Technical and Vocational Education and Training: Issues, Concerns and Prospects

Volume 31

Series Editor-in-Chief:

Professor Rupert Maclean, QAPCO Professional Chair in Vocational Studies, and UNESCO Chair on TVET and Sustainable Development, Office for Applied Research and Innovation, College of the North Atlantic-Qatar

Associate Editors:

Professor Felix Rauner, TVET Research Group, University of Bremen, GermanyProfessor Karen Evans, Institute of Education, University of London, United KingdomMS Sharon M. McLennon, Director, Newfoundland and Labrador Workforce Innovation Centre, Canada

Editorial Advisory Board:Dr David Atchoarena, Division for Education Strategies and Capacity Building, UNESCO, Paris, FranceDr András Benedek, Ministry of Employment and Labour, Budapest, HungaryDr Paul Benteler, Stahlwerke Bremen, GermanyProfessor Michel Carton, NORRAG c/o Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva, SwitzerlandDr Chris Chinien, Workforce Development Consulting, Montreal, CanadaDr Claudio De Moura Castro, Faculade Pitágoras, Belo Horizonte, BrazilDr Michael Frearson, SQW Consulting, Cambridge, United KingdomDr Lavinia Gasperini, Natural Resources Management and Environment Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, ItalyDr Philipp Grollmann, Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BiBB), Bonn, GermanyProfessor W. Norton Grubb, Graduate School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, United States of AmericaDr Dennis R. Herschbach, Faculty of Education Policy and Leadership, University of Maryland, College Park, United States of AmericaDr Oriol Homs, Centre for European Investigation and Research in the Mediterranean Region, Barcelona, SpainProfessor Moo-Sub Kang, Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training, Seoul, Republic of KoreaDr Bonaventure W. Kerre, School of Education, Moi University, Eldoret, KenyaDr Günter Klein, German Aerospace Centre, Bonn, GermanyDr Wilfried Kruse, Sozialforschungsstelle Dortmund, Dortmund Technical University, GermanyProfessor Jon Lauglo, Department of Educational Research, Faculty of Education, University of Oslo, NorwayDr Alexander Leibovich, Institute for Vocational Education and Training Development, Moscow, Russian FederationProfessor Robert Lerman, Urban Institute, Washington, United States of AmericaMs Naing Yee Mar, GIZ, Yangon, MyanmarProfessor Munther Wassef Masri, National Centre for Human Resources Development, Amman, JordanDr Phillip McKenzie, Australian Council for Educational Research, Melbourne, AustraliaDr Margarita Pavlova, UNESCO-UNEVOC Centre, Education University of Hong Kong, ChinaDr Theo Raubsaet, Centre for Work, Training and Social Policy, Nijmegen, NetherlandsProfessor Barry Sheehan, Melbourne University, AustraliaDr Madhu Singh, UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, Hamburg, GermanyDr Jandhyala Tilak, National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi, IndiaDr Pedro Daniel Weinberg, formerly Inter-American Centre for Knowledge Development in Vocational Training (ILO/CINTERFOR), Montevideo, UruguayProfessor Adrian Ziderman, Bar-llan University, Ramat Gan, Israel

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6969

Miriam Preckler Galguera

Globalization, Mass Education and Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingThe Influence of UNESCO in Botswana and Namibia

ISSN 1871-3041 ISSN 2213-221X (electronic)Technical and Vocational Education and Training: Issues, Concerns and ProspectsISBN 978-3-319-91106-9 ISBN 978-3-319-91107-6 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91107-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018941092

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing AG part of Springer Nature.The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Miriam Preckler GalgueraAutonomous University of Madrid Madrid, Spain

v

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank for the success and timeliness of this work some wonderful people I have known for different lengths of time. First and foremost, I would like to thank my family and beloved ones for their patience and understanding.

