Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn

Institut für Anglistik, Amerikanistik und Keltologie

Sucking Through the Centuries

Twilight's Edward as the New Vampire

Hausarbeit für:

Gothic Fiction

Wintersemester 2012/2013

Prof. Dr. Gymnich

Helen May

s3hemayy@uni-bonn.de

Abgabedatum: 13. März 2013

Table of Contents

1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1

2 Origin of Vampirism....................................................................................................... 1

2.1 Dracula: The King-Vampire........................................................................................ 3

3 Vampire Myths in Twilight............................................................................................. 4

4 Edward – a new generation of vampire?........................................................................ 5

4.1 Defangled Monsters?...................................................................................................6

5 Abstinence Porn? Sexuality and Love in Twilight.........................................................8

5.1 Love............................................................................................................................. 9

5.2 Sexuality.................................................................................................................... 10

6 Conclusion: To suck or to bite?.................................................................................... 11

7 Bibliography................................................................................................................. 13

7.1 Primary Sources.........................................................................................................13

7.2 Secondary Sources.....................................................................................................14

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1 Introduction

In 2005 the first part of the Twilight Saga by Stephenie Meyer, Twilight, was published

and vampires were once again thrown into the focus of popular culture. New TV series

like True Blood or The Vampire Diaries also focused on vampires that broke away from

the tradition of the disgusting, destructive and dangerous monster. Whereas Buffy the

Vampire Slayer slayed malevolent vampires in the 1990s, they now are the dream of

young girls and used as symbols of desirable boyfriends with good looks, who are

intelligent and give up everything for their beloved girlfriend.

However, Bram Stoker's Dracula “remains to this day the work by which all

vampire literature is measured, and rightly so” (Green 1373):

The eponymous anti-hero of Bram Stoker's 1897 novel has become the reference point to which the characteristics of the other vampires are judged to have adhered, or to have departed from. (Huges 143)

There are movies that are either based on Stoker's novel or adaptations, from Friedrich

Wilhelm Murnau's silent movie Nosferatu – Eine Symphonie des Grauens to Mel

Brook's parody Dracula: Dead and Loving it. Stoker's Dracula “is without a doubt the

boldest and most comprehensive treatment of the vampire that had been established up

to that time, while embodying new [characteristics] as well” (Green 1380). Count

Dracula is the godfather of vampires and even the modern vampires are aware of the

prototype that Count Dracula has become and reference to his legend is often ironic (cf.

Huges 143).

This paper will compare the “classic” vampire as created by Stoker to the

modern vampire as depicted in Meyer's Twilight Saga. Are there still parallels between

the monsters of times past and the cute teenager and his family? Or is the modern

vampire completely different and breaks away from the tradition set by previous literary

works?

2 Origin of Vampirism

Vampires can be found in folk tales from all over the world. There is evidence for

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vampire tales dating back as early as 4000 BC in the ancient city of Sumer (cf. Bohn

5f.). “However, it is in eastern Europe where vampire folklore was codified as a proto-

literary narrative tradition, and, in fact, here is also found the very etymology of the

word 'vampire' itself” (Green 1374). The folk belief “concur[s] on a basic definition of

the vampire: a reanimated corpse of malevolent spirit whose sole purpose is to destroy

the living by absorbing the life force, whether it be in the form of blood or of psychic

energy, or perhaps both” (Green 1373).

Count Dracula from Stoker's novel is said to be strongly influenced by the

historical persona Vlad Tepes who was a Romanian prince during the fifteenth century

and, today, is known for his gruesome and harsh punishments (cf. Bohn 12).

Horror literature about Vlad Tepes flourished in the German-speaking worlds after the ruler's death. [These stories consist of tales of] an impressive array of atrocities: impaling enemies, boiling and roasting people alive, and forcing parents to eat their offspring. (Butler 108)

Dracula is described as “the cleverest and the most cunning, as well as the

bravest of the sons of the 'land beyond the forest'” (Stoker 288) and as a fighter in the

war against the Turks. This alludes to Vlad Tepes who also fought the Turks. “While at

war with the Turks, [his] favorite measure of torture was impalement, however, it was

also a favorite method of punishment that he dealt to those who were his subjects”

(Bohn 14).

