Terrorists, V¡ ctims andSociety

Psychological Perspectiveson Têrrorism and its Consequences

Edited by

Andrew SilkeUniversity of Leicester, UK

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Contents

About the Editor

About the Contributors

Series Preføce

Preface

PART I THE TERRORISTS

1 The Search for the Terrorist PersonalityJohn Horgan

2 Becoming a TerroristAndrew Silh,e

3 The Psychology of Hostage-TakingMørgøret Wilson

4 The Psycholory of Cyber-TerrorismMq,rc Rogers

5 The Psychology of Suicidal TerrorismAndrew Silke

6 Leaving Terrorism Behind: An Individual Perspective

John. Horgan

PART II VICTIMS OF TERRORISM

7 The Psychological Impact of Isolated Acts of Terrorism

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Ginny Sprang

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8 The Psychological Impact of Protracted Campaignsof Political Violence on SocietiesOrIa Muldoon

9 Victims of Terrorism and the MediaBetty Pfefferbaum

10 Examining the Impact of Terrorism on childrenDeborah Browne

PART III RESPONDING TO TERRORISM

11 Retaliating Against TerrorismAndrew Silhe

12 Terrorism and Imprisonment in Northern lreland:A Psychological PersPectiveJacqueline B ates - Gaston

13 DeterringTerroristsKarI A. Seger

Index

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About the Editor

DrAndrewsilke(BScHons,AFBPsS,PhD)isaforensicpsychologistwho has worked both in academia and for government' He has published

extensively on terrorists and, terrorism in journals, books and the popular

press, and his most recent book on the subject was Terrorism Research:

Tlend,s, Achieuements, Føilures published by Frank Cass (2003)' He is

an Hono rary Senior Research Aìsociate of the Centre for the Study of

Terrorism and Political Violence at the University of St Andrews and

is a Fellow of the University of Leicester. His work has taken him to

Northern lreland, the Middle East and' Latin America' He is a member of

the International Association for Counter-terrorism and Security Profes-

sionals and serves on the lJnited Nations Roster of Terrorism Experts'

E mail : andrew -silh,e@Y øhoo. co.uk

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About the Contributors

Dr Jacqueline Bates-Gaston, The Northern lreland Prison Seruice,Dundonq,ld House, Belfast BT4 7SU, Northern lreland

Dr Jacqueline Bates-Gaston (BA, MSc, MSC, c.Psychol, AFBpsS) hasworked in management development and training, employment reha-bilitation and counselling, and as a Senior Lecturer in Psychology atthe University of Ulster. She has been the Chief Psychologist with theNorthern Ireland Prison Service for more than 11 years. During that timeshe has worked closely with both staff and prisoners using her occupa-tional and forensic training and experience. She is responsible for thedevelopment and implementation of prisoner initiatives to assess and ad-dress offending behaviour. In 1991 she set up a specialised Staff SupportUnit designed to meet the needs of staff traumatised by assaults and ter-rorist violence both inside and outside the working environment. This unitwas the first of its kind in Northern lreland. Her work has given her ex-tensive insight and experience into how terrorists can operate in a prisonenvironment and the psychological impact on those who work with them.

Dr Deborah Browne, E møil : deb cbrout ne@y øhoo. co. ul¿Dr Deborah Browne has lectured in forensic psychologSr and has worked

as a principal research offi-cer for government. She has published papers invarious academic journals and has presented at a number of national andinternational conferences. Previous work has included a period as consul-tant for the United Nation's Children's Fund (UNICEF) in Sarajevo dur-ing the Bosnian conflict. Key areas of her research interest have includedthe development of antisocial behaviour in children and young people,the consequences of child abuse, and psychological issues affecting fosterchildren.

