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CHAUCER'S NORMALIZED DICTION:

A COMPARISON OF RECURRING PHRASES IN

CHAUCER AND BEOWULF TO DETERMINE THE VALIDITY

OF THE MAGOUN THESIS

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Edward .I. Wolff

1966

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

CHAUCER' 3 NO'{MALIZED DICTION:

A COIIPAI’ISON OF RECURRING PHI\ASES IN CHAUCER AND BEO'_._____TULF

TO DETERMINE THE VALIDITY OF THE IIAGOUN THESIS-*-

presented by

Edward J. Wolff

has been accepted towards fulfillment

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ABSTRACT

CHAUCER'S NORMALIZED DICTION:

A COMPARISON OF RECURRING PHRASES IN CHAUCER AND EEQEQLE

TO DETERMINE THE VALIDITY OF THE MAGOUN THESIS

For well over half a century scholars have attested

to Chaucer's use of rhyme tags and meter fillers, to his idi-

omatic and colloquial language. This study is an attempt to

go beyond passing reference and to firmly establish what might

be called Chaucer's use of normalized diction--a diction that

is very repetitive and free from syntactic eccentricity, a

diction that utilizes the same words to eXpress the same ideas

in different contexts. Whatever other reasons Chaucer may

have had for using this kind of diction, the most probable is

that he meant his poetry to be recited and thus eschewed the

eccentric and elaborate as inappropriate to his purposes.

To demonstrate Chaucer's dependence on normalized

diction, this study traces phrases of four or more consecu-

tive syllables in two words or more in a relatively short

sample of Chaucer's poetry (about 600 lines) as they are re-

peated in a larger sample (about 3000 lines). Comparable

phrases are similarly traced in Beowulf and in Milton's poetry

as touchstones to place the Chaucer results into perspective.

The findings recorded here in a series of tables

range from predictable to surprising. As expected, the

number of repetitions in Milton is very low-~33 phrases in

2

the small sample (lines 1-500 of Book III, 3;) used just

79 times in the large sample (Books I-III of §§)--which

merely verifies the accepted scholarly view of Milton as a

user of eccentric and elaborate diction. Less predictably,

Beowulf contains fewer repetitions than anticipated, eSpeci-

ally in the light of recent scholarship alleging oral com-

position for the poem on the basis of its repeated phrases

and formulas. In the small sample (lines 1-600 of Beowulf),

there are 1&0 phrases used A07 times in the complete poem.

Quite understandably, these figures contrast sharply with

those of Milton. Surprisingly, however, they do not differ

radically from the Chaucer figures--131 phrases in the small

sample (Miller's Tale) used 330 times in the large sample

(Knight's Tale, Miller's Tale, Reeve's Tglg). In the use of

repetitions, then, Chaucer does not represent a mid-point

between the Beowulf poet and Milton, as this writer origin-

ally anticipated; rather, if the Beowulf poet and Milton can

be considered polarities, Chaucer must be closely bracketed

with the former as a user of an accepted, conventional lan-

guage which, it must be assumed, was Spoken by men.

The secondary conclusion of this study, also stem-

ming from the proximity of Chaucer to the Beowulf poet, in

the use of repetitions, tends to diSprove, not the celebra-

ted conclusion of Francis P. Magoun, Jr., that Beowulf was

orally composed in the act of recitation, but the validity

of his evidence for saying so. Magoun bases his contention

on the great number of repetitions of formulas and phrases

0v

3

in Beowulf. Using his reasoning, it might be said on equal

evidence and with equal force that Chaucer composed orally.

But he did not.

To buttress the argument against Magoun, five charts

are included at the end of this study. Two of Milman Parry's

on 223 Iliad and Egg Odyssey, showing the enormity of Homer's

debt to formula, and one of Magoun's on Beowulf, showing

the Beowulf poet's debt to formula, are well known. To

these, for comparison, are added similar charts on Chaucer

and Milton. The results of that comparison show that least

repetitive and formulaic by far is Milton; most repetitive

and formulaic by far is Homer. Between these polarities

stand Chaucer and the Beowulf poet, virtually together,

The fact that a poet like Chaucer, writing in a lettered

tradition, can for all intents and purposes be as repeti-

tive as the Beowulf poet points toward the necessity, not of

abandoning the theory of oral composition of Beowulf, but

of establishing new criteria to prove the theory.

CHAUCER'S NORMALIZED DICTION:

A COMPARISON OF RECURRING PHRASES IN CHAUCER AND BEOWULF

TO DETERMINE THE VALIDITY OF THE MAGOUN THESIS

BY

Edward J. Wolff

A THESIS

Submitted to

Michigan State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of English

1966

FOREWORD

This study is primarily an attempt to establish in

a new way Geoffrey Chaucer's use of normalized diction. By

tracing and listing repetitions in samples of Chaucer's

poetry, it was determined statistically that Chaucer relied

heavily on the idiomatic, colloquial language of his day.

His dependence on this quality of language, which so con-

sistently permeates his style, stems most probably from his

conscious intention to write poetry to be read aloud and

thus to be understood by a listener rather than by a reader.

Such intention precludes the use of the elaborate and rec-

ondite.

