from the superlative sforzandz'

ssimo, demand avery loud accent. The lettersfp call for a loud note, or chord, followedby softness . The letters sfp indicate a very loud note followedby softness. The letters rfor rfz, com ing from the word rin

forzando, mean a fair am ount of fulness without excessive loudness.The tenutomark, consisting of a dash above a note, signifies a cling


ing, expressive accent. The marcato, a dash with a dot below it,im plies the same sort of accent, but the note is to be slightly separated from these before andafter it. The portam ento, which mightbetter be ca lled the dem i-marcato, consists of two or m ore notesunder a slur, with dots over each note andbeneath the slur. In thiscase each note is given the clinging accent and slight separation. Ifonly the second of two such slurred notes has a dot over it, the firstnote receives the clinging accent and is held to its full leng th, whilethe second note is lighter and shorter, a lm ost staccato . A famouspiano teacher once explained portam ento to a pupil by saying,

“Playthe notes as if you were trying to give a legato with one finger.

"

The word staccato im plies tha t a note is to be shortened, and

given with a quick release . The staccato effect is m ost often calledfor by the use of a dot over each note that is to be so treated. Sometimes a thin vertical wedge is used , instead of the dot. Ifboth dotandwedge are found in the same piece, then the wedge calls for amore abrupt staccato than the dot. Staccato usually implies somedegree of accent ; and in a few cases the dot has been used to indicateaccent without stacca to . The opposite of stacca to is legato, whichmeans a sm ooth, well-connected style of playing.

When the rhythm of a piece is altered , and a false rhythm sub

stituted briefly andunexpectedly, the process is known as“synco

pation .

”T he odd accenting of som e rag-tim e m usic is really syn

copation, though not allsyncopation is rag-tim e . The result m ay bereached by several different m ethods. A long note may be writtenon the unaccented part of the m easure, so that it has to be held overthe place where the accent would come. Accents m ay be placed onthe unaccented part of the m easure . The accented notes m ay bemade short, while tenuto marks are placed over the unaccentednotes . Rests m ay be written on the accented beats of the m easure,andnotes or chords on the unaccented parts . Short slurs m ay beused to connect unaccented notes with the accented notes thatfollow. Finally, notes m ay be written so that they begin on the second half of a beat, andextend beyond the next accent. In allcases,the syncopation should not be carried on for a long time, for ifcontinued too far the false rhythm will seem to be the true one.Exam ples of the different methods of obtaining syncopated effectsare given on page 528.


The slur is a slightly curved line, placed horizontally (or nearlyso) above or below the notes it is intended to affect. The long slur,extending over m ore than two notes, came originally from violinplaying, in which it is used to m ark the notes to be played by a

single bow-stroke. It was then adopted for vocal music, to showhow many syllables were to be sung ata breath. In piano music, thelong slur m ay show either the notes that make up a phrase, or alegato style. It m ay be used after staccato work, to show a resump

tion of ordinary playing, even without any marked legato.The short slur, over two notes, has som e especial rules. If the

notes are sm all, the first one is accented andheld for its full length,while the second is m ade lighter and shorter. But if the notes exceedquarter notes in length, the second one must not be shortened.

If the second note is longer than the first, the slur should be treatedsimply as a legato m ark. In any rapid passage, a short slur is to receive only a slight accent.The slur is used also to bind together two notes of the same pitch,

in which case the two are playedas one. When the slur is used forthis purpose, it is called a tie, and placed so that its ends alm osttouch the notes that are to be joined together.

Any note m ay be lengthened by half its value if a dot is placeddirectly after the body of the note. If two dots are used , the note islengthened by a halfanda quarter of its value. Examples of dottedand tied notes are given here.

equals éfl f

Two dots in the two middle spaces of the staff, as shown in themargin, are used to indicate the repeat of allor part of

awhat has gone before. The two dots are always placed justbefore a double bar, which m ay have extra marks above and belowthe staff to attract attention. Ifno previous dots are found, the


The letters 8m over a staff show that the notes beneath the markare to be played an octave higher than wri tten . If the letters applyto more than the note over which they occur, they are extended by adotted line

,which stops at the point where the printed pitch is to be

resumed. Som etimes this resumption is marked by the word loco.

The sign 80a bassa below any note or notes means that they are tobe played an octave deeper than written. But the words can 8mbasso im ply that the notes are to be played as written with the addition of the octave below in each case.The abbreviation ped. is used to signify the pressing of the damper

pedal , which raises allthe dampers from the strings ofa piano, andallows the note played to resound continuously. An asterisk is usedto show where the pedal is to be released , and the dam pers droppedba ck upon the strings. In som e American editions ofmusic, theduration of the pedal’s use is shown by a horizontal line below themusic, with short upward vertical lines marking the beginning andending of the pedal’s use. Incidentally, this pedal shou ld not properly be spoken of as the loud pedal . The soft pedal is ca lled for bythe words una corda , and its use discontinued by the words tre corde,as explained under the word corda in the chapter on the piano .

Rests andnotes should be grouped to follow the beats as closelyas possible. With the notes, this m ay be done by tying the stems soas to show the proper divisions of the measure. In using rests, certain rules are followed . Thus when the first or last ha lf of a m easureis filled by two unequal rests, the larger one should com e first.Dotted rests are not often used by m odern com posers, though theyare sometim es found. When the first two of three beats are filled bya rest, one sign is usually employed ; butfor the last two beats in agroup of three, two separate rests are required . In a measure offour beats, one rest is used for the first or last two, but two rests areneeded for the second and third beat. In orchestral music, restsoften cover many measures. Below is given the sign for the four4 bars

’2 bars

'7 b a rs

'23 bars

'

rest rest rest rest

HOW TO READ MUSIC

bar rest, in connection with the other illustrations . The use offigures to show the number of bars’ rest is illustrated also .

Em bellishments consist of grace notes, trills, mordents, andturns.The long grace note is called the appoggiatnra , from a word m ean

ing “to lean” ; and it consists of a note of sm all body,wri tten be

fore another, and blending or leaning into the note that follows it.The grace notes are not given any tim e-value in the printed measure, but their tim e-value is taken from the note against which theyare printed . The long grace note is generally wri tten as halfthevalue of the note tha t it m odifies. Som e teachers give the longgrace note its printed value, shortening the next note by the sameamount. But this rule does not always hold . Other musicians saythat the tim e should be divided evenly between a long grace noteand the note with which it is printed . This rule, too, is not universal . If the large printed note is followed by another of the samepitch, then the grace note is allowed to take almost the entire tim eof the note against which it is printed. Before a dotted note thegrace note is given two-thirds of the total value. Long grace notesare most usual in vocal m usic.The short grace note, or acciaccatura, is nam ed (in Italian) from a

word m eaning “to squash ” ; and the short grace note is literallysquashed into the note after it, against which it is written. Theshort grace note, as stated above, has no tim e-value in the printedmeasure . It is m ade as short as possible, and its tim e-value takenfrom the note following it. Most beginners abstract the timefor theshort grace note from the preceding note ; but this is a m istake.The short grace note is printed as an eighth note, with smaller bodythan usual , and a diagonal line through the flag and the stem. Asthe last-m entioned line is the chief difl

'

erence between long and

short grace notes,its presence must be carefully observed . Many

misprints have been m ade in this matter, and the pupil must be onthe watch to detect them . The style of the m usic is often a guide,for the long grace note is slow andlanguishing, while the short one iscri sp andbright. Exam ples of long and short grace notes are givenhere, with their proper execution added .

Written Played Played W ritten Played


The trill is a rapid and continual alternation of any given notewith the note next above it in the scale. The sign for a trill consistsof the letters tr, followed by a short wavy horizontal line. This isplaced over the note to be used in the trill . A separate sign is required for each note that is to be made into a trill . Ifno other signis present, the trill alternates the note with the next note above it inthe sca le used in the piece. But the presence of a sharp or a flator anatural indicates that the printed note is to be alternated with thesharp, flat, or natural of the upper note . A trill is now generallyconsidered to begin with the printed note, though Von Biilow and

others held that it shou ld begin with the upper note. A trill is endedby the occurrence of the printed note, the note below it, and theprinted note again, allin rapid tempo . The trill must of course becarried on until it has filled the time-value of the note over which thetrill sign is printed .

Trills are usually played with adjacent fingers, though sometimesthe thum b andm iddle finger are used. The pianist Ketten em ployeda so-called force trill , in which he took the alternate notes with different hands. Liszt used a trick known as the vanishing trill, inwhich a softening trill is ended by the holding of the two notes,varied by an occasional light stroke on the upper note. This procedure works best when the notes are a sem itone apart, in whichcase the beats between the two tones appear to continue the trill in amost delicate and ethereal fashion.

The m ordent, derived from a French word meaning to bite,

” issim ply a single alternation of notes “bitten ” out of a trill . Themordent consists of the printed note, the note above it, and theprinted note again, the three notes played quickly, but the last oneheld, to fill out the proper time-value. The sign for the m ordent isM . As with the trill, if no accidental is present, the upper note is thenext one in the scale used in the piece ; while a sharp , flat, or naturalmeans that the sharp, flat, or natural of the upper note m ust be used .

The accent,

m ay com e on the first short note, or on the third note,which is held . The Germ ans call the form er case a Praller , or

Pralltrill, while they name the latter a Schneller. Som e such distinction should be m ade in English.

'

The inverted mordent is calledfor by the same sign, butwith a vertical line drawn through it thus,alw. The invertedmordent (which the Germans call simply Mor


But if such a dotted note is followed by another note of the samepitch

,then the turn becomes a triplet given in the last part or the

total of the dot’s value. The triplet, as usual, consists of the noteabove the printed one, the printed note itself, and the one below it.An inverted turn is called for by the sam e sign as an ordinary turn,with a short vertical line drawn through it. The inverted turn isthe reverse of the ordinary turn, starting with the note below theprinted note instead of the one above it.The intervals of a turn are usually a tone above the printed note

and a semitone below it. But with a printed note of the third orseventh degree in the scale, the sem itone above and the tone beloware used . Turns with whole tones above and below must be indica ted by the use of a natural or accidental above or below the turnsign. Such a turn is usually found on the second degree of the scale,as in Schum ann’s Novelette in F.

Written

Written Written

The bold, orfermata , m is placed above a note (or chord) to signifythat the note (or chord) is to be held for a long time, usually several beats more than its printed value would indicate.

The sign Q is often used to mark the beginning ofa coda, so thatthe player m ay repeat a part of a piece and then jump directly tothe coda .

In violin music, Vsignifies an upward bow-stroke, and H a

downward bow-stroke.A circle, 0 , shows the thumb position in Violoncello music.


In organ playing, the registration, or kind of stops to be used , isoften marked in by the composer with m ore or less com pleteness.The signs used in pedaling are as follows : Aabove note, right toe,Abelow note, left toe. above note, right heel . u below note,left heel. A V, change toes. U , slide toe to next note .

It has been considered advisable to add a few facts concerningchords.A chord consists of three or more related tones sounded together.

Notes which do not belong to a chord, but happen to be soundedwith it, are called non-harmonic tones . These usually occur in positions next to the proper notes of a chord . They are called suspensions when held over from a preceding chord, or passing notes whenintroduced independently.

A major tri ad is a three-noted chord consisting of a major thirdwith a minor third above it, such as C, E , andG. The tones of anytriad , from below up, are named the root, third , andfifth.

A minor triad has a minor third below and a major third above ;as for instance D , F, andA.

A dim inished triad consists of two minor thirds, such as B , D ,

andF.

An augmented triad consists of two major thirds, such as C , E ,

andG~sharp.

An inversion of a chord occurs when one or more of its notes istransposed an octave. If the root is transposed up an octave, thefirst inversion is formed ; and if both root and third are transposedup an octave, the second inversion is formed . In the first inversion,the upper note is a sixth below the lower one : and the inversion iscalled the chord of the sixth, or the six-chord . Similarly, the secondinversion, having notes a fourth anda sixth above the lowest note,is called the chord of the six-four. Thus if C , E , G in ascendingorder is the tri ad used , then E ,

G,C is the six-chord andG, C, E the

six-four chord derived from it.When the notes of a chord are as close to one another as possible,

the chord is said to be in close position. Butwhen any of the noteshave between them other notes that m ight belong to the chordif played, then the chord is in open position ; as G, E , C in ascending order.A seventh chord consists of a tri ad with an extra third added


above it ; as G,B

,D , F in ascending order. As either a m ajor or a

minor third may be added to any one of the tri ads (except a majorthird with an augmented triad), it follows that there are severalkinds of seventh chords, which are descri bed below.

In Harmony and Thorough-Bass, the chords are descri bed byRoman num erals. The first triad is that of the keynote, and theothers are numbered from the scale degrees. Capital letters are usedfor major triads, small letters for minor tri ads, andfor diminishedtriads the small letters are used with the addition of a tiny circle,like the mark for therm om eter degrees. For an augmented tri ad,the capital letter is used with a little plus sign at its upper righthand corner.

The triads of any major scale are therefore I 11, iii, IV, V, vi , andvii°. Those of the harmonic minor sca le are i, ii III

!

, iv, V, VI , and

The seventh chord is demanded when the figure 7 is placed againstthe triad num eral . The num ber 7 without qual ification calls for am inor seventh above the root, while 7 with an apostrophe, callsfor the m ajor seventh, and7

°for the diminished seventh . Thus I7

is the first m ajor triad with a minor third above it, to m ake thedistance from the root a minor seventh . V7 is the dom inantseventh of either a m ajor or a minor scale. IV” is the fourthmajor tri ad with a major third above it. The chord i71 is the firstminor tri ad with a major third above it, as A, C , E , G-sharp.

The chord v n° is a diminished triad with a major third above it, as

B ,D , F, andA. The chord vii°7° is a dim inished triad with a minorthird above it, as B , D , F, and A-flat. The other chords m ay befigured in sim ilar fashion. The chord v u

°7°

, or any chord com posedof three m inor thirds, is known as the diminished seventh chord .

All the seventh chords are subject to inversion, having three inversions instead oftwo. Taking for example the dom inant seventhof C , which consists of G , B , D , andF, the inversions are seen to beB-D-F-G, D-F—G-B , and F-G-B-D . Ffom the intervals of theother notes above the lowest note in each case, these chords arecalled for in harmony study by the figures 6—5—3 , 6—4—3, and6—4—2

In four-part counterpoint exercises , each part is expected to havesome melodic effect when taken by itself . In such a leading of the

542 APPENDIX

Alto (It., ahl'-to). High; in olddays a high part above the tenor; now appliedto

the lowest female voices. Another name for the viola .

Am ab ile (It., ah-mah'-bee—leh). Am iable, graceful, gentle.

Am oroso (It., ah-m o-to’-zo). Tenderly, lovingly.

Ancora (It., ahng-ko’-rah). Again, once m ore, yet.

Andante (It., ahn A slow, even tem po ; literally, going .

Andantino (It., ahn-dahn-tee'-no). A httle less slow than andante.

Anhang (Ger ., ahn’-hahng). A coda ; an appendix.

An im ato (It., ah-nee-m ah’-to). Anim ated; with sp irit.

Appassionato (It., ah-pahs—sio—nah'-to). Passionate, intense.

Appoggiatura (It., ah-pod—jyah-too’-rah). Lean ing note ; long grace note .

Arab eske, arabesque. A piece with a noticeable design oftonalembroidery.

Arco (It., ahr

’-co). Bow, ofviolins, etc .

Ardente (It., ahr-den

’-teh). Ardent, fiery, vehem ent.

Arioso. (It., ah-ree-o’-zo). A short piece hke an aria, but less symm etrical. For

aria, see chapter on VocalForm s.

”

Arpeggio (It., ahr-ped

’-iyo). Harp-like. Playing the notes ofa chord in swift

succession insteadofsim ultaneously.

As (Ger., ahs). The A-flat.

Assai (It., ahs Very, extrem ely, much.

Attacca (It., aht-tahk'-kah). Attack , start, go on, begin the next.

Aub ade (Fr ., oh A m orning song, literally a dawn song .

Ausdruck (Ger., ows’-drook). Expression.

B . The seventh note ofthe scale ofC m ajor. In Germ any, B m eans the note we

callB-flat.

Ballet (Fr ., bahl A pantom im e story with m usicalaccom panim ent.

Bars. Verticallines drawn on m usicalstaffs to m ark offm easures. Now used to

denote the measures also.

Basso continue (It. ,bahs’-so con-teenflu-o). Thecontinualorfiguredbass inoldm usic.Battuta. (It.

, baht-too’-tah). A beat; a m easure. A battuta

,in strict tim e.

Beat. A m otion with handor baton to give the tem po; a division ofa m easure ; a

throbbing heardwhen two tones are not quite alike in pitch.

Belcanto (It., belcahn

’-to). A pure and sym pathetic legato, the opposite of

bravura , coloratur, agilita , etc .

Bém ol(Fr ., bay Any flat.

Bem olle (It., b ay-m ol’-leh) . Any fiat.

Ben , bone (It., bayn , bay'-neh). Well, thoroughly.

Bewegt (Ger., be Rather fast; with m otion .

B is Twice ; to be repeated; continued.

Bogen (Ger ., bo’-ghen ). Bow, ofviolins, etc .

, Also a slur or tie.

Bourdon (Fr., boor A set oflarge stopped organ pipes. A drone bass ac

Bravura (It., brah-voo

’-rah) . Spirit, sk ill, requiring dexterity.

Break . The change between head and chest register, in voices. The change be

succession, andnot simultaneously.

Buflo (It., boof’-fo). Com ic ; a singer who takes com ic parts.

APPENDIX 543

C . The first note ofthe scale ofC . The sign for comm on tim e is not reallya C , but two thirds ofa circle.