Secondly, I would like to thank UNESCO and all the people I have had the great luck to get to know within the organization, not only for the opportunity they brought me to conduct this work within the scope of an international organization, but also for the friendships I have developed with some of the most amazing human beings I have ever known. Special thanks to Mr. Gyutae Kim, Mr. Sobhi Tawil and Ms. Asma Zubari; to Ms. Mmantsetsa Marope, Mr. David Atchoarena, Mr. Francesc Pedró, Mr. Aaron Benavot, Ms. Paulina González-Pose, Mr. Salah Khaled, Mr. Keith Holmes, Mr. Harrison Beck, Ms. Milena Caceres, Ms. Aida Alcarusi, Ms. Yasmine Babiard, Ms. Mari Yasunaga, Mr. Rafael Quintana, Ms. Rita Locateli and some other persons I will never forget.

I extend special appreciation to Mr. Luis Miguel  Lázaro, Mr. J.  Valle, Mr. J. Eguren, Mr. Carlos Izquierdo, Mr. Pablo Gómez-Tavira, Ms. Anka Moldovan, Mr. Santiago Fernández Prieto, Mr. Do Yong Park, Mr. Ewan Smith, Mr. Juan de Barandica y Luxan, and Mr. Alfredo Pérez de Armiñán.

I acknowledge that this work would not have been possible without the contribu-tions and insights of Mr. Raymond Doherty and his family, Ms. Veruschka McKey, as well as all the participants in the study. In particular, I want to thank Mr. Jean- Pierre Ilboudo, Mr. Richwell Lukonga, and Ms. Janette Motsu.

Finally, I want to thank all the people I have had the chance to meet during these years in Namibia, Botswana, Malawi, Zambia, DR.  Congo, France, Zimbabwe, Spain, and South Sudan, the experts from the Republic of Korea, and the interna-tional consultants from all over the world, for showing me the joy of life and the meaning of living for each other without any greed or selfishness, thanks for show-ing me your wise understanding of life.

vii

Series Editors Introduction

This volume by Miriam Preckler Galguera, Globalisation, Mass Education and TVET: The Influence of UNESCO in Botswana and Namibia, is the latest book to be published in the long-standing Springer book series ‘Technical and Vocational Education and Training: Issues, Concerns and Prospects’. This book by Preckler Galguera is the 30th volume to be published to date in this book series.

Work is a major feature of most people’s lives. Not only does it provide them with the means to meet basic needs, such as food, clothing and shelter, but also the type of work undertaken by individuals and groups has a major impact on their self- identity, social status and standard of living. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is concerned with ‘applied learning’, with the acquisition of knowledge and skills for the world of work to increase opportunities for productive work, sustainable livelihoods, personal empowerment and socio-economic development.

This Springer book series on TVET and education for the changing world of work seeks to provide comprehensive information about many cutting edge aspects of TVET. The series showcases best and innovative approaches to skills develop-ment for employability and aims to create an effective bridge between research, policy and practice. It is an on-going project which seeks to provide a comprehen-sive picture of current issues, concerns and prospects in TVET worldwide.

This important and timely book by Miriam Preckler Galguera, Globalisation, Mass Education and TVET: The Influence of UNESCO in Botswana and Namibia, examines the growing interest that exists regarding the impact of globalisation and mass education on preparing people for the world of work, with particular reference to applied learning and technical and vocational education and training. In doing this the author provides a case study of Botswana and Namibia with particular refer-ence to the impact of the international development agency UNESCO on education policy making and practice in the area of TVET.

After setting the context by examining the expansion of mass education, globali-sation and the impact of international organisations throughout the world, the book examines in detail the role and programme activities of the international develop-ment agency UNESCO in the area of education, with particular reference to

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TVET.  Examined aspects include UNESCO’s normative TVET instruments, UNESCO education strategy 2014–2021 and the impact of UNESCO on education development in the less developed and developing countries worldwide, with particular reference to Africa.

This book of nine chapters then moves on to provide specific case studies of Botswana and Namibia with regard to the more general matters concerning globali-sation, mass education and TVET. The book explores the relationship of these coun-tries to UNESCO in the area of education development.

There is no doubt in my mind that this is an important, cutting edge volume on a topic that is of great interest to many researchers, policy makers and practitioners throughout the world. I have no doubt that this book will be widely read and that it has the potential to have an important impact on policy and practice, and further research, in this area.