Repetitions occur in such abundance in Chaucer's

poetry, in fact, that a second conclusion--more tentative

and speculative, but nevertheless worth drawing--suggested

itself. This study shows by tables and charts that in the

use of repetitions Chaucer is surprisingly only a little

behind the Beowulf poet, not enough behind to be clearly

separatedifrom the earlier poet. The feet, then, that

Chaucer'!ggtg his poetry tends to cast a shadow of doubt on

Professor Francis P. Magoun, Jr.'s famous thesis that B32-

‘gglf was orally composed because of the high number of re-

peated phrases and formulas it contains. The results of

this study point, if not toward the written composition of

Beowulf, at least toward the need for creating and develop-

ii

iii

ing new criteria and new systems for determining the oral

composition of Beowulf, or, for that matter, of any other

poem whose method of composition is in doubt.

To Professor William Whallon, my advisor, I wish

to eXpress my deepest appreciation for his insistent but

kindly encouragement, for his valuable suggestions, and

for his putting into sharper focus a complex of ideas which

at one time this writer only vaguely understood. I am

thankful, too, to Professor Arnold Williams for his patient

indulgence over the years and for appointing, to serve in

his absence, my present advisor; to Professor John F.

Mahoney for introducing me to the field of oral poetics

one dark, blustery night; to Professor John A. Yunck for

his friendship and guidance during these troubled years;

and to Professor Heist for his helpful suggestions. Es-

pecially to Mr. and Mrs. Eugene F. Grewe and to Robert J.

Reilly am I grateful: to the Grewes, those "passionate

correctors," for their careful reading and typing of the

manuscript; to Mr. Reilly, for his sanity and humor, com-

passion and understanding, which have provided the stamina

needed to complete this work.

TABLE OF

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . .

TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . .

CHAPTER I. . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER II . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER III . . . . . . . .

TABLE I. CHAUCER . . .

TABLE II. BEOWULF . .

TABLE III. MILTON . .

TABLE IV.

CHAPTER IV . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . .

COMPARATIVE CHARTS:

CHAUCER, AND MILTON . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS

Page

0 e e e e e e e e e e 0 ii

0 e O O O O O O 0 0 O 0 iv

e e O 0 e O 0 O O O O O 1

l7

29

29

51

71+

0 O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O

HOMER, BEOWULF,

82

98

109

iv

CHAPTER I

For decades scholars have attempted to solve the

mystery of Chaucer's poetic style--that luminous quality

about his work that, more than any other, demonstrates his

genius and at the same time escapes absolute definition.

Precisely what it is that informs his style many scholars

have explained in divers ways. One end of the critical

1 who ascribes tospectrum might be represented by Manly,

Chaucer extensive dependence on formal rhetorical theory

and whose work drove medieval scholars to an exhaustive

study of medieval treatises published by Faral to learn

the rhetorical colors. Matthew of Vendome and Geoffrey of

Vinsauf, as they were said to have shaped Chaucer's poetic

style, gained a prominence that they have yet to relin-

quish.2 Claims of Chaucer's conscious debt to medieval

rhetoricians, however, approached the ridiculous, as in

Benjamin S. Harrison's assertion that Chaucer used exactly

seventy "colors" in the Eganklin's Tale.3 If we accept

the caution of C. S. Lewis, who tells us not to ”read into

1John M. Manly, "Chaucer and the Rhetoricians,"

Proceedings 2; the British Academ , XII (1926).

2Charles S. Baldwin, Medieval Rhetoric gag Poetic

(New York, 1959).

3"The Rhetorical Inconsistency of Chaucer's

Franklin," Studies i3 Philolo , XXII (January, 1935), 60.

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Chaucer all manner of ironies, slynesses and archnesses,

which are not there,"h Chaucer has unaccountably and un-

believably blundered in his characterization, since the

Franklin himself denies any knowledge of colours. Even if

we grant the Franklin his pose of unassuming modesty and

view him as discreetly illustrating his "gentillesse," we

must see that many of the "colors," so carefully delin-

eated, can--and do--occur in everyday Speech and that one

could hardly Speak for long without using them.

It simply cannot be denied that Chaucer is in part

indebted to a formal rhetorical tradition, but his "style,"

so say scholars at the other end of the critical spectrum,

cannot be fully explained in the light of this influence.

They contend that Chaucer owes much to the Spoken language.

Thomas R. Lounsbury, representing the extreme of this posi-

tion, in one of the earliest statistical studies of Chaucer's

colloquialisms, attributes to Chaucer a careless use of re-

peated words, phrases and even sentences by and large ir-

respective of meaning.5 More Specifically, although he

concedes that some of Chaucer's recurring expressions ef-

fect a transition, fill out a measure, or secure a rhyme,

and that Chaucer uses the same words to eXpress the same

thought in different works,6 Lounsbury nevertheless adds

“Allegogz g§,Love:'A Study gf’Medieval Tradition,

(Oxford, 1936), pp. léh-ES.

SStudies y; Chaucer (New York, 1892), II, 82 ff.

61bide, p. 830

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many of them [repeated eXpressions], eSpecially

those most often used, - . . while they cannot be

called absolutely necessary to the sense, the sig-

nification of the passage, in the great majority

of instances, would have been very slightly af-

fectsd if they had not made their appearance at

all.