Dr John Horgan, Department of Applied Psychology, (Jniuersity Collegecorh,, Enterprise centre, North Ma,Il, corl¿ city, Republic of lreland

Dr John Horgan is a lecturer at the Department of Applied Psychology,University College Cork, where he teaches courses on forensic psychol-ogy and the psychology of terrorism and political violence. His work on

X About the Contributors

terrorism has been published in a variety of sources and his books includeThe Future of Terrorism (2000) and The Psychology of Tercorism (2003),

both with Max Taylor and published by Frank Cass (London).

Dr Orla Muldoon, School of Psychology, Queen's Uniuersity Belfast,Dauid Keir Building, 18-30 Ma.Ione Road, Belføst BTg íBP, NorthernIrelq,nd

Orla Muldoon (RGN, BSSc, PhD, PGCUI C.Psychol) is a lecturer atthe School of Psychology, The Queen's University of Belfast. Her researchinterests are in the area of applied psychology, particularly the influenceof social and environmental factors on psychological and social wellbeing.She has published a number of papers on the impact of political violence.These papers have considered how young people cope with armed conflict,the impact of conflict on child adjustment and the wider effects of con-flict on society. More recently she has been involved in research projectsexamining the role experience may play in contributing to conflict, par-ticularly focusing on the impact of conflict experiences on social attitudesand acceptance of violence. She is a member of the British PsychologicalSociety, International Society of Political Psycholory, Association of ChildPsycholog¡r and Psychiatry and the Society for the Psychological Study ofSocial Issues.

Professor Betty Pfefferbanm, Depørtment of Psychiatry and Be-hq,uioral Sciences, Uniuersity of Olelahomø Health Sciences Center; PO Box26907, WP-3470, Ol¿lo,homa City, OK 73190-3048, USA

Betty Pfefferbaum (MD, JD) is a general and child psychiatrist and pro-fessor and chairman of the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sci-ences at the University of Oklahoma College of Medicine where she holdsthe Paul and Ruth Jonas Chair. She helped plan and organise clinicalservices after the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, and has treated manyvictims and family members and is actively engaged in research relatedto the bombing. She assisted in mental-health clinical and research effortsrelated to the 1998 United States Embassy bombings in East Africa. Shehas provided consultation regarding clinical and research efforts associ-ated with the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. She is the directorof the Terrorism and Disaster Branch of the National Child TraumaticStress Network, a federal initiative to improve treatment and services fortraumatised children.

Dr Marc Rogers, Internet Innouation Centre, Uniuersity of Marútoba,Winnipeg, Mønitoba, Canøda

Dr Marc Rogers is a lecturer at the Department of Psycholog¡z at theUniversity of Manitoba and principal researcher in the area of computer"crime and cyber-terrorism. He has worked with various law-enforcementagencies and has published several articles and book chapters in the areaof cyber crime and cyber deviance.

About the Contributors xl

Dr Karl A. Seger, President, Associated Corporate Consultants, Inc, 1241Harbour View Driue, Lenoir City, TN 37772, USA

Karl A. Seger has provided anti-terrorism consulting and training forall branches of the US military, the Departments of Justice and the Trea-sury, and for the Federal Emergency Management Agency. He assisted inthe development of the army's terrorism counteraction programme andwas the contract writer for TC19-L6, Counteríng Tercorism on US ArmyInstallq,tions. He is the author of t}¡.e Antitercorisrn Høndbooå (PresidioPress, 1990) and co-author of Computer Crime: An. Inuestigator's Hønd-boolz (O'Reilly & Associated, 1995). He provides security training and con-sulting services for government and corporate clients and has been con-ducting anti-terrorism training around the world for more than 20 years.

Dr Andrew Silke (see About the Editor')

Professor Ginny Sprang, College of SocialWorlz, Uniuersity of Kentucky,Lexington, Iff 40506, USA

Ginny Sprang (PhD) is an Associate Professor at the University ofKentucky with a joint appointment to the College of Social Work, andthe College of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry. She is a PrincipalInvestigator of the Comprehensive Assessment and Training Services(CATS) project, a clinical and research project that assesses and treatstraumatised children and their families. She is author of The Many Facesof Bereøuement: The Nature and Treatment of Nøtural, TYaumatic andStigmatized Grief (Brunner-Routledge, 1995), and has written numerousarticles on trauma, bereavement and victimisation of adults and children.

