Asian Journal of Water Environment Vol.1 No. 2 (2014) 19-30

Available online at http://www.geneares.org/publication.html

* Corresponding author – Morshed Hossan Molla

SUPPLY WATER USING PATTERNS AND HEALTH IMPACTS ON URBAN DWELLERS: A

CASE STUDY OF RESIDENTS PERCEPTIONS IN CHITTAGONG METROPOLITAN CITY,

BANGLADESH

Morshed Hossan Molla1*, Mohammad Abu Taiyeb Chowdhury

2, Kazi Md. Barkat Ali

3 and

Muhammad Muhibbullah4

Department of Geography and Environmental Studies,

University of Chittagong, Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh

Email: morshedgeo@yahoo.com1, mat_chowdhury@yahoo.com

2, kbageo@yahoo.com

3 ,

md_muhibbullah@yahoo.com4

ABSTRACT

The study attempts to explore the supply water using patterns in Chittagong Metropolitan City (CMC),

and its perceived health impacts on urban dwellers. This is an empirical work based on field data,

obtained through a structured questionnaire survey designed for the two distinct study areas of CMC. The

study reveals that the major using patterns of supply water in Chittagong city are necessarily those of

drinking, cooking, bathing, laundry- cloth washing, cleaning- dish washing, personal hygiene, gardening,

and toilet use purposes. Piped water is the main source of drinking water for majority of the respondents.

Among the various types of pollutants present in Chittagong Water Supply and Sewerage Authority’s

(CWASA) supply water, bad odour, bad colour, bacteria, insects, bleaching powder, salt and iron are

prominent that were widely perceived by the respondents. Total 64 percent of the respondents are found

to be aware of the relationship that exists between water quality and various water-borne diseases in the

city. About 56 percent of the respondents have reported that their family members have exposed to

diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, typhoid or skin diseases at least once. Female and children are found to be

more affected by the said diseases than their male counterparts. It is suggested that CWASA should

supply safe water and people should drink it only after further treatment- boiling, filtering etc. It is also

urged that people keep water saving appliances in their houses- clean water holding pot, reservoir tanks

etc., and raise people awareness in the city. A reorientation in the management system- co-management is

strongly urged.

Keyword: Environment, water quality, contamination, health impacts and coping mechanisms

1. Introduction

The quality of supply water is closely associated with human health. The World Health Organization

(WHO, 2006) estimated that approximately 80 percent of all sickness and diseases in developing

countries are caused by the consumption of contaminated drinking water. Unfortunately, few people in

developing countries have access to clean water supply (Gleick, 1996; WHO, 2002 and UNICEF, 2006).

According to an estimate, more than 31 million people in Bangladesh collect drinking water from unsafe

sources. Total 15 percent of the urban population does not have access to improved sources of drinking

water (Ahmed, 2000). Thus, providing safe drinking water is one of the public health priorities for most

governments including Bangladesh. The provision of safe supply water means acceptable level of quality

and as well as quantity for domestic uses including food preparation, drinking, dishwashing, cleaning,

bathing, laundry, watering animals and plants etc.. However, being a port city, Chittagong is heavily

influenced by the tidal surges and saline intrusions. Thus, the provision of safe drinking water is likely to

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be more acute in Chittagong city than any other areas. The city is presently inhabited by some 5 million

people. Further, as the commercial capital of Bangladesh, the city is growing by leaps and bounds.

CWASA is able to meet only one-fourth of the total demand of supply water of the port city. According to

an estimate, the city requires some 585 million litters (ML) per day, but CWASA has the capacity of

supplying only 175 ML (Amin, 2006 and MPWS, 2009).