Cadence. A close in m elody or harmony, ending a period, section, or entire piece,usually on the tonic chordofits key.

Cadenza. (It., cah-den'-tsah). An ornam entalsolo passage introducednear the end

ofan instrum entalpiece or song ; the cadenza m ay be written by either com poseror perform er.

Calando (It., cah-lahn' do). Becom ing softer andslower.

Calm ato (It., cahl-m ah’-to). Tranquil, quiet.Caloroso (It., cah-lo-m

’-zo). Warm , animated.

Cantab ile (It., cahn-tah'-bee-leh). In a singing style, sm oothly.

Cantilena (It., cahn-tee-lay'-nah) . Them elody ofa song or piece ; a melodious song ,

piece, or passage.

Capo (It., cah

’-po). The beginn ing, the top, or head.

Capriccioso (It. , cah-pree-chyo’-zo). Capriciously, fancifully.

Carita (It., kah-ree

’-tah) . Feeling , tenderness.

Com b alo (It., chem

’-bah-lo). A harpsichord.

Cos (Ger., tsehs). The note C-flat.

Chiarezza (It.,kee-ahr-et’-tsah). Clearness, purity, neatness.

Cis (Ger ., tsis). The note C-sharp .

Codetta. A short coda or extra concluding passage. For coda, see chapter on

Song-Form s.

”

Colorature. (It., cc-lo-rah-too’-rah). Roulades, em bellishm ents, or ornam ental

passages in vocalm usic.

Com e (It., cc’-m eh). As, like, the sam e as.

Comm a. The difference between a m ajor and m inor tone in the scale ofnature

(ratio of81to

Com odo (It., co'-m o-do). Quietly, easily, conveniently.

Com pass. The range ofnotes that a voice or instrum ent can give.

Con With.

Concert-Meister (Ger., con-tsairt’-my-ster). The chief violinist ofan orchestra.

Concerto (It., con A piece ofseveralm ovem ents for one or m ore solo

instrumEnts with orchestra (som etim es one solo instrum entW ith piano) .Concertstilck (Ger ., con

-tsairt'-stik). A concert-piece ; a concerto.

Continuo (It., con-teen'-cc-o). Constant, continual.

Contralto. Literally, a deeper alto. Often used to m ean alto .

Gerda (It., cor’-dah). A string . In piano m usic, una corda (one string) m eans soft

pedal, while tre corde (three strings) m eans a cessation ofthe soft pedal. Som e

tim es due corde (two strings) calls for the soft pedalhalfway down , but in old

tim es, when piano notes never had m ore than two strings apiece, itm eant a ces

sation ofthe soft pedal.Crescendo (It., creh-shen

'-do). A gradualincrease in power .

D. The secondnote in the scale ofC m ajor. Abbreviation for do or dal.

De. (It.,dah). From , by, through, etc . Dal, datle, etc .

, are the sam e.

Da.capo alsegno (It., dah cah’-po ahlsay’-nyo). From the beginning to the sign.

Dalsegno m eans from the sign .

Deciso (It., day-chee

’-ao). Boldly, decidedly.

Decrescelmo (It., day-creh Gradually dim inishing the power.

544 APPENDIX

Delicato (It., day-lee-cah'-to). Delicate, smooth.

Des (Ger., dehs). The note D-fiat.

Destra (It., debs'-trah). Right, right-hand.

D6tach6 (Fr ., day-tah Detached, staccato, in violin m usic.

Di (It., dee). Of, with, from , etc .

Diapason. The entire scale or range. A set oforgan pipes running through the

entire keyboard.

Disse, diéze (Fr., dee Any sharp.

Diluendo (It., dee-loo-en’—do). Dying away into silence.

Dim inuendo (It., dee-m ee-noo-en’—do). Gradually dim inishing in power .

Dis (Ger., dees) . The note D-sharp .

Divisi (It., dee-vee’-see). Divided, separated; usedwhen a single group ofvoices

or instrum ents is to take two or m ore notes instead ofone.

Do (It. , do ; like doe The syllable appliedto the firstnote ofa scale in singing,etc . In the fixedDo system , Do is always C . The French use Ut insteadof

Do in instrum entalm usic.

Dolce (It., dol’-cheh). Sweetly.

Dolente (It., doh—len '-teh). Mournful, grieving.

Doloroso (It., dol-o-ro'-zo). Sadly, sorrowfully.

Dopo (It.,do'-po). After.

Doppio (It.,dop

'-pee-o). Double, twofold; som etimes with the octave added.

Double (Fr ., doo'-bl). An old term for a variation .

Doucem ent (Fr., doos Sweetly, softly.

Dritta (It. , drit’-tah). Right, right-hand.

Droit (Fr., drwah). Right, right—hand.

Duo, due (It., doo’o, doo

’-eh). Two.

Duolo (It., doo-o'-lo) . Grief, sorrow.

Dur (Ger ., door ; hke“ Major, m ajor key.

E. Thirdnote ofthe scale ofC m ajor. In Italian ,e or ad means

Ecoesais (Fr., ay-cos Scotch, in Scotch style.

Einfach (Ger., ine'-fahkh). Sim ple, plain .

Empfindung (Ger., em p-finnd’-cong). Feeling , em otion, sensitiveness.

Energico (It., en-aif-jee-cc ). Energetic, forcible.

Ensem ble (Fr ., ong-som

’-bl). Unity, sm oothness, literally, togetherness.

Entr ’acte (Fr., ongtr Music played between the acts.

Erhaben (Ger., air-hah'-ben). Lofty, elevated.

Ernst (Ger., airnst). Earnest, serious.

Eroica (It., air-o’-ee-kah). Heroic.

Erotik (Ger ., Nor., air-ot A love-song ; an amorous com position .

Es (Gen ). The note E—flat.Espressivo (It., es~pres~see’-vo). Expressive; with expression.

Etta, etto (It.) are dim inutive term inations.

Etwas (Ger., et’-vabs). Som ewhat; som e; a little.

The fourth note ofthe scale ofC m ajor. Abbreviation forforte.

Pa. The nam e appliedto the fourth note ofthe scale in singing, etc . In the“fixedDo system ,

it is always F.

Facile (It., fah'-chee-leh) . Light, easy.

546 APPENDIX

Kapellm eister (Ger., kah-pell’-m y-ster). The director ofmusic, atfirst in a church

or chapel, but now in any chorus or orchestra.

Key. The lever that is m oved to m ake the piano action strike the strings. AleverOpening or closing a hole in wind instrum ents. A scale, the key being the first

(tonic), note ofthe scale.

Kriftig (Ger.,kref

’-tigh). Powerful, strong , energetic.

L. Abbreviation for left, or (Ger.) links, hand.

La. A syllable applied in singing , etc., to the sixth note ofthe scale.

Lam entoso (It.,lah-m en-to

’-zo). Lam enting, m ournful.

Langsam (Ger.,lahng

'-sahm ). Slow. The sam e as lento.

Languendo (It., lang-

gwen’-do). Languishing .

Largam ente (It.,Iahr-gah-m en

’-teh). Broadly, with fulness.

Larghetto (It.,lahr-get

’-to). A tem po not quite so slow as largo.

Largo (It.,lahr

'-go) . A slow,

broad tem po, alm ost as slow as grave.

Lebhaft (Ger., layb’-hahft). Lively, quick.

Legatissim o (It., leh-

gah-tees’-see-m o) . Extrem ely sm ooth and fluent.

W ato (It., 1eh-gah’-to). Sm ooth, with no pause between notes.

Leggiero (It., led-jyaifl-o). Light, delicate.

Leidenschaftlich (Ger .,1y

’-den-shahft-likh). Passionate.

Lento (It.,len

’-to). A slow tem po, usually between adagio andandante.

Licenza (It.,lee-chen’-tza). License, freedom ofstyle.

Linke (Ger.,ling'-keh). Left, left-hand.

Loco (It.,lo

’-cc ). Place. Used to show a return to the pitch ofprinted notes after

an 8va transposition .

Lungs. (It.,loong

'-gah) . Long .

Lusti g (Ger., loos’-tigh). Merry, gay.

M. Abbreviation for mane or ma in ,m eaning “hand.

M. M. Abbreviation for Maelzel’s m etronom e.

Ma (It., m ah). But.

Maestoso (It., m ah-es-to’-zo). Majestic, stately.

Maggiore (It., m ahd—jyo’-reh). Major.

Main (Fr.,like m an with a nasalsound instead ofthe n). Hand.

Mano (It.,m ah'-no). Hand.

Marcato (It., m ahr-cah’-to). Marked, accented.

Martellato (It., m ahr-tel-lah’-to). Strongly m arked.

Massig (Ger.,m ay

’-sigh). Moderate, moderato.

Meno (It.,m ay

’-no). Less.

Messa di voce (m ay'-sah dee vo

’-che) . A gradualswelling andsubsiding on a single

tone in singing .

Meetoso (It.,m es-to

’-zo). Sadly.

Metronom e. Adevice inventedby John Maelzelin 1815, in which a weightedrod,projected upward, swings from side to side in regular tim e

, to m ark the beatsofthe m easure. The rate m ay be varied by a m ovem ent ofthe weight. Figures

are placed on the rod, indicating where the weight should be put to obtain any

desired num ber ofbeats per m inute. Com posers som etim es m ark their pieceswith a m etronome m ark ; i .e.

, a figure anda note ofdefinite value, showing thatthe piece m ustbe played so as to soundthatnum ber ofnotes ofthe given valuein a m inute.

APPENDIX 7

Mezzo (It.,m ed

'-zo). The m iddle, half .

Mi (It.,m ee). A syllable usedfor the thirdnote ofthe scale in singing, etc.

Minacciando (It., m een-abt-chyahn’-do). Threateningly.

Misterioso (It., m is-tair-ee ofizo) . Mysteriously.

Mit (Ger ., m itt). With.

Moderato (It., mod-air-ah’-to). Moderate tem po, between andanlino and alle

gretto.

Moll Minor.

Molto (It.,mol

’-to) . Much; extrem ely ; a great deal.

Morendo (It., m o-ren'-do) . Dying away gradually .

Mosso (It., m os’-so). Movem ent, m otion, speed.

Moto (It., m o'-to). Motion, m ovem ent.

Nachdruck (Ger., nahkh’-drook). Em phasis.

Nicht (Ger., nikht). Not.

Noel(Fr., no A Christm as song ; derived from nouvelles, tidings.

Non Not.

Obbligato (It., ob -blee-gah'-to). Apassage ofsuch im portance that it is obligatory,

and cannot be om itted; som etim es a solo passage.

Octave-m arks, 8va , and 8va bassa. When 80a is put over a note, the note is to

be played an octave higher. A line extending from the 8va shows that allnotes

under the bns are to be playedan octave higher. 800 basso, placedunder a note

or notes, transpw es an octave downward.

Ohne (Ger., o’-neh). Without.

Organ point, see pedalpoint.

Ossia (It., os

'-see-ah). Or .

Ostinato (It.,os-tee-nah

’-to). Obstinate, continual, unceasing.

Ou (Fr., Or .

Parlando (It., pahr-lahn’-do). In a speaking or declamatory style.

Partitur (Ger., pahr-tee A fullscore.

Patetico (It. , pah-tay'-tee-cc ). Pathetic.

Pedalpoint. A susta ined pedalor bass note, over which are varying chords and

harm onies.

Perdendosi (It., pair-den’-do-zee). Decreasing in power, dying away.

Piacere (It., pee

-ah-chaiiJ-eh). Pleasure. A piacere, at pleasure, as desired.

Piangendo (It., pee-ahn-jen

’-do). Plaintively, sorrowfully.

Pian issim o (It., pee-ahn—ees’s ee—m o). Very soft. Abbreviatedto pp .

Piano (It., pee

-ah’-no). Soft. The nam e piano,” as apphed to the instrument,

com es from Gravicembalo con piano eforte, m eaning a keyed instrum entwi th bothsoft andloudtones.

Pill (It., pyoo). More.

Plus (FL ; like plea pronouncedwith the lips nearly clwed). More.

Poco (It., po

'-cc ). Little, a little.

Poco a poco Little by little.

Poi (It., po’-ee). Then, after that, next.

548 APPENDIX

Polyphony. Music that is com posedofparts, or voices, which supportone another,in contrastW ith homophony, whi ch is m elody supportedby chords .

Ponticello (It., pon-tee-chel'-lo). The bridge ofa violin or other stringed instru

m ent.

Portam ento (It., por-tah-m en'-to). The carrying-over ofone note into the next,

‘

so rapidly that the interm ediate notes are not defined. In piano m usic, two or

m ore notes under a slur , with dots above them ; the notes to be playedW ith som eem phasis and separated slightly.

Prestissim o (It. pres-tees’-see-m o). Extrem ely fast; as fast as possible. The quick

est tem po in m usic.

Presto (It.,pres'-to). Very rapidly ; quicker than any tem po except prestissimo.

Prim o (It., pree’-m o) . Principal, first.

Quadrat (Ger.,quad The sign for a natural.

R. Abbreviation in English or Germ an for right.Rallentando (It.

,rahl-len-tahn

'-do). Making the tem po gradually slower.

Re (It., ray). The syllable used in singing, etc. ,for the secondnote ofthe scale.

ReOht (Ger.,rekht). Right, right-hand.

Registration . The com bination ofstops in organ playing .

Rinforzando (It.,rin-for-tsahn ’

-do). Reinforced, accented.

Risoluto (It.,ree-so-loo

’-to) . Resolute, bold.

Ritardando (It., ree

-tahr-dahn ’-do) . Retarding, delaying thew e gradually.

Ritenuto (It.,ree-teh-noo

’-to). Retained, kept back ; m ore slowly.

Roulade (Fr ., roo A florid vocalphrase.

Rub ato (It. , roo-b ah’-to). A style ofplaying in which one note m ay be extendedat the expense ofanother, for purposes ofexpression.

Sanft (Ger., sahnft). Soft, mild.

Sans (Fr . ; sahn with a nasalsound insteadofthe n). Without.Scale. A series oftones, com prisedwithin an octave. The chrom atic scale on our

pianos consists oftwelve equalsem itones. By choosing intervals thathave som e

tim es one sem itone, andsom etim es two (a whole tone), the diatonic scale is m ade.

See chapter on How to ReadMusic.

Scherzando (It., skairt-zahn

’-do). Jestingly.

Scherzo (It., skairt

’-zo). A jest, or play. A piece oflively tem po and jesting style,

often in triple rhythm .

Schleppend (Ger., shlep'-pent). Dragg ing, drawling.

Schnell(Ger ., shnell). Qu ick, rapid.

Sc iolto (It., shee-oll

’-to) . Light, free.

Scotch snap. A sixteenth note followed by a dottedeighth note.

Se (It. , say). If.Segno (It.

, say'-nyo) . A sign .

Segu e (It., say

'-gweh). It follows; now follows.

Sehr (Ger., sa ir) . Very.

Sem plice (It., sem '-plee-cheh). Sim ple, in a pure style

Sem pre (It., sem'-preh). Always; constantly.

Senza (It., sen’-tsah). Without.

Sforzando (It., sfor-tsahn’-do). Forced, accented. Abbreviatedto Sf.

550 APPENDIX

Veloce (It.,vay

-lo'-cheh) . Swiftly.

Vibrato (It., vee-brah'-to) . Recurrent swells and subsidences in a tone.

Vivace (It., vee-vah'-cheh). A brisk, animated tem po.

Voce (It., vo’mheh). The voice.

Vorspiel(Ger.,for'-speel). A prelude; one ofWagner

’s preludes, with which he te

placedthe operatic overture.

Wenig (Ger., vay’-nigh) . Little, a little.

Z art (Ger. , tsahrt). Gently, tenderly, softly.

Z iemlich (Ger., tseem'-likh). Som ewhat, rather.

Z ierlich (Ger., tseer

’-likh). Graceful, neat.

Z iigernd (Ger., tsay’-gernd). Retarding, hesitating.

APPENDIX B

A COURSE or STUDY, WITH REFERENCES

The present course ofstudy is appended here for two purposes. It willenablethe generalreader to know which are the m ost im portant references, or to pursuehis studies by himself; and itwillalso serve as a basis for a musicalcourse in those

colleges andhigh schools thatm ay desire to incorporatesuch a course in their currieulum . The subjects treated in this course include the development ofm usic fromancient tim es, the great com posers, m usicalform , and the use ofthe instrum ents.

Other topics m ay, ofcourse, be added by any com petent teacher ; butthose givenherewillform a sufficiently thorough course in musicalknowledge andappreciation.

HISTORY

Prehistoric instrum ents.

The naturalorigin ofinstrum cnts andofsong .

The drum and its use.

Flutes andwood-wind instrum ents.

Early horns, trum pets, etc .

The lyre, harps, andother stringed instruments in oldtimes.

Chinese m usic .

Japanese m usic.

Peruvian andMexican m usic.

Savage m usic ofvarious races.

RichardWallaschek , Prim itiveMusic.

Louis C . Elson, Curiosities ofMusic.

Mary E . andW . A. Browne, MusicalInstruments, andTheir Homes.

Egyptian use ofm usic at banquets, etc .

Royalandgeneralcultivation ofmusic in Egypt.Assyrian m usic .

Hebrew poets and prophets.

B iblicalinstrum ents.

Biblicalsongs and their character.

Modern Music andMusicians.

552

Pythagoras andhis work.

The Greek m odes.

Greek instrum ents.

The Greek drama .

The Greek gam es and festivals.

Rom an instrum ents.

H om inence ofthe flute in Rom e.

W. S. Pratt, History ofMusic .

D . B .Munro, TheModes ofAncientGreekMusic.

The early congregationalsinging.

