THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

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Whatcomestomindwhenyouconsiderthisword?

ENLIGHTENMENT

“Ifthereissomethingyou

know,communicateit.

Ifthereissomethingyou

don'tknow,searchforit.”

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

ReneDecartes

• Frenchphilosopher,mathematicianandscientistwhosawman’sabilitytoreasonastheveryproofofhisexistence

• “Ithink,thereforeIam,”DiscourseonMethod,1637

• Descartesrejectedallformsofintellectualauthorityexcepttheconclusionsofhisownthought,whichhethenusedtoprovetheexistenceofGod.

SirIsaacNewton

• ThisrevolutionculminatedintheseventeenthcenturywiththepublicationofSirIsaacNewton’sPrincipia in1687,inwhichathoroughlymechanicaluniversewasexplainedthroughuniversallawsofmotion.

• Newton,likeDescartes,presentedavisionoftheuniversewhosemostbasicworkingscouldbecalculatedandunderstoodrationally,butwhichwasalsotheworkofaCreator.

• ThetriumphofNewtoniansciencecoincidedwithandhelpedtoproduceafundamentalintellectualchange.

qIntheseventeenthcentury,theScientificRevolutionhadprovidedanewmodelforsolvingproblemsthroughrationalthoughtandexperimentation(secular),ratherthanontheauthorityofreligion(theological.)

REASON PROVIDES A UNIFYING DOCTRINE

• Scienceandrationalinquirynowcametobeseenasthecommongroundwhichreunitedmen,previouslypolarizedintoCatholicorProtestant,inwhattheDeclarationofIndependencewouldcall“thepursuitofhappiness.”

• Withtherightuseofreason,allsociety’sproblemscouldbesolvedandallmankindcouldliveprosperouslyandcontentedly.

• Thisoptimismreflectedasenseofgrowingeconomicopportunity-Europeintheeighteenthcenturywasricherandmorepopulousthaneverbefore.

• Steadyeconomicgrowthseemedtobearoutthenotionthatthenewkeyofscientificmethodcouldunlocktheanswersnotonlytothephysicalworld(asNewtonhaddone),buttotheology,history,politicsandsocialproblemsaswell.

• Usingtheadvancesmadepossiblethroughrationalscientificinquiry,farmerspioneeredimprovementsinagricultureandentrepreneursexperimentedwithnewtechnologiesandproducts.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

• Howdoesonemakemankindhappyandrationalandfree?vTheirbasicanswerwas:bydiscoveringtheunderlyinglawswhichwouldorganizeallknowledgeintoaclear,rationalsystem,enablingindividualstobecomeenlightened,andthesocietiesinwhichtheylivetoprogress.

vItwasagoalseenasobtainabletothepeopleoftheeighteenthcentury.

• Scienceandreasonseemedtoofferthekeytothefuture,toakindofparadisewhichwouldberealizednotinthenextworld,asthetheologiansasserted,butinthisworld,hereandnow.

ENGLAND: HOBBES & LOCKE

• TwoEnglishintellectuals,mathematicianThomasHobbes(1588-1679)andphilosopherJohnLocke(1632-1704),wereamongthefirsttouseascientificapproachtostudymanandhissociety.

THOMAS HOBBES(1588-1679)

• Amathematician,Hobbes’politicaltheorywasanefforttomakepoliticsintoanexactsciencelikegeometry.

• HobbeswasanadmirerofGalileo’s ideasconcerningthenatureofthephysicalworldandhisstudiesofmotion.HobbesattemptedtoapplyGalileo’sscientificprinciplestosocialtheory,reasoningthatonlymatterexists,andthathumanbehaviorcouldbepredictedbyexact,scientificlaws.

• HobbeshadalsobeeninfluencedbytheEnglishCivilWar(1642-1649,whentheKingCharlesIwasexecuted),whichhebelievedwasevidencethatmenwereultimatelyselfishandcompetitive.

• HobbeswrotetheLeviathanin1651.• Leviathan attemptedtoturnpoliticsintoascience,arguingthatmencouldbepredictedwithmathematicalaccuracy,andthusregulated.