2. Objectives

The main objective of the study is to identify the supply water using patterns in Chittagong Metropolitan

city and its perceived health impacts on city dwellers. The underlying objective is to explore the coping

mechanisms associated with supply water crisis (shortages) in the study area.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1 Selection of the study area

The City of Chittagong is situated on the right bank of the Karnaphuli River, and lies Latitudinally

between 22º14 and 22º24 North, and Longitudinally between 91º46 and 91º53 East It is the second

largest metropolitan area of Bangladesh covering an area of about 1,145 square kilometers. The area of

Chittagong City Corporation covers 168 sq km; there are 41 wards and 11 Metropolitan Police Station

(Thana) in the area (Amin, 2006; BBS, 2008 and population census, 2001). For the convenience of the

study, the city corporation area has been taken into consideration and is divided into two broad (Figure 1)

zones: Northern Study Area-I (treated surface water) and Southern Study Area II (ground water from

deep tube wells).

3.2 Description of the Sampling Area Selection

The selection of the sample area was made in keeping pace with the Chittagong Water Supply and

Sewerage Authority’s (CWASA) current water distribution system. The research has been largely based

on primary data, obtained through a field survey (conducted during the months of February to October

2011), consisting of two components: questionnaire survey on at household level and institutional in-

depth interview on supply water users and providers in CMC. In the later approach, a total of 200 samples

and some representative in-depth interviews were taken from both the zones: Northern 70 respondents,

and Southern 170 respondents in CMC (Table 1). Sample sizes were determined on the basis of

residential structure of the city. A Chi-square ( ) test was performed after cross tabulation of the data to

see if there is any significant relationship between the supply water using patterns and its perceived health

impacts on city dwellers. Secondary information was collected from different sources including local

authority, government organizations, research cells, university libraries, and NGOs to support the

background of the study.

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Figure 1: Location of the study area (Bangladesh, Chittagong district & Chittagong City Corporation)

Source: Base Map Collected from CDA & CWASA, 2011

Table 1: Sampling selection at CWASA networking area in CMC

Study Areas (Location of the sampling station) Residential

Structure*

Sample

Size**

Are

a-I

(Su

rfa

ce

wa

ter) BAKALIA THANA 41410 20

CHANDGAON THANA 36064 17

PANCHLIASH THANA 34079 16

BAYEJID BOSTAMI THANA 35208 17

Total Residential Structure 146761 70

Are

a-I

I (G

rou

nd

wa

ter)

KOTWALI THAN 57179 27

DOUBLE MOORING THANA 53849 26

KHULSHI THANA 52011 25

PAHARTALI THANA 25768 12

HALISHAHAR THANA 24763 12

CHITTAGONG PORT 41466 20

PATENGA 15542 8

Total Residential Structure 270578 130

Study Area-I and Study Area-II 417339 200

Source: Population Census, 2001 & Master plan for water supply CWASA, 2009.

*Residential structure is to be considered as population census, 2001 & Master plan for water supply

CWASA, 2010.

**Sample size selected by the Stratified random sampling.

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3.3 In-depth interview survey

A pre-coded in-depth interview questionnaire survey was conducted to collect information the volume of

supply water, improve service delivery, promote linkage management, ensure getting portable water and

especially reduce contaminated paths in CWASA authorize, water related NGOs and local authority

(ward member) level.

3.4 Data processing, Analysis and Presentation

The collected data were processed and analyzed with the help of selected computer software ( i.e.

Statistical Package for Social Science/SPSS, version 18; MS Word and MS Excel) using various

statistical tools and techniques e.g. Chi-square ( ) test, tables, diagrams and figures. To show the

sampling stations of the study area, base maps (2011) were collected from the GIS section of CDA and

CWASA. Collected maps were modified and digitized using Arc View 3.3 and Arc GIS 9.1 software.

4. Results and Discussions

Supply water using patterns in Chittagong City varies widely at different levels: individuals, households

and economic classes. Moreover, the dwellers could hardly provide us with the correct estimation of their

daily domestic water uses. The following discussion discloses the water supply using patterns and its

perceived health impacts on city dwellers and also explores the coping mechanisms associated with

supply water crisis (shortages) in the study area.