Am brose andhis scales.

The Gregorian scales (tones).Neum e notation .

The rise ofthe four-line stad'.Other attem pts at a stafl

'

.

Clefs and their origin .

Hucb ald andthe Organum .

Guido ofArezzo and solfeggio.

English improvem ents.

Article Pla in Song , Sta iner andBarrett’s Didionary.

Articles in Grove’s Dictionary ofMusic andMusicians.

Niederm ayer andD’Ortigue, Gregorian Accompaniment.

Poetry ofthe Troubadours.

Rom ances ofthe Trouveres.

Instrum ents ofthe'

h ‘

oub adours.

Music ofAdam de la Hale andothers.

Anecdotes offam ous Troubadours.

Jongleurs andGlee Maidens.

Poetry ofthe Minnesingers.

Music oftheMinnesingers.

TheMastersingers.

554 APPENDIX

Illustrations

Monteverde, Lasciatem i m orire,” from Arianna .

Scarlatti , Violette andother songs.

Lully, Overture to Le Tm’

omphe d’Amour.

Purcell, I attem pt from love’s sickness to fly, andother songs.

W. F. Apthorp, Opera Pastand Present.W . J. Henderson , Forerunners ofItalian Opera .

Arthur Elson, A CriticalHistory ofOpera .

H . 8 . Edwards, History oftheOpera .

W. H . Cumm ings, Purcell.

The old instrum ents, clavichord, virginals, harpsichord,The English Virginalschool.Dom enico Scarlatti and the harpsichord.

Early violinists andtheir m usic.

Oratorio and its origin .

The Italian oratorio com posers.

The Germ an chorales.

Early string andwind instrum ents.

Illustrations :

Selections from The Fitzwilliam VirginalCollection.

Scarlatti, exam ples ofsonatas .

Lotti, song , Pur dices te.

”

Cavaliere, oratorio selections.

Carissim i , oratorio selections.

Chorale, Ein feste Burg .

"

Articles on old instrum ents in TheMusician, February, 1908.

Naylor, TheFitzwilliam Vi rginalCollection .

Arthur Elson, OrchestralInstruments and their Use.

Musicaldictionaries and cyclopaedi as, passim .

CarlEngel, MusicalInstruments.

TheM. Steinert Catalogue ofKeyed andStringedInstrum ents.

THE GREAT COMPOSERS

(See separate nam es in m usicaldictionaries. encyclopedias, etc .)

10. John Sebastian Bach

Biography ofBach.

E stim ate ofBach’

s fugues.Bach

’

s other harpsichord and clavichordworks.

Bach’

s organ playing , organ works, and im provisations.

Bach’s orchestralworks (su ites, concertos,

Bach’s Passion andother vocalm usic.

APPENDIX 555

Fugues, 5, 7, and9 in vol. II ofThe Well-TemperedClavichord.

First Prelude, The Well-Tempered Clavichord, first without and then with the“AveMaria m elody that Gounod set to it.

Air from Suite, arrangedfor violin and piano.

Song , Mein Glaub iges Herze.

”

Parry, L ife ofBach.

C . F. Abdy Williams, Bach.

11. GeorgeFrederick Handel

Handel’s instrum entalworks.

Handel’s oratorios.

Handel’s habit ofplagiarism .

Recitative, Com fort ye,” and aria, Ev’ry valley, from The'Messiah.

Aria ,“I know that my Redeem er liveth,” from TheMessiah.

Overture to The Messiah, arr. for piano.

Song , Angels ever bright and fair,” from Theodora .

Largo, arr. for piano.

Song ,“Revenge, Timotheus cries,” from Alexander’sFeast.

Selection from Six Little Fugues.

C . F. Abdy Williams, Handel.

W. G . Cusins, Handel’s“Messiah.

Sedley Taylor, The Indebtedness ofHandelto Works by Other Composers.

12 . FranzJosefHaydn

The rise ofsymphony andsonata.

Haydn’s biography.

The socialposition ofm usicians.

Haydn’s sym phonies and sonatas.

Haydn’s oratorios andsongs.

Austrian NationalHymn .

Song , My Mother bids m e bindmy hair.

Song , With verdure clad.

Selections from movements ofSym phony no. 7, in D, in Ten Celebrated Sym

556 APPENDIX

L . Nohl, Life ofHaydn .

W . H . Hadow, A Croatian Composer.

P. D . Townsend, Joseph Haydn .

13 . Wolfgang AmadeusMozartLife OfMozart.

Child prodigies.

Mozart’s sonatas and sym phonies.

Mozart’s early operas.

Fantasia and sonata .

Song, The Violet.

”

Overture to TheMarriage ofFigaro, arr. for piano duet.Song , Voi che sapete,” from TheMarriage ofFigaro.

Duet, La ci darem la m ano,” from Don Giovanni .

Sarastro’s song, In dies en heiligen Hallen ,

” from TheMagic

Selection from Sym phony in G m inor, arr. for piano duet

Otto Jahn ,Life ofMozart.

Breakspeare, Life ofMozart.

E . Holm es, Life ofMozart.

14. Ludwig van Beethoven

B iography ofBeethoven .

Influence ofwom en on com posers.

Beethoven’s three periods.

Beethoven ’s piano sonatas.

Beethoven ’s cham ber m usic

Beethoven’s sym phonies.

Beethoven’s other works.

Illustrations

Finale ofFirstSym phony, arr. for piano duet.First andthirdm ovem ent ofFirst Piano Sonata.

FuneralMarch from Sonata, Op. 26 .

First m ovem ent ofWaldstein Sonata .

Song , FaithfulJohnnie.

”

Aria, Komm , Hofl‘

nung ,” from Fidelio.

First two m ovem ents ofSeventh Sym phony, arr duet

A. W . Thayer, Life ofBeethovenA. Schindler, L ife ofBeethoven.

Grove, Beethoven’s Nine Symphonies.

VincentD ’Indy, Beethoven .

Arthur Elson, Woman’s Work in Music.

Nohl, Beethoven depicted by his Contemporaries.E . V. Elterlein, Beethoven’s Piano Sonatas.

558 APPENDIX

17. Italian Opera

Biography ofRossini .Character ofhis works.

B iography ofDonizetti .Character ofhis works.B iography ofBellm i .

Character ofhis works.

Mercadante and others ofthe period.

Verdi ’s li fe until1870.

Verdi ’s early works.

Illustrations :

Rossini, song, Largo alfactotum , from TheBarber ofSeville.Rossini , song, BelRaggio,” from Semi ram ide.

Rossini, overture to Willia m Tell, arr. for piano duet.Donizetti, song, Com

’e gentil,” from Don Pasquale.

Bellini, song, Casta D iva ,” from Norma .

Donizetti, sextet from Dada , arr. for piano.

Verdi , song, Ah, fors e Iui,” from Traviata .

Verdi , song, Di quella pira,” from ItTrovatore.

Verdi, transcription from IlTrovatore.

R. A. Streatfeild, Masters ofItalian Music.

G. P. Upton, The StandardOperas.

H. S. Edwards, L ife ofRossini .P. Voss, VincenzoBellini

Crowest, Verdi , Man andMusician.

18 . Weber andtheRomantic SchoolB iography ofWeber.

Weber’s operas.

Weber’s other works.

Style ofthe Rom antic School.Spohr ’s biography.

Spohr’s works.

Marschner andhis works.

Other m em bers ofthe school.

Illustrations :

Selections from Weber’s sonatas .

Weber, vocalscena, Agatha’s prayer, from Der Freischutz.

Weber, song , SwordSong .

”

Weber, Perpetuum Mobile.

Spohr, song, “Rose so enchanting ,” from Z emire andAzor .

Spohr, solo selection from Calvary.

Spohr, selection from sym phony, Consecration ofTones, arr. for piano

J. A. Fuller-Maitland, Masters ofGerman Music.

Arthur Elson, A CriticalHistory ofOpera.

Sir Julius Benedict, Weber.

APPENDIX 559

Nohl, SpohrG. Muenzer, Marschner

G. R. Kruse, AlbertLortzing

19 . FelixMendelssohn

B iography ofMendelssohn .

Ages ofcom posers at beginning andendofcareer.

Mendelssohn’s songs andtheSongs withoutWords.

Mendelssohn’s fugues and contrapuntalworks.

Mendelssohn’s oratorios.

Mendelssohn’s sym phonies andovertures.

Hunting Song, from Songs withoutWords . No. 3 .

Death Song , from Songs withoutWords. No. 27.

Song ,“AufFlugeln des Gesanges.

”

Song, Ueber die Berge steigt schon die Sonne.

Prelude andFugue in E m inor.

Song ,“0 rest in the Lord,

” from Elij ah.

Overture, Hebrides, arr. for piano duet.Song ,

“Jerusalem ,

” from St. Paul.Song, But the Lordis m indful,” from St. Paul.Selection from Scotch Sym phony, arr. for piano duet.

Lam padius, Life ofMendelssohn.

Stratton, L ife ofMendelssohn .

Upton, The StandardOratorios.

Upton , TheStandardCantatas.

Mendelssohn , Letters; translated by Lady Wallace.

F. Hiller, Mendelssohn.

20 . RobertSchumannB iography ofSchum ann .

Professions for which the great com posers were at first intended.

Schum ann’s songs.

Schum ann’s piano works.

Schum ann’s cantatas andoperatic work.

Schum ann’s cham ber m usic.

Schum ann’s sym phonies, etc.

Clara Schum ann and her work.

Illustrations :

Grillen, from the Phantasiestitcke.

Song,“Er, der herrlichste von allen.

Sohg,“Hilft mir, Ihr Schwes tern.

”

Selections from the Carneval.

Song,“Brautlied.

”

Song ,“Ich grolle nicht.

Nachtstuck no. 4 in F.

Song , Volkslied.

Song, Mondnacht.

”

Selection from First or Fourth Symphony, arr. for piano duet.

560 APPENDIX

Reissm ann , L ife andWorks ofRobertSchumann.

J. A. Fuller-Maitland, Schumann .

Schumann’s Life, Told in His Letters.

Louis C . Elson, History ofGerman Song .

B iography ofChopin .

Style ofhis piano works in various forms.His songs.

His orchestralworks.

Illustrations :

Selection from Twenty-four Preludes.

Song ,“Were I a birdling .

”

Military Polonaise in A.

Song,“Der Reitersm ann .

Nocturne in G, Op. 37, no. 2 .

Selection from Mazurkas.

Song ,“Poland’s Dirge.

”

Selections from Sonata with funeralmarch.

F. Niecks, Frederic Chopin .

Jam es Huneker, Chopin .

Ashton-Jonson , Handbook ofChopin’s Works.

H. T. Finck, Chopin , and Other MusicalEssays.

George Sand, Chopin (letters, etc ., collated).

22 . Berlioz andLiszt

B iography ofBerlioz.

B iography ofLiszt.Liszt’s piano works.

Liszt’s transcriptions.

Liszt’s orchestralworks andtheir style.

Illustrations :

Berlioz, Menuetdes Sylphes andDanse des Feu-Follets, from The Damnation oj

Berlioz, song, Villanelle.

Liszt, Liebestraum .

Liszt, song, “Du bistWie eine Blum e.

Liszt, Campanella .

Liszt, Sermon ofSt. Francis to the Birds.

Liszt, song , “Die Lorelei .”

Liszt, RakoczyMarch.

Liszt, selection from Rhapsodie: Hongroises.

562 APPENDIX

His operas andballets.His shorter works.

Illustrations

Rubinste in, Melody in F.

Rubinstein, song,“Du bistwie eine Blum e.

Rubinstein, song ,“The Dream .

”

Rubinstein , Kammenoi Ostrov.

Rubinstein, first two dances from balletm usic ofFeramors.Rubinstein , song ,

“The Asra .

”

Tschaikovsky, Andante Cantabile from string quartet, Op. 11, arr. for piano.

Tscha ikovsky, song ,“Nur wer die Sehnsucht kennt.”

Tschaikovsky, selections from Symphonic Pathétique, arr. for piano duet.

Modeste Tschaikovsky, Life ofTschaikovsky.

Rosa Newm arch, Tschaikovsky.

Octave Fouque, GlinkaAlex. McArthur, Anton Rubinstein .

Biography ofWagner.

Popularity ofRi enzi and its style.

Advances in TheFlying Dutchman, Tannhauser, andLohengrin.

Adverse criticisms.

TheNibelungen Ring .

ParsifalandDi eMeistersinger.

The use ofguiding m otives, illustrated by Act I ofDie Walkure.

Prayer from Rienzi .March from Tannhauser.

Elsa ’8 Wedding Procession, from Lohengrin.

Song,“Album -Leaf.”

Songs,“Am stillen Herd and“Prize Song ,” from DieMeistersinger.

Magic Fire Music, transcription from Die Walkure.

The ForestRustling, transcription from Siegfried.

Siegfried’s FuneralMarch. from DieGotterdammerung.

Finck ,Wagner and hi s Works.

Gustav Kobbe, Wagner andhis Works.

Praeger, Wagner as I Knew Him .

Wagner, collectedletters, essays, MyLife, etc .

Judith Gautier, Wagner at Home .

Angelo Neum ann , PersonalRecollections ofWagner.

Various monographs on each ofWagner’s m usic-dramas.

26 . Various SymphonistsBiography ofBrahm s.

Sym phonies andorchestralworks ofBrahm s.

APPENDIX 563

His piano pieces and songs.

B iography ofRafi .

Works andm elodious style ofRafi.

Various Germ an com posers.

Life andworks ofBruckner.

Illustrations

Cavatina for violin and piano.

Rafi, song,“Gute Nacht.”

Rafi, March from Lenore Sym phony, arr. for piano duet.Brahm s, song,

“The Little Dustm an .

”

Brahm s, song,“Mailied.

”

Brahm s, selection from First Piano Sonata .

Brahm s, song,“Wie bistdu m eine Konigin .

Brahm s, song , Sapphic Ode.

”

Brahm s, selection from SecondSym phony, arr. for piano duet.

J. L . Erb , Life ofBrahms.

H . Deiters, Johannes Brahms.

Felix Weingartner, The Symphony sinceBeethoven.

Philip H . Goepp, Symphonies and their Meaning.

Brahm s,Letters, edited by Kalbeck.

27. Grieg andScandinavianMusic

Biography ofGrieg .

His songs.

His shorter piano works.

His orchestralworks.

Life andworks ofSvendsen.

Life andworks ofSinding.

Gade andDanish com posers.

Hallen and the Swedish school.

Sibelius and the a ish school.

Grieg , An Spring.

Grieg , March ofthe Dwa rfs.

Grieg , song , “Die Prinzessin .

Grieg , song, The First Prim rose.

”

Sinding , Rustle ofSpring .

Norse folk-song, Astri , m y Astri .Norse folk-song, The Herder

’s Call.”

Gade, Marches for piano, four hands.

Sibelius, song, Ingahll.”

Grieg , Peer GyntSuite, arr. for piano duet.

H . T. Finck, L ife ofGrieg .

Arthur Elson, Modern Composers ofEurope.

564 APPENDIX

28. Strauss andProgrammeMusic

B iography ofRichardStrauss.

The scope ofprogramme m usic.

Mahler, Weingartner, Hausegger, andothers.

Strauss, selections from Stimmungsbilder, Op . 9 .

Strauss, song ,

“Allerseelen .

”

Strauss, song ,“Traum durch die Damm erung .

Strauss, selection from Sym phony in F m inor, arr. for piano duet.Weingartner, song,

“Liebesfeier .

”

Strauss, song ,“Serenade.

”

Strauss, sym phonic poem , Death andTransfiguration, arr. for piano.

Ernest Newm an, RichardStrauss.

Arthur Elson , Modern Composers ofEurope.

Fmderick Niecks, ProgrammeMusic .

29 . Debussy andModernism

César Franck andhisworks.

D’Indy andothers.

Debussy’s works, andtheir harmonic style.

Work ofFanelli , Satie, Faure, andothers, in France.

Work ofReger, Schoenberg , and others, in Germ any.

Work ofBusoni in Italy.

Work ofScriab ine, Rachm aninofi, Stravinsky, andothers, in Russia.

Work ofCyrilScott, Delius, Holbrooke, andothers, in England.

Illustrations :

Franck, selections from Prelude, Aria, et Final.Debussy, song, Rom ance.

”

Faure, song ,“Les Roses d’Ispahan.

Scott,“In Lotus Land.

”

Debussy, song ,“Les Cloches.

Rachm aninofi, Prelude in C-sharp m inor.

Satie, selection from Sonneries de la Rosc Croisc.Schoenberg , selection from Three Piano Pieces .

Debussy, “L’Aprés-Midi d’un Faune,” arr. for piano.

Louis Laloy, Claude DebussyMrs. Franz Liebich, Claude Debussy.

G. Derepas, Ce’

sar Franck

VincentD ’Indy, Cesar Franck.

30. Music in RussiaLife andworks ofBalakirefi .

Life andworks ofBorodin .

APPENDIX

Switzerland.

Illustrations

EdwardGerm an, selection from HenryVIIIDances, for piano and violin.

Sgam bati, song , Visione.

”

Wolf-Ferrari, song , selection from Vita Nuova .

Bossi, selection from Suite Ancienne, Op. 103 .

Huber, songs, selection from PeregrinwLieder, Op. 32 .

Albeniz, Seguidilla .

Paderewski, Minuet.Fi b ich, song , Spring Longing .

Tinel, song , Hymn to Poverty, from Franciscus.

Sm etana , selection from Hochzei tszenen

Dvol‘ak, selection from New WorldSymphony, arr. for piano duet.

J. A. M ler-Maitland, EnglishMusic in the Nineteenth Century.

Arthur Elson , Modern Composers ofEurope.