Noting that Chaucer was far different in this reSpect from

Gower, who used language much more carefully,8 Lounsbury

concludes that Chaucer very often must have "moved per-

sistently on low levels, and ordinarily kept close to the

language of daily life."9 Aside from the amusing mistaken

judgments, Lounsbury's observations are interesting because

they imply that Chaucer simply did not know any better,

which makes him an unconscious, if not haphazard, artist

at best-~a poet vastly different from the careful, aca-

demic artist of rhetoric pictured by Manly and the others.

Manly himself, however, helps to close the apparent

distance separating these views when, at the end of his

famous essay, he concedes that Chaucer

began his career, not merely as a disciple and

imitator of a thoroughly artificial school of

writing, but as a conscious exploiter of the for-

mal rhetoric taught by the professional rhetor-

icians, and that it was only gradually and as a

result of much thought and experiment that he re-

placed the conventional methods of rhetorical

elaboration by those processes of imaginative

7Studies in Chaucer, II, 89.

81bid., p. 107.

91b1d., p. 99.

1.

construction which give hislaest work so high a

rank in English literature.

A much more recent proponent of Chaucer's debt to the rhe-

toricians, Charles Muscatine, takes a more conservative

view: ”The contention that Chaucer gradually abandoned

rhetoric is statistically questionable."11 Nevertheless,

many more scholars seem to have assumed Manly's concession

to be correct and have tried to define in Chaucer's style

that nebulous "something" that Manly could describe only

as "processes of imaginative construction." If Robert K.

Root is right when he says Chaucer's "sentences are short

and loose, simple in their structure, free from awkward in-

versions and from any studied balance or antithesis,"12

then Manly's tacit admission that something other than

Chaucer's use of rhetoric gives him "so high a rank in

English literature" points strongly toward Chaucer's hav-

ing gradually adopted an informal, colloquial tradition,

written or spoken, or both. All of which would tend to

have Manly and Lounsbury agree, if not on the quality of

Chaucer's use of the informal tradition, at least on the

fact that he did use it.

1OManly, pp. 112-13.

llghggggg and the French Tradition (Berkeley, 1957),

p. 17“.

12The Poetry Q; Chaucer (Gloucester, Mass., 1957),

p. #1.

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Margaret Schlauch,l3 among the more recent critics,

not only recognizes Chaucer's use of the colloquial lan-

guage, but indeed shows, through an analysis of sentence

structure, his carefully apt use of both formal and in-

formal language. For example, she says that Criseyde,

arguing with Troilus against elopement,

is being supremely clear-headed, despite her

swooning, and shows no lapses in sentence struc-

ture while she is talking. On the other hand,

Chaucer inserts loose colloquial structures in-

to many expository passages . . . . Without be-

ing obtrusive they contribute to the sense of

happy ease and flowingness which were character-

istic of the poetry in all periods from the

early Book 2; the Duchess to the maturest Can-

terbury Tales.15

More importantly, Miss Schlauch contends that ”the more

colloquial passages show characteristics of informal Eng-

lish which are recognizable as deviations from the con-

trasting formal usages of both Chaucer's age and ours."15

But most importantly for the purposes of this study she

summarizes the total effect of Chaucer's use of this mix-

ture of language levels when she says:

. . . we can the more readily imagine for our-

selves the enchanting effect of immediacy which

Chaucer must have created when he read aloud his

own works [italics mine], employing colloquia

sentence patterns along with the many other de-

vices he commanded to invest his language with

13"Chaucer's Colloquial English: Its Structural

Traits," PMLA,ALXVII (December, 1952), 1103-16.

1“:b1d., p. 1116.

151bid., p. 1101.

6

its qualities 0% social and psychological ap-

propriateness.l

The offhandedness of the italicized clause suggests Miss

Schlauch's complete and unquestioning acceptance of the

theory that Chaucer intended his works to be read aloud.

But it does much more than that. It supplies us with a

good reason for Chaucer's espousing what might be called a

normalized diction, that is, a diction that is free from

eccentricity, from the bizarre and unusual, a diction that

does not try for rarity of eXpression, a diction, finally,

that uses the same words to eXpress the same thoughts in

different contexts. This kind of diction scholars have

ascribed to Homer and to the Beowulf poet before Chaucer.

Others, long before Miss Schlauch, theorized that

because of colloquial usages and repetitions of various

kinds, Chaucer intended his poetry for recitation. As far

back as the turn of the century, discussing Chaucer's verse

tags, Charles M. Hathaway all but guessed it when he con-

cluded:

Besides being a feature of all popular Speech,

these phrases are the especial outfit of the story-

teller, his especial means of establishing credence;

and it is as such that I hold that Chaucer is the

perfect artist in using them in his best work.

Chaucer aims to keep us, and to an astonishing de-

gree succeeds in keepin us exactly in the position

of people listening to %not reading) a story.

l6Schlauch, p. 1116.

17"Chaucer's Verse Tags as Part of Narrative

Machinery," Journal 9; English 329 Germanic Philolo , V

(1903-5), #8 .