Rupert MacleanQAPCO Professional Chair in Vocational Studies, and UNESCO Chair on TVET and Sustainable Development, Office for Applied Research and Innovation, College of the North Atlantic-Qatar

March 2018

Series Editors Introduction

ix

Contents

1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Globalization, World Society, and the Expansion

of Standardization .............................................................. 1 1.1.2 The Operation of International Organizations

in the Field of Education .................................................... 3 1.1.3 Mass Education at the Nation-State Level ......................... 4 1.1.4 The Construction of a Global Profession ........................... 6 1.1.5 The Role of UNESCO and its Influence

on TVET Education Worldwide ........................................ 7 1.1.6 The Importance of TVET in the Southern African

Development Community (SADC) Region ....................... 8 1.2 Map of Contents ............................................................................... 10 References ................................................................................................. 12

2 Globalization, International Organizations, and Mass Education ................................................................................ 15

2.1 Globalization and the World Society ............................................... 15 2.1.1 Actors of the World Modern Society ................................. 16 2.2 International Organizations and the World Society ......................... 18 2.2.1 The Operation of International Organizations

in the Field of Education for Development........................ 20 2.3 Mass Education and Its Expansion on the World Society ............... 23 2.3.1 Formal Education and the Origins of Mass Education ...... 23 2.3.2 The Expansion of Mass Education .................................... 26 References ................................................................................................. 33

3 Contextualization of UNESCO as an International Organization on Education .................................................................... 37

3.1 UNESCO As an International Organization .................................... 37 3.1.1 Basement and Foundations ................................................ 37 3.1.2 UNESCO in the Field of Education ................................... 41

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3.1.3 UNESCO Education Strategy 2014–2021 ......................... 48 3.1.4 Education Agenda Post-2015 ............................................. 48 3.1.5 Education and the Sustainable

Development Goals 2030 ................................................... 50 References ................................................................................................. 51

4 Contextualization of TVET in Education ............................................. 53 4.1 TVET – General Understanding ...................................................... 53 4.1.1 What Does TVET Mean and Imply? ................................. 53 4.1.2 Work, Formal Sector, Informal Sector,

and Decent Work ................................................................ 55 4.2 TVET in a Global World .................................................................. 56 4.2.1 Global TVET Challenges

on the Twenty-First Century .............................................. 56 References ................................................................................................. 63

5 TVET at UNESCO .................................................................................. 67 5.1 Conceptualization of TVET for UNESCO ...................................... 67 5.2 Actual UNESCO’S TVET Strategy 2016–2021 .............................. 68 5.2.1 Core Area 1: Fostering Youth Employment

and Entrepreneurship ......................................................... 69 5.2.2 Core Area 2: Promoting Equity

and Gender Equality .......................................................... 69 5.2.3 Core Area 3: Facilitating the Transition to Green

Economies and Sustainable Societies ................................ 70 5.3 UNESCO’S TVET Normative Instruments ..................................... 70 5.4 UNESCO-UNEVOC ........................................................................ 72 References ................................................................................................. 73

6 UNESCO’s TVET Project: Better Education for Africa’s Rise (BEAR) ........................................................................ 75

6.1 Context and Background .................................................................. 75 6.2 Overall Approach ............................................................................. 76 6.3 Project Design: Objectives and Key Features .................................. 78 6.4 Implementation and Management Structure of the Project ............. 80 6.5 Country Specificities: Botswana and Namibia ................................ 82 6.5.1 Botswana ............................................................................ 82 6.5.2 Namibia .............................................................................. 85 References ................................................................................................. 87

7 Contextualization of Botswana and Namibia as Member States of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) ............... 89

7.1 Southern African Development Community (SADC) ..................... 89 7.1.1 SADC Goals, Principles, and Purpose ............................... 89 7.2 Botswana (Fig. 7.2) .......................................................................... 96 7.2.1 Context ............................................................................... 96 7.2.2 Education ........................................................................... 97 7.2.3 TVET in Botswana ............................................................ 106

Contents

xi

7.3 Namibia (Fig. 7.3) ............................................................................ 114 7.3.1 Context ............................................................................... 114 7.3.2 Education ........................................................................... 116 7.3.3 TVET in Namibia .............................................................. 130 References ................................................................................................. 136