The Gothic writers took up the motif of the vampire. The legacy of Vlad Tepes

itself had a great potential for horror stories and fitted into the Gothic setting of horror

and gloom perfectly. Vampire myths met the genre's demand for uncanny and creepy

creatures just fine. The “traditional” vampires from the folk tales had various

characteristics:

its thirst for human blood, its shape-shifting powers, supernatural strength, confinement to nocturnal hours, its fear of Christian iconography, and, of course, its gruesome physical appearances, which is highlighted by abnormally long and sharp teeth to facilitate its tearing open its victim’s thought. Accompanying these characteristics were various measures for preventing a vampire attack: garlic (because of its strong and offensive odor), wolfbane, the rosary, the crucifix and mirrors (to reinforce for the vampire its damned state by not casting a reflection). Finally, this folklore supplied the conventional means of disposing of a vampire, with a stake driven through the heart and simultaneous decapitation, after which the body was burned and the mouth stuffed with garlic and thrown in running water to precent the spirit of the vampire reclaiming its instrument of its destructive power – its mouth. (Green 1374)

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2.1 Dracula: The King-Vampire

Count Dracula is first introduced by Jonathan Harker who is greeted upon arriving at

the Count's Gothic castle by “a tall old man, clean-shaven save for a long white

mustache, and clad in black from head to foot, without a single speck of colour about

him anywhere” (Stoker 24). His face is hideous, his hand cold as ice which already

indicates his lifelessness.

Harker further notices that the hands of the Count “were rather coarse – bread,

white squat fingers. Strange to say, there were hairs in the centre of the palm” (Stoker

28). In addition to his eagle-like nose and the bat-like, pointed ears the Count appears to

have claws or paws instead of hands: “The nails were long and fine, and cut to a sharp

point” (Stoker 28). These hands are more animalistic than human. The sharp, long teeth,

a classic feature of vampires, add to that impression.

Throughout the novel the Count's looks chance. After he feeds he becomes

younger, the same can be seen in Lucy Westenra. After blood infusions she looks

healthy again. Blood is vital to the Count. His “life” depends on it. In order to exist he

needs to feed on the core of the life of others – their blood. Destruction and death are in

his nature. The name Dracula itself is telling. In Romanian it means “son of the devil”

(Bohn 14).

The Count has a number of supernatural powers. Apart from not casting a

shadow and not reflecting in mirrors he is super strong. He can control wolves, and after

feeding Mina Harker his blood he can control her as well. Furthermore, he can

transform into a wolf or a bat, but only “at noon or exact sunrise or sunset” (Stoker

287).

Dracula also impersonates the Gothic theme of loss of orientation. He can see in

the dark and can create mist around himself. This makes him very dangerous. When he

is in perfect control when his victims' senses are failing.

But he also has weaknesses: Garlic renders his powers useless, so do “things

sacred” (Stoker 287), his homeland and wild roses. “Destroying vampires with Christian

icons reinforces the safety of conventional belief and restores order” (Whisker 168).

In order to kill Dracula a knife is driven through his heard and his head cut off at

the same time. Instead of leaving a corpse behind the Count turns into dust. In the end

order is restored: Mina Harker is no longer under his influence and he is completely

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gone.

Count Dracula meets most of the criteria by Green mentioned earlier, spare a

few exceptions. Wolfbane is not mentioned throughout the novel, mirrors do not seem to

prevent a vampire attack (but Dracula does not cast a reflection), the body is not burned,

nor is his mouth stuffed with garlic. His head is not thrown into water but it is

mentioned that he “can only pass running water at the slack or the flood of the tide”

(Stoker 287).