"

7

He extends high praise to Chaucer for creating in his

reader the illusion that he is listening rather than read-

ing. In this observation he was but one short step re-

moved from being the first to say what the scholarly world

has since come to take for granted, partly as a result of

the study of Ruth Crosby, for example, who says, "His

[Chaucer's] aim was to hold the interest of a fourteenth

century audience that actually would be listening.”18

She says further that Chaucer "wrote primarily for a lis-

tening public and that in doing so he naturally adopted

many of the tricks of style familiar to him through his

knowledge of literature intended to be heard."19 To ar-

rive at this conclusion Miss Crosby in a previous article20

had first to show "some evidences of the custom of oral

delivery in the Middle Ages,"21 and then "to analyze the

peculiar characteristics of narrative intended for publi-

22cation by that means." These characteristics--examples

18"Chaucer and the Custom of Oral Delivery,”

Speculum, XIII (January-October, 1938), 432. Other schol-

ars ad recently asserted that Chaucer read aloud his

works. See George P. Wilson, "Chaucer and Oral Reading,"

South Atlantic Quarterly, XXV (1926), 283 ff.; H. Ludeke,

“Die Funktionen des Erzahlers in Chaucers Epischen Dich-

E325,” Stugien_zur Englischen Philolo ie, LXXII (Halle,

19Crosby, p. #32.

20"Oral Delivery in the Middle Ages,” Speculum,

XI (January-October, 1936), 88-110.

21Ibid., p. 88.

22Ibid.

8

of direct address and excessive repetitions of various kinds,

such as expletives, meter fillers, rhyme tags, formulas,

transitions, asseverations and oaths--she finds in abun-

dance primarily in Middle English romances, though some-

times in Old French romances as well. Then in the later

article she traces them in the works of Chaucer.

In her summation she is careful to add concessively

that Chaucer indeed used devices of classical as well as

of popular origin and also

that many of the phrases used by Chaucer and the

romance writers were popular colloquialisms.

Chaucer must have heard and used such expres-

zigniainofizgryoggy Speech as frequently as we do

Thus She subscribes to the prevailing view that Chaucer's

style is a happy amalgam of two separate, though notalways

mutually exclusive, traditions, but at the same time in-

sists that Chaucer had good reason to adopt and develop his

style as he did: If he intended his poetry to be read

aloud, as it now seems he most certainly did, why not use

the oral formulas, common phrases, and stock expressions,

already so integral a part of both the recited romances

and everyday Speech?

Indeed, only a decade ago in a study partly de-

voted to Chaucer's concessions to his listening audience,

Mary Giffin says of Chaucer: "A post eXpected to read his

poem aloud to an audience, or he conceived of another per-

23"Chaucer and the Custom of Oral Delivery," p. #31.

9

son reading it aloud."24 Her major proofs are brief ref-

erences to a few of the often-cited passages in Troilus

and Criseyde addressed to a listening audience, and to

Criseyde's reading aloud to her ladies from the §iggg_g£

Thebeszs a very few token examples from among Chaucer's

many references to "hearing" and "Speaking" in his po-

etry,26 and finally a lengthy plea for the authenticity

and historical accuracy of that famous illumination (Cor-

pus Christi College, Cambridge, MS. 61, reproduced on the

following page) showing Chaucer reading aloud to his king,

queen, and court.27 The brevity of her treatment here

suggests that she is merely summarizing the evidence pre-

28 in order tosented much more fully by others before her

proceed to the heart of her study. That she could refer

to that evidence so cryptically and rightly assume the

reader's knowledge of the extensive scholarship in this

area is a tribute to the work of all those who enabled her

to proceed so quickly to her study proper.

, 2“Studies 95 Chaucer and His Audience (Quebec,

Canada, 1956), p. 19.

25Ibid., pp. 16-17.

261bid., p. 19.

27Ibide, pp. 17‘190

28In addition to Crosby, Schlauch, and the others

mentioned above, see Hel e deeritz, "Rhetorical Word-Play

in Chaucer," PMLA, LXIX L95L), 9L2-52, and Bertrand

Bronson, "Chaucer's Art in Relation to his Audience,"

Universit of California Publications in English, VIII,

No. I (I9AOT: 1-33, to mention a few of_many.

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CHAUCER READING POETRY TO HIS AUDIENCE

Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 13;. _6_l

11

Conventional assumptions and conventional theories,

however, are always in need of re-examination and, in the

event of newly-presented evidence through a fresh critical

approach, are subject to subsequent revaluation. If an

old assumption or an old theory is not thus changed, it

ought at least to be continually reaffirmed. I do not in-

tend in this study to Oppose the idea that Chaucer in-

tended his poetry to be recited. Rather, this study at-

tempts to prove in an entirely new way what Giffin, Crosby,

and the others have said for years. This unique analysis

of Chaucer attempts to show from a different angle of

vision that Chaucer used a normalized diction. The old

theory is thus vitalized and reinforced and with it its

corollary, that he used it because he intended his poetry

to be recited.