8 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis .................................................. 141 8.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis .............................................. 141 8.1.1 Quantitative Analysis ......................................................... 141 8.1.2 Qualitative Analysis ........................................................... 171 References ................................................................................................. 200

9 Conclusions and Recommendations ...................................................... 201 9.1 Conclusions ...................................................................................... 201 9.1.1 The Social Impact Perception on the Development

of TVET Systems by UNESCO ........................................ 205 9.1.2 The Distribution of Mass Education Worldwide

Through the International Organizations ........................... 210 9.1.3 UNESCO’s Role on the Development

of National TVET Systems ................................................ 213 9.1.4 UNESCO’s Strengths, Weaknesses as International

Organization, and Suggestions to Improve the Efficiency of Its Mandate and Work ............................ 216

9.1.5 UNESCO’s Role on the Development and Implementation of the BEAR Project in Botswana and Namibia .................................................. 218

9.2 Recommendations ............................................................................ 220 9.2.1 To Enhance the Role of TVET in Supporting

National (and Regional) Development Objectives ............ 221 9.2.2 To Expand Access to Technical and Vocational

Education and Training ...................................................... 222 9.2.3 To Upgrade Vocational Teacher Education ........................ 222 9.2.4 To Increase the Productivity of TVET Students ................ 223 9.2.5 To Introduce Examinations as Part

of the TVET Learning Assessment Process ....................... 224 9.2.6 To Enhance the Importance of Workplace Training .......... 224 9.2.7 To Explore and Include New Models

of TVET Learning Including Distance TVET Learning on the National TVET System ........................... 225

9.2.8 To Maximize the Utilization of TVET Resources ............. 225 9.2.9 To Increase the Engagement of the Formal

TVET System with Micro and Informal Enterprises ......... 226 9.2.10 To Consider the Impact of HIV/AIDS

on Skills Development at the National Level .................... 227 9.2.11 To Engage TVET Colleges in Educationally

Aligned Income Generation Activities .............................. 227

Contents

xii

9.2.12 To Develop Strategies for Sponsorship .............................. 227 9.2.13 To Create a Fast Track Pathway for Highly

Skilled Technicians to Gain TVET Teacher Qualifications ..................................................................... 228

9.2.14 To Develop Management Information Systems ................ 228 9.2.15 To Bring the Private TVET into the National

TVET System .................................................................... 229 9.2.16 To Reinforce the Policy Coordination

Across Government Departments and Agencies ............... 229 9.2.17 The Emergence and Performance

of Qualifications Systems .................................................. 229 References ................................................................................................. 230

Contents

xiii

Acronyms

ACP African, Caribbean and PacificADEA Association for the Development of Education in AfricaADP Accenture Development PartnershipAfDB African Development BankAIDAB Australian International Development Assistance

BureauAIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency SyndromeALMPs Active Labor Market PoliciesASEAN Association of Southeast Asian NationsBCA Botswana College of AgricultureBEAR Better Education for Africa’s RiseBFTU Botswana Federation of Trade UnionsBGCSE Botswana General Certificate of EducationBIUST Botswana International University of Science andTechnologyBNVQ Botswana National Vocational QualificationsBNVQF Botswana National Vocational Qualification

FrameworksBOCODOL Botswana College for Distance and Open LearningBoP, current Current Account BalanceBOTA Botswana Training AuthorityBTEP Botswana Technical Education ProgramCAME Conference of Allied Ministers of EducationCARICOM Caribbean CommunityCBET Competency-Based education and trainingCBOs Community-Based OrganizationsCEDEFOP Centre Europeen pour le Developpement de la

Formation ProfessionelleCESC Namibian Computer Education Services CorporationCIES Comparative and International Education SocietyCIDA Canadian International Development Agency

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CONFEMEN La Conférence des ministres de l’Éducation des Etats et Gouvernements de la Francophonie

COSDECs Community Skills Development CentersCOSDEF Community Skills Development FoundationCOST College for Out of School TrainingCSP/NIP Namibian Country Strategy Paper and National

Indicative PaperD and EU Developed Countries and European UnionDAC Development Assistance CommitteeDACUM Development a CurriculumDHS Demographic and Health SurveysDOSET Department of Out-of-School EducationDR Developed RegionDR CONGO Democratic Republic of CongoDTVET Department of Technical and Vocational Education and