R. J. Buckley, SirEdwardElgar.

Albert Soub ies, Histoire de la Musique, in the following volumes : BelgiumBohem ia , Spa in Scandinavian Countries Holland, Hungary, Portugal,Switzerland

J. Z ubaty, Anton DvoidkWasiliewski, CarlReinecke.

Pilgrim andPuritan music.

The rise ofconcerts andopera.

Negro andIndian m usic.

Paine, Chadwick, MacDowell, Parker, Foote, andother orchestralleaders.

More recent com posers.

Com posers in sm aller forms.

Illustrations:

Chadwick, song , “Allah.

Parker, selection from Hora Ncoissimo , piano score.

Paine, selection from Gi'

dipus music, arr. for piano.

Paine, song , A Farewell.

Foote, song , Irish Folk-Song.

MacDowell, Poem for piano.

MacDowell, OfBre’r Rabbit.”

Converse, Chonita ’s prayer, Act It, The Sacrifice.

APPENDIX 567

Herbert, Lullaby from Act III, Natoma .

Kelley, Ballet Episode.

De Koven, song , Cradle Song .

Cadm an , song , Far ofi Iheardalover’s flute, from FourAmeri can IndianSongs.

Chadwick, overture Melpomene , arr. for piano.

Louis C . Elson, History ofAmericanMusic.

RupertHughes, Contemporary American Composers.

Oscar G. Sonneck (m usicallibrarian ofCongress), EarlyConcertLife in America .

Oscar G. Sonneck, The Star-SpangledBanner.

Natalie Curtis, The Indians’ Book.Alice C . Fletcher, Indian Story andSong .

J. A. Lornax, Cowboy Songs.

W. S. B. Mathewa AHundred Y ears ofMusic tn America.

(See section on MusicalForm in this volum e. Louis C . Elson'

s Theory ofMusic,Ernst Pauer ’

sMusicalForms, and E. Prout’

s The Fugue. andMusicalForms.)

84. Figures, Phrases, andPeriods

Explain in figure as a single idea oftwo or more notes.

Illustrate by the firstmovem entofBeethoven ’s fifth andsixth sym phonies, show

ing how a figure is usedto buildup a work. Illustrate also by the three-notedfigure in

“Aase’s Death,

” from Grieg’s Peer GyntSuite, the two-notedfigure in nearly

every b ar ofSchuett’s Reverie, etc.

Et rase as a single mdodic idea longer thm the figm e andpcrhaps m ade up

Illustrate phrases by MendeMohn’s Songs without Words, Schumann

’s Kinder

szenen, etc .

Explain period, or them e, as made up oftwo contrasted phrases. The first phrwe,called

,the antecedent,

”seems incom plete by itself, as if itwere an unanswered

question. The second phrase, calledthe consequent,”seems to bring an answer

and a sense ofcom pleteness. The phrases need not be ofthe same size, the consequent often being longer than the antecedent. The consequent frequently ends

in a cadence, or harmonic close.

Illustrate single periods in the Mendelssohn andSchum ann works cited above;Explain that a song-form may consist ofa single period.

Illustrate by the Germ an folk-song The Broken Ring .

”

Expla in that any m usical'

form m ay have an introduction, com ing before its struc»ture begins, or a coda, com ing after itlike a m usicalpostscript, or both.

Illustrate the single period form by Scriabine’s Prelude in G-dat.

between the periods.

Explain ab o thatthe secondperiodm ay be wholly new, or may have its consequent

568 APPENDIX

the sam e, or nearly the same, as thatofthe first period. In the first case the twoperiod independent form results, and in the second, the two-period form withpartialreturn .

Illustrate the two-period independent form by songs, such as Annie Laurie,”and

certain eight-line hymn tunes.

Illustrate the two-period form with partialreturns by songs, such as Drink to meonly with thine eyes,

”Bonnie Doon,

”and certa in hymn tunes that show this

form . State that either periodm ay be repeated.

State that com posers are usually devoted to the idea ofletting the opening materialreturn, either wholly or in part, so that the two-period independent form is not

m uch used in instrum entalm usic.

Illustrate byMendelssohn’s first Gondellied,

”which is a two-period independent

form , buthas the m aterialofthe first periodsuggested in the coda .

Explain that three-division form consists ofa period, a contrasting period or freeepisode, anda return ofthe first period, either wholly, or with alteredconsequent,or condensed to a single phrase. Explain that such forms m ay have introduction,coda, transition passages, or returning passages, the latter being passages thatlead to the return ofthe first period. When the contrasting section is dividedinto antecedent and consequent, and has a fullcadence, it is called a counter

them e. Ifit shows less definite structure, it is calledan episode.

” Som e writerssuggest that if the m iddle section does not show a division into antecedent and

consequent it shouldbe called a free episode.

" Explain thatwhen repeats arem ade, it is usualto repeatthe firstpart by itself, or the secondandthirdtogether,or to make both repeats. Som etimes, however, a countertheme is repeated byitself.

Illustrate by Chaminade’s ScarfDance. This piece has periods ofsixteen m easures

each, with repeats written out, the m iddle section being an episode, but not a

Illustrate by Mendelssohn’s DeathSong. This piece has an introduction and coda

m ade ofsim ilar m aterial, andthe sam e rhythm is usedatthe close ofthe episode.

The repeat ofthe first period is written out, and its consequent extended in thereturn. The m iddle section is an episode. The piece is brought to a clim ax bythe constantly richer accom paniment given to the first period.

Illustrate by Mendelssohn’s Hunting Song. After a short introduction

, this pieceshows a first period divided very unequally, the first phrase lasting only fourm easures, while the consequent is severaltim es thatlength. After an episode, thefi

zzperiod returns, the antecedent appearing in the left hand. There is a long

c

Illustrate by Mendelssohn ’s Consolation . This has an eight-b ar period, returning

with alteredconsequent, anda six-bar episode. The separate bits atthe beginningand end are so clearly suggestive ofaccom panim ent to a song that they m ay beterm ed prelude and postlude, instead ofintroduction and coda .

Illustrate by Jensen’sBridalSong. This piece has seventeen m easures ofintroduction . The first period is sixteen m easureslong . A second period (counterthem e) isrepeatedwith alterations. Eighteen bars ofreturning passage bring the returnofthe first period. But instead ofaltering the consequent

,Jensen let it end in

the dom inant, as before, andwrote another periodto getthe piece into the tonic

570 APPENDIX

extended by repeats, with the last occurrence ofthe first section considerablyshortened, anda brief coda added. Show thatthe firstsection , ofnearly two pages,is not in period form , but is builtup ofthe m aterialoccurring in the firstfew bars.The second section, sostenuto, seem s m ore in periodic style resem bling a three-part

Illustrate with“Anitra’s Dance,” from Grieg’s Peer GyntSuite. Show that this is

practically a song-form with a long episode, though it is rondo-like in character.

Note the unusualprocedure ofprolong ing the antecedent in the return, insteadof

altering the consequent, to bring the cadence into the proper key.

Illustrate by Clem enti’sRondo in the key ofF, in which the first section is broughtback by the D C . mark.

Illustrate by Poldini’s Poupée Valsante. Show that this is m uch like a song~form

with a long episode. It has five bars ofintroduction, and a periodfor the firstsection . The length ofthe episode, however, andthe unusuallength and rem inis

cent character ofthe coda, are more suggestive ofrondo than ofsong-form .

Illustrate by the slow movem entofBeethoven’s FirstSonata . Som e callthis a song

form ; but the first section ofsixteen bars seems two-period, while the side sec

tion is too episodicalto be a trio.

Illustrate by the Adagio in Mozart’s Sonata in D , no. 15 in the Litolfi Collection.

The Adagio itself is in A.

39 . The SecondRondo, etc.

Explain that secondrondo consists ofa section, a side section, return offirst section , a secondside section , and another return offirst section . This A-B-A-C—Astructure is not found am ong the song

-forms, so that even when the sections areonly single periods, the piece m ust stillbe called a rondo. Som e teachers, how

ever, callthis single-period rondo a five-part song-form . But the rondo m ay be

m uch larger in structure, having com plete song-form s or long free passages forany one ofits sections. Itm ay thus approxim ate to the song-form with two trios,but is ofcourse freer in style andless definitely divided into periods. Any rondo

section m ay be repeated singly.

Illustrate the single-period rondo by Moszkowski’s Span ish Dance, Op . 12 , no. 1.

Show that its five sections are allabout equalin im portance, so that it couldnotbe classed as a song-form with single-period trio andabbreviated return .

Illustrate with Beethoven’s Fur Eli se, in which the first section is a three-part

song-form .

Illustrate by the slow m ovem ent ofBeethoven ’s Sonata Pathétique.

Illustrate by Grieg’s Norwegian BridalProcession .

with one or m ore side sections that could occur m ore than once.

Illustrate by Martini ’s Gavotte, Les Moutons.

Explain that the structure A-B-A-C -A-B-A has been used, andhas som etimes beencalledthird rondo.

Expla in the use by Brahm s ofthe structure A-B-C-B-A, consisting ofm ain section,first side section , second side section , first side section, andm ain section.

Illustrate by Mozart’s march Alla Turca , in which a certain them e is added after

each section ofthe work. Show that without this extra theme the piece wouldseem like a song-form with trio.

APPENDIX 571

40. The Sonata-Allegro Form inMajor

Explain the sonata -allegro form , nam ing each them e andeach division ofthe form ,

andgiving the keys ofeach them e in a m ajor sonata . Show that this form allows

greatvariety ofstyle, excellent possibilities ofbalance andcontrast, andan opportunity for figure treatm ent.

Illustrate the idea offigure treatm ent anddevelopm ent by playing again the firstsection ofChopin ’

s Nocturne in G, Op. 37, no. 2 .

Illustrate also by the firstm ovem ents ofBeethoven ’s Fifth andSixth Sym phonies,

playedwholly or in part.

Illustrate the sonata—form by analyzing the firstm ovem ents ofseveralMozart

sonatas, and som e ofHaydn’s.

Ifconvenient, illustrate the earlier sonatas by analyzing first m ovem ents fromScarlatti, Galuppi, Paradisi, Kuhnau , andC . P. E. Bach.

Illustrate by analyzing the first m ovem ent ofBeethoven ’s SecondandThirdPiano

Sonatas, also the first m ovem ent ofthe Waldstein Sonata .

Show that Beethoven grew toward freedom ofform , and explain that his last fivesonatas are very free.

In connection withMozart’s sonatas, note that some ofthe movem ents have more

than one closing them e.

41. The Sonata-AllegroForm inMinorExplain the schedule ofkeys for the sonata -allegro form in m inor.Illustrate by analyzing the first m ovem ent ofMozart

’s Sonata no. 16 in the Litolfi

collection.

Illustrate by analyzing Haydn’s Sonata no. 5 in Ten CelebratedSonatas.

Illustrate by analyzing the first m ovem ent ofBeethoven’s First Sonata, the first

movem ent ofhis Sonata Pathétique, and the first movem ent ofhis Fifth Sym

Give a schedule ofkeys when the second them e ofa m inor sonata appears in the

Illustrate by analyzing the finale ofBeethoven’s FirstSonata, Op. 2 , no. 1.

Explain that the rema in ing movem ents ofa sonata m ay be in various form s. Show

the generalstyle ofthe m ovem ents.

Illustrate the m inuet from the Haydn andMozart sonatas, showing that itis a song

Illustrate the first rondo form by the slow m ovem ent from Beethoven’s FirstSonata, or by Mozart

’s Alla Turca .

Refer to the slow m ovem ent ofthe Sonata Pathétique as illustrating second rondo.

Illustrate a large song-form and trio by the movem ent in Tschaikovsky’s

Illustrate by Clem enti’s Sonatina, Op. 36 , no. 3.

Explain the sonatina-rondo form .

Illustrate by the finale ofBeethoven’sSonata Pathétique.

57?

Describe them e and variations.

Describe the use ofa fugue in the finale ofLechner’s Suite, Op . 113 .

43 . OrchestralForms

Explain that sym phony, classicaloverture, concerto , string quartet, piano trio, etcare in the sonata-form , though the overture has no repeat ofthe exposition.

Describe the French overture-form .

Illustrate by the overture to Handel’sMessiah.

Describe the dram atic overture.

Illustrate by piano arrangem ent ofBeethoven ’s Egmont overture.

Describe the classicaloverture.

Illustrate by Mozart’s Don Giovanni overture.

Describe the m edley overture.

Illustrate by the overture to Herold’s Z ampa .

Describe the concert overture.

Illustrate by part or allofthe Hebrides overture, by Mendelssohn.

Describe the Wagnerian Prelude.

Illustrate by the Prelude to Parsifal.Expla in the sym phonic poem .

Explain the scope ofprogramm e music.

Show its weakness by playing Ram eau’s La Poule, or some other suitable piece,

without giving its title ; andlet the hearers guess what the m usic is trying to

44. Dances,Suites

, etc.

Describe the olddances andtheir style.

Explain the olddance-suites.

Illustrate by selections from the suites ofBach and others.

Describe those early m ovem ents that were notdances.

Explain the m odern suite and the divertimento.

Illustrate by selections from B izet’s first and secondSuite Arlésienne, Grieg’s Peer

GyntSu ite, Massenet’s Scenes Pittoresques, etc .

Describe the var ious piano styles given in the chapter on MusicalForm , in thisvolum e.

Illustrate by various exam ples, such as a Chopin Nocturne, a Chopin Mazurka, Go

dard’sNovellozza, Schum ann

’s Novelettes

,Ilyinsky

’sBerceuse, Rubinstein

’s Bar

carolle, Tschaikovsky’s Song without Words, Pierné

’s Serenade, Paderewski

's

Melodie, etc .

Expla in counterpoint as part-writing insteadofchord-writing .

Illustrate the old vocaluse ofit by Palestrina ’s 0 bone Jesu .

Explain Madrigal, Motet, andChorale.

Describe theMass and its divisions.

Illustrate by Marzials’duet, Friendship.

574 APPENDIX

this waswritten orig inally as a parody on the style.

Irish folk—song, The Little RedLark.

”

English folk-song style, Twickenham Ferry.

American folk-song style, My OldKentucky Home.

Art-song, King , Israfel.

Germ an Lied style, Schum ann, Du Ring an m einem Finger.

Albert B . Bach, MusicalEducation andVocalCulture.

Albert B . Bach, The Principles ofSinging.

H.H. Curtis, Voice-Building andTone-Placing.

Arthur Elson ,TheMusician

’sGuide.

Lilli Lehm ann , How to Si ng.

FerdSieber , The Voice.

Wesley Mills, Voice Production .

W illiam Shakespeare, The ArtofSinging.

Sir Charles Santley, The ArtofSinging.

H. C . Lahee, Famous Singers.

G . B . Lam perti, The Technics ofBelCanto.

Em ilBehnke, TheMechanism ofthe Human Voice.

49 . The Piano and its Predecessors

Describe the dulcim er, the clavichord, the virginals, the spinet, and thechord, explaining the principle oftone production in each.

Describe the schools ofm usic com posedfor these instrum ents.

Describe the invention anddevelopm ent ofthe piano, showing how slowly it came

into generaluse.

Explain the m echanism and action ofthe m odern piano.

Give an idea ofwhat piano practice is like, contrasting weightandmuscle playing .

Explain the various schools ofpiano m usic.

Describe the work ofcertain fam ous pianists.

Explain what the auditor shouldlook for at a piano recital.Illustrations :

Old virginalpiece, Sellenger’s Round (Elizabethan).

Harpsichordm usic, selections from D . Scarlatti’s sonatas.

Early piano style, Hum m el, Caprice .

Em bellished style, Mozart, Rondo in A m inor.

Broad piano style, Beethoven , first m ovement ofSonata Appassionata .

Contrapuntalstyle, Mendelssohn, Prelude andFugue in E—m inor.

Chord style, Schum ann , Grillen .

Modern style, Lizst, transcription ofSchubert’s“Hark, hark, thelark”and TheErlKing .

”

H. E. Krehbiel, The Pianoforte and itsMusic.

APPENDIX 575

History ofthe organ.

Structure ofm odern organs.

The chief organ com posers.

How to play the organ .

Som e fam ous organists.

Vitali , Chaconne for violin andorgan.

Bach, St. Ann’s Fantasie andFugue.

Widor, Toccata .

Guilm ant, selection from organ sonatas.

Hopkins andRim b ault, The Organ .

Audsley, The ArtofOrgan-Building.

Labee, The Organ and itsMasters.

Pirro, Bach and his Organ Works.

ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS

(See Berlioz, Orchestration , revised by Strauss ; Prout, The Orchestra Arthur Elson,Orchestral Instruments and their Use; CecilForsyth, Lavignac,Music andMusicians, andMusicalEducation .)

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe violin.

Viols andViol-m usic .

CarlEngel, TheEarly History oftheViolin Fam ily.

PaulStoeving , The Story ofthe Violin.

Lahee, Famous Violinists .

52 . Other BowedInstruments

Techn ique, tone-color, anduse ofthe viola.

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe violoncello.

53 . Other StringedInstruments

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe harp.

The guitar.

The m andolin.

The banjo.

Lutes andoldlute music.

W. H. Grattan Flood, TheStory ofthe Harp.

576 APPENDIX

54. The Flute Family

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe flute .

Bass and other flutes.

The piccolo.

H . Macaulay t gibbon, The Story ofthe Flute.

55. The Oboe Family

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe oboe.

Techn ique, tone-color, anduse ofthe English horn.

Techn ique, tone-color, anduse ofthe bassoon .

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe contrabassoon.

56 . The Clarinets

Techn ique, tone-color, anduse ofthe clarinet in C ,B -flat,

The acoustics oftubes.