4.1 Daily supply water using patterns in CMC at household level

Supply water using patterns in CMC depend to a large extent on the type of users and the availability of

water from various sources. Consumption patterns of supply water, in turn, depend on user’s style of

livings, income level, family structure, religious activities, population density and understanding of the

value of scarce resources- an ethical stand. As shown in Table 2, type of uses of supply water by different

groups in CMC at household level includes drinking, cooking, bathing, dish washing, cloth washing,

personal hygienic, toilet use, gardening, house cleaning, vehicles clearing and showering and vehicle

cleaning. The following table depicts that the total supply water in CMC are used mostly in bathing (24)

cooking (17 percent), toilet use (13 percent), personal hygienic (about 11 percent), drinking (9 percent)

and dish washing (about 9 percent), and cloth washing (7 percent), and very little amount are used for

showering, gardening, vehicles clearing and house cleaning in the study area.

Table 2: Supply water using patters in CMC at household level Sectors of supply water uses Area-I

(N=70)

Area-II

(N=130)

Total

(N=200)

Drinking 12.00 11.00 9.00

Cooking 17.00 16.50 17.50

Bathing 21.00 25.50 24.50

Dish Washing 9.90 14.00 8.50

Cloth Washing 14.00 7.50 7.00

Toilet Use 8.00 11.50 13.00

Personal Hygienic 10.00 7.50 10.50

House cleaning 5.00 3.00 4.00

Gardening 0.10 0.10 1.00

Vehicles clearing 2.00 0.50 2.00

Showering purpose 1.00 2.90 2.50

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

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4.2 Major water sources in CMC for domestic use purposes

The dwellers of Chittagong city never get water according to their demand due to the scarcity of supply.

For domestic use purposes, the city dwellers collect water from a number of sources including pipe line

water, rain water harvesting, railway supply water, Tube-well and pond. Figure 2 depicts the major

sources of water supply for CMC at household level. It is evident that piped water is the main (85 per

cent) source of water for city dwellers followed by Tube-well- the second major source of drinking water

for city dwellers. Only a small portion (varies from 2 to 9 percent) of inhabitants collect rain water for

their household purposes in both the study areas: I and II. The other mentionable sources of water for

household purposes in CMC are railway supply water and community pond.

Figure 2: Sources of water in Chittagong Metropolitan city (CMC) at household level. Source: Field

Survey, 2011

4.3 Pollutants Contain in CWASA Supply Water

Quality of supply water is acceptable near the treatment plant. A variety of physical, chemical and

biological pollutants entry in the distribution network by the help of installation to unauthorized pumps in

the service line, leaks in the old pipes and absence of pressure or negative pressure in water mains during

non-supply hours (Lahlou, 2002; Choudhury et. al., 1997 & Ahmad, 1998). From current investigation

explore that, various types of pollutants like iron, sand, insects, bad odour, bacteria, bad colour, salts,

blessing powder and unfamiliar etc. present in CWASA supplying water in Chittagong metropolitan city.

Following Table 3 easily depict the different pollutants presence in the CWASA supply water networks in

CMC.

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Table 3: Pollutants Contain in CWASA Supply Water

Type of pollutants Area-I

(N=70)

Area-II

(N=387)

Total

(N=549)

Sand 14.90 14.20 14.38

Insects 9.31 13.69 12.38

Bacteria 8.69 11.62 10.74

Bad odour 11.80 13.69 12.93

Bad colour 7.45 12.14 10.92

Iron 23.60 19.63 20.76

Salty 13.66 8.01 9.83

Blessing powder ….....

0.25 0.18

Not applicable 11.18 6.45 7.83

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

4.4 Perceived health impacts of CMC dwellers connected to supply water

The quality of drinking water is closely associated with human health, and providing safe drinking water

is one of the public health priorities (WHO, 1984). Out of 200 respondents in total in CMC, some 56

percent residents reported that they suffered from water borne disease in the city. In both the study areas,

the percentage of city dwellers reporting experience of water-borne diseases is above 50 percent (Figure

3).