Dr Margaret W'ilson, Depørtment of Psychology, Keynes College, TheUniuersity of Kent at Canterbury, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NP, UK

Dr Margaret Wilson is an applied psychologist who has for many yearsbeen teaching forensic psychology in the UK. She has conducted a greatdeal of research on terrorist behaviour and lectured extensively on thesubject worldwide. She can currently be contacted through the Universityof Kent at Canterbury, where she holds an honoraty post.

Series Preface

The Wiley Series in the Psychology of Crime, Policing and the Law pnb-lishes integrative reviews on important emerging areas of contemporaryresearch. The purpose of the series is not merely to present research find-ings in a clear and readable form, but also to bring out their implicationsfor both practice and policy. In this way, it is hoped that the series will notonly be useful to psychologists, but also to all those concerned with crimedetection and prevention, policing and the judicial process.

As Andrew Silke, the editor of Terrorism, Victims and Society: Psycho-logical Perspectiues on Tercorism u,nd its Consequences, makes clear, thisbook is no fast-buck response to the events of September 11, 200I. Rather,it represents a considered and comprehensive appraisal from a psycholog-ical perspective of the motivations and origins of terrorists, the impact oftheir acts on its victims, and of ways of combating terrorism. While ter-rorism has been repeatedly studied from the perspective of its political,ethnic or religious roots, the psychological element has frequently beenignored.

The first section of the book is given over to the debate surroundingacts of terrorism and their perpetrators. The contributors do not duck thesubjective and judgemental element of the label 'terrorist'-¡¡¡s must re-member that the resistance heroes of the Second World War were called'terrorists' by their Nazi occupiers-but focus on the personality and be-haviour of terrorists. What combination of personality traits and familyand societal influences produce a terrorist? The acts themselves are fre-quently horrific, with violence and death meted out to all, without regardto traditional distinctions between combatants and the innocent. As thecontributors emphasise, such acts are rarely random but precisely cali-brated for their psychological impact: terrorists can be psychologists too.To understand, but not excuse, such behaviour is the first step to comingto terms with terrorism.

The second section is devoted to the victims of terrorism and the impactof such acts on their lives, attitudes and behaviour. As we have seen inNorthern lreland and elsewhere, terrorism can persist over generations,

Ef;!

xtv Series Preface

wrecking the lives of its victims and polarising the attitudes of whole

communities. Dealing with the psychological consequences of terrorism forits victims, direct and indirect, and influencing well-established attitudesand stereotypes is a challenge dealt with in depth by the contributors to

this book.The third section is devoted to the problem of responding to terrorism

from a psychological perspective. Historically, some terrorist campaigns

have been successfully resisted and defeated. The problem for established

authority is how to combat and suppress terrorist acts, while at the same

time not increasing the sympathy of the community at large for those

responsible for the original outrages. Part of that response may involve

new laws and. offences, police and military initiatives or political, economic

and religious changes, but as our contributors emphasise, all must be

carefully evaluated in terms of their perceived psychological consequences

for the individuals involved and the community at large.

The editor, Andrew Silke, is well placed to bring together this importantand ground-breaking series of papers. Dr Silke himself has made a sig-

nificant contribution to the growing literature on psychological aspects ofterrorism and its consequences. As a young researcher and at some per-

sonal risk, he conducted extensive fi.eld research in Northern lreland, in-terviewing people involved in the violence, and trod the streets and lanes

where acts of terror had taken place. The wealth of his knowledge and

contacts are reflected in this book. It deserves to be read not merely by

those interested in the academic study of terrorism but also by the politi-cians and law-enforcement personnel who must deal at first-hand withthe consequences and perpetrators ofthis scourge ofour age.