Transposing instrum ents andtheir rise.

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe m ilitary clarinets.

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe basset horn .

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe bass clarinet.

57. The Higher Brass Instruments

History ofhorn andtrum pet playing .

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe French horn.

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe trum pet.Technique, tone-color, and use ofthe com et.

Technique, tone-color, and use ofthe saxophones.

58 . The Deeper Brass Instruments

Technique, tone-color, and use ofthe trom bones.

Early trom bone playing .

Technique, tone-color, anduse ofthe tubas.

The Wagnerian brass instrum ents.

The ophicleide, serpent, etc .

Kettledrums.

Other drums.

Cym bals.

Bells andgongs.

Celesta and glockenspiel.

60. The Orchestra as a WholeGive table oftone-colors ofthe instruments.

582 INDEX

Schum ann, Scherzo of Firstphony, 329.

Sinding , Rustle ofSpri ng ,Songs, various, 322 , 323 .

Tours, Gavotte Modem ,334 .

Andersen,KarlJoachim ,

235.

Andre, Johann , 105.

Andrée, Elfrida , 234.

Aneric , Felice, 53 .

Aneric , Giovanni , 53 .

Anim ucc ia , Giovann i , 52.

Answer, 369Antecedent, 323.

Anthem , 362 .

Antipov, Constantin, 269 .

Apollo and the Python, 18—19.Appreciation ofMusic, 309Aptom m as Brothers, 287.

Apuleius, 21.

Arabian m usic , 9.

"Are ja, Francesco, 196 .

Arbos, G. Fernandez, 277.

Archilei , Vittoria , 61.

Architectonics, 313.

Arco saltando, 402.

Archbishop ofSalzburg , 99 , 100

Arensky, Anton Stepanovitch, 267.

Argenti , 60.

Aria , 360.

Aria na etBarbe-Blew , 259.

Aristoxenus, 29.

Arm ide, 36.

Arne Michael, 106 .

Arne Thomas Augustine 84 .

Arneiro, Jose, Viscountd 277.

Arnold, Maurice, 302 .

Arnold, Sam uel,106 .

Arnold, Youri von , 269.

Arnould, Sophie, 480.

Arpeggio, 401, 415.

Arpi , 413.

Arrieta , Juan Em ilio. 276.

ArtofFugue, The, 71, 72 .

Artificialaccents, 525.

Artificialgroups, 521.

Artificialharmonics, 401.Artsiboutchev, Nicola i , 270.

Art-song ,361.

Arvidson.

Arytenoid cartilage, 392.

Asantchevski , Michael, 269.

Ashton , Algernon , 287.

Asor, 10.

Assyrian m usic, 10.

Atherton , Percy Lee, 302.

Atropos, 19.

Attack , 397.

Atta ignant, 51.

Attrup , Karl, 235.

Aubade, 34. 359.

Auber, DanielFrancois Esprit, 174

Aubert, Louis, 258Audundson, Torgeir, 231.Aulin , Tor, 234

Anliu , Valborg , 234.

Aulos,16.

Austrian NationalHymn, 93.

Authentic m odes, 24.AveMar ia , 363 .

Averkam p, 282 .

Ayres, Frederic , 305.

Babylonian m usic , 10.

Bach, Christoph, 69.

Bach, CarlPhilipp -Emanuel, 75, 76, 336465

Bach, Hans, 53 , 69.

Bach, Hans, the player, 69.

Bach , Johann Am brosius, 69.

Bach, Johann Christian , 89 .

Bach, Johann Chr istoph, 75.

Bach,John Sebastian , 69—75, 465.

Bach, Veit, 53 .

Bach, W ilhelm Friedem ann , 75.

Backer-Grbndahl, Agathe, 232 .

Back-fall, 385.

Baerm ann , Carl, 299.

Bagatelle, 359.

Bagpipe, 16, 431.

Baillot, PierreMarie,Baini, Giuseppe, 55.

Balakirev, Mily Alexeievitch, 261.Balalaika , 418.

Balfe, MichaelW illiam , 283.

Ballad, 34.

Ballad opera , 84.

Ballade, 358.

Ballata , 358 .

Ballet, 63 , 357.

Ballet Com ique de la Reine, 63 .

Baltazarini . 63.

Baltzell, W illard, J 305.

Banck , Carl, 150.

Bandurria , 417.Ban ister, 64.

Ban jo, 418.

Bantock, Granville, 285.

Barbarossa , 31.

B arba rossa , 210, 243.

B arber ofB agdad, The, 193.

Barber ofSecille, The, 158.

Barb ireau , Jacques, 50.

Barbitos, 16 , 18 .

Barcarolle, 359 .

Woldemar, 149.

395.

Bar-line, 30 , 520.

Barnby , 284 .

Barnett,Bartay, Andreas, 280.

Bartlett, Hom er Newton , 302 .

Bartlett, Jam es Carroll, 306 .

INDEX

Bartok , Bela , 280.

Bass, 42 , 395.

Bass, clarinet, 442Bass dam per pedal, 380.

Bass drum , 458.

Basset horn ,442.

Bass flute, 424.

Basso cantante, 395.

Basso profundo, 895.

Basson qu inte, 436.

Bassoon , 17, 433—436 .

Bass trom bone, 451.Bass viol, 407.

Batiste, Antoine Edouard, 187.

Baton, 497.

Battery, the, 456.

Bauldu in, Noel, 51.

Baussnern, Waldem ar von , 246.

Bazin , Francois Joseph, 185.

Bazzini , Antonio, 276 , 489.

Beach, Mrs. H . H. A , 304.

B each, John , 305.

Beak flute, 420.

Beats, 512 .

B ebung , 378.

Beccati , 60.

Beck, 96 .

Beck, Johann H 298. 302.

Becker, Reinhold. 250.

Beekm an , Bror , 234.

Beethoven, Caspar, 116.

Beethoven ,Ludw ig van, 93, 108—119,

467, 470, 497.

Beggaxr’s Opem , The, 84.

Bellini , Vincenzo,160—161.

Bem berg , Herm an , 260.

Bells, 459.

Bands , Georg , 100.

Bendix , Victor, 285.

Benedict, Sir Julius, 283 .

Bennett, Sir W illiam Sterndale,Benoit, Peter , 281.

Berceuse, 358 .

Beresovskv, Maxim , 196.

Berger, W ilhelm , 228 .

Berlijn, 283.

Berlioz, Hector, 179- 181, 497.

Bem acchi , Antonio, 474.

Berthald, Barron , 482 .

Berton, Henr i Montan , 174.Berton , PierreMontan, 90.

Berwald, Franz, 233.

B ignou , 431.

Billings, W illiam , 288 .

B illington , Mrs 448, 475.

B inchois, Eg idius, 49 .

B ird, Arthur, 298 .

B ischoff, Herm ann , 245.

B ishop , Sir Henry Rowley, 283.

B ittner, Julius, 250.

B izet, Georges, 183—185.

Blangini, Giuseppe, 175Blaram berg , Paul, 268.

Blech, Leo, 246 , 250.

Bleyle, Carl, 245.

Blockx , Jan , 282 .

Blum , 133 .

Blum enfeld, Felix , 270.

Blum enthal, Jacob, 157.Boccherini , Luigi , 96 .

Boehe, Ernst, 245.

Boehm flute, 422 .

Boellm ann , Leon , 187.

Bohm, Jose h, 488.

Boieldieu , oisAdrien, 170, 174.

Boise, Otis Ba well, 300.

Boito, Arrigo, 164 .

Bom bardi, 427.

Bombardon , 453 .

Bom byx , 18.

Bononcini , Giovanni Battista, 79.

Borch, Gaston , 298.

Bordoni , Faustina , 474.

Borodin, Alexander Porphyrievitch, 262Bortniansky, Dim itri , 196.

Bossi, Marco Enrico,

276 .

Bottesini , Giovanni , 164, 195, 410.

Botto, Bergonzo, 59.

Boucher, Alexandre, 488.

Bourrée, 353 .

Bourgault-Ducoudray, Lou is, 260.

Bousquet, Georges, 185.

Bovy, Charles Sam uel, 157.

Brackett, Frank , 305.

Bradbury, W illiam B 289.

Braham , John , 481.Brahm s, Johannes, 221- 225.

Brainard, 306.

Brandeis, Friedrich, 300.

Brandt, Caroline, 129.

Brandt, Marianne, 480.

randt-Bu

gs family, 283.

ranle, 35

Branscom be , Gena, 304.Braunfels, Walter, 245.

Brawl, 353 .

Breathing , 391.

Brecher, Gustav , 245.

Breithaupt, RudolphM. ,

rennin fam ily, 110.

nem a , arie, 480.

Breton , Tom as, 277.

rewer , John Hyatt, 305.

riard ofAvignon , 51.

Bridge, Sir Frederick , 284.Bridge, Joseph Cox , 284.

Bridges, Robert, 286 .

B riegel, 484 .

Brignoli , 481.

584

B ristow , George F. , 289.

B rockway, HowardA. , 300

B roekhoven , John A. , 299.

B ronsart, Hans von, 193 .

Bruch , Max, 227.

B r uckner, Anton, 225-227.

B rill] , Ignaz, 228.

B rum el, Antoine, 50.

B runeau , Alfred, 259.

B uck , Dudley , 300.

Bugle,Bull, John , 53.

Bull, Ole, 195, 231, 489 .

Bullard, FredField, 306.

Bulow , Hans von , 194, 484, 498.

B ungert, Au gust, 246. 249.

Bunning , Herbert, 286.

B uongiorno, Crescenzo, 273.

B urdett, George A. , 305.

Burlesca , 354 .

Burton ,Frederick R 305.

B usch, Carl, 299 .

B usi, Alessandro, 276.

B usnois, Anthony, 49.

B usoni , Ferruccio, 276 , 472.

B ii sser, Henri , 260.

Buttikay, Akos von , 280.

B uus, Jachet, 52 .

B uxtehude, Dietrich, 69.

Byrd, W illiam , 53.

By tones, 460.

Byzantine scale, 520.

Cabaletta, 358 .

Caballero, Fernandez, 277.

Cab estaing , W illiam , 35.

Cabezon , Antonio, 53.

Caccini , Giulio, 58, 60.

Cachucha . 355.

Cadenza , 345.

Cadenza notes, 521.

Cadm an , CharlesWakefield, 291, 297.Caedm on , 414.

Caffarelli , Gaetano, 474.

Cagnoni , 273.

Cagnoni , Antonio, 164.

Calanson, Girard,39.

Callaerts Joseph , 282 .

Calzab ig1, Raniero, 85, 86 .

Cam bert, Robert, 63 .

Cam p, John Spencer, 302 .

Cam pbell-Tipton, Lou is, 305.

Cam pion , Thom as, 64 .

Cam po, Conrado, 277.

Cam pra , André, 83.

Cam ussi , Ezio, 273.

Canary , 352.

Cannab ich, Christian , 96 .

Canons, 30. 48 , 49 , 367.

Cantata, 364.

Canticles, 362.

INDEX

Cantus firmus, 42.

Canzone, 361.

Cappelen, Christian, 232 .

Capriccio, 357.

Caradori-Allan , Maria, 477.Carafa, Michele, 175.

Carey, Henry, 84.

Carillon , 459.

Carissim i , 62 .

Carm en , 47.

Carm en , 184.Carnicer, Ram on , 175.Caro, Paul, 228 .

Caron , Philippe, 49 .

Carpenter. John Alden , 305.Carreno, Teresa , 291, 473.Carter, Thom as, 106 .

Casadesus, 277.

Castanets, 460.

Ca tFugue, 76.

Catalani , Alfredo, 273 .

Catalani , Angelica , 475.

Catch, 106 .

Catel, Charles Sim on, 175.Catgut, 399.

Catrufo, Giuseppe, 175.

Cavalli, Francesco, 61.Cavatina , 359.

Cavos, Catterino, 196.

Cecilia , Saint, 23.

Celesta , 459 .

Cellier, Alfred, 286 .

Ceruti fam ily, 398.

Cesaris, 47.

Cesti, Marco Antonio, 61.Chabrier, Emm anuelFrancois,Chaconne, 354 .

Chadwick, GeorgeWhitfield, 291- 292.

Chalum eau , 427, 439 .

Cham ber sonata , 483.

Cham ber m usic, 346. 489.Cham inade, Cecile, 260.

Chanson , 34 , 42. 361.Chants, 362 .

Charlem agne, 25, 384, 496 .

Charpentier, Gustave, 258.

Chausson , Ernest, 259 .

Che, 6 .

Chelius, Herman P. , 305.

Cheng , 6 .

Cherub ini , Lu igi , 170Chest reg ister, 393.

Chevillard, Cam ille, 260.

Chiarom onte, Francesco, 164.Chinese instrum ents, 5.

Chinese m usic, 4Chitarrone, 59.

Choir organ , 385.

Choir-sin in

§, 24

Chopin , eric Francois 151-155, 468Choralcelo, 383 .

586 INDEX

Dalcroze, Em ile Jacques~, 277.

Damper pedal, 380Dam pers, 380.

Damrosch, Frank , 297.

Damrosch, Leopold, 194 .

Dam rosch, Walter Johannes, 296 .

Dana, CharlesHenshaw, 306 .

Dana , W illiam Henry, 306 .

Dances, 18, 21, 351—357.

Daneau , Nicholas, 282.

Dah ican. See Philidor.

Daniels, Mabel, 304 .

Danks, Hart Pease, 289.

Danna, 487

DanaeMacabre, 403 .

Dargomiszky, Alexander Sergeivitch,

198.

Da Salo, Gasparo, 398.

David, Felic ien, 176 .

David, Ferdinand,488.

Davies, Walford, 287.

Da Vinci , Leonardo, 82.

Dayas, W . Hum phrey, 305.

De Beriot, Charles Auguste, 195, 477

488 .

De Boisdefl’

re, René, 260.

De Bourges, Philippon , 50.

De Breville, Pierre , 259.

Debussy,Achille Claude, 256-257.

Defies, Lou is, 186 .

Definition ofm usic , 3.

De Goes, Dam iao, 53.

De Haan , W illem , 283.

De Kontak i, Antoine, 281.

De Kontski , Apollinaire, 281.De Koven , Reg inald, 296De Lara , Isidore, 287.

De la Rue, Pierre, 50.

De la Tour, W illiam , 38 .

DelCarat, Beatrix , 36 .

DelCavaliere, Em ilio, 60, 62.

Delibes, Clém entLeo, 186.

Delius, Frederick , 285.

DelRio o, Teresa , 287.

DelValeTile Paz, Edgardo, 276.

e

DeMontfort, Sim on , 40.

DeMuris, Jcan , 42.

Denereaz, A. , 277.

Dennée, Charles Frederick , 305.

De Pachmann , Vladimir , 472.

De Rore, Ciprian, 52 .

Desert, The, 176.

Des Escas, Am aneius, 38.

Des Pres, Josqu in 50.

Dessauer, Joseph, 150.

Destouches, André, Cardinal, 83.

Détachée,402 .

Deu sche, 355.

De auqueiras, Ram baud, 36.

Development, 337.

D’Hardelot, Guy, 287.

Diabelli . 124.

Dial, 306.

Diaphragm . 391.

Diatonic scale, 4, 25.

Dibdin , Charles, 106.

D iepenbrock , Alphonse, 283.

Dietrich, 52 .

D ietrich, Albert, 149.

Di Lasso, Orlando, 54—55.

Dillon, Fannie, 304.

D'

Indy, Vincent, 255-256.

Dirge, 359 .

Discant, 42 .

Discord, 34.

Dittersdorf , KarlDitters von, 90, 96.

Divertim ento,

Divisi writing,

1

401, 492.

Dob rzynski, 81.

Dohnanyi , Ernstvon , 280.

Doktor a ndApotheker , 90.

D’

Ollone, Max, 260 .

Dolm etsch, Arnold, 65.

Dom art, Petrus, 49.

Don Giovann1, 102

Donizetti , Gaetano. 161—162.

Dopper, Cora , 283.

Doppler, Arnold, 280.

Doppler, Albert Franz, 280.

Doppler, Karl, 280.

Doret, Gustave, 277.

Dorn , Heinrich, 149 .

Dorn , Otto, 246.

Dots, 527.

Double, 354, 386.

Double bass, 409.

Double counterpoint, 30, 367.

Double stopping , 401.

Dowland, John , 53 .

Draeseke, Felix , 194.

Dragonetti , Dom enico, 195, 410.

Drake, Erik , 233 .

Dram atic overture, 347.

Dram atic soprano, 395.

Dressler, Lou isR. , 306 .

Dreyschock , Alexander,Drum s, 6 , 8, 458—459 .

Drum signals, 8.

Dubois, Theodore. 187.Ducasse, Roger, 260.

Dudevant, Mme , 152.

Due corde. 379.

Dufay, W illiam , 48.

Dukas, Paul, 259.

Dulcim er, 9 , 377.

Dulcitone,460.

Dum ka , 345, 353.

Dum p , 352.

Dunham , HenryMorton, 302, 305.

Dunstable, John ,

Duparc , Henri , 259 .

INDEX

Dupont, Gabriel, 260.

Duport, 408.

Dupuis, Sylvain ,282 .

Dupuy, 233 .

Durante, Francesco, 82.

Duschek , Franz, 106 , 466 .

Dusesk , Johann Ladislas, 106 , 467.Dvoi‘ak , Antonin , 278- 279.

Dynam ic m arks, 524 , 525.

Early Christian m usic , 23- 30.

Early instrum entalm usic, 64 , 83.

Eberl, Anton , 106 , 466.

Echo organ , 385.

Eckert, Karl, 150.

Egyptian m usic , 10—12.

Ehrstrhm ,236 .

