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Teacher education reform andchallenges in NorwayElaine Munthe a , Kari-Anne Svensen Malmo a & Magne Rogne aa Department of Teacher Education , University of Stavanger ,Stavanger , NorwayPublished online: 21 Sep 2011.

To cite this article: Elaine Munthe , Kari-Anne Svensen Malmo & Magne Rogne (2011) Teachereducation reform and challenges in Norway, Journal of Education for Teaching: Internationalresearch and pedagogy, 37:4, 441-450

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Teacher education reform and challenges in Norway

Elaine Munthe*, Kari-Anne Svensen Malmo and Magne Rogne

Department of Teacher Education, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway

(Final version received 11 July 2011)

Teacher education in Norway is nationally regulated and is currently undergoingextensive changes. This paper briefly outlines the various education routes forteachers and some of the ongoing work to improve teacher education, but con-centrates mainly on the reform that has come the farthest: initial teacher educa-tion for grades 1–7 and grades 5–10. The background to this reform, the mainchanges made to teacher education through this reform and some of the chal-lenges being dealt with are presented. Controversies abound in teacher educa-tion, and the one that is particularly brought to the forefront in this paper is therelationship between designing programmes that enable the development ofskills and also enhance becoming a teacher: the character-forming significanceof teacher education.

Keywords: teacher education reform; initial teacher education; programmedesign; skill development; character development

Introduction

Norway has a population of just below 4.7 million people who inhabit the spoon-shaped country which is characterised by a long coastline with numerous fjords andmountains. To the east, the country borders on Sweden, Finland and Russia. Nor-way is the only one of five Nordic countries which is neither a member nor a can-didate member of the European Union. Petroleum accounts for nearly half thecountry’s exports and 30% of state revenue (CIA World Factbook). Naturalresources, and especially oil in recent years, have allowed the country to developinto one of the richest countries in the world, ranking fifth on gross domestic prod-uct (GDP) per capita.

Compulsory education, from six to 16 years of age, is free in Norway. Uppersecondary school and university also provide free education, but students must payfor their school books and other materials. Kindergarten is not free of charge, butthere are regulations in place that provide additional funding for children with spe-cial needs. Public and private kindergartens accept children from birth to six yearsof age and must operate and provide care and learning opportunities in accordancewith the national framework for kindergartens. Compulsory schooling (grades 1–10)and upper secondary schools are also regulated according to national curricula.

In 2009, 74.4% of all children between 0 and 6 were in kindergarten. This rep-resents a sharp increase compared with 2000 when 52.2% attended kindergarten

*Corresponding author. Email: elaine.munthe@uis.no

Journal of Education for TeachingAquatic InsectsVol. 37, No. 4, November 2011, 441–450

ISSN 0260-7476 print/ISSN 1360-0540 online� 2011 Taylor & Francishttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2011.611012http://www.tandfonline.com

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(Ministry of Education and Research 2009). Of all students in compulsory educa-tion, 96.4% continue to upper secondary school (Ministry of Education andResearch 2010–2011). One-third of the 2003 cohort of upper secondary school stu-dents did not complete within five years (Falch and Nyhus 2009), and drop-outrates are highest for students who have chosen vocational strands (Byrhagen, Falch,and Strøm 2006). Nearly 30% of the Norwegian population between 20 and 29years of age were students in higher education in 2008 (Bureau of Statistics Nor-way 2010).

Teacher education in Norway is nationally regulated and is currently undergo-ing extensive changes. The first reform targets initial teacher education (ITE) forgrades 1–10 (the compulsory school education years). Factors influencing thisreform are the national evaluation completed in 2006 (Norwegian Agency forQuality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) 2006), classroom and school researchand societal changes that were not perceived as being adequately reflected in theexisting framework for teacher education from 2003. An evaluation of pre-schoolteacher education was conducted during 2010 (NOKUT 2010) and a groupappointed by the Ministry of Education and Research is currently working on anew framework plan for pre-school teachers. The committee report (NOKUT2010) identifies the need to strengthen learning about the youngest children inpre-school teacher education programmes, about language and language learning,and about cultural diversity in kindergartens. Another national group has beenappointed to work on teacher education for upper and lower secondary schools,vocational training and single-subject teachers (e.g. in arts). These programmeshave not been evaluated systematically. There are several routes to becoming ateacher in grades 1–13. A student can choose a four- or five-year integrated pro-gramme, specifically designed to qualify for a teaching career in grades 1–7, 5–10or 8–13. It is also possible to study subjects or disciplines at a college or univer-sity followed by a one-year Post-Graduate Certificate of Education (PGCE). Today,there is no differentiated PGCE, so the same programme qualifies a person toteach in all grades from 5 to 13.