In this study I have compiled three lists of re-

peated phrases for comparison, one from the poetry of

Chaucer,29 one from Beowulf,30 and one from the poetry of

Milton,31 To present a valid comparison from which reason-

able conclusions could be drawn, Specific segments from

29All lines from Chaucer are taken from Chaucer's

Major Poetr ed. Albert C. Baugh (New York: Appleton-

Century-Cro¥ts, 1963).

30All lines from Beowulf are taken from Beowulf

and the F1 ht at Finnsbur ed. Fr. Klaeber (New York: D. C.

Heath an ompafiy, 19505. ,

31All lines from Milton are taken from John Milton:

Com lete Poems and Major Prose, ed. Merritt Y. Hughes

(New York: Odyssey Press, 1957).

12

Chaucer and Milton were chosen to approximate the length

of the complete Beowulf (3182 lines): from the work of

Chaucer the Knight's Tale, the Miller's Tale, and the

Reeve's Tale (331932) were taken, since together they are

acceptable as a literary unit and might fairly represent

as well as any other unit in the Canterbury Tales the high

art of Chaucer; from the work of Milton the first three

books of Paradise Lost (2595 lines) were taken for the same

reasons. Secondly, from within each of these larger seg-

ments, a small sample was chosen: from Chaucer, the Miller's

Ialg (667 lines); from Beowulf, the first 600 lines; from

Milton, the first 500 lines of Book III of Paradise Lost.

The difference in the size of the small samples is the re-

sult of an attempt to keep the proportion between small

and large sample in each case approximately equal. As it

stands, the ratio is extremely close to one-to-five.

In order to compare repetitions of word patterns

in these works it was decided to allow four or more con-

secutive syllables comprising two words or more in the

Chaucer and Milton samples to be a quantitative equivalent

of the Old English half-line in Beowulf.33 In addition it

32The Miller's "Prologue" and the Reeve's "Prologue"

have been omitted to reduce the size of the Chaucer seg-

ment to compare more clearly with that of the Beowulf.

33The format of the Chaucer and Milton concordances

made it impossible to search for possible repetitions that

carried into a succeeding line. For this reason this study

has not taken into account such repetition.

13

was decided that wherever Chaucer's spelling in the Tat-

lock-Kennedy Concordance3l+ differed from that in the Baugh

text and the question of a fourth syllable arose, the

spelling of the Baugh text would be followed. Finally,

it was decided that varying inflections in words in re-

peated half-lines in Beowulf that made them technically

different would be considered inconsequential and that

therefore they would not be excluded as repeated lines,

since allowance must be made for the fact that Old English

was much more heavily inflected than either Middle English

or Modern English.35

With these qualifications and allowances in mind,

then, I counted the word-patterns defined above as they

appeared in each small sample and were repeated at least

once in the corresponding large sample. I counted also

the total number of times these word-groups were used in

the large sample. The results of this count are listed

in the following table.

3“John S. P. Tatlock and Arthur G. Kennedy, A Con-

cordance to the Com lete Works of Geoffre Chaucer ahd to

the FomauntTo the hosemasWington: The Carnegie Ihhtiu

tution of Wahhington, I927) .

35The task of counting these repeated half lines

in Beowulf was made considerably easier by the work of

Richard Kistenmacher, who in doctoral dissertation, gig

wortlichen Wiederholun en im Beowulf written at the Uni-

versity of Grei swald Greifswald, Germany: printed by

Julius Abel, 1898), made a fairly complete and substan-

tially accurate list of such phrases.

1h

TABLE OF RESULTS

Number of Phrases Number of Times

Used in Small Sample Repeated in the

Repeated in Large Large Sample

Sample

Chaucer 131 (Miller's Tale) 330 (RTJMI,RV.T)

Beowulf 11.036 (11. l-6OO Beowulf)h07 (complete Beowulf)

Milton 33 (11. 1-500, g; III) 79 (31,, I, II, III)

It was hoped that by adding the Beowulf and Milton

studies as "touchstones," it could clearly be seen that

Chaucer in his use of repeated phrases was about mid-way

between an artist who knew and consciously employed repe-

titions and an artist who knew and consciously avoided them.

This study has, predictably, indicated that in Paradise ngg

Milton was as far from normalized diction as a poet can be.

The repetitions in his sample, such as they are, he uses

in the main only because he is dictionally restricted by the

theological subject matter of his poem. How many ways, af-

ter all, are there of saying "the Son of God" or "Heaven

and Earth"? It is amazing, rather, that in the light of the

narrow choice theological terminology has left him, he has

repeated so little.

The Beowulf "touchstone" has produced surprising

36This figure includes six: repetitions in the

first 600 lines that technically are not half lines be-

cause they bridge the caesura. These five appear twenty

times in the complete poem and in this study appear as a

separate group at the end of the list of repeated half-

lines in the Beowulf.