E ichberg ,Julius, 300.

Eichheim ,Henry, 300.

Eichner, 96 .

Eight-foot tones, 386 .

Eleanor ofAcquitaine, 33.

Electric piano, 383 .

Electric organ ,385.

Eleg ie, 359.

Elgar, Sir EdwardW illiam ,

Ellicott, Rosalind, 287.

Eloy, 49.

Elsenheim er, Nicholas, 300.

Elsner, Joseph, 151.

Em bellishm ents, 465, 530.

Emmett, Dan, 289 .

Enesco, Georges, 280.

Engel, Carl, 306 .

English horn , 430—431.

English leadership , 25Enna

,August, 234.

Entr’acte 359.

Envoi , on g in of, 34.

pigoneion , 18

Episode, 3 25, 369.

Erard, Sebastian , 414.

Erb , Josef, 246 .

Erben , Robert, 250.

Erdmannsdorfer, Max von, 246.

Erikssohn , 234.

Erkel, Alexander , 280.

Erkel, Franz, 280.

Erlanger, Cam ille, 260.

Erlanger , Baron Frédéric, 260.

Ertel, Paul, 245.

Esposito, Michael, 287.

Essenham ens, 38 .

Esterhazy, Prince Anton , 92.

Esterhazy, Caroline, 122Fsterhazy, Prince Nicholas, 92.

tude, 359.

Eugene Onyegin , 203 .

Eugeniu s, Traugott, 50.

Euphonium , 454.

587

Euridice, 61.

Euryanthe, 130.

Ewald, Victor, 270.

Exposition , 336 , 369.

Factitious notes, 446.

Fago, 82 .

Faidit, Gaucelm , 36 .

Fa iries, The, 207.

Fairlam b , Jam esRem ington,Falchi , Stanislaus, 273.

Falsetto, 394.

False vocalcords, 392 .

Faltin , Richard, 236 .

Fam intzin, Alexander, 269.

Fandango, 355.

Fanelli , Ernesto, 257.Faning , Joseph Eaton, 287.Fantasia, 354 , 357.Farandole, 355.

Farina, Carlo, 483.

Farinelli , Carlo B . , 448 , 474.Farkas, Eduard, 280.

Farrant, Richard, 53 .

Farwell, Arthur, 291, 302.

Faugues, Vincent. 49.

Fauré, GabrielUrbain , 257.Faure, Jean Baptiste, 260.

Faust, 182 .

Fauxbourdon, 26 .

Favola dz'

Orfeo, 58 .

Fayrfax , Robert, 53.

Federici, Vincenzo, 163.Feo, Francesco, 82.Ferm ata, 533 .

Fernandez, 277.

Ferrari , 62 .

Ferrari, Carlotta , 164.

Ferrari , Gabriella, 260.

Fé te de l’

Ane, 58.

Fétis, Francois Joseph, 3.Février, Henri , 260.

Fib ich, Zdenko, 279.

Fiddle, derivation, 398.

Fidelio, 118.

Fiedler, Max , 245, 498 , 501.Field, John , 154, 156, 466.

Fielitz, Alexander von, 246.

Figure treatm ent, 317-319.

Filtz, Anton, 96 .

Finale, 343 .

Finck , Heinrich , 50.

First rondo, 331.

Fischer , Em il, 480.

Fisher, W illiam Arm s, 306.Fitelberg , George, 245.

Fitzw ilham collection. 53.

Five-part song -form , 333.Flageolet, 425.

Flags, 521.

Flats, 30, 516.

588 INDEX

Flem ish schools, 48—50. Furlana, 355.

Floersheim , Otto, 300. Furniture, 386.

Flondor, Theodor Johann , 280.

Floridia , Pietro, 273 .

Flotow , Friedrich von, 186 .

Flute, 420—424.Flute, bass, 424.

Flute-a -b ec, 420.

Flute-players’

union, 20.

Flutes, Chinese, 6 ; Greek , 16 ; Hebrew10 , nose, 7 ; prehistoric , 7 ; Rom an, 421

savage, 7 ; straight, 420.

Flying Dutchman , The, 211.

Flying staccato, 402.

Fly-track notation , 27.

Foerster, AdolphMartin, 301.

Foerster, Alban , 246 .

Foerster, Joseph BFolville, Juliet, 282 .

Fom in , 196 .

Fontana , 484.

Foote, Arthur, 293—294.Ford, Thomas, 53.Forlane, 355.

Form ,value of, 373.

Foster, Fay, 305.

Foster, Stephen Collins, 290.

Foundation , 386 .

Fourdrain, Felix , 260.

Four~foot tones, 386 .

Francaise, 355.

Francesca da B im ini , 205, 281.

Franchetti , Baron Alberto. 273.

Franck , César Auguste, 251- 252.

Franck , Richard, 277.

Franco ofCologne, 28 ,29.

Franke-Harling , W . , 298.

Franz, Robert, 126—127.

Frauenlob , 31.

Frederick the Great, 71, 82, 421.Free episode. 325.

Freer,Eleanor, 305.

Free sonata, 337, 340.

Freischiztz, Der , 129 .

French overture, 347.

Frets, 417.

Fried, Oskar, 245.

Friml, Rudolf, 299.Friska , 358 .

Froberg er, 65.

Frontini , F. Paolo, 273.

Frottola , 48, 59 .

Fry, W illiam Henry, 289.Fuchs, Albert, 277.

Fuchs, Robert, 246.

Fugato, 371.

Fughetta . 371.

Fugue, 72 , 368—373 ; early form ,48 ; in

sonata , 344 ; in su ite, 354.

Fugues ofBach, 72 , 371.Furiant, 345.

Gabriel, Richard, 245.

Gabrieli , Andrea , 52 .

Gabrieli , Giovanni , 52 , 483.

ab rilovitch, Ossip, 270.

ade, Niels W ilhelm , 140 .

Gaditanian singers, 21.

Gaillard, 352.

Galitzin , George, 269.

alop , 355.Galuppi, Baldassa re, 76 , 83,Gam es, ancient, 17—19 , 21.Ganz, Rudolph, 277.

Garcia, Manuel, 476 .

Gardiner, H Balfour, 287.

Gastinel, Léon , 186 .

aubert, Philippe, 260.

an], AlfredR 287.Gautier, Jean . 185.

Gautier, Judith, 210.

Gaveaux,173 .

Gaviniés, Pierre, 485.

Gavotte. 353 .

Gavronsky, Woitech, 281.Gay, 84.

Gaynor, Jessie L 305.

Gebhard,Heinrich, 246.

Gedalge, André, 260.

Geijer, Gesta ,233.

Geisler, Paul, 246 .

Gelinek , 467.

Gem iniani. Francesco, 484.

Generali , Pietro, 163.

Genetz, Em il, 236Gerlach, Theodor, 246.

Germ an , Edward, 286.

Germ an flute, 421.Gernsheim , Friedrich, 228.

Gesius, 53.

Gevaert, FrancoisA. , 282 .

Giardini , Felice, 484 .

Gigue, 39 , 352Gilbert, Henry F. , 303

Gilberte, Hallett, 306 .

Gilchrist, W illiam Wallace, 300.

Gilson , Paul, 281.

Giordano, Um berto, 272.

Girlofthe Golden West, The, 275.

Gittern , 39.Gladkowska, Constantia . 151.

Glazounov, Alexander Porphyrievitch,267.

Gleason . Frederick Grant, 296 .

Glee, 106 .

Glee-m aidens, 40.

Gliere , Reinhold, 269 .

Glinka , MikailIvanovitch, 196- 197.

Glissando,403.

Glockenspiel, 459.

590 INDEX

352.

n , Franz Josef, 91—96 , 497.

11, Michael, 96 , 128.

register, 394 .

Hebrew m usic , 10.

Heckelclarind, 432 .

Heckelphone, 432 .

Hegar, Friedrich, 277.

Hegner, Anton , 299 .

Heller, Stephen, 155, 468.

Helsted fam ily, 235.

Hendriks, Francis, 305.

Henriques, Fin i , 235.

Henry ofMeissen , 31.

Henry ofVeldig , 31.

Henschel, Georg , 228.

Henselt, Adolf, 156 , 468.

Hentschel, Theodor, 229.

Herbert, Victor, 296.

Herm ann , Reinhold, 246.

Hernandez, Paolo, 277.Hernando, Ra fael, 277.

Herodotus, 17.

Herold, Lou is Joseph Ferdinand,Hervey, Arthur. 286 .

Herz, Henri , 156 , 470.

Heuberger, Richard, 228.

Heum ann , Hans, 246 .

Hey, 352.

Hignard, Aristide, 185.

Hiler, Ernest Osgood, 305.

Hill, EdwardBurlingam e, 303.

H iller, Ferdinand, 140 .

H iller, Johann Adam , 105.

Him mel, Fri edrich , 132 .

H indu m usic , 4Hinton , Arthur, 286.Hiuen , 6 .

Hobrecht, Jacob , 49.

Hochb rucker, 414 .

Hoffman , Richard, 300.

Hoffmann,E . T. A. , 132.

Hoffm ann , Leopold, 97.

Hofm ann, Heinrich, 228.

HO] , Richard, 282 .

Holbrooke, Josef , 285.

Hold, 533 .

Holden , Oliver, 289 .

Holm es, Augusta , 260.

Holst, Gustav von, 287.

Holyoke, Samuel, 289.

Holzbauer, Ignaz, 96.

Holzer, 120 .

Hom er, Sidney, 305.

Hom ophony, 47.

Hood,Helen , 304.

Hook , Jam es, 106 .

Hopekirk , Helen , 304 ,

Hopkins, Henry Patterson, 303.

Hopkinson , Francis. 288.

Hora Novissima , 293.

Horn, 8, 444—447.

Hornem ann , Em il, 235.

Hornpipe, 3 5 2 , 430.

Horvath, Geza , 280.

Hrim aly, Adalbert, 280.Hubay, Jeno, 280.

Hubay , K. , 280.

Huber, Hans, 277.

Hub erti , Gustave Leon, 282.Hucb ald, 25, 26

Hue, Georges, 260.

Hughes, Rupert. 306.

Huhn , B runo, 287.

Hull, Alexander, 298.

B ullah,John Pyke, 287.

Hfillm andel, 106 .

Hum frey

, Pelham . 64 .

Humm e Johann Nepom uk , 106.Hum or ofcom posers, 435—436 .

Hum perdinck , Engelbert, 246—248.

Hungarian scale, 519 .

Hu ss, Henry Holden. 302 .

Hutcheson , Ernest, 302.

Hyatt, NathanielIrving , 303.

Hydraulic organ , 17.

Hyllested, August, 235.

Hym n m etres, 362.

Hym ns, early, 23.

Ide, Chester, 306.

Idomeneo, 100.

IIPomo d’

Oro, 61.Ilyinsk i , Alexander, 269.

Im itation , 30, 367.

ImmortalKastchei , The, 266 .

Im prom ptu , 359 .

Improperi a , The, 55.

Incledon, Charles B en j am in, 481.Indian m usic , 291.

Ingelius, A. GT 236 .

Instrum entalm usic , early, 64, 485.

Instrum entation , 491-495.

Instrum ents, orig in of, 6—9.

Interrnezzi , 343 . 354 , 359.

Internationalpitch, 516.

Intervals, 517.

Intrada , 354 .

Introduction , 322 .

Invention , 368 .

Inversions, 534

Inzenga , José, 277IPagliac 272 .

Iphige’

nie en Aulide, 86 .

Iphige'

n ie en Twur ide. 86 .

Ippolitovolvanov,Michael,

Irish harp , 413.

Isaac, Heinrich,52 .

Ieonard, Nicolo, 174.

Ivanov, Michael, 268.

INDEX

Jacks, 378.Jackson, William , 106 .

Jadassohn , Saloman, 141.Jadin , 173.

Jalso, 355.

Janne uin ,Clém ent, 53.

Jarec Heinrich, 281.

Jarnefelt, Arm as, 236 .

Jarno, Georg , 280.

Jensen , Adolf, 149.

Jim enez,Jeronimo, 277.

J iranek , Aloys, 280.

Joachim , Joseph, 195, 418, 488.

Johns, Cla ton , 305.

Johnson, erbert, 306 .

Johnson , W illiam Spencer, 306.

Jom m elli, Nicolo, 76, 82.

Jonas, Em ile, 175.

Joncieres, Victorin , 186.

Jongleurs, 34 , 39—4 0.

Jordan ,Jules, 298.

Josefiy, Ra fael, 280.

Josephson , Jacob Axel,Josqu in (Des Pres), 50.

Jota , 355.

Judith, 198.

Juon ,Paul, 269.

Juul, Asgar, 235.

Kaan-Albest, Heinrich von, 280.

Kahn , Robert, 246 .

Ka iser, Henri Alfred, 282.

Kajanus, Robert, 236.

Kalevala , The, 236.

Kalinnikov, Vassili , 269.

Kalkbrenner, Friedrich , 152, 156Kalliwoda , Johann, 488.

Kam arinskaia, 345, 356 .

Kam pf , Karl, 245.

Kam piert, Waldemar, 246.

Kapfelm ann, Arrhen von, 233.Karganov, Gennari , 270.

Karg -Ehlert, Siegfried, 245Karlow icz, Miecislav, 281.

Kasanli , Nicolai , 269.

Kashperov, Vladim ir, 269.

Kastalski , Alexander, 270.

Kastner, Georges, 187.

Kauer, Ferdinand, 105.

Kaun , Hu 0, 246 , 250.

Kazatchen 0 , George, 268.

Kazynski, Victor, 281.

Keiser, Reinhard, 63 , 77, 78.

Kelley, Edgar Stillm an, 300.

Kelly, Michael, 106 . Kroyer , Theodor , 245.

Kem pter, Lothar, 277. Krug , Arnold, 228 .

Kerll, 65. Kru -Waldsee, Josef , 246.

Kes, W illem , 283. K6 0 en , Friedrick W ilhelm , 150.

Ketterer, Eugene, 157. Kuhlau , Friedrich,133.

Kettledrums, 456—458. Kuhnau , 76, 336.

Keurvels, Edouard, 282 .

Keussler, Gerhard von , 245.

Keys, nam es of, 515; use, 519.

Khovantchina , 264 .

Kiel, Friedrich, 148.

Kienzl, W ilhelm , 248 .

Kim ball, Jacob , 289.Kin, 6.

King , 6.

K ing , Oliver, 287.

Kings’

Children , The, 247.Kinnor, 10.

Ki nsky, Prince, 110.

Kirchner, Theodor, 149.Kistler

, Cyrill, 248.

Kithara , 16 , 20, 21.

K erulf, Halfdan. 232 .

ein, Bruno Oscar, 299.

Klenau , Paulvon , 250.

Klindworth, Karl, 194.

Klose, Fli edrich, 246 , 250.

Klughardt, August, 228.

Kne1sel, Franz, 280.

Kniese, Julius, 245.

Knorr, Ivan , 250.

Knowlton , Fann 305.

Koch, Friedrich 246 .

Kochetov, Nicolai , 268.

Koczalski , Raoul, 281.Koennemann, Arthur, 246.

Koessler, Hans, 228.

Kolatchevsk i , Michael, 269 .

Konina, George, 269 .

Koptiaiev, Alexander, 269.

Kopylov, Alexander, 269.

Korb ay, Francis, 280.

Kord, Gustav, 245.

Korestchenko, Arseni , 268.

Korn , Clara A. , 305.

Korngold, Erich Wolfgang ,

Koss, Henning von , 246.

Kovarovic , Karl, 280.

Krakow iak , 356.

Kram er, A.Walter, 305.

Kramm , Georg , 246.

Krehl, Stephan , 246 .

Kreider, Noble, 305.

Kreisler, Fritz, 489.

Kretschm er, Edm und, 229 .

Kreutzer, Conradin , 133 .

Kreutzer, Rodolphe, 111, 175, 485.

Kroeger, ErnestRichard, 300.

Krogm ann , Mrs C . W . ,

Krohn , Ilm ari , 236.

592 INDEX

Kuhreigen , Die, 248.

Kulenkam pf, Gustav, 250.

Kurpinsky, 281.

Kurth, Otto,

228.

Kusser, 63 .

Lablache, Lu ig i, 448, 477.La Bohém . 275.

Lachm und, CarlV 301

Lachner, Franz, 121, 141.

Lacom be, Louis, 187.

Ladm irault, Paul, 260.

LaForge, Frank, 305.

L’

Afri ca ine, 178.

La Ju ive, 176.

Lakmé 186.

Lalo, Edouard, 187.

Lam bord,Ben jam in, 306 .

Lam oureux , Charles, 498.

Lam pe, Walter, 245.

Landler, 354.

Lang , MargaretRuthven, 304.

Lange-Millier, 235.

Langue d’

oc, 33.

Langue d’

oil, 33 .

Lan ier, 64.

Lanku , 9 .

Lsparre, Raoul, 260.

L'

Arle'

sienne, 184.

Larrocha , 276 .

Laryngoscope, 394.

Lar nx , 391, 392 , 394.

Las a , Gustav, 280.

Lassan , 358.

Lassen,Eduard, 193, 234.

Lasso, see Di Lasso.

Lasson,Peer, 232 .

Lauber, Josef , 277.

Laurenti , 484.

Lavallee, Calixa , 305.

Lavigna . Vincenzo, 107, 163.Lawes, 64.

Lazzari , Silvio, 276 .

LeBorne, Fernand, 260.

Lebrun,Paul, 282.

Leclair, JeanMarie, 484.

Lecocq , Alexandre, 175.

Lefebvre, CharlesEdouard,

Lefebure-Wely, Lou is Jam esAlfredLegato, 527.

Legende, 358 .

Leger lines, 517.