TrainingEAG Education at a GlanceEC European CommissionECCE Early Childhood Care and EducationECD Early Childhood DevelopmentECO/CONF Conference of the United Nations for the Establishment

of an Educational and Cultural OrganizationECOWAS Economic Community of West African StatesED EducationEDF European Development FundEDUCAIDS – UNAIDS Global Initiative on Education and HIV and AIDSEFA Education for AllEMIS Education Management Information SystemESD Euro Statistic DatabaseETF European Training FoundationETSIP Education and Training Sector Improvement ProgramEU European UnionEuro Stat European Statistics OfficeFDI Foreign Direct InvestmentFFA Framework for ActionFGDP Foreign Trade on Gross Domestic ProductG20 The Group of TwentyGATS General Agreement on Trade in Services (World Trade

Organization)GDP Gross Domestic ProductGIFTs Global Institute for Transferring Skills, South KoreaGINI GINI CoefficientGIZ Rendered Through the Deutsche Gesellschaftfür

Internationale ZusammenarbeitGMR Global Monitoring Report

Acronyms

xv

GNI per capita Gross National Income per CapitaGNP Gross National ProductGPI Gender Parity IndexGTZ German Agency for Technical CooperationHATAB Hospitality and Tourism Association of BotswanaHDI Human Development IndexHDRs Human Development ReportsHIGSE Higher International General Certificate of Secondary

EducationHIV Human Immune-Deficiency VirusHRD Human Development Service of Korea, South KoreaHRDAC Human Resources Development Advisory CouncilHRDC Human Resource Development CouncilIAG-TVET Inter-agency Technical and Vocational Education and

TrainingIATT Inter-agency Task TeamIBE UNESCO’s International Bureau of EducationICT Information and Communication TechnologyIDP Integrated Development PlanningIGCSE International General Certificate of Secondary

EducationIGOs Intergovernmental OrganizationsIHDI Inequality-Adjusted Human Development IndexIICBA UNESCO’s International Institute for Capacity Building

in AfricaIIEP UNESCO’s International Institute for Educational

PlanningILO International Labor OrganizationIMF International Monetary FundINEE Inter-agency Network for Education in EmergenciesINSSO International Network of Sector SkillsIOM International Organization for MigrationIRBM International Results Based ManagementISC Industry Skills CommitteeISCED International Standard Classification of EducationISESCO Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural

OrganizationISIC International Standard Industrial Classification of AllITC Information Technology CenterJSC Junior Secondary CertificateKfW KreditanstaltfürWiederaufbauKILM Key Indicators of the Labor MarketKRIVET Korean Research Institute for Vocational Education and

TrainingLA and C Latin America and Caribbean

Acronyms

xvi

LAMP Literacy Assessment and Monitoring ProgramLDC Low Development CountriesLDR Low Developed RegionLIFE Literacy Initiative for EmpowermentLMS Labor Market StatisticsMCC Millennium Challenge CorporationMDGs Millennium Development GoalsMHETEC Namibian Ministry of Higher Education, Training and

EmploymentMIS Management Information SystemMLAF Botswana Ministries of Labor and Home AffairsMLHA Botswana Ministry of Labor and Home AffairsMLHF Ministry of Labor and Home AffairsMOA Botswana Ministry of AgricultureMoE&SD Botswana Ministry of Education and Skills DevelopmentMoESD Botswana Ministry of Education and Skills DevelopmentMOH Botswana Ministry of HealthMOOC Massive Openline CourseMQC Minimum Qualified CandidateMTC Transport and CommunicationsMTTC Madirelo Training and Testing CenterMWC&R Quarrying, Construction and ResourcesN$ Namibian DollarNAMCOL Namibian College of Open LearningNAMWATER Namibian Water CorporationNATCOM National Commission for UNESCONCC National Craft CertificateNCE National Commission on EducationNDP Namibian Development PlanNEET Youth Not in Education, Employment or TrainingNER Net Enrolment RateNFE-MIS Non-formal Education Management Information