The remainder of this paper will concentrate mainly on teacher education forgrades 1–10. The changes made will have consequences for other teacher educationprogrammes, and the experiences from this reform are also likely to have implica-tions for future reforms in teacher education.

There are currently 20 institutions that provide this type of teacher education.One of the institutions is private with public funding, and the other 19 comprise 15public and state-owned colleges and four universities. Of the 15 colleges, one is theSámi University College in Kautokeino, which has a special responsibility toeducate teachers who can work in Sámi language schools.

Past reforms in teacher education

The first major assessment of teacher education that involved all ITE programmesfor grades 1–10 was completed in 2006. This report (NOKUT 2006) showed adecline in the number of applicants to ITE and in their qualifications. In 2005,minimum requirements were introduced to avoid the recruitment of students fromupper secondary school with low grades. The minimum requirements are an abso-lute lowest grade point of 35 (10 subjects, so a possible 3.5 average in all 10 sub-jects on a scale of 1–6, where 6 is the highest grade) and minimum grade 3.0 in

442 E. Munthe et al.

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mathematics and Norwegian. Had these requirements been in effect in the yearsbefore (2001–2003), then all but four institutions, in the four largest cities, wouldhave had to reject 30–50% of the students that were admitted.

Exam results from 2005 reveal, however, some surprising findings; somecolleges that admitted all students (no competition) had better results (grades) thancolleges/universities where there was competition and higher grade averages onadmittance. The number of students who failed at the 20 different institutions variedfrom 16.8% to 3.9% (average = 11.1%). Here, too, colleges that had few applicantsand therefore accepted all students without any competition did not necessarily havea higher percentage of failures. There are no national teacher exams in Norway, andit is therefore difficult to assess results across institutions based on exam results.

The evaluation team (NOKUT 2006) conducted a reassessment of some studentexams from every institution. The same group of teachers assessed all of the examswithout knowledge of where the exams came from. For three out of 17 teacher edu-cation programmes, the reassessment showed an average discrepancy (across foursubjects) with a positive value, i.e. the reassessment team gave the exams a slightlyhigher grade than the original marking. For 14 out of 17, the results were opposite.

One conclusion the team drew was that subjects within the programmes tendedto be more discipline oriented than profession oriented. Didactics (in a Europeansense of the word) was not necessarily an integrated part, but this could vary fromsubject to subject within the same programme. Pedagogy was found to have prob-lems relating to professional aspects of the subject as well, such as classroom man-agement, and home–school collaboration.

Goals for research-based instruction had not been met, according to the evalua-tion. Most teacher education departments were busy educating their own faculty asresearchers, since a majority only had an MA degree. At some institutions, but farfrom all, faculty was engaged in school development work in their district. Theteam questioned the extent to which teacher students met relevant research criteriaduring their studies.

What happened on campus and what went on in practice schools weredescribed as two different systems. A lack of integration, a lack of coherence, iswhat the evaluation team brought to the forefront, echoing the evaluation that hadbeen carried out only four years earlier (at five teacher education departments). Isthis education so complex that it cannot be coherent, they ask (NOKUT 2006,71)? Is it as good as it can be, whereas society, users and students must havetoo high an expectation? These were rhetorical questions posed by the team, andtheir answers were ‘no’. The final sentence in the evaluation report is: ‘With ref-erence to this background, the evaluation panel maintains that [the Ministry ofEducation and Research] should introduce a five-year teacher education programfor grades one through ten’ (NOKUT 2006, 82, authors’ translation, italics inoriginal).

Current teacher education reform

Two years passed. The next major step taken was a government White Paper onteacher education (White Paper 11: Ministry of Education 2008–2009a). This wasfollowed by a national framework group, with a total of 17 members whose workwas completed in January 2010. During this time, they developed suggestions fornew national framework plans for two teacher education programmes in Norway,

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and followed up the work of 14 national subject groups that had developed learningoutcomes for all subjects in the teacher education programme for grades 1–7 andfor grades 5–10 (Ministry of Education and Research 2010).

Parallel to this, new framework plans were also being developed for Sámi tea-cher education. The new teacher education programmes for Norwegian and Sámiteacher education were ratified in April 2010 and came into effect in August 2010when the first students started their four-year education programme.

Teacher education reform has altered teacher education in Norway in severalways:

� There are two separate four-year programmes (for grades 1–7 and for grades5–10).� Students can choose more subjects freely.� Students in the 1–7 Norwegian language programme have a total of 150

European Credit Transfer & Accumulation System (ECTS) credits of non-compulsory subjects (two and a half years).