Figure 3: Chittagong Metropolitan city (CMC) dwellers reporting perceived health impacts. Source: Field

Survey, 2011

4.5 Water borne diseases among male, female and children residents of city

There is also a gender and demographic dimension of water-borne diseases in CMC as this varies by sex

and age structure of the population. Table 4 depicts the reported variation of water-borne diseases in

CMC by male, female and children categories. As the Table shows, the CMC dwellers suffer from

different types of water borne diseases i.e. diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, typhoid, skin disease and fever,

25

and these are perceived to be related with the contaminated supply water in the city area. It is striking to

note that of the total respondents, children are exposed to be mostly affected by dysentery (67 percent),

Diarrhoea (59 percent), and skin disease (52 percent). The percentages of female reporting exposure to

these water-borne diseases in CMC are nevertheless striking. As shown in Table3, female reporting

exposure to water-borne diseases includes Skin diseases (51 percent,) Dysentery (49 percent) and

Diarrhoea (41 percent). Very small portion of the people are found to suffer from cholera, typhoid and

fever in the study area.

Table 4: Water borne diseases among male, female and children residents of city

Disease pattern Area-I

(N=70)

Area-II

(N=130)

Total

(N=200)

Male Female Children Male Female Children Male Female Children

Diarrhoea Yes 34.5 51.4 55.7 27.7 49.5 60.8 25.0 41.2 59.0

No 65.5.0 48.6 44.3 72.3 50.5 39.2 75.0 58.8 41.0

Dysentery Yes 17.1 55.9 30.2 9.2 64.6 46.2 12.0 48.5 66.6

No 82.9 41.1 69.8 90.8 35.4 53.8 88.0 51.5 33.4

Cholera Yes 1.4 1.4 ……..

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0

No 98.6 98.6 100.0 98.5 98.5 98.5 98.5 98.5 99.0

Typhoid Yes 7.1 4.3 2.9 5.4 6.9 6.2 6.0 6.0 5.0

No 92.9 95.7 97.1 94.6 93.1 93.8 94.0 94.0 95.0

Skin

disease

Yes 22.9 53.2 17.1 17.7 59.6.0 48.7.0 19.5 51.0 52.0

No 77.1 46.8 82.9 82.3 40.4 51.3 80.5 49.0 48.0

Fever Yes 4.3 4.3 4.3 7.7 8.5 7.7 6.5 7.0 6.5

No 95.7 95.7 95.7 92.3 91.5 92.3 93.5 93.0 93.5

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

4.6 Relationship between supply water uses and health impacts of CMC dwellers

In order to analyze the data more strictly an attempt has been made to statistically interpret the

relationship between supply water uses and various diseases in CMC. For this aspect a null hypothesis is

as, Ho : there is no association between supply water uses and human health (diseases) in CWASA in

CMC.

Chi square ( ) test has been performed after cross tabulation. Table 5 shows the results with the

levels of significance for the chi-square ( ) test. Rejecting the null hypothesis- there is no association or

significant difference of frequency occurring between perception of supply water uses and disease pattern

of CMC, the chi-square ( ) test results indicate that significant difference exists between uses of supply

water and water-borne disease patterns in CMC. The following table 5 shows that, diarrhoea in male,

female and children, dysentery in female, cholera in female , typhoid in children, skin disease in male,

female and children and family suffer due to water borne disease are significant with supply water uses in

study area-I. on the other hand, diarrhoea in male and female, dysentery in children, typhoid in children,

skin disease and family suffer due to water borne disease are significant with supply water uses in the

study area-II. Rest of disease is insignificant with supply water uses in both areas of Chittagong. Thus,

the results suggested that water quality is correlated and significant with different water borne diseases

like diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid and skin disease due to water borne disease in Chittagong metropolitan

city. Supply water is good for northern zone; study area-II than southern zone; study area-I.

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Undesired quantity, restricted use and no alternate without supply water in the lower class

residential areas and middle class residential areas few people developed ground and roof reserve tank

(Bakalia and Bayejid Bostami thana residential areas in the study area-I and Pahartali, Double Mooring,

Halishahar, Kotwali, Bandor and Patenga thana residential areas in the study area-II). Availability of

supply water in the higher class residential areas (Chandgaon and Panchlaish thana residential areas in the

study area-I and Khulshi thana residential area in the study area-II) because people have developed

ground and roof reserve tank inside their house. The lower class residential areas are affected by various

water borne diseases than higher and middle class residential areas in Chittagong Metropolitan city.