3 Vampire Myths in Twilight

When Bella first gets suspicious of Edward's true nature she, like any reasonable

teenager would, turns to the internet. She is aware of vampires myths is embarrassed

that she believes in this superstition:

I'd made a little catalogue in my mind as I'd read and carefully compared it with each myth. Speed, strength, beauty, pale skin, eyes that shift color; and then Jacob's criteria: blood drinkers, enemies of the werewolf, cold-skinned, and immortal. There were very few myths that matched even one factor. And then another problem, one that I remembered from the small number of scary movies that I'd seen and was backed up by today's reading – vampires couldn't come out in the daytime, the sun would burn them to a cinder. They slept in coffins all day and came out only at night. […] Through my irritation, I felt overwhelming embarrassment. It was all so stupid. I was sitting in my room, researching vampires. What was wrong with me? (Meyer1 135)

These myths about vampires are later debunked by Edward. Citing these “false”

ideas about vampires becomes a form of joking between the characters: Bella asks about

the coffins Edwards family sleeps in, if he could turn into a bat and Edward points out

the irony of the cross in the Cullen's mansion.

Although the Cullens do not sleep in coffins, the other myth Bella mentions is

adapted in a new form. When Edward steps into the sunlight he does not burn, like Bella

first imagines, but sparkles “like thousands of tiny diamonds were embedded in the

surface [of his skin]” (Meyer 260). Even if the sunlight is not a direct threat to him it

could easily expose Edward. This idea is picked up later in the saga when in New Moon

Edward plans to commit suicide: He wants to expose himself to the sun on a crowded

place and therefore all other vampires to the humans. This would clearly not please the

1 When referring to Meyer her novel Twilight is ment unless stated differently.

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Volturi, an influential, old Italian coven that functions more or less as a “vampire

police” and makes sure that vampires are unknown and can live save. If he exposed

himself to the humans they would kill him.

The way how a vampire is killed also differs from the tradition. Count Dracula is

killed when Harker cuts his throat and “Mr Morris' bowie knife plunge[s] in [his] heart”

(Stoker 447). In the Twilight universe the slaying of a vampire is even more gruesome.

Their limbs have to be severed from their body which cannot be done by humans. To

prevent them from reassembling themselves the bodies must be burned.

4 Edward – a new generation of vampire?

In addition to the classical myths, “vampires are consistently scripted as self-

consciously drawing not merely on Stoker's novel but additionally upon the visual

imagery associated with its many cinematic reinterpretations” (Huges 145). The

prototypical vampire has long sharp teeth and a big, black cloak like the one Bela

Lugosi wears in Dracula (1931). Even Count Dracula wears black from head to toe.

Edward breaks away from this cliché.

Throughout the entire saga the vampire protagonist's marvelous appearance is

described over and over again, making it impossible for the reader not to notice it.

Bella, the first person narrator, constantly drools over her beloved vampire's

extraordinary looks. Edward and his family members' faces are “so different, so similar,

[…] all devastatingly, inhumanly beautiful” (Meyer 19), making it hard for Bella to

“believe that someone so beautiful could be real” (Meyer 87) which stresses their

exceptional state of being. The vampires are “chalky pale […], had very dark eyes

despite the range in hair tones. They also had dark shadows under those eyes – purplish,

bruise-like shadows. […T]heir noses, all their features, were straight, perfect, angular”

(Meyer 19f.). Whereas Dracula becomes younger after feeding the Twilight vampires'

eyes change their color and the shadows under their eyes disappear. When they are

hungry their eyes become black. Edward's (visual) age has stayed the same since his

transformation in 1901: he is 17 years – forever. His body, like the Count's, is cold and

“hard like stone” (Meyer 174). He even saves Bella when she is almost crushed by a car.

His arm leaves a dent in her truck's side although the van is “one of those solid iron

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affairs that never gets damaged – the kind you see at the scene of an accident, paint

unscratched, surrounded by the pieces of the foreign car it had destroyed” (Meyer 8).