GRAHAM M. DAVIESUniuersity of Leicester

Preface

In the wake of the September 11 attacks and subsequent events inAfghanistan and elsewhere, the world's attention has turned to the ques-

tion of how best to tackle terrorism. This focus will fade \,\rith time-andprobably quicker than many expect-but for now the issue of how best tounderstand and resolve terrorist conflicts dominates much public thoughtand activity. One clear certainty at this juncture is that there are no easyand straightforward solutions to terrorism. However, research on the sub-ject conducted over the past three decades has helped identify some of thekey issues that must be faced in tackling the problem, and has discernedsome of the important features of effective counter-terrorism policies.

Many obstacles block efforts to reach a reliable understanding of terror-ism and its impact. At a fundamental level there is incredible discrepancyover what the term actual means and who can fairly be described as aterrorist and who cannot. 'Terrorism' is a fi.ercely political word and onethat is both incredibly alive and dishearteningly legion. As a term, it isfar too nimble a creature for social science to be able to pin it down inanything like a reliable manner, and the result has been frustrating andunending debate in order to reach an accepted demarcation of the bound-aries of the word. This has been sorely felt within the social sciences, andPoland (1988) noted correctly that this failure to agree on an acceptabledefinition is'the most confounding problem in the study of terrorism'. So

intractable are the various contentions that Shafritz, Gibbons and Scott(1991) concluded sombrely that'it is unlikely that any defrnition will everbe generally agreed upon'.

White an agreed definition is probably as far off as ever, the needs of thisvolume require at least the bones of a framework for focus. A few of thechapters that follow will touch again on the subject of deflnition in theirintroductions, but overall the volume follows the relatively concise outlineprovided by Martha Crenshaw, a political scientist with a singular exper-tise in the psychologSz of terrorism. Crenshaw has described terrorism as

'a particular style of political violence, involving attacks on a small num-ber of victims in order to influence a wider audience' (Crenshaw, 1992).

F

xvt Preface

The events of September 11 cruelly illustrated that 'small' is a relativeterm. There is also dissent as to what behaviours fit comfortably withinthis definition. Nevertheless, the focus of this volume is very much thatof what could be described as 'insurgent' terrorism. This is essentially astrategy of the weak, the use of violence 'by groups with little numeri-cal, physical or direct political power in order to effect political or socialchange' (Friedland, L992). In practical terms, 'insurgent' terrorists tendto be members of small covert groups engaged in an organised campaignof violence.

Terrorism is a complex and capacious subject, and psychological re-search has been conducted on many different aspects of the phenomenon,not all of which can be considered in this collection. As a field of study,terrorism is distinctive in that it is a difflcult and sometimes dangeroustopic to investigate, and for obvious reasons the number of people ac-tively researching the subject has always been small. Adding to this lackof bodies on the ground are serious and persistent concerns regarding themanner and reliability of the methods used to gather and analyse most ofthe data currently available on the subject. As Groebel (1989) pointed out:'Most data are either not available at all, are only fragmentary, or can-not be tested with respect to their reliability and validity. Terrorists arerarely open to direct observation and usually do not volunteer for scientificinterviews'(p. 25).

The literature of terrorism is still young: almost all of the books on thetopic have been written since 1968. The explosion of publications in thelate 1970s has been followed by less dramatic but relatively steady growth,and although the tragic events of September 11, 2001 resulted in a floodof publications on the subject, there is no sense that the quantity reflectsany improvement in quality (Alexander, 2002). This is an old problem.Schmid and Jongman ( 1988) noted that despite the fact that a very sizeablebody of literature on terrorism has accumulated, the substance of thiswriting is less than impressive: 'Much of the writing in the crucial areasof terrorism research is impressionistic, superficial, and at the same timeoften also pretentious, venturing far-reaching generalizations on the basisof episodal evidence' (p. I77).