Table 5: Relationships between supply water uses and health impacts of CMC dwellers

1st Variable 2

nd Variable

Study Area-I Study Area-II

df Sig.* df Sig.*

Su

pp

ly w

ate

r U

ses

Diarrhoea

Male 5.143 1 S 5.436 1 S

Female 6.182 1 S 6.588 1 S

Children 8.631 1 S 1.231 1 NS

Dysentery

Male 0.17 1 NS 0.228 1 NS

Female 6.389 1 S 8.532 1 S

Children 0.177 1 NS 0.402 1 NS

Cholera

Male 0.676 1 NS 0.190 1 NS

Female 8.676 1 S 0.190 1 NS

Children …. …. … 1.112 1 NS

Typhoid

Male 0.897 1 NS 0.181 1 NS

Female 0.929 1 NS 0.347 1 NS

Children 3.088 1 S 5.851 1 S

Skin

disease

Male 7.143 1 S 5.460 1 S

Female 9.375 1 S 7.074 1 S

Children 10.291 1 S 9.729 1 S

Fever

Male 0.058 1 NS 0.137 1 NS

Female 0.058 1 NS 0.346 1 NS

Children 0.058 1 NS 0.137 1 NS

*S= Significant *NS = Not Significant df = degree of freedom, Significance at the level of 0.025

5 Management techniques

5.1 Dealing with supply water scarcity

Supply water using pattern in CMC at household level depends on a number of things including family

size, income, occupation and lifestyles of the users. High class income groups use huge amount of water

for bathing, washing machine, flushing toilet and also abuse of water for gardening and vehicles clearing.

Middle class income group also have similar patterns of using supply water but in limited quantity. It is,

however, the lower class people who face water scarcity in the city at all time. If we can ensure public

awareness in managing supply water in CMC, especially in managing the water by above mentioned

categories than the situation can hopefully be improved. In general, the following (Table 6) categories are

found to be more irresponsible in supply water uses:

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Table 6: Abuse of supply water in CMC by categories of uses

SI.No. Water using sector Rank*

01 Ablution (Muslim) (Lower, Middle and Higher R/A**) 1

02 Personal Hygienic (Lower, Middle and Higher R/A)

Face wash

2 Tooth brushing

Shave

Hand wash

03 Showering (Middle and Higher R/A) 3

04 Bathing (Lower, Middle and Higher R/A) 4

05 Bath tab (High R/A) 5

06 Flashing Toilet (High R/A) 6

07 Cloth washing (Lower, Middle and Higher R/A) 7

Source: In-depth interview, 2011

*Rank size considered by the respect of percentage

R/A**- Residential area

5.2 Demand and supply analysis

CWASA immediately take attempts to create and implement data base management practices such as

Demand Assessment, Population Assessment etc. The demand assessment for the present and future years

with respect to water supply should be based on present and future population estimates of the project

area i.e. equation, Qf = Pf ×q. Where, Qf, is the quantity of water requirement per day; Pf, is the projected

population estimated at the end of the design period; q, is the rate of consumption per capita per day. In

population assessment, the most widely used method is geometric progressive method. This is also known

as empirical method suggested by Hardenberg. The future population can be estimated by this method

using the following equation Pf = Pp (1+r), where, Pf, is the estimate of future population; Pp, is the

estimate of present population; r, rate of early growth; n, Number of year to be considered.

5.3 Online quality control assessment

CWASA should be promoting online quality control assessment from treatment plant to consumer,

households, and it should operate minimum two times in a day.

5.4 Setup overhead and reservoir

Chittagong city is situated on the undulating area. As a result, supplied water does not move optimally. It

is strongly recommended that in future setup, all types of overhead and reservoir should be built on the

hill tops (Figure 4). It helps the distribution of gravity flows; no need to lift pump, only need small boost

pump, easy operation and strong to electrical shortage etc.

Figure 4: Authors suggested above types of overhear setup on the hill tops or upland area in CMC.