SystemNGO Non-governmental OrganizationNIED National Institute for Education DevelopmentNIMT National Institute of Management TechnologyNIP National Indicative PaperNPD National Development PlansNPO National Project OfficerNPVET National Policy on Vocational Education and TrainingNQA Namibian Qualification AuthorityNQF National Qualification FrameworkNTA Namibian Training AuthorityNTL National Training LevyNVTA National Vocational Training Act

Acronyms

xvii

ODA British Overseas Development AgencyODA Official Development AssistanceODL Open and Distance LearningOECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and

DevelopmentOECD/DAC Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development/Development Assistance CommitteePASEC Program for the Analysis of Education System

Francophone CountriesPLS Policies and Lifelong Learning SystemsPSC Peace and Security CouncilQAA Quality Assurance and Assessment UnitRISDP Regional Indicative Strategic Development PlanRNPE Revised National Policy on EducationROK Republic of KoreaRPL Recognition of Prior LearningSACMEQ Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring

Educational QualitySACU Southern African Customs UnionSADC Southern African Development CommunitySARC Southern Africa Resource CenterSC Steering CommitteeSIDA Swedish International Development AuthoritySIPO Strategic Indicative Plan for the OrganSQA Scottish Qualification AuthoritySSA Sub-Saharan AfricaSWAP Sector-wide ApproachSWAPO South West Africa People’s OrganizationTCCA Technical Committee on Certification and AccreditationTCs Government Technical CollegesTEC Tertiary Educational CouncilTVE Technical and Vocational EducationTVET Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingTVSD Technical and Vocational Skills DevelopmentUCW Botswana United World CollegeUIL UNESCO Institute for Lifelong LearningUIS UNESCO Institute for StatisticsUK United KingdomUN United NationsUNAIDS Joint United Nations Program on HIV/Acquired

Immune Deficiency SyndromeUNAM University of NamibiaUNDP United National Development ProgramUNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational

Education and Training

Acronyms

xviii

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNESCO HQ United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Headquarter

UNFPA United Nations Population FundUNICEF United Nations Children’s FundUNIDO United Nations Industrial Development OrganizationUNITWIN University Twinning and NetworkingUNPOP UN Department of Economic and Social AffairsUSA United States of AmericaUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentUSD United Sates of AmericaVET Vocational Education and TrainingVTCs Vocational Training CentersWAP Working Age PopulationWB The World BankWBES World Bank Enterprise SurveysWBI World Bank IndicatorsWHO World Health OrganizationsWTO World Trade OrganizationWVTC Windhoek Vocational Training CentreYLS Youth Literacy and Skills DevelopmentZAR South African Rand

Acronyms

xix

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Evolution of education as a global development priority for United Nations ............................................................... 29

Fig. 2.2 Periods in UNESCO’s history .......................................................... 31

Fig. 3.1 UNESCO Medium-Term Strategy 2014–2021 (37/c4) ................... 43Fig. 3.2 UNESCO’s strategic objectives for education 2014–2021 .............. 49

Fig. 6.1 Implementation framework on curriculum development ................. 77Fig. 6.2 Main goals of the implementation of the BEAR project ................. 78Fig. 6.3 UNESCO’s target sector, scope, major components 

and an overview of the national counterparts of the BEAR project in Botswana and Namibia  are summarized on Fig. 6.3 .............................................................. 79

Fig. 6.4 Implementation process and stakeholders’ responsibilities within the BEAR project .................................................................. 82

Fig. 7.1 SADC region .................................................................................... 90Fig. 7.2 Botswana .......................................................................................... 96Fig. 7.3 Namibia ............................................................................................ 114Fig. 7.4 Namibian historical strategic development framework ................... 117Fig. 7.5 Namibia Vision 2030: Projections on youth and development ........ 132

Fig. 8.1 Categorization of the questionnaire according to the existing variables .................................................................... 142

Fig. 8.2 Group of stakeholders at UNESCO TVET project .......................... 174

Fig. 9.1 UNESCO’s influence: perceived benefits in different domains ....... 206Fig. 9.2 UNESCO’s role on the development of national TVET systems .... 215Fig. 9.3 UNESCO’s strengths as international organization ......................... 217Fig. 9.4 UNESCO’s weaknesses as international organization ..................... 217Fig. 9.5 TVET teacher training areas ............................................................ 223Fig. 9.6 Teacher training Outcome Based Education (OBE) areas ............... 223Fig. 9.7 Roles on the TVET examination process ......................................... 225