The study of terrorism is truly multidisciplinary and, perhaps for thebetter, no one discipline has been able to flrmly take pre-eminence in thisareaof study. Researchers from flelds such as political science, criminology,psychology, sociology, history, Iaw, military and communication scienceshave all contributed. However, despite this diversity of backgrounds theresearch itself remains plagued by a number of problems. Ariel Merari, apsychologist and writer with a keen sense of the limitations of researchefforts to date, makes the following general point:

Terrorism is a study area which is very easy to approach but very difficultto cope with in a scientific sense. Easy to approach-because it has so many

Preface xvil

angles, touchingupon all aspects ofhumanbehaviour. Difficultto cope with-because it is so diverse. As terrorism is not a discipline, there can hardly be ageneral theory of terrorism. . . There are few social scientists who specialisein this study area. Most contributions in this field are ephemeral. Preciseand extensive factual knowledge is still grossly lacking. Much effort muststill be invested in the very first stage of scientific inquiry with regard toterrorism-the collection of data (quoted in Schmid and Jongman, 1988,p. t77).

In examining the quality of research on terrorism, Schmid and Jongman(1988) noted in their review that'there are probably few areas in the socialscience literature on which so much is written on the basis of so littleresearch'. They estimated that'as much as 80 per cent of the literature isnot research-based in any rigorous sense; instead, it is too often narrative,condemnatory, and prescriptive'(p. 179). A review of recent research workfound that only about 20 per cent of published articles on terrorism areproviding substantially new knowledge on the subject (Silke, 2001). Therest are simply reiterating and reworking old data. Further, while thebackgrounds of the researchers may be relatively diverse, there has ingeneral been a constant shortage of investigators to carry out studies inthis area. Since it first emerged as a clear and substantial topic of study,terrorism has suffered from a near-chronic lack of active researchers.

PSYCHOLOG ICAL APPROACH ES TOTHE STUDY OF TERRORISM

Crenshaw (1990) noted that'it is difficult to understand terrorism with-out psychological theory, because explaining terrorism must begin withanalysing the intentions of the terrorist actor and the emotional reactionsof audiences'(p. 247).Yet despite this, the number of psychologists activelyresearching in the area has always been very small. In 1985, Schmid andJongman carried out a review of all available terrorism researchers. Theyfound that just 10 per cent of this sample were psychologists (just 11 in-dividual.)" A review carried out in 2000 on the published literature onterrorism found that psychologists and psychiatrists accounted for lessthan 6 per cent of the research work on terrorism (Silke, 2000). So whilepsychology has played a role in trying to understand terrorism, it has ingeneral been a very minor contributor and one that has arguably grownless active and vigorous with time.

According to Merari (1991), both terrorism and terrorists have beenlargely ignored by psycholory as a discipline. This is a perception notwithout substance:

Until recentl5r, the academic community paid very little attention to the phe-nomena of terrorism. For academic psychology, in particular, terrorism was

XVIII Preface

'.a

nonexistent throughout the 1970s, a period when scores of terrorist groupswere establishe¿ ãtt over the world and terrorist attacks became one ofthe most frequent topics of media headlines. The Psychological Abs_tracts,

the most autÉoritative compendium of academic publications in psychology,

listed no reference to terrorism or to related terms, such as 'hostages' or'hijacking', until the end of 1981. . . . some psychological and psychiatric art-iclãs and books on terrorism appeared before 1982 but the articles were notpubtished in the journals covered by the Psychological Abstracts and theLooks, apparently, did not deserve a mention in the opinion of the Psycho-logical Abstracts editors. Clearly this subject remained outside the interestanã attention of mainstream psychology. Although political scientists havedevoted considerably greater ãttention to terrorism than psychologists andsociologists, on the whõle the scientific community has so far allocated a verysmall pãrt of its research effort to this subject-a strange attitude towards aphenomenon that is clearly one of the most common forms of violent domesticãnd international political conflict in our time (Merari, 1991, p. 91).