28

5.5 Improve supply water quality

CMC dwellers assume that CWASA provide supplies of safe water in the City but it is contaminated on

the way by a number of means- inefficient distribution networks, illegal linkages, entrance of unexpected

materials during non-suction period, and unwise household practices e.g. keeping pot and underground

reservoirs. Present investigation reveals that of the remedial measures, about 38 percent respondents

believe enhancements of the system efficiency could be achieved by raising conscientiousness of

CWASA authority to ensure safe supply water from point (centre) of production to consumption-

households. About 28 percent respondents understood that filtering of supply water before drinking is

undoubtedly a safe method that can be used widely. About 17 percent of the respondents are found to be

in favour of boiling supply water before drinking (Table 7). Rest of the sample respondents believe that

supply water quality in the city could be further improved by the use of appropriate chemicals reduce

severity and magnitude of water borne diseases

Table 7: Improve supply water quality in CMC

Remedial measures Area-I

(N=70)

Area-II

(N=120)

Total

(N=200)

Boiling of supply water before drinking 22.22 13.33 16.66

Filtering of supply water before drinking 29.62 42.96 27.31

Use of safe water 4.93 7.40 6.48

Enhance responsibility of CWASA authority to ensure safe

supply water from production center to households

23.45 29.62 37.96

Use of proper chemical 6.17 0.7 2.77

Quality ensure by online …. 2.22 1.38

No answer 13.58 3.70 7.40

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

5.6 Provisions for staff training

CWASA should arrange training camps and workshops for laboratory level (scientific officer) to ensure

acceptable water quality, mechanical level (engineering) to ensure site selection, selection of pipe (metal

or plastic). Training of GIS map division, field personnel to ensure proper service connection,

rehabilitation of old pipe and setup new pipe, sluice valves and chamber repair including leakage or fault

line identification and repairing.

5.7 Reorientation in management approach: Bottom-up

This approach mainly put emphasis on stakeholder and users of supply water in the city. CWASA should

organized different programs/ types of initiatives like seminar, symposium, advertisement and campaign

etc. to ensure the participation all stakeholders. These are expected to be helpful for awareness building

which, in turn, will discourage unauthorized connection in city area. Some behavioural changes are also

expected from the supply water users; every morning before using the water for drinking or cooking

purposes, some water from the taps should get run for several minutes. Consumer should also be very

careful in storing water i.e. to store water safe and hygienically. pot should be washed out by bleaching

powder on a regular basis.

29

5.8 Community- based co-management governing system

The essential idea of community-based co-management system is the idea sharing of decision making and

management functions between CWASA, primary stakeholders (supply water users in the dwellers of

CMC) and other appropriate Government agencies. These approach not only put emphasis on the

collaborative and participatory process of regulatory decision- making among representatives of user

groups, CWASA governing agencies and research institutions but also empower the focused of groups

(lower and middle class income groups) who can easily play a vital role about sustainable uses of supply

water in CMC. It is strongly suggested that ‘community- based co-management governing system’

approach practices in CWASA should receive a priority, because these are helpful to improve quality,

reduce miss-management, ensure effective use of scarce water, knowledge-based analysis of demand and

supply, and directly integrate the governing body and primary stakeholders to reform and restructure of

every planning agenda at CWASA.

6. Conclusion

The overall finding of the study is that the various aspects of supply water quality in CMC including its

diverse use patterns and perceived health impacts are important factors to be considered for improved

water supply management in the city. In socio-economic terms, the lower class income group is more

affected (disadvantaged) by the water borne diseases than middle and upper class income groups in the

study area. Although regular water supply in the city is hindered by seasonality, there are other causes

such as electricity crises, load shading, system loss, and lack of network etc. that are responsible for

shortage or irregularity in the supply. It is suggested that CWASA should do everything possible on its

behalf to ensure regular supply of adequate and safe drinking water in the city. People then should drink

water after further treatment- boiling, filtering, using purifying tablet, fitcary- potassium alma etc. It is

also urged that people keep water saving appliances in their houses- clean water holding pot, reservoir

tanks etc., and raise people awareness in the city through campaigns. A reorientation in the management

policy (from top-down to bottom-up centered on community-based co-management approaches) can pave

the way for all concerned.

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