Edward's teeth are perfect but not described as particularly pointy or sharp.

Edward does not live alone but with a coven which he calls his family. It is a

heteronormative, nuclear family: his “father” Carlisle is the breadwinner and works at

the local hospital, his “mother” Esme is not mentioned as working and seems to be a

homemaker. The other “children” are Alice, Jasper, Emmett and Rosalie. In reality, the

“children” are couples. They all live together in a house in the woods. The house itself

is old but not very Gothic. It has been renovated and has many windows that let in light.

Like Count Dracula the Cullens have a big library. Since he does not need to sleep

Edward indulges in music at night and his room is home to a vast collection of CD

which can be seen as a modernized version of cultural works. Instead of learning

everything about the town he wants to live in Edward listens to music. This can be seen

as a modernized version of Count Dracula's plan to blend in perfectly by knowing

everything about London. Edward tries to stay en vogue with current music so he fits

into the high school life.

Some of the Cullens also possess a special power apart from extraordinary speed

in movement and strength. Edward can read other people's thoughts, apart from Bella's,

Alice can see the future and Jasper can control people's moods.

Overall, the Cullens are not monstrous in their appearance or actions. They look

like regular humans and try to blend into human life as good as possible. The “children”

attend the local high school (but try to keep to themselves), the father is working as a

doctor. None of the residence of Forks seem to notice their Otherness. The “idea of real-

world vampires [is made] more believable by having them act like normal kids, only

different in the ways vampiricism forces them to be” (Ulm 4). Bella's father, Charlie,

speaks of them as a very nice and respected family, although (or maybe because) he

does not know their real nature.

4.1 Defangled Monsters?

A very interesting between Dracula and the Twilight Saga is that in the latter feeding on

human blood is reserved for the evil vampires.

Edward and his family only feed on animals. He explains to Bella that he does

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not “want to be a monster” (Meyer 187). Even when he fed on humans he only killed

those who deserved death in his eyes:

Because [he] knew the thoughts of [his] prey, [he] could pass over the innocent and pursue only the evil. If [he] followed a murderer down a dark alley where he stalked a young girl – if [Edward] saved her, then surely [he] wasn't so terrible. (Meyer 343)

The creation of new members of his coven also followed a moral standard. All of

them were about to die and had nobody they left behind. Edward was dying from

Spanish influenza and his parents had already died, Esme jumped off a cliff and was

already in “the hospital morgue, though, somehow her heart was still beating” (Meyer

288) and Emmett was suffering from a bear attack. Alice and Jasper were already

vampires when they joined the coven. Edward explains to Bella that Carlisle would

never transform somebody “who had another choice” (Meyer 288).

Overall, being a vampire is viewed negatively by Edward and he is scared he

might bring Bella in danger or kill her. He tells her: “Bella, I couldn't live with myself if

I ever hurt you. You don't know how it's tortured me. […] The thought of you, still,

white, cold […]” (Meyer 273). To him, vampires are monsters and he “refuse[s] to

damn [Bella] to an eternity of night” (Meyer 476). In Twilight he only feeds on Bella to

save her from becoming a vampire and stops before it is too late, even if it was

“impossible” (Meyer 460) for him he resisted the temptation of Bella's blood. When he

transforms Bella in the last part of the saga, Breaking Dawn, he does so to save her

since she would otherwise die giving birth to their child.

Scholars have often linked this behavior to the author's Mormon faith which,

they claim, influenced her in her writing. In the belief of the Latter Day Saints nobody

is good or evil by nature.

It is only through acquisition that one becomes so. The Cullens become the embodiment of such belief here, as they, even as vampires that are assumed to be 'evil', are in fact 'good' creatures. Through performing good deeds and repressing the bad, the Cullens become 'good' (Tsang 14).