• AccordingtothewritingofHobbes, menweremotivatedprimarilybythedesireforpowerandbyfearofothermen,andthusneededanall-powerfulsovereigntoruleoverthem.

JOHN LOCKE1632-1704

• AgenerationlaterthephilosopherJohnLockedevelopedanentirelydifferentnotionofthebasicnatureofhuman-kind,whichhesawasinnatelygood.

• LockewasafriendofSirIsaacNewton,andwasinfluencedbyNewton’sdescriptionoftheuniverseasavastmachineoperatingbyprecise,unvaryingscientificlaws.

• Locke,whowitnessedthealmostbloodless,“GloriousRevolution”inEnglandbecameconvincedthatpeoplecouldliveamicablytogether,afterdiscoveringGod’slawthroughtheapplicationofreason.

• InLocke’sTwoTreatisesofGovernment (1690),heoutlinedatheoryofpoliticsbasedonpeople’snaturalrights:life,liberty,andtheownershipofproperty.

• ToLocke,thetaskofthestatewastoprotecttheserights:Governmentwasacontractbetweenrulerandsubjects;rulersweregrantedpowerinordertoassuretheirsubjectswelfare.

• HiswritingswereseminalfortheAmericanrevolutionaryleaderThomasJefferson,whocloselyfollowedLocke’sideasintheDeclarationofIndependence.

FRANCE: THE PHILOSOPHES

• Intheearlyeighteenthcentury,manyFrenchthinkers(knownasthePhilosophes) hadcometoadmireEnglandduetoitsadvancesineconomicsanditsuniqueformofrepresentativegovernment.

• ManyPhilosophesbuiltupontheideasandanalyticalmethodemployedbyLocke,andattemptedtodeveloptheoriesofgovernmentbasedonarationalapproachtoman’srelationshipwiththesocietyinwhichhelived.

• Philosophesheldthreebasictenants:1.HumansocietyisgovernedbyNaturalLaws.2.TheseNaturalLawscanbediscoveredbyrationalmen.3.Humansocietycanturnfromtraditional,authoritarianforms,& progresstowardamoreperfectgovernmentthroughrationalthought.

CHARLES DE SECONDAT, THE BARON DE MONTESQUIEU

(1689-1755)

• InthefirstgenerationofFrenchPhilosophes,oneofthemostimportantcontributionstoEnlightenmentpoliticalthoughtwasmadebyMontesquieu.

• MontesquieucametorespecttheBritishpoliticalsystemoflimitedconstitutionalmonarchyafterastayinEnglandfrom1729-1731.

• HealsowasinfluencedbyLocke’sTwoTreatisesofCivilGovernment (1690),inwhichLockearticulatedhissupportforthegovernmentwhichwascreatedbytherevolution.

• InhismasterworkTheSpiritoftheLaws,publishedin1748,hedevelopedthenotionthathuman,naturalanddivinelawsguideallthings,includingformsofgovernment,andcanbestbediscoveredbyempiricalinvestigation.

VOLTAIRE (1694-1778)

• Voltairewasfamousinhisyoungerdaysforhispoetryandplays,butafterpersonaltroublesforcedhimintoexileinEnglandin1726,hecameintocontactwiththeideasofLockeandNewton,andtookupweightierconcerns.

• Englandbecameforhimamodelofreligiousandphilosophicalfreedom,andgreatlyaffectedthecourseofhiswork,culminatingwiththepublicationofhisPhilosophicalLettersConcerningtheEnglishNation in1733,inwhichhepraisedthecustomsandinstitutionsofEnglishlife.

• InhisnativeFrance,Voltaire’sworkwasseenasadirectrebuketoFrenchmoresandgovernment,andafterbeingcondemnedbylocalauthorities,Voltairewasonceagainforcedtofleeabroad.

• In1749,FredericktheGreatofPrussia,whoadmiredVoltaire’spoliticalviews,invitedhimtocometohiscourtinPotsdamashisroyalwritingteacher.