� Students in the 5–10 programme have a total of 180 ECTS of non-compul-sory ‘teacher education subjects’ (see below) (three years).

� Students have fewer subjects and minimum 30 ECTS in the subjects theychoose.� Students in ITE for 1–7 must have one subject in addition to Pedagogy

and Learner knowledge (PEL) that amounts to 60 ECTS (can choosefreely) and they must have 30 ECTS Maths and 30 ECTS Norwegian. Stu-dents in the Sámi language programmes must have Sámi in addition, thusreducing their freedom of choice by 30 ECTS.

� Students in ITE for 5–10 should have at least two subjects in addition toPEL that amount to 60 ECTS each.

� Pedagogy is now 60 ECTS (one year) but is now Pedagogy and Learnerknowledge.

� Field practice must take place in all four years, but the amount of field prac-tice is still 100 days.

� All programmes must make it possible for students to have an internationalsemester.

� All students must do a BA thesis that is profession oriented.

The changes made reveal a different way of thinking about teacher knowledgeand teachers’ work because the reform emphasises the importance of within-sub-ject teaching. Previously, the ideal had been the all-around teacher who can teachall subjects regardless of prior studies. This has consequences for field placementas well. Students are expected to gain experience in partner schools within thesubjects they are studying. Previously, partner schools were expected to haveteachers who could mentor and supervise teacher students, but subject areas werenot necessarily considered. Mentor teachers in partner schools must also be quali-fied as mentor teachers now. This was left up to the institution, and some hadrequirements specified whereas others did not. The requirement now is that men-tor teachers must have 15 ECTS in teacher student mentoring, and the institutionsshould also provide an opportunity for a further 15 ECTS course. The content ofsuch a course is not specified.

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Another new idea in this reform is mobility. Students should have the opportu-nity to study elsewhere after two years, and therefore, all programmes shouldmeet the basic requirements of having completed 60 field practice days by theend of year 2, and the learning outcomes for years 1 and 2 in the subject Peda-gogy and Learner Knowledge (which goes over three years: 15 ECTS + 15 ECTS+ 30 ECTS) should be met. Students in ITE for grades 1–7 should also havecompleted 30 ECTS Maths and Norwegian by the end of their second year. Inter-national mobility is also addressed, and all programmes should stipulate onesemester as an international semester.

In addition, challenges from previous reforms and framework plans have been fol-lowed up in the new reform activity:

� Teacher education students must qualify for the profession ‘teacher’.� Subjects within the teacher education programme are ‘teacher education

subjects’, not discipline subjects (i.e. they are ‘Maths for teachers’, ‘Eng-lish for teachers’).

� Students of teaching should therefore not study with students of disci-plines. Teacher education is a complete and independent education, likenursing or medicine.

� Although the number of days of field practice in schools has not beenincreased, teacher educators on campus and in schools are expected to col-laborate more, and the programmes must relate to teachers’ work.

� Teacher education programmes must secure progress for students from oneyear to the next.� Year 2 must build on year 1, etc.� Learning outcomes should show increasing expectations and how the edu-

cation programme supports learning from one year to the next.

Another area that has been dealt with specifically in the White Paper on teachereducation (Ministry of Education and Research 2008–2009a) and in the Frameworkfor the new teacher education programmes is that teacher education programmesmust be research based. This is operationalised in several ways and described as:

� Teacher educators must be researchers or must be in close contact withresearchers who conduct relevant research for teacher education.

� Research must be a natural part of students’ learning.� They should learn by reading and discussing research, relating their teach-

ing to research, and taking part in research.� A BA thesis is introduced as compulsory for all teacher students.

Current concerns for teacher education in Norway

There are some important concerns being addressed in current debates in Norway(see also Følgegruppen 2011a). Some of these are highly political and concernnational policy, whereas others are concerned with micropolitics and programmequality. The concerns discussed here are: recruitment and district policy; researchand profession orientation; and coherence and progress in teacher education, pre-service and in-service.

Journal of Education for Teaching 445

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Recruitment and district policy

There has been a steady decline in the number of applicants to ITE for compulsoryschool, leading to a situation where basically all applicants who fulfil the minimumrequirements have been accepted. Concurrently, it has been estimated that Norwaywill be short of up to 18,000 teachers by 2020 (Ministry of Education and Research2008–2009a). There is also a shortage of pre-school teachers.