Legrenzi , 62 , 483.

Lehm ann, L illi , 480.

Lehm ann,L iza ,

287.

Le Jongleu r de Notre-Dame, 254.

Lekeu , Gu illaum e, 281.Lekidoi , 19 .

Lem aire, Jean , 260.

Lenaerts, Constant, 282.

Lendvai, Erwin, 280.

Lenepveu , Charles, 260.

Leo, Leonardo, 82 .

Leoncavallo, Rugg iero, 272.

Le Prophe‘

te, 178.

LeRoi de Lahore, 254 .

Leroux , Xavier , 260.

Leschetizky, Theodor, 194 , 380, 471.Lescurel, Jean, 47.

Les Deux Jou rnées, 171.

LesHuguenots, 177.

Le Sueur, Jean Francois, 173.

Levi , Herm ann , 498.

Leybach, I nace, 156.

L’

HommeL iadov, Anatole, 269.

L iapounov, Sergei , 269.

Lichnowsky, Prince, 110.L iddle, Sam uel, 287.

Lie, Sig urd, 232.

Lieheseerbot, Das, 207.

Lied, 126 .

Lifefor the Cza/r, 197.

Liliefors, Ruben , 234

Lilienthal, A. W . , 305.

L ind, Jenny, 477.

Lindblad, Adolf, 233.

L indblad, Otto, 233.

Lindegren ,Johann , 234 .

L indem ann , Ludwig , 231.

Lindpaintner, Peter Josef von, 133.

L ingua di si, 33.

L inley, Thom as, 106

L insen , Gabriel, 236.

L ipansky, 467.

L ipinski , Karl, 488 .

L ischin , Gregory, 269 .

Lissenko, Nicolai , 269.

L iszt, Franz, 188—190, 469.

Litolif, Henri Charles, 156.

Lloyd, CharlesHarford, 284.

Lobkowitz, Prince, 110.

Lobo, Duarte, 53 .

Locatelli , Pietro, 484

Loefller, CharlesMartin,298.

Loewe, Karl, 127.

LO roscino, Nicolo, 83, 89.

Lo ngrin , 213 .

Lolli , Antonio, 485.

Lollio, 60 .

Loom is, HarveyWorthington , 298.

Lortzing , Gustav Albert, 133.

Lotti , Antonio, 82 .

Loud,John A 306 .

Lou isFerdinand, Prince, 106.

Lou ise, 258 .

Loure, 352 .

Lucca , Pauline, 479 .

Ludw ig II ofBavaria , 211.

Lully, Jean Baptiste, 63 , 496.

Lundberg , L . 234.

Lungs, 391.

594 INDEX

Melartin, Erik , 236.

Melcer, Henryk , 281.Melodram a , 364.

Melody, 311.

Melos, 61, 361.

Melville, Marguerite, 304Melzi , Count, 85.

Mem brée ,Edmond, 186.

Mendelssohn, Arnold, 250.

Mendelssohn, Fanny, 135, 138 .

Mendelssohn, Felix, 135- 140, 152 , 497.Mengelberg , W illem ,

283 .

Mercadante. Francesco Saverio, 163.Merikanto, Oskar, 236 .

Mera io, Claudio, 52 .

Messager, André,Messi ah, The, 81.

Mestdagh, Karel, 282.

Metastasio, 85, 91.

Metres ofh m ns, 362 .

Metzdorfi , “chard, 228.

Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 176- 178.Meyer-Helm und, Er1k , 232.

Mezzo-soprano, 395.

Miceli , Giorgio, 164.

Mielck , Ernest, 236 .

Mignard, Alexander, 281.Mignon , 185.

Mihalovitch, 280.

Mikorey, Franz, 246.

Mikuli, 281.

Millet, Lu is, 277.

Mills, Sebastian Bach, 300.

Minnesingers, 31—32.

Minor scale, 519 .

Minuet, 353.

Minuet form , 329, 341, 343.

Miracle plays, 58.

Mi rei lle, 183 .

Missa, Edm ond, 260.

Mixture, 386.

Mlada , 266 .

Mlynarski , Em il, 270.

Modes, 14, 24 , 518.

MOlll'lIlg , KarlJ 236.

Molique, Wilhelm , 488.

Molloy, Jam es Lym an, 287.

Moment m u sical 359.

Moniuszko, Stam slaus, 281.

Monsigny, Pierre Alexander, 90.

Montem ezzi , Italo. 272 .

Monteverde, Claudio, 61.

Moonlight Sonata , 118.

Méor, Emanuel, 250.

Moore, Hom er, 298 .

Moore, Mary Carr, 304 .

Morales, Olallo, 277.

Moralities, 58Mordents, 532 .

Morel, Auguste , 186.

Morgagni pockets, 392.

Morhanges, 157.Morlacchi , Fra ncesco, 163.

Morley,Thom as, 53 .

Morris dance, 351.Mosca , Giuseppe, 107, 163.

Moscheles, Ignaz, 141, 468.

Moszkowski , Moritz, 280.

Motet, 48 , 362 .

Mottl, Felix , 498.

Moussorgsky, Modest Petrovitch, 263.

Mouth as resonator, 393.

Mouton , Jean , 53.

Movem ents, 341-348.

Mozart, Leopold, 98, 485.

Mozart, Maria Anna ,98.

Mozart, Wolfgang Am adeus, 98-105,109, 466.

Mozar t andSalieri , 266.

Mraczek , Josef Gustav, 280.

Muck , Karl, 498.

Mueller, 106.

Mueller, Karl, 300.

Muffat, 65Munktell, Helen

, 234.

Murciana , 355.

Musette, 431.

Musette trio, 328.

Music, Arabian , 9 ; Assyrian. 10 ; Babyloh ian , 10 Chinese, 4 definition of, 3Egyptian , 10—12 ; Greek, 13—20 ; Hebrew , 10 ; Hindu, 4 ; prim itive, 3—12 ;Rom an , 20—22 .

See also chapter headings.usie-printing , 51.

Mutation , 386.

Mute, 402 .

Mutedhorns, 446.

Mystery plays, 58.

Nachez,

'I‘ivadar, 280.

Nam es ofkeys, 515, 521.Nanga , 413.

Nah ino, Giovanni , 53.

Napravn ik , Edward, 268.

Nardin i,Pietro. 484 .

Nasaltones, 393 .

Natural, 30, 516 .

Naturalaccents. 523.

Naturalhorn , 444, 445.

Naum ann , Johann G. , 89.

Navratil, Karl, 280.

Nebel, 10.

Nebelong , Johann Hendrik, 235.Nedbal, Oskar , 280.

Neefe, Christian Gottlob , 108.

Nef r, 9 .

Nei linger, W illiam H 298.

Neri , Saint Philip, 62 , 483.

Nero, 21—22.

Nessler, Victor, 229 .

Nesvera, Josef, 280.

INDEX

NetherlandSchools, 484 0, 281—283.

Netzer, 133 .

Neupert, Edm und, 232 .

Neuville, Alphonse. 282 .

Nevin , Arthur, 297 .

Nevin,Ethelbert, 297.

Nevin , George Balch , 297.

Nibelungenlied, Das, 32 , 214.

Nichol], Horace Wadham , 299 .

Nicodé, Jean Lou is, 244.

Nicolai , O tto, 133

Nicolau , Antonio, 277.

Nicole, Lou is, 277.

Nielsen, Car], 235.

Niem ann , Walter, 480.

Niggli , Fritz, 277.

Niklsch,Arthur, 498 .

Nilsson , Christine, 479.

N ini , Alessandro, 163 .

Nocturne. 358.

NOderm ann , Freshen, 234.

Nogueras, Costa , 277.

Noguerra , Antonio, 277.

Nom e ofKrad1as, 17, 433.

Nordqvist, Johann Conrad,

Nordraak , Richard, 230, 232 .

Noren ,Heinrich, 245.

Norm an , Ludvig , 233 .

Norris, Hom er A. , 303 .

Nose as resonator, 393.

Nose flutes, 7.

Notation , see chapter headings.Notes, 29 , 49, 515, 521.

Nougues, Jean , 260.

Novaé ek , Ottokar,Novak , Viteslav, 280.

Novakovski , 281.

Novel, 34.

Novelette. 358.

Novellozza . 358.

Novoviej ski, Felix , 281.

Oberleithner, Max von , 250.

Oberon , 131.

Oblique m otion , 26 , 536.

Oboe , Arabian , 9 d’

am ore, 429 di caccia ,

430 ; Egypti an , 11; Greek , 16 ; modern427—430 ; transposing , 431.

Obrecht, Jacob , 49 .

Ochs, Siegfried, 245.

Octave m ark , 530.

Octaves, 515, 517.

Octavina , 378.

Odeon , 19.

Odington , Walter, 29.

Oeglin, 51.

Oertel, 394.

Offenbach, Jacques, 175.

Okeghem , Jean,49.

Oldberg , Arne, 303. ParishoAlvars, Elias, 287.

595

Old rondo, 334Oliver, Henry Kemble, 289.

Olsen , Ole, 232 .

O’Neill, Norm an , 287.

Open pipes, 507—509 .

Opera , 58—64 , 80, 82 , 84, 160, 364 ; seealso chapter headings.

Ophicleide , 454

Opienski , Heinrich, 281.

Opus num bers, 110.

Oratorio, 62 , 363 .

Orch

Orchestration , 491—495.

Orefice, Giacom o, 273.

Orfeo, 61.Orfeo edEuridice, 85.

Organ , 17, 384—390.

Organistrum , 39 .

Organ point, 372 .

Organum ,26.

Orth, L isette E 305.

0 Saluta ris, 363.

Osgood, George Laurie, 306.

Osterzee, Cornelia van , 283 .

Ostrcil, Ottokar, 280.

Otho,Karl, 409 .

Otis, PhiloAdam s,305.

Otterstrbm , Thorvald, 235.

Oudrid,Christobal, 277.

Overtones , 506 .

Overture, varieties of, 347 ; in old su ites,

Oxubaphoi , 19.

Pachelbel, 65.

Pachulski , Henri , 269 .

M in i , Giovanni , 163 .

Pacius, Fredrik , 235.

Paderewski , Ignace Jan . 281, 472 .

Padovano, Annibale, 52 .

Paer, Ferdinando, 107.

Pagan ini, Nicolo,485—487.

Page, NathanielClifford, 303.

Paine, John Knowles. 290.

Paisiello, Giovanni , 89.

Paladilhe, Em ile, 260

Palestrina , Giovanni Pierluigi da, 53,57.

Palicot, Georges, 260.

Pallet, 385.

Palm er, H. R. , 306 .

Palm gren, Selim , 236.

Panizza , Ettore, 277.

Pan-pipes, 6 .

Pantom im e, 21, 357.

Pan Voyevode, 266.

Paque, Désiré, 282 .

Paradisi , Pietro Dom enico, 76, 336 .

Parallelmotion, 25, 536 .

596 INDEX

Parker, Horatio, 292—293.

Parker, Jam es Cutler Dunn,301.

Parratt,W alter , 284 .

Parry, Sir CharlesHubertHastings, 288Pa rsifal, 32 , 219.

Parsons, AlbertRoss, 305.

Parsons, E . A. , 303.

Partialreturn , 325, 328.

Partita , 354.

Paskievitch,196.

Pasm ore, Henry B ickford, 303.

Pasquinade, 34 .

Passacaglia , 354.

Passepied, 353.

Passion m usic , 364.

Passion plays, 58.

Pasta , Giuditta , 476.

Pasticcio,359 . open, 507

Pastorale,359.

Pastorelle, 34 .

Patti, Adelina ,478.

Patti , Carlotta , 478 .

Pattison , John Nelson, 303.

Pauer, Ernst, 472 .

Paulli, Sim on Holger, 235.

Paum gartner, Bernhard, 245.

Paur, Em il, 245.

Pavane, 364.

Pavesi , Stefano, 163.

Pease, AlfredE , 305.

Pedalclarinet, 442.

Pedalpoint, 372 .

Pedals, 380, 888, 414, 580.

Pedaltones 451.

Pedrell, Felipe, 277.

Pedrotti , Carlo, 163.

Pelléas etMélisande, 257.

Penalosa, Francisco, 50.

Penfield. Sm ith Newell, 303.

Penitentialdances, 351.

Pentatonic scale, 4 .

Pepusch. Johann Christoph , 84 .

Perception oftone, 503, 505.

Percussion instrum ents, 456- 61.

Feriall, Karlvon , 229 .

Perger, Richard von , 229 .

Pergolesi , Giovanni Battista, 76, 82.

Peri , Achille, 163.

Peri, Jacopo, 58.

Periods, 322 .

Perosi , Don Lorenzo, 276.

Perosi , Marziano, 276.

Petsa is, Luc, 175.

Pesel, 484Fessard, Em ile Louis, 260.

Peterson-B erger, W ilhelm , 234.

Petrella , Errico, 163 .

Petrucci ofFossom brone, 51.Pfitzuer , Hans, 250.

Pfohl, Ferdinand, 245.

Pfundt, ErnstGotthold, 457.

Pharynx , 398Phelps

,Ellsworth C . , 308 .

Philidor, Francois Dah ican , 90.

Philosophicalpitch, 516.

Phoinix ,19 .

Phorm inx , 16.

Phrases, 321.

Pian ists, 381—383 .

Piano, 879—883.

Piano quartet, 846 .

Piano trio, 346.

Piccini,Nicolo, 86 , 89 .

Piccolo, 424—425.

Pichl, 96 , 277.

Pierné, Henri ConstantGabriel, 259.

Pinelli , Ettore, 276.

Pinsuti , Ciro, 287.

Pipes, organ , 385—389stopped, 509—511.

Pirani , Eugen io, 276 .

P isendel, 484 .

Pitch, 809 , 516.

Pitt, Perc 287.

Pittrich, eorgeWashington ,245.

Pizzicato,61, 402 .

Plagalm odes, 24.

Plag iaulos, 18.

Plain~chant, 862 .

Plain-song , 28, 862 .

Planer,Minna , seeWagner, Minna.

Planh, 34.

Platania ,Pietro

, 164.

Pleyel, Ignaz Josef , 96.

Pliny, 23.

Pneum atic organ, 385.

Poem s , 358.

Poenitz, Franz, 229.

Pogoj ev, 270.

Pohlig , Richard, 299.

Poise, Jean Ferdinand,186.

Poisal, 138.

Polacca, 356 .

Poldini , Eduard, 280

Poliziano, Angelo, 58.

Polka , 856Polka mazurka , 856.

Polka redowa , 356.

Polledro, 488 .

Pollin i , 467.

Polo Gitano. 355.

Polonaise, 856 .

Polycrates, 20.

Polyphony, 47.

Polyphthongos, 18.

Pom asanski . Ivan, 269 .

Pom m era, 427.Ponchielli , Am ilcare, 164.

Popoif, Ivan , 269.

Popper, David, 195.

Porpora ,Nicolo Antonio, 79, 82 , 91, 474.

Portam ento, 397, 527.

598 INDEX

Richter, Franz Xaver, 96 .

Richter, Hans, 498.

Riem enschneider, Georg , 228.

Rienzi , 207.

Ries, Ferdinand, 467.

Rietz, Julius, 141.

Rigaudon , 353.

Rim sky-Korsakov, NicolaiAndreievitch264—267.

Ring ofthe s elungen , The, 210.

Ritter, Alexander, 194 , 238.

Ritter viola , 406 .

Rivé-Kin Julia , 304.

Robertla iable, 176 .

Robin etMa rion , 35.

Rode, Pierre, 485.

Roeder, Martin, 276.

Roehr, Hugo, 246.

Roentgen ,Julius, 282 .

Boesel, Rudolf, 245.

Roessler, 96.

Rogers, Clara Kathleen , 304.

Rogers, Jam es Hotchkiss, 305.

Rogers, W inthrop L . ,

Roller-board, 385.

Rom ance, 34.

Rom anesca, 352 .

Rom aniello, Lu igi , 276.

Rom an m usic , 20—22.

Rom anza , 358

Rom berg , Andreas, 485.

Rondena , 355.

Rondo, 331—335, 360Ronger, Florim ond, 175.

Root, George F 289 .

Ropartz, Guy, 259 .

Rosenthal, Moritz, 472.

Rossi , 61.

Rossi , Cesare, 272 .

Rossi , Lauro, 163.

Rfi

s

géni , GioacchinoAntonio, 61, 88 158

Rosth, 53.

Rota , 30.

Rote, 89 .

Rounds. 80.

Rousseau , Jean Jacques, 83 .

Rousseau , Sam uel. 260.

Roussel, Albert, 260.

Rozkosny, Josef Richard, 280.

Rozycki , Ludom ir von , 281.

Rub enson , Albert, 233.

Rubini , 477.

Rubinstein, Anton , 199—201. 471Rubinste in , Nicholas, 201, 205, 471.Rudel, Geoffrey. 37

Ruebner, Cornelius. 303.

Ruefer, Philipp . 282 .

Rueter, Hugo. 245.

Ruggieri fam ily, 398.

Rumm el, WalterMorse, 306 .

Rung , Henr ik , 234.

Russell, Alexander , 306 .

Russlan andL udm illa,197.

Rustic Chiealry, 271.

Ryder, Arthur H 306 .

Ryelandt, Joseph , 282.

Saar, LouisVictor, 300.

Sacchini, Antonio, 89.

Sachs, Hans, 33 .

Sackbut, 39.

Sackpfeife, 431.

Sadko, 266.

Sa intMatthew Passion , 74.

Saint-Saens, Charles Cam ille, 252—253Sakellarines, Theophilus, 164 .

Saldoni , Baltazar, 277.

Salieri, Antonio, 106.

Salm on, Alvah Glover, 305.