• AfterthreeyearsofwhatVoltairesawas“intellectualtyranny”bythemonarch,however,hefledtofreercircumstances,settlingforsometimeinSwitzerlandandeventuallyreturningtoParis,toahero’swelcome,attheendofhislifein1778.

ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)

• Jean-JacquesRousseau,bornagenerationlater,continuedthePhilosophetradition.• HewasanoutspokencriticoftheFrenchsocialandpoliticalorder.• Inhislandmarkwork,TheSocialContract,writtenin1762,Rousseaurejectedexistingformsofgovernmentinfavorofacommunitybasedonthechoiceofallitscitizens,andtheirdemocraticparticipationineverymajordecision.• TheseideasweretobeofcentralimportanceaftertheoutbreakoftheFrenchRevolution.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT SPREADS

• TheEnlightenmentwasacosmopolitanmovement,notrestrictedtoEnglandandFrance.

• InGermany,ItalyandSpain,thinkerssimilartotheFrenchPhilosophespursued theircampaignagainstoutmodedideasandpoliticalandreligiousobscurantism.

• In colonialAmerica,menlikeBenjaminFranklin(1706-1790),correspondedwithEuropeanthinkersonpoliticalandscientifictopics.

• ThroughFranklinandThomasJefferson,to nameonlythemostprominent,thecritical,rationalistthoughtofeighteenth-centuryEuropeexercisedadecisiveinfluenceonAmericanpoliticalandsocialtheories.

• The DeclarationofIndependence(1776)isoneoftheclearestandmostsuccinctarticulationsoftheEnlightenmentprogramtobepennedintheentireeighteenthcentury.

AMERICAN ENLIGHTENMENT

• Influencedbythe18th-centuryEuropeanEnlightenment,anditsownnativeAmericanPhilosophy,theAmericanEnlightenment appliedscientificreasoningtopolitics,science,andreligion,promotedreligioustolerance,andrestoredliterature,thearts,andmusicasimportantdisciplinesandprofessionsworthyofstudyincolleges.

• AmericanEnlightenmentproducedtheAmericanRevolution,thewritingoftheDeclarationofIndependence,thecreationoftheAmericanRepublicundertheUnitedStatesConstitutionof1787,theBillofRightsin1790,aswellasthedevelopmentAmericangovernmentthroughouttheearly1800s.

• TheforemostrepresentativesoftheAmericanEnlightenmentincludedpoliticalthinkerssuchasJohnAdams,JamesMadison,AlexanderHamilton,BenjaminFranklinandThomasJefferson.

AMERICAN ENLIGHTENMENT

• Enlightenedthinkerstypicallyvaluedequality,libertyand personalrights.• DenouncingtheBritishgovernmentfornotgivingequalrightstothecolonies,ThomasJefferson,

stronglyinfluencedbyLocke’sSecondTreatise,famouslycalledfortherightsoflife,libertyandthepursuitofhappinessintheDeclarationofIndependence.

• JamesMadisonborrowedstraightfromtheideasofenlightenmentwhenheincludedcertainfreedoms,suchasfreedomofspeech,freedomofreligionandfreedomofassemblyintheBillofRights.

• TheauthorsoftheU.S.ConstitutionusedtheideasofasocialcontractwhensettinguptheU.S.government,andtheywereinfluencedbyphilosopherssuchasRousseau,LockeandMontesquieu.o EnlightenedAmericanthinkersquestionedtheabsoluteauthorityofchurchandstate,and

despisedtheconstantpowerstrugglebetweenthetwo.o Thechurch,theybelieved,shouldnotbarpeoplefromhappinessinthislife.o Theythoughtthatagovernmentthatwaschosenbythepeopleshouldactinthebestinterests

ofthosepeople,orelsebeoverthrown.o TheU.S.governmentwasthusdividedintothreebranches,anideaborroweddirectlyfrom

Montesquieuinanattempttocreateasystemofchecksandbalances.

SOURCES

• http://www.learner.org/courses/amerhistory/pdf/Enlightenment_LOne.pdf• http://www.iep.utm.edu/amer-enl/• http://history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm• http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/