15

results. It has demonstrated that Chaucer in his use of

repetitions is far closer to Beowulf than has ever been

acknowledged. Chaucer is not only not half way between two

extremes; he joins Beowulf at one pole to be contrasted

with Milton at the other. Reading Beowulf, one has always

had the feeling that there is an overwhelming number of

repetitions in the poem--perhaps a greater number than

there really is--probably because the language is relative-

ly unfamiliar and the ear,groping for sense, is perhaps

more attuned to repetitions in unfamiliar tongues than in

familiar. On the other hand, with Chaucer, although one

is always aware of the short expressions like 29; Egg

gggg§,,gg l esse, or fig it thoughte g3, one is disin-

clined to "hear" the repetitions because his diction, even

in Middle English, is so much like the diction that is so

much a part of our daily lives. Hence the tendency would

be to overestimate the repetition in Beowulf and under-

estimate it in Chaucer. The above figures tend to belie

our "impressions" and clearly place Chaucer, in his heavy

reliance on normal and colloquial diction, as nearly repet-

itive as the Beowulf poet.

Thus what Crosby and the others have contended for

years on the basis of their evidence, that Chaucer was

greatly influenced by a language other than the formal, arti-

ficial language of the rhetoricians, is supported by the re-

sults of this study. Further, the closer he can be aligned

with Beowulf and the poetic tradition that produced it, the

16

more evidence there is for saying that Chaucer used this

natural style because he, like the Beowulf poet, had in

mind the recitation of his poetry. The high incidence of

repetition, as scholars attest, in both cases strongly sug-

gests composition of poetry meant to be heard.

CHAPTER II

The close resemblance of Chaucer's work to the

Beowulf in the use of repetitions, as illustrated in this

study, also produces evidence that helps to solve, or at

least to clarify, a recently developed scholarly contro-

versy concerning Beowulf. By about the middle of this cen-

tury it had become conventional to see Beowulf as a poem

composed by one man who combined materials for his narra-

tive epic from both oral and written, pagan and Christian

traditions. How well he unified these disparate materials

was--and still iso-a question for debate,1 but the conten-

tion that "the poem was written pen in hand or written

from the poet's dictation"2 and intended for oral presen-

tation was not. The evidence that Klaeber used to conclude

that the poem was meant to be recited--"the accumulation

of a vast store of ready forms and formulas which could

1Many Old English scholars have taken sides on the

unity question. Generally, those who see unity in the

poem rank the poet as superior; those who do not, view him

as something less. On the side of unity are such scholars,

for example, as Arthur E. Dubois, J. R. R. Tolkien, Joan

Bloomfield, Kemp Malone, and others. A few who oppose

them are T. M. Gang, J. C. Van Meurs, and H. L. Rogers.

See Bibliography for titles of their works. Curiously,

Pr. Klaeber, an outspoken defender of the poem's unity,

laments that it lacks "the finish of form as required by

modern taste or by Homeric or Vergilian standards" ("In-

troduction" to his edition, p. lxvii).

2William‘Witherle Lawrence, Beowulf and he Epic

Tradition (Cambridge, Mass., 1928), p. 10.

17

18

be added to and varied at will, repetitions of phrases"3--

was the same that induced Lawrence to call the poem's vari-

ation and repetition and "set epic phraseology" too mechan-

ical.‘ It was precisely this mechanical repetition, this

frequent use of "set epic phraseologyr that led Francis P.

Magoun, Jr., to argue compellingly that Beowulf was composed

not in a lettered tradition, but in an oral tradition, that

is, that it was composed in the moment of oral performance.5

To begin with, according to Magoun,

the characteristic feature of all orally composed

poetry is its totally formulaic character. From

this a second point emerged, namely, that the re-

currence in a given poem of an agpreciable number

of formulas or formulaic phrases brands the latter

as oral, Just as a lack of such repetitions marks

a poem composed in a lettered tradition. Oral

poetry, it may be safely said, is composed entirely

of formulas, large and small, while lettered poetry

is never formulaic, though lettered poets occasion-

ally consciously repeat themselves or quote verbatim

3"Introduction" to his edition, p. lxvii.

“Lawrence, p. h.

5"Oral Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative

Poetry,” S eculum, XXVIII (1953), Lao-67. The theory he

promulgates here suggested a new way of looking at Old and

Middle English narrative poetry and thus engendered a num-

ber of valuable studies, such as those by Lewis E. Nichol-

son, Robert P. Creed, Robert E. Diamond, Stanley B. Green-

field, Jackson J. Campbell, Robert Waldron, and others. For

specific titles, see Bibliography.

6He defines formula as "a group of words which is

regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to ex-

press a given essential idea"; formulaic hrases "are of the

same type and conform to the same verhaI an grammatical pat-

tern as the various other verses associated with them and

cited in the supporting evidence” (p. ##9). '

19

from other poets in order to produce a Specific

rhetorical effect.7

Applying these principles to any poem, Magoun continues,

. . . we have suddenly acquired a touchstone with

which it is now possible to determine to which of

two great categories of poetry a recorded text bgy

longs--to the oral or to the lettered tradition.

His recorded text is Beowulf, or more specifically, the

first twenty-five lines of Beowulf. He finds only thirteen

half-lines among the fifty that "are not matched wholly or

in part elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon poetry".9 Thus, as he

says, "some seventy percent of the text of this passage

does occur elsewhere in the corpus of Anglo-Saxon poetry."10

To bolster his statistic, he adds:

Were the surviving corpus, say, twice as big and

if, above all, we had other songs of any extent

dealing with anything like the same thematic ma-

terial, there well might be almost nothing in the

language here uiid that could not be demonstrated

as traditional.