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List of Graphs

Graph 7.1 Education spending percentage of GDP, 2005 ........................... 91Graph 7.2 Length of the TVET programs in the SADC countries .............. 93Graph 7.3 Percentage of education budget allocated

to TVET in the SADC region ..................................................... 95

Graph 8.1 Participation within the different TVET trades by centers ......................................................................... 145

Graph 8.2 Participation within the different TVET trades by gender ......................................................................... 146

Graph 8.3 Highest level of education attained by country .......................... 148Graph 8.4 Employment situation before joining the TVET

program by country .................................................................... 149Graph 8.5 Participant’s main source of household income by country ....... 150Graph 8.6 Perception of living standard with household

income by country ...................................................................... 151Graph 8.7 Different ways to finance the participation

on the TVET program by country .............................................. 152Graph 8.8 Perceived importance of the TVET program

according to the students’ professional future expectations by country .............................................................. 154

Graph 8.9 Perceived importance of the TVET program according to the students’ professional future expectations by gender ............................................................... 154

Graph 8.10 Participants’ satisfaction on the TVET program, by country ................................................................... 158

Graph 8.11 Participants’ satisfaction on the TVET program, by gender .................................................................... 158

Graph 8.12 Balance of life prior to the participation on the TVET program by country .............................................. 160

xxii

Graph 8.13 Balance of life prior to the participation on the TVET program by gender ............................................... 160

Graph 8.14 Future labor expectations by country ......................................... 161Graph 8.15 Future labor expectations by gender .......................................... 162Graph 8.16 Future employment prospects, in comparison

to the previous ones, by country................................................. 163Graph 8.17 Future employment prospects in comparison

with the previous ones by gender ............................................... 163Graph 8.18 Future income expectations by country ..................................... 164Graph 8.19 Future income expectations by gender ....................................... 165Graph 8.20 Intentions to continue studying by country ................................ 166Graph 8.21 Intentions to continue studying by gender ................................. 167Graph 8.22 Expected balance of life after finalization

of TVET program by country .................................................... 167Graph 8.23 Expected Balance of life after finalization

of TVET program by gender ...................................................... 168Graph 8.24 Expected improvement on future economic

situation by country (after completing the TVET program) .................................................................... 169

Graph 8.25 Participant’s employment expectations before and after the TVET program ...................................................... 170

Graph 8.26 Changes on participants’ expectations about their own professional success by country ....................... 171

Graph 8.27 Change of perception about socioeconomic status (SES) before and after the participation in the TVET program ................................................................. 173

List of Graphs

xxiii

List of Pictures

Picture 6.1 BEAR project consultation process ........................................ 76Picture 6.2 Capacity building workshop on curriculum

development in DTVET, Gaborone, Botswana ...................... 81Picture 6.3 BEAR project student at the GTC in Botswana ..................... 84Picture 6.4 BEAR project student at Namwater, Namibia ........................ 86

xxv

List of Tables

Table 4.1 Overview of the different interpretations of “formal,” “nonformal,” and “informal” education worldwide ...................... 54

Table 4.2 Projections of working age population by development regions ................................................................. 59

Table 4.3 Evolution of total and youth unemployment (%) over time .......... 60

Table 7.1 Education levels in Botswana ........................................................ 102Table 7.2 Education pathways in relation to the age ..................................... 102Table 7.3 Education levels in Namibia .......................................................... 123Table 7.4 Education pathways in relation to the age ..................................... 124

Table 8.1 Total number of TVET students at national level and within the BEAR program on the selected trades by country ........................................................................... 144

Table 8.2 Participants by gender and country of origin ................................ 145Table 8.3 Number of people living in households by country ...................... 147Table 8.4 Inferential test to compare countries and genres

in relation to the motivation, initial expectations, future expectations, and participants’ perceptions in total ............ 153

Table 8.5 Appreciation on expected learned outcomes by country of origin and gender .................................................... 157

Table 8.6 Impact of the TVET program in total by gender and country of origin ..................................................................... 172