Salomaa , Sieg fried, 234.

Salomon , Johann Peter, 92.

Salon m usic , 156.

Salpinx , 16 .

Saltarello, 355.

Salter, Mary Turner, 304.

Salter, Sum ner, 305.

Salvayre, Gervais Bernard, 186 .

Salzburg , Ar chbishop of, 99, 100.

Sam ara . Spiro, 164 .

Sam aroflf, Olga , 473.

Sam azeuilh, Gustav, 260.

Sam buca , 19 .

Sammartini , 76.

Samson etDalila , 253.

Sand, George, 152Sandré, Gustave, 260.

Sankey, Ira D. , 289 .

Sans-Souci, Gertrude,

Santley, Sir Charles, 897.

Sappho, 20.

Sarabande, 351.

Sarasate , Pahlo, 489 .

Sarri , 82 .

Sarrusophone, 437.

Sarti , Giuseppe, 90.

Sartorio, 62 .

Satie, Eric , 257

Satter , Gustav, 228.

Sawyer, HarrietP . , 305.

Sax-horns, 453 .

Saxophones. 442 .

cale, Byzantine, 24 , 520 , chrom atic, 517diatonic, 425; Hungarian , 519 ; m a ior518 ;W 9; ofnature, 70, 71, 507

pentato c, tem pered, 72 ; whole

tone, 520.

Scales, Greek . 14 ; Gregorian ,24.

Scaria , Em il, 480.

Scarlatti , Alessandro. 62 82

Scarlatti, Dom enico, 75, 82 , 336 , 466 .

INDEX

Scena. 361.

caefer, 269 .

Sc aefer, Dirk , 283.

Schalm ei , 39.

Schantz, Filip von , 235.

Scharrer, August, 245.

Scharwenka , Philipp , 280.

Scharwenka, Xaver, 280.

Schaub , Hans, 245.

Schefi'

er, 51.

Scheidler, Dorette, 132 .

Scheidt, Sam uel, 53.

Scheinpflug , Paul, 245.

Schelling , Ernest, 303.

Schenk , 269.

Schenk , Johann , 105, 109 .

Scherzo,155, 343 , 354.

Schey , Julius, 283.

Schillings, Max , 249.

Schira , Francesco, 164.

Scli jelderup , Gerhard, 232 .

Schm elzer. 484.

Schm itt, Florent, 258 .

Schnecker, Peter August, 300Schneider, Edward Faber, 298, 308.

Schnitzer, Germ aine, 473.

Schober , Franz von , 121.

Schoeck , Othm ar, 277.

Schoenberg , Arnold, 245.

Schoenefeld, Henry , 301.

Scholz BernhardE. ,228.

Schott 480.

Schottische, 856.

Schroeder-Devrient, W ilhelm ine, 480.

Schroeter 52 , 879.

Schubert Franz Peter, 120- 125.

Schub ertiades, 122

Schuett, Eduard,269.

Schulz, Johann , 105, 126 .

Schum ann , Clara , 144. 222 , 472.

Schum ann, Georg , 246

Schum ann, Robert, 143—148, 178.

Schuppanzigh, Ignaz. 488.

Schuster, B ernhard, 246.

Schii tz, Heinrich , 63.

Schuyler, W illiam . 806 .

Schwalm , Robert, 246.

SchweinskOpf, 377.

Schw indl, 96 .

Schytté, Ludw ig , 234.

Scontrino, Antonio, 276.

Scotch snap , 356 .

Scott, CyrilMeir, 285.

Scotto, Ottavio, 51.

Scriab ine, Alexander, 269.

Sea sons, The , 93 .

Sebor, Karl, 280.

Sechter, Simon , 124.

Second rondo, 333 .

Seeb ald. Am alia . 110

Seeboeck , W illiam C 299 .

99

Seelewig , 63.

Seguedill

Sekles, Bernhard, 246.

Solaface ag/pale, 48.

Selm er, Johann ,232 .

Senesino,474 .

Serenade, 34 , 350, 358.

Serov, Alexander, 198.

Serpent, 455.

Servais, Adrien Francois, 408.

Senna Padrona, 83.

Serm’

li a , 266

Seeen PenitentialPsalm , 54.

Severac , Deodat, 260.

Sextolets, 522Seyffardt, ErnstHerm ann

, 245.Seyfried, I i n von , 132 .

Sgam bati , iovanni , 276.

Sharps, 30, 516 .

Shawm , 427, 438 .

helley, Harry Rowe, 298, 301.

Shepherd, Arthur, 803.

Shield, W illiam , 106 .

Shoulders in breathing , 391.

Siam ese m usic , 4 .

Siao, 6 .

Sibelius, Jan , 236.

Siboni , Erik Anton,140.

Siciliano, 355.

Side drum ,458 .

Siegfried,216 .

Signatures, 518 .

Signs various, 528 , 584.

Silver Charles, 260.

Sim ik ion , 18.

Sim ilar m otion , 536 .

Simon , Anton ,260.

Sim onetti , Achille, 276.

Sinding , Christian , 232 .

Singing , 393—394.

Singspiel, 63 ,100, 105, 364.

Sinigaglia , Leone, 276.

Sirvente, 84 .

Sistrum ,10, 11.

Sivori , Ernesto Cam illo, 489.

Sixteen -foot tones, 386.

Sixtine, 84.

Sj é gren ,Johann Gustav Em il,

233

Skraup , Franti sek ,277.

Skuhersky, Franz Zdenko, 280.

Slide trom bone, 450.

Slurs, 528.

Sm areglia , Antonio, 273 .

Sm etana ,Bedrich,

277- 278.

Sm ith, AliceMary,287.

Sm ith , David Stanley, 303.

Sm ith, Gerrit, 305.

Sm ith, W ilson George, 305.

Sm ithson, Harriet, 179 , 180.

Sm ulders, KarlAnton ,288.

600 INDEX

Smyth, Ethel, 287.

Snare drum , 458.

Snow .Ma zden , The , 265.

Séderm ann , August, 233 .

Soft pedal, 380.

Sokalski, Vladim ir. 269.

Sokolov , Nicolai , 269.

Solfeggio,25.

Solie, 173 .

Solom on , Edward, 286.

Solon , 20.

Solo organ , 385.

Soloviev , Nicolai , 268 .

Soltys, Miecislav,281.

Som ervell, Arthur, 286.

Som is, 484.

Som m er, Hans ,229 .

Sonata , cham ber, 483 ; church, 483 ; clas

sicsl, 95, 104 ,118 , 336 ; early, 65, 75

76 ; free, 291, 337, 340Sonata alle ro form , 336—340.

Sonata ron o, 342

Sonata m ovem ents, 336—844 .

Sonatina , 342

Sonatina rondo, 342 .

Song-form s, 324—327 ; w ith trio 327—329 ;

W ith two trios, 329—330.

Song w ithout words, 138, 359.

Sonneck . Oscar G. ,ref. , 96 , 288.

Sonnet, 34 .

Sontag , Henrietta , 476.

Soprano, 42 , 395.

Sordino, 402 .

Sostenuto pedal, 380.

Sound, 503 .

Sound-boxes, 506 .

Sounding -boards, 379 , 506 .

Sousa ,John Philip , 296 .

Speculum Musiea e, 42 .

Speedm arks, 525Spencer, FannyM. , 305.

Spiccato, 402 .

Spiering , Theodore, 305.

Spinelli , Nicolo,272 .

Spinet, 378.

Spohr, Ludwig , 131—132 , 488Spontini , Gasparo Luig i Pacifico, 178.

Sporok , Georges, 260.

Springdans, 356

Sta batMater . 363.

Staccato, 527.

taden , Sigm und,68.

Staff. 27—28 515.

Stahlberg , Fritz,299 .

Stainer , Sir John ,284 , 387.

Stair. Patty ,304.

Stalkou sky, 281.

Stam itz, Anton , 96 .

Stam itz, Johann ,96 , 484.

Stam itz,Karl, 96 .

Stam m , Thom as Oswald, 246.

Stan ford, Sir Charles Villiers, 288.

Stanley, AlbertAugustus, 303.

Stanza, 34.

Statkovsky, Rom an , 281.

Stavenhagen, Bernhard, 283.

Stcherb atchev, Nicolai , 269.Steggall, Reg inald, 285.

Steibelt, Daniel, 106 , 467.

Stenham m ar, W ilhelm , 233 .

Stephan , Rudi , 246 .

Stewart, Hum phrey John , 803.Sticker, 385.

Stock , Frederick , 299.

Stblzel, 82 .

Stone Gu est, The 198.

Stopped harm oni cs, 401.Stopped pipes, 509—511.Stops, organ, 384 .

Storace, Stephen , 106 .

Storioni 398 .

Stradella Alessandro , 62.

Stradella a P rayer , 63 .

tradivari fam il 398.

traesser , EwalStraight flute, 420 .

Strathspey,356.

trauss, Richard, 238- 243, 495, 498.Stravinsky, Igor, 269.

Stretto,370.

Stretto m aestrale, 372.

Strickland,L ily, 306 .

Striggio, 60 .

String quartet, 346 .

String vibration , laws of, 505.

Stroboscope, 394Strong , George Tem pleton, 300.

Strophe song , 361

Strube , Gustav , 299 .

Strungk , Nikolau s Adam , 63, 488.

Subj ect, 78. 369.

Suite, 349 , 354 .

Suk , Josef , 280.

Sulljyan , Sir Arthur Seym our, 286.

Sui ponticello,405.

Sumer is i cumen i n , 43- 47.

Suter , Herm ann , 277.

Svendsen ,Johann Severin, 232 .

Sweelinck, 53.

Swell-b ox , 389 .

Swellorgan , 385

Sym phonic poem ,

Symphonies Fanta stique, 179 , 441, 457.

Sym phony, 96 , 345 ; as instrum ent, 89

as interlude, 354 .

Synchronism , 512

Syncopation , 527.

Syrian church, 24.

Sy rinx , 7 . 11 16

Syrus, Ephi aim . 24Szab ados, Bela , 280.

Szekely, Im re,280.

602 INDEX

Tschaikovsky, Peter Ilyitch, 201- 206 .

Tscherepnin , Nicolai , 269.

Tubas, 453—454 .

Tuning , 440 .

Turns, 533 .

Tutkovsky,Nicolai , 269.

Two-foot tones, 386 .

'

i‘

wo-

peii od form s, 324 .

Two- step. 357.

'

l'

ye , Chri stopher, 53 .

Tvpoplione, 460.

Tyrtaeus, 20

Uccellini , 483 .

Ukulele, 417.

Una corda , 379

Upper partials, 506 .

Urack , Otto, 299.

Vakula the Sm ith, 204.

Valve horn. 446 .

Valverde, Juan , 277.

Valves, 446 , 453.

Valve trom bone, 453.

Van den Eeden , Jean , 282 .

Van der L inden , 283.

Van derMeulen , Joseph ,282 .

der Pals, Leopold, 283 .

Van der Stucken Frank , 301Van B uyse, Florim ond, 282 .

Van Dyck, Ernst Hubert, 480.

Van Ghizeghem , 49 .

VanMilligen , Sim on , 283 .

Van t’ Kruis, M H . ,

282 .

Variations, 342 . 349 .

Varsovienne, 356 .

Vassilenko, Sergei . 268, 269 .

Vavn necz, Mauritius, 280.

Vecchi , Orazio, 60.

Valter, Paul, 414.

Venetian school, 52 .

Veni Crea tor , 363 .

Ventils, 446 .

Vera Scheloga ,265.

Veracini , Antonio, 484.

Veracini, Francisco, 484.

Verb onnet, Jean , 51.

Verdi , Giuseppe. 165—169.

Verhey, F. H 282.

Vcrli ulst 282 .

Verse , 34 .

Verstovsky, 196.

Viardot-Galois ,Pauline, 477.

V ibration, nature of, 503, 511.

V i brato, 402 .

Vidal, PaulAntoine, 260.

Vidal, Pierre, 37.

Vietinghov, Baron Boris, 269 .

Vieuxtem ps, Henri , 195, 488277.

Vinée , Richard, 260.

Viola , 73 ,405- 406

Violda gam ba , 73 , 408.

V iolin, 9 , 398—404 .

Violi ns, old, 399.

Violoncello, 9, 406 -4 08 .

Viola 898.

Viotti , Giovann i Battista , 484Virg inals, 378 .

Virtuoso, 380.

Visconti , Nicolo, 59.

Vitali , Giovann i , 83, 383 .

Vitali , Tomm aso, 483 .

Vittoria , 53 .

Vivaldi , Antonio , 83 , 484.

Vives, Am edeo, 277.

Vleeshouwer. Albert, 282.

Vletb ad, Patrik , 234 .

Vocalcords, 391, 392 , 394.

Vocalrondo , 360.

Vocalsym phony,364 .

Vogl, Heinrich , 121.

Vogler , Ab t, 99 , 128 , 129.

Vogrich, Max , 250 .

Voices, 72. 391—397.

Voicing , 386 , 513.

Volbach, Fritz, 246Volborth , Eugen von , 250.

Volkm ann, Robert, 148 .

Volta ire on Duport, 408.

Volte, 353 .

Von Bulow , see Bulow .

Vorspiel, 348.

Vreuls, Victor, 282.

W achtel, Theodor, 481.

W achtlieder, 31.

Waelput, Hendrik, 282 .

Waelrant, 53.

Wagenaar , Johann , 283.

W agenseil, 96 .

W aghalter, Ignaz,

W agner, Cosim a , 210.

Wagner, Minna , 2 08- 209 .

Wagner, Richard, 31, 33 , 181, 207—220

W agner Siegfried, 249.

W aldstein , Count, 110.

Walker, Caroline. 305.

Wa t/cure, D 18 , 215.

W allace, W illiam , 285.

lVallace, W illiam Vincent, 283 .

W aller, Henry ,306 .

Walteishausen , H. W . von ,250 .

W alther, 484.

W altz, 345, 354.

W am bach, Em ileXaver, 282 .

W andelt, m adeus, 246 .

W anhal,Ware, Harriet, 304Warlam ov, Alexander, 270.

INDEX

Warren,RichardHenry , 303.

W arren , Sam uelProws e

, 305.

W artensee, Schnyder von , 133.

W asenius, CarlGustav, 236.

Water Music, The, 78.

W ater organ , 17.

W atson , Michael, 287.

W ebb , 284Weber, Aloysia , 98, 101.

W eber, CarlMaria von , 128—131; satireon Beethoven , 410.

W eber, Constance, 101.

W eerbecke, Caspar , 50.

W egelius, Martin , 236 .

W eichsel, Elizabeth,475.

W eigl, Joseph, 132 .

Weingartner. PaulFelix von , 244 ,498.

W einlig , Theodor , 207.

Well-Tempered Clavichord, The, 70, 71.

W ennerb urg , Gunnar, 233

W erckm eister, Andreas, 71, 507.

Wesendonck , Math ilde, 209.

W esley, Sam uel, 284 .

W etz, Richard, 246

W etzler, Herm ann Hans, 246.

Whelpley, Ben'

am in Lincoln , 305.

White , Maud aierie, 287.

Whiting , Arthur Battelle, 301.

W hiting , George Elbridge, 301.

W hole-tone scale, 520 .

W idéen ,234.

W idor, CharlesMarie,187 .

W ieck, Clara . see Schum ann , Clara.

W ieck , Friedrich , 143 , 144 .

Wiela nd the Sm ith 210, 243.

WVieniawski, Henri , 195, 471, 489.

W ihtol, Joseph, 269.

W illaert, Adrien , 51, 59 .

W illiam ofPoitou , 33.

William Tell, 159.

W illis, Richard Storrs, 306.W ilson, 306.

W ilson , Mortim er, 304.

W inchester Troper, 26 .

W ind-chest. 385.

W inderstein , Hans, 246 .

W inding , August, 235.

“find-m achine, 458.

W inge , Peer , 232.

Winkelmann, 480.

W inkler, Alexander, 270.

W inter, Peter VOll, 132 .

W inter-Hj elm , Otto, 232 .

W iske, Mortim er, 305

W itkowski , G. 200.

Woelfl, Josef , 106 , 467.

Woikowsky-B iedau , Hector von, 250.

Wolf, Hugo, 246 , 249.

Wolf , 96 .

Wolf-Ferrari , Erm anno, 273.

Wolfram von Eschenbach, 32.

W ood, 379.

Wood, Mary Knight, 304.

Woodm an , Raym ondHuntington, 305.

Work, Henry Clay, 289.

Worm ser. André Alphonse, 260.

Worrell, Lola Carrier , 304Wouters, Francois Adolphe, 282.

Woyrsch , Felix von , 246.

W ranitzky, Paul, 96 .

W uerst, Richard, 149 .

W iillner. Ludw ig , 396.

W urm,Marie, 287.

Wyngaer de, Antonius, 50.

Xylophone, 461.

Ysaye, Eugene, 489.

Zam ar 9 .

Z ampa , 175.

Zandonai , Riccardo. 273 .

Zanella , Am ilcare, 276 .

Zarem ba , Sig ism und, 269.

Z arlino, Gioseffo, 52 .

Zarzuela, 276 .

Zeelandia . Henricus, 47.

Zeisler, Fanny Bloom field, 304.

Zelenski , Ladislaus, 281.

Zelter, KarlFriedrich, 126h mlinsky, Alexander von , 269.Zenger, Max , 228.

Zichy, CountGeza , 280. 472.

Z ientarsk i, Rom uald, 281.

Z ientarsky, Victor , 281.

Zim m erm ann, Agnes, 287.

Z itlier , 9 , 419 .

Zoellner, Heinrich, 246 , 250.

Z um pogna , 431.

Z weers, Bernhard, 283.

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