The reasons for this general neglect are not difficult to imagine. Terrorismis a úolent, emotive and dangerous activity, and terrorist groups are se-

cretive, ruthless and very dangerous organisations. The risks involvedfor the potential researcher are considerable: academic researchers have

been threatened., kidnapped, attacked, shot, bombed and killed in theirattempts to study terrorism.

Other obstacles also hinder research efforts. Many traditional methodsof research struggle badly when attempts are made to apply them to thestudy of terrorism. Merari (1991) points out that:'On the practical side,

terrorism is a very elusive subject for research. . . . Collecting systematicstandardízed, reliable information for the purpose of comparisons is nextto impossible. Moreover, the customary tools of psychological and sociolog-

ical research are almost always inapplicable for studying terrorist groups

and their individual members'(p. 89). However, Merari does note that thephysical manifestations of terrorism as well as public responses to it are,

in principle, much more accessible to research than the psychology and

sociology of terrorists. In practice, however, even research in this area is

not always easy.Further, and despite the considerable potential, much terrorism re-

search conducted by psychologists seems wasted, with repeated explor-

ations of avenues already effectively exhausted by previous researchers.

Many researchers seem to have only a casual and cursory awareness ofother terrorism research. The dead-ends of terrorist abnormality and ter-rorist personality reoccur, flouting the overwhelming body of evidence to

the contrary that has emerged over the past 25 years. Speculation and the-orising are invaluable to the development of constructive research, how-

ever psychology's performance here borders on dereliction. The problem

appears to be that too few dedicated psychologists take terrorism as theirprimary interest. As Merari points out, often individuals whose speciality

Preface XIX

and main interest lie elsewhere see an application for their own area interrorism. They wade in, publish a paper or two and then depart. ThisIeaves the few dedicated researchers to deal with a continuous supply ofmaterial espousing viewpoints and theories that serious researchers havein fact relegated years previously, as what evidence was available con-sistently showed such approaches to be fruitless and./or fundamentallywrong.

Despite the generally sporadic nature of psychological research on ter-rorism, there are nevertheless a number of areas where psychological en-quiry has produced truly important findings. In particular there has beengood research on the question of whether terrorists are psychologicallyabnormal (and the related question as to whether a terrorist personalityexists). Even better work has been done on the victims of terrorism, andover the past 20 years psychologists have made enormous progress in un-derstanding how people respond to being caught up in terrorist incidents.

THE SCOPE OF THIS VOTUME

At a time when there is an incrcasing sense of paranoia regarding terror-ism, there is a powerful need for balanced, expert and accessible accountsof the psycholog¡r of terrorists and terrorism. This book is intended to helpaddress this need. However, it should not be seen as a knee-jerk reaction tothe tragic events of September 11. Yonah Alexander (2002) recently com-mented that more than 150 books on terrorism had been published in thefirst 12 months after the terrorist attacks on NewYork and Washington-roughly three new books each week. He questioned, rightly, whether thequality of this flood of printed matter would stand any test of time. Thisvolume is hopefully somewhat better prepared for such probation.

Though published well after the September 11 attacks, work on thiscollection of papers began back in 1998 when I met the Series Editor fora coffee at the campus of the University of Leicester. I had already heardthat Wiley had (for some time) wanted to publish a book on psychologyand terrorism, but had been struggling to find someone to take on theproject. I agreed to edit the book, but little appreciated then just how longit would take to bring the finished volume to fruition. From the outset, theintention was to include in one volume contributions from psychologistsand psychiatrists with the'right'backgrounds: people who had direct ex-perience of researching terrorism; who had met actual terrorists; who hadworked with the victims of terrorist violence; and who had worked to assistthose tasked with the serious responsibility of combating and respondingto terrorism. Needless to say, the list of potential contributors was a shortone, and it took much time to gather together the various authors. Theend product, though, has hopefully been worth the long wait.