This struggle between good and evil within the supposed monster him- or herself can be

seen in various other contemporary vampire stories. In the first season of the TV show

True Blood the male protagonist Bill Compton struggles, like Edward, against his

instincts and “other side” so he can be with Sookie Stackhouse, the female protagonist.

The negative attitude towards vampirism is not usual in contemporary Gothic

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writing. As Hughes notes:

The initial repulsion experienced by new initiates into vampirism, if felt at all, is rapidly replaced by a perception that the un-dead state is nothing more than a parallel lifestyle – a modified, rather than wholly new, existence typified by a change of diet and the imposition of a few more-or-less onerous restrictions. In some cases, most notably Anne Rice's cycle The Vampire Chronicles, un-death is represented as a positive enhancement of sensual life […]. (Huges 149)

The same can, again, be seen in True Blood. Most of the vampires are content with their

life and almost seem to take pride in their otherness, praising their vampire senses and

abilities to the point where they think they are a superior race and the new Übermensch.

All of the seemingly heroic actions and moral standings overshadow Edward's

animalistic features. When the vampires hunt they “give [themselves] over to [their]

senses… govern less with [their] minds” (Meyer 225), even the Cullens. Edward

describes himself as “the world's best predator” (Meyer 263). When three vampires

threaten Bella's life he becomes more animalistic, “bar[ing] his teeth, crouching in

defense, a feral snarl ripping from his throat” (Meyer 378), but only so to defend Bella.

“Edward is not portrayed as a typical vampire; there is no evident evil aura and

he does not appear dark in nature or as a predator” (Bedoya 56). In fact, the tries to fight

the chance of having en “evil aura” by resisting his temptation, his true and inner self,

over and over again in front of Bella and adapts a human identity to the best of his

abilities. In this struggle he becomes more likable. He tries his best to be a white knight

in shining armor running to the rescue of the damsel in distress and (some of) the

readers love him for that.

5 Abstinence Porn? Sexuality and Love in Twilight

Traditionally, the vampires' bite and sexuality were closely linked, especially for female

vampires who were often depicted as lustrous women, for example in Goethe's Die

Braut von Korinth. Even in Stoker's Dracula the female vampires look gorgeous. They

give Harker a “burning desire that they would kiss [him] with those red lips” (Stoker

51). Harker is instantly scared that his wife Mina might find his notes and become

jealous because of his desire. In the vampire brides trick of mesmerizing Harker with

their looks so they can feed on him the connection between lust, sexuality and the

nature of the vampire can be seen quite clearly. Edward on the other hand can be seen as

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“abstinent” vampires since he does not feed on Bella and does not try to.

5.1 Love

Edward and Bella's relationship can be read as a romantic one and, without a doubt, has

been by most of the novels' teenaged fans2. The story has four key features of the

modern myth of romantic love: “love at first sight, love is forever, love is the most

important relationship, and love requires mind reading” (Classen 120).

Immediately after seeing Edward in the high school cafeteria for the first time

Bella is intrigued by him and there seems to be a connection on his side as well.

Aging becomes more and more of a problem for Bella since she wants to be with

Edward forever. The only way to achieve this is to be transformed into a vampire herself

which does not happen until the last part of the saga, Breaking Dawn.

Bella is willing to sacrifice everything for her beloved vampire boyfriend. She

endangers her family and her own life. In the end she gives up her (human) life to be

with Edward forever which means that she also turns her back on her biological family

and the few friends she has made.

Although Edward cannot read Bella's thoughts the theory that his supernatural

powers are only an enhancement of his human qualities implies that he has always been

very considerate and sensible to the wishes, desires and feelings of others.

His impeccable looks are describes over and over again. As the most handsome

boy at Forks High that clearly does not have a female companion yet he is at the center

of (a secret) desire for many of the girls. He ignores all of them and lives his life in

solitariness – until he finds Bella.

Throughout Twilight Bella is not described in much detail.

[She] doesn't have any interesting hobbies, nor is she particularly engaged in the world around her. Her only activity outside her relationship with Edward seems to be cooking dinner for her father. (Seifert)

This is a very simple way to tie the predominantly female, teenaged readers to the book.