With this convenient projection it would seem that Magoun

has successfully placed the poet of the Beowulf in the group

of unlettered singers who "call upon a ready-made language,

upon a vast reservoir of formulas filling just measures of

verse" as they compose extemporaneously "before a live

audience."12

7Magoun, Lh6-h7.

31bid., p. aa9.

91bid.

1°Ib1d., p. use.

11Ibid.

121bid., p. Ahé.

o.- *Q—a .D—ps—Or—ww

20

In his study Magoun admits his debt to the conclu-

sions and technique of the late Milman Parry,13 whose work

was carried on and extended by his pupil Albert B. Lord.1h

On these two men Magoun has heaped high and well deserved

praise for their scholarly breakthrough in Homeric studies.

Working on the assumption that orally composed poetry was

dependent on a system of formulas developed in an oral

poetic tradition over a long period of time and handed

down through the ages to express given ideas in given met-

rical positions,15 they-~but particularly Parry--did indeed

demonstrate that Homer's works were orally composed (Parry

was the first to use the twenty-five-line small samples and

look for repetitions in the large samples, that is in the

‘ 13A complete bibliography of the writings of Mil-

man Parry can be found in Albert E. Lord's ”Homer Parry

and Huso," American Journal 9; Archaeology, LII (191.8),

3R-hh. The two most important for the present study are

"Studies in Epic Technique of Oral Versemaking I,: Homer

and Homeric Style," Harvard Studies i3 Classical Philology,

XLI (1930), 73-1h7, and "II, The Homeric Language as the

Language of Oral Poet ," Harvard Studies i3 Classical

Philology, XLIII (1932 , 1-55.

1“See '_r_1_u_e_ Singer 9; Tales (Cambridge, Mass., 1960).

This book contains the results of extensive research done

by both Parry and Lord on the living oral Serbo-Croatien

epic singers in their attempt to corroborate Parry's theo-

ries on Homeric poems. Lord alone, using conclusions ar-

rived at jointly with Parry, posited extensions which are,

if not untenable, highly speculative.

15Parry, "II, The Homeric Language as the Language

of Oral Poetry " Harvard Studies 1g Classical Philology

XLIII (1932), ’7-8. '

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21

poems of Homerlé). Over ninety percent of their sampling

consists either in formulas or formulaic phrases. And, as

Lord points out, "It is highly important to emphasize that

formulas are not limited to familiar epithets and oft-re-

peated lines, but that formulas are all-pervasive."17 Sum-

marizing the results of an earlier statistical study by

Carl Edward Schmidt, William Whallon says,

. . . Schmidt counted 180L different lines repeated

exactly in the two Homeric poems, and by increasing

this figure so as to include lines repeated with

very slight modifications he counted 2118 different

lines used a total of 5612 times. Thus one line in

five from the Iliad and the Odysse¥ is to be found

somewhere else in the two poems. he ratio is

thoroughly remarkable because the lines 818 so long

--half again as long as those of Beowulf.

When the evidence of formula, as seen in Parry and Lord, is

added to the evidence, collected by Notopoulos, of repeated

hexameter lines averaging fifteen syllables,19 the evidence

becomes overwhelming: the argument for Homer's oral verse-

making becomes incontestable. "The old Homeric question in

the form it once took [Did he compose orally?] is," as No-

topoulos rightly concludes, "dead, except for those who

16Parry, "Studies in Epic Technique of Oral Verse-

Making, I: Homer and Homeric Style," Harvard Studies in

Classical Philolog? XLI (1930), 118 H—T.eeT‘f—ahe IV—of

{he present study or comparison of copies of the Parry and

Magoun charts with similar charts on Chaucer, Beowulf, and

Milton.

l7Lord, p. 1&2.

18"The Diction of Beowulf," PMLA. LXXVI (1961): 311-

19James A. Notopoulos, "Studies in Early Greek Oral

Poetr ," Harvard Studies i3 Classical Philolo , LXIII

(1964' g 16"; e

rs

22

have not heard of Parry, or if they have, proceed as if he

made no difference."20

Praise must be given to Magoun not only for accept-

ing the validity of the Parry oral verse-making theory, but

for seeing the possibilities for application of this theory

to Anglo-Saxon narrative poetry at a time when some repu-

table classical scholars, though accepting the theory,

lamented the concomitant loss of Homer's creative imagina-

tion and subtle artistry, and with it the further loss of a

great body of Homeric csiticism.21 Praise must also be

given to Magoun for so enthusiastically continuing to apply

the theory to works in Anglo-Saxon other than Beowulf,22

thereby contributing to the formulation of "oral poetics,"

which Notopoulos says "Parry's revolutionary turn in Hom-

eric studies" has forced on us.23 Moreover, Magoun's view

of Beowulf is persuasive enough to have Lord himself use

20Notopoulos, p. L7.

21Ibid., pp. 61-62.

221n "The Theme of the Beasts of Battle in Anglo-

Saxon Poetry," Neuphilologische Mitteilun en, LVI (1955),

81-90, and "Bede's Story of:Caedmon: The Case History of

an Anglo-Saxon Oral Singer," Speculum, XXX (1955), h9-63.