Kindergartens in Norway tend to have a much higher adult:child ratio than otherOECD countries (NOKUT 2010). Regulations specify that there should be a mini-mum of one qualified kindergarten teacher (in addition to assistants) per 14–18 chil-dren who are over three years old and one qualified teacher per seven to ninechildren for those younger than three (in addition to assistants). In 2007/08 36% ofthe kindergartens had applied for dispensation from this requirement (NOKUT2010).

Until 2003, children in compulsory education were grouped into classes, and itwas stipulated that the maximum number of children per class in elementary school(grades 1–7) was 28, and for grades 8–10 the number was 30. If a sixth grade classwith 28 students received one or two more students, it had to be split into two. In2003, the term ‘class’ was abandoned and replaced with ‘group’ to create moreflexibility for schools. Regulations about a maximum number of children were alsoleft behind. A new White Paper on lower secondary school education proposes toincrease the student:teacher ratio. The number of hours per week that children arein school in grades 1–10 has also increased over the past few years, and this allcontributes to a greater demand for qualified teachers.

Despite a 15% increase in applicants to the new ITE programmes for grades1–7 and 5–10 from 2009 to 2010, by October 2010 there were only 46 more regis-tered students (nationally) than planned places (Følgegruppen 2011a). Since then,10% of the new cohort have either dropped out or taken leave (Følgegruppen2011b). Seven institutions had more students registered than planned, and this wasenough to cover the deficit in numbers at the remaining 13 institutions. As many as12 institutions have fewer than 50 students in the ITE 1–7 programmes. Two insti-tutions have as few as nine students. Seven institutions have fewer than 50 studentsin ITE 5–10 programmes (Følgegruppen 2011a).

The number of students enrolled has consequences for the number of subjectsthe institution can offer as electives and still maintain financial stability. About 25%of state funding is based on the number of ECTS produced by students, and theratio of students to teachers is financially influential. Teacher education institutionsare facing difficult questions: Can we provide both programmes, or should wechoose one? What happens to future recruitment of teachers in elementary and sec-ondary schools if we do not offer both programmes? Which subjects can we offer?What will be the consequences of a reduction in subject electives for schools?

A major concern related to the new reform is how the country can be sure notonly that there will be enough teachers in all parts of Norway, but also that thereare enough teachers to teach the different subjects. Other countries have reducedthe number of institutions providing ITE, whereas the political solution chosen inNorway (so far) is to introduce incentives for mergers, collaboration and differentia-tion. Institutions that offer ITE programmes have been divided into six geographicalregions and one region that crosses these geographical boundaries to addressresponsibilities for the Sámi languages and cultures. Institutions within the regions

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are expected to plan co-operation (what do we do together?), division of labour(who does what?) and concentration (what should we concentrate on here?). Less isknown about is student behaviour. Will students who leave a rural community tostudy teacher education in a larger city return to their home town to teach? Or willmore rural communities recruit teachers who stay for only a few years before seek-ing employment elsewhere?

A reason for establishing teacher education institutions in rural communities wasto educate teachers where they lived. What can be seen now is the development ofmore flexible ITE programmes for the same reason, e.g. trainee-based models andweb-based models. They must all meet the requirements given nationally, but theirorganisation and means of communication differ. What consequences this will havefor quality is still little known and this is also a research field that should beaddressed in the years ahead.

Research and profession orientation

Being both research and profession oriented can be perceived as controversial andmay also be regarded as representing opposing forces. On the one hand, teachereducators are expected to be more research oriented, which traditionally has implieda discipline orientation and also, in many cases, a more individual activity. Manyteacher educators represent a discipline more than a ‘teacher education subject’, andtheir research is discipline oriented rather than profession oriented. This tendency tomove ‘upwards’ has long been known as academic drift, where non-university insti-tutions aspire to and work more like university institutions (e.g. Harman 1977;Morphew and Huisman 2002). On the other hand, profession orientation requires aninterdisciplinary approach, an understanding of what goes on in classrooms andschools, and collaboration.

In a study of teacher educators in ITE programmes for grades 1–10, 15.8%reported that all of their research was discipline oriented (Munthe and Haug 2010),26% reported that their research was only within the field of subject didactics, and11% reported that their research field was only within pedagogy or special education.Results from this study also indicate that educators with lower degrees are more sup-portive of the importance of field practice for teacher students, and towards preparingstudents for field practice, than are educators with a PhD. Not surprisingly, teachereducators with a PhD are more likely to involve students in their research. The authorsquestion whether there is a division of labour in ITE programmes, or whether theresults indicate cultural differences within programmes, and whether there will be achange in this pattern in the years ahead as more teacher educators are recruited witha background in PhD work that is profession oriented.