They can see themselves as Bella, looking for their Edward. Bella is clumsy and merely

average, in Phoenix she did not have a lot of friends because she did not fit in. She is a

typical damsel in distress. Edward rescues her again and again. When she first arrives in

2 Critics have mostly taken a very different approach. Some even went so far and called him a “compensated psychopath” (Merskin).

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Forks she even wears her “favorite shirt – sleeveless, white eyelet lace” (Meyer 3)

which perfectly fits her into the Gothic stereotype. Still, she gets the perfect boyfriend

that makes all her BFFs, to use teenage lingo, and even the other boys at the school

jealous. All of the sudden she is the center of everything.

5.2 Sexuality

As mentioned before, resisting temptation is a prominent theme in the Twilight Saga

which can already be seen on the cover of the first novel which features two pale hands

holding an apple – a direct reference to the Garden of Eden.

Bella's scent is a temptation for Edward to bite her. The bite of a vampire has

often been read as a sexual action. “Described frequently as a 'kiss' but carrying with it

pain and blood analogous to those of defloration or violent intercourse, the vampire's

bite is at once oral and yet penetrative” (Huges 153).

In the Twilight world the transformation into a vampire follows different rules

than in Dracula. The Count drinks from his victims blood and feeds him or her his in

return. In the Twilight Saga the exchange of bodily fluids is a one-way street. When a

Twilight vampire bites a human venom is injected into the victims bloodstream. It

transforms the cells. The heart of the victim keeps beating until the venom has spread

throughout the body.

Apart from reproduction through biting natural reproduction is also presented in

the last book when Bella becomes pregnant and later gives birth to a vampire-human

hybrid baby. In the process Edward transforms her to save her from death. But instead

of biting her he uses a syringe and injects the poison directly into her heart because this

is the shortest way to make the venom spread throughout the body. Again, the sexual

component of vampire fiction is minimized.

Just cuddling with Edward for the first time puts Bella in a nearly orgasmic state.

“It doesn't take a Freudian to read Edward's pulsating, insistent vampire lips pressed

against Bella's pale, innocent neck as an analogy for, well, something else” (Seifert). At

one point Bella is even worried about his sexual attraction but Edward remarks that he

“may not be a human, but [he is] a man” (Meyer 311), alluding to his libido and sexual

desire for Bella.

[Edward] is passionate, but is restrained and knows how to control himself. Even

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though there is a constant sexual tension between the two of them, Edward is always the one that does not let the relationship become sexual. This is extremely important and emphasized in both the books and movies, showing that Edward does not look at Bella with solely sexual desire; he cares for her. (Bedoya 63)

Many critics have read the sexuality in Twilight as another signal for the heavy

influence of Mormon ethics in Stephenie Meyer's writings. When Bella and Edward

meet she is a virgin and stresses that for her love and sexuality go together. They stay

chaste until they are married. Bella becomes pregnant immediately. While giving birth

she is transformed into a vampire which makes their marriage even more eternal then it

already is in the Mormon faith (cf. Aleiss).

This break from the connotation of biting and sexuality is unique to Twilight. In

True Blood feeding and sexual intercourse go together. Those humans who show bite

marks are even called “fangbangers” and feeding on a willing human often coincides

with sexual intercourse.

6 Conclusion: To suck or to bite?

The vampires from the Twilight Saga are a new breed of bloodsuckers. This is mainly

due to the new function they serve within novels.

In his classic Stoker creates the prototypical vampire. Although some aspects

from the folk literature are ignored Count Dracula becomes the popular cultural

reference point to which all other vampires have to measure up to. This is also due to

the many film adaptations. Whether they are adaptations of the novel or just draw on the

figure of Count Dracula they have shaped the perception of what a vampire has to be

like for many. This can even be seen in Twilight where those myths created by Dracula

are referenced.