7

XX Preface

Divided into three parts, the book aims to provide a holistic account ofterrorism and its impact. The first general section focuses on terroristsas individuals and as groups. The contributions here attempt to provide abalanced and objective insight into the psychology of terrorists: what aretheir motivations, what keeps them involved in terrorist groups, and whateventually forces most to end their active involvement in terrorism. Thissection also tackles the special issues of terrorist hostage-taking, suicidalterrorism and the growing concern over cyber-terrorism.

The second section of the book explores the impact of terrorism. Some ofthe best work psychology has carried out on the subject of terrorism hasfocused on the issues surrounding victims, and the chapters here examinehow terrorism affects both its direct and indirect casualties. The sectionalso examines the differences between isolated incidents and long-runningterrorist campaigns, the special cases of groups such as children and theincreasingly sensitive role of the media.

The final section of the book focuses on the thorny questions of howbest to respond to, and manage, terrorism. It is hoped that these chap-ters can provide some insight for those concerned with short-term tacticalproblems (e.g. whether or not to retaliate), as well as for those lookingat the more long-term strategic questions'of brin$ng an entire terroristcampaign to an end.

Ultimately, the focus of this book is to present a clear and succinct view ofwhat psychological research has revealed about terrorists and terrorism.The results are often disturbing, sometimes surprising and frequentlydisheartening. Perhaps most worrying of all is the extent to which thiscurrent level and range of knowledge has repeatedly been ignored andoverlooked by those with the responsibility of controlling terrorism. Thisbook attempts to provide a clear, intelligent and well-informed account ofwhat psychology has learned over the past 30 years about issues relatingto terrorism. It also aims to demonstrate just how one branch of socialscience can provide a powerful tool for insight and guidance on one of themost challenging problems facing the modern world.

ANDREW SILKE

REIERENCES

Alexander,Y.(2002). September 11: US Reactions andResponses. Paper presentedat the ESRC Conference of the St Andrews/Southampton Research Projecton the Domestic Management of Terrorist Attacks, 19-20 September 2002,Southampton, UK.

Crenshaw, M. (1990). Questions to be answered, research to be done. In W. Reich(Ed.), Origins of Terrorism. Carnbridge:

'Woodrow Wilson Center.

Preface xxl

Crenshaw; M. (1992). How terrorists think: what psychology can contribute to un-derstanding terrorism. In L. Howard (Ed.), Tercorísm: Roots, Impact, Responses(pp. 71-80). London: Praeger.

Friõdland, N. (1992). Becoming a terrorist: social and individual antecedents.In L. Howard (Ed.), Terrorism: Roots, Impact, Responses (pp. 81-93). London:Praeger.

Groebel, J. (1989). The problems and challenges of research on terrorism. InJ. Groebel and J.H. Goldstein (Eds), Terrorism: Psychologícal Perspectíues (pp.15-33). Seville: University of Seville.

Merari, A. (1991). Academic research and government policy on terrorisrn. Tercor-

ism and Political Violence, 3(1), 88-102.Poland, J.M. (1988). Understanding Terrorism: Groups, Strategíes, and Responses.

New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.Schmid, A.P and Jongman, A.J. (1988). Political Tercorism, 2nd edn. Oxford:

North-Holland Publishing Company.Shafritz, J.M., Gibbons, E.F. Jr and Scott, G.E.J. (1991). Almanac of Modern

Terrorism. Oxford: Facts on File.Silke, A. (2000). The road less travelled: trends in terrorism research 1990-

1999. Paper presented at the International Conference on Countering TerrorismThrough Enhanced International Cooperation, 22-24 September 2000, Cour-mayeur, Italy.

Silke, A. (2001). The devil you know: continuing problems with research on ter-rorism.?errorism and Political Violence, l3(4), l-t4.