Results from a survey of student teacher mentors in practice schools may indi-cate that there is a positive development going on concerning relationships betweenteacher education institutions and practice schools. The teachers who supervised stu-dents tended to report favourably about their co-operation with the colleges oruniversities (Munthe and Ohnstad 2008, 478). However, the teachers also reportedthat student assessment was more of an individual task than a shared responsibilitywith the colleges or universities. This has been addressed in the new reform forITE, stressing the obligation of the teacher educators to collaborate on studentassessment during field practice, but to date there is no information on the changesor on how assessment of student teachers during field practice is being undertaken.

Journal of Education for Teaching 447

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Coherence and progress in teacher education

The idea of teacher education as a continuum is gaining momentum. A national pro-ject on mentoring novice teachers started in 2003, enabling several colleges and uni-versities to try out approaches to mentoring. From autumn 2010, all new teachers ingrades 1–13 should be given the opportunity to have a mentor during their first year,and from autumn 2011 this should be in effect for pre-school teachers, too. What isneeded, however, is a critical analysis of the content and organisation of mentoringprogrammes and their consequences. Are the programmes predominantly humanisticin approach or do they have a situated apprentice approach or a critical constructiveapproach (Wang and Odell 2002)? To what degree do they have a profession-orientedapproach emphasising learning and development for students (Timperley 2010), andwhat implications does the approach have for novice teachers?

Another programme which was introduced in 2009 is Competence for Quality, asystem intended to provide teachers who are in service with further education oppor-tunities. The government subsidises further education for a certain number of teachersevery year in prioritised areas, and colleges and universities are given responsibilityto offer these courses. There is no national certification system for teachers in Norway,and therefore no need for recertification. However, with new qualification require-ments being introduced that require a certain number of ECTS in a subject to be ableto teach that subject (leaving the all-round teacher further behind), further educationmust be a top priority for teachers in grades 1–7 and 5–10.

A continuum includes the pre-service years. The new ITE programmes for thecompulsory years will provide a guide for future integrated 8–13 programmes, butthe notion of integration and coherence is still a challenge. Buchmann and Floden(1991) explain that the word ‘programme’ originally meant a public notice orprinted list, ‘without implying that the events bear any special relationships to oneanother’ (66). The term has later developed and now indicates ‘a sequence ofevents, planned so that they all lead toward a goal’ (66). However, it is still appro-priate to question the planning of these sequences and their relationships with conti-nuity, sequence and integration. In four- or five-year integrated programmes, weshould know how a subject introduced for the first time in the third year (such as isthe case in ITE) differs from the subject if it had been introduced in the first year.

The speed at which the learning outcomes for the subjects in ITE for compul-sory school were developed left little time for critical discussions among educatorsand practitioners. The learning outcomes are formulated in accordance with theBologna process (Bologna Declaration 1999), also called ‘the new grammar ofhigher education’ (Østrem 2011). Østrem (2011) questions the degree to which thisgrammar is relevant to programmes that educate for the professions, and teachers inparticular. Karseth (2011) describes standardisation as a way to reduce uncertaintyand create predictable systems. Teachers’ work has long been understood as highlycomplex and characterised by endemic uncertainties (e.g. Jackson 1968; Lortie1975; Munthe 2003; Darling-Hammond and Bransford 2005). How can we planand describe teacher education programmes that deal with the uncertainties andcomplexities of teaching and becoming a teacher in ways that communicate andstructure without being overly simplistic and without overlooking significance?

Karseth (2011) refers to Hopmann (2007, 16) and quotes him:

In the perspective of Bildung and Didaktik there are no facts or objects of teaching asfactum brutum . . .. Any given matter (Inhalt) can represent many different meanings

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(Gehalt), any given meaning (Gehalt) can be opened up by many different matters(Inhalt). However, there is no matter without meaning, and no meaning without matter.(emphasis in original)

She proposes that the learning outcome strategy overlooks the significance of therelationship between meaning and matter. The question is not ‘what are the studentssupposed to be able to do?’, but rather ‘what is the character-forming significance?’

Conclusion

Controversies abound in teacher education. Teachers need to be able to do, and edu-cation programmes develop these skills. But, as mentioned above, there is also anemphasis on teachers needing to be and programmes that enable becoming. Whatshould or could be emphasised when, and how? How do these questions relate toprofession orientation and research orientation during and after ITE?

Norway has taken some daring steps in reforming teacher education for thecompulsory school years, but the reform will ‘become’ as it is innovated throughlocal practices and, it is hoped, through national and international discussions.

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