But the Twilight Saga, amongst other modern vampire narratives, created a new

type of vampire: the loverboy. Although there has been heavy criticism on Edward as a

“perfect boyfriend”, his clearly is the function of his character. The entire saga focuses

on the romantic relationship between him and Bella.

In order to create this romance Edward is humanized. He no longer embodies the

mindless killer or evil. He saves Bella again and again. He and his family try to adapt to

human life as good as possible, they even refuse to feed on humans. This is a trait

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reserved for the “evil” vampires.

Twilight can be seen as a new stepping stone for vampire narratives. The

abnormal monster has been transformed into a fantasy. It will be interesting to see

where this literary figure will head next.

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7 Bibliography

7.1 Primary Sources

Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Warner Brothers, United Paramount. 1997-2003. Television.

Dracula. Dir. Tod Browning. Universal Pictures, 1931. Film.

Dracula – Dead and Loving It. Dir. Mel Brooks. Columbia Pictures, 1995. Film.

“Lab Partners”. Saturday Night Live. NBC. Dec 12, 2009. Television.

Meyer, Stephenie. Twilight. 2005. New York City: Little, Brown and Company, 2008. Print.

---. New Moon. 2006. New York City: Little, Brown and Company. Print.

---. Breaking Dawn. 2008. New York City: Little, Brown and Company. Print.

Nosferatu – eine Symphonie des Grauens. Dir. F.W. Murnau. Prana-Film, 1922. Film.

Rice, Anne. Interview With the Vampire. London: Futura Publications, 1976. Print.

---. The Vampire Lestat. London: Futura Publications, 1985. Print.

Stoker, Bram. Dracula. 1897. London: Penguin Books, 1994. Print.

The Vampire Diaries. The CW. 2009- . Television.

True Blood. HBO. 2008- . Television.

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7.2 Secondary Sources

Aleiss, Angela. “Mormon Influence, Imagery Run Deep Through Twilight.” Huffington

Post. 2011. Print.

Bedoya, Paola A. “Team Edward or Team Jacob? The Portrayal of Two Versions of the

‘Ideal’ Male Romantic Partner in the Twilight Film Series.” 2011 : n. pag. Print.

Bohn, Michelle L. “Shadow of the Vampire: Understanding the Transformations of an

Icon in Popular Culture.” 1–42. Print.

Butler, Erik. Metamorphoses of the Vampire in Literature and Film. Rochester: Camden

House, 2010. Print.

Classen, Tricia. “Taking a Bite Out of Love: The Myth or Romantic Love in the

Twilight Series.” Bitten by Twilight. Ed. Melissa A. Click, Jennifer Stevens Aubrey,

& Elizabeth Behm-Morawitz. New York City: Peter Lang Publishing, 2010. 119–

200. Print.

Green, Gary L. “Vampirism.” Dictionary of Literary Themes and Motifs L-Z. Ed. Jean-

Charles Seigneuret. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1988. 1373–1383. Print.

Huges, William. “Fictional Vampires in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century.” A

Companion to the Gothic. Ed. David Punter. Malden: Blackwell, 2000. 143–154.

Print.

Merskin, Debra. “A Boyfriend to Die For: Edward Cullen as Compensated Psychopath

in Stephanie Meyer’s Twilight.” Journal of Communication Inquiry 35.2 (2011):

157–178.

Seifert, Christine. “Bite Me! (Or Don’t).” Bitch Media 2008 : n. pag. Print.

Tsang, Wai-ho. “Post-9/11 American Gothic Family in The Hills Have Eyes Duology

and Twilight Saga.” 2012 : n. pag. Print.

Ulm, Hannah. “Wait, Who’s the Good Guy? The Hidden Message in a Monster Vs.

Monster Plot.” n. pag. Print.

Whisker, Gina. “Contemporary Women’s Vampire Fiction.” A Companion to the Gothic.

Ed. David Punter. Malden: Blackwell, 2000. 167–179. Print.

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