This latter is an attempt to buttress his argument for gggy

wulf by showing recorded oral composition. Similarly

Rohert P. Creed in "The Singer Looks at His Sources,"

Studies i3 Old English Literature in Honor 2; Arthur Q;

Brodeur edT—Stanley B. Greenfield-TUniversity of Oregon

Books, 1963), pp. uh-SZ, draws a parallel between the Dan-

ish oral singer in the Beowulf and the Greek oral singer,

Demodocus, in the Odyssey and sees them as prima facie evi-

dence that both poems derive from oral traditions.

23Notopoulos, p. 65.

23

his conclusions as partial evidence for his own assertion

that "Analysis of Beowulf indicates oral composition."24

Nevertheless, both Magoun and Lord have been vocif—

erously criticized not only for their conclusions on Beowulf,

but for their misapplication of principles as well. In a

review of the Lord book, Alistair Campbell takes exception

to Lord's use of "thematology, a field so bristling with

uncertainties that it will be well not to follow him into

it."25 Further, he rejects Lord's attempt to use contem-

porary Serbian oral epic practices to reveal conditions un-

der which Beowulf was produced.26 "There is," Campbell con-

cludes with the traditionalists, "little doubt that [Bedb

wulf] is a book epic."27 For him not even the demonstrated

partial formulaic character of the poem is convincing,

since for Campbell it does not follow that all formulaic

poetry is oral any more than that all oral poetry is formu-

laic.28 Even William Whallon, a scholar sympathetically

disposed toward Lord's conclusion on Beowulf, concedes that

Lord's results in this area are ”perhaps not definitive

2“Lord, p. 200.

ziflggggg.ggggg§gg Review, LVII (1962), 76.

26Ibid.

27Ibiid.

28Ibid., p. 75. He cites as non formulaic, yet

oral, Old Norse Scaldic verse, and some ancient Highland

and Icelandic poetry.

2h

in every respect."29 Similarly, Magoun is taken to task by

Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur, who, though he praises Magoun

highly for showing the pervasiveness of the formulaic ele-

ments in the poem,30 contends that Magoun assumes falsely

that a lettered poet cannot compose formulaically:

I think Magoun is wrong in his belief that a liter-

ate author cannot have composed in a traditional

formulaic manner. It is clear that Cynewulf did

so compose, and it is equally clear he had not been

trained as a soap. . . . The author of Brunanburh

was obviously an educated man; and no poem )2 Old

English is more nearly "totally formulaic."

He says, further, concluding his chapters on an analysis of

the diction and variation in Beowulf, that "We have seen

one thing clearly: The language of Beowulf, making heavy

use of traditional formulas, is yet by no means 'totally

formulaic.' "32 Magoun's conclusion "that the language of

Old English narrative poetry is totally formulaic"33 is

thus disputed. The formulas apparent in Beowulf, Brodeur

argues, are simply the "inevitable consequence of the poet's

undertaking to compose a heroic poem in the vernacular.”3h

Curiously, while Brodeur accepts Magoun's formulaic

29Reviewof Lord's Singer 2; Tales in Compgrative

Literature, XIV (1962), LOO.

' 30The 522 g§_Beowulf (Berkeley at Los Angeles,

(1960) . pf—U-

31;2id., p. 5.

3?;pid., p. 70.

33lgig., p. 3.

3"I_b_i_d., p. 70.

25

study as significant, even if overstated, but rejects his

conclusion, Whallon accepts his conclusion and minimizes

the significance of his formulaic study as a valid premise.

He notes first that "Beowulf and the Homeric poems are not

at all formulaic to the same extent,"35 and, in a close

comparative study of the diction of Beowulf with that of

the Homeric poems, finds that "the language of Beowulf

lacks the economy eXpected from a formulaic language that

is highly developed."36 This lack of economy in Beowulf he

attributes to the immaturity of the Old English oral poetic

tradition, which had not been so perfected as to do away with

superfluous elements "that reach dozens in three thousand

lines and must be assumed to multiply geometrically in a

larger corpus."37 He Speculates:

Further centuries of poetizing in the same tra-

dition might have augmented the language with use-

ful formulas it lacked, and might have also lim-

ited the use of certain distinctive kennings for

the epic hero; further centuries would at least

have cast many replaceable kennings into oblivion.38

He concludes by affirming a correspondence between Beowulf

and the Homeric poems, but on the evidence of his study de-

clares that the diction of Beowulf "is much less completely

stereotyped," and "may on this basis be taken to represent

35Whallon, "The Diction of Beowulf," PMLA, LXXVI

(1961), 309.

36Ibid., p. 318.

371bid.

38Ibid.

(a

26

an earlier stage in the development of an oral poem than

do the lligg and the Odyssey."39

Two scholars have thus strongly denied Magoun's

idea that Beowulf is totally formulaic, paradoxically for

diametrically opposed reasons: Brodeur makes a valiant ef-

fort to preserve for the Beowulf poet a careful conscious

poetic artistry; Whallon, like Klaeber long before him,

labels the poem as inferior Homer for not being formulaic

enough, for not having a style "so perfected as to become

invariable.""’0

This very brief summary of the scholarship on the

theory of oral composition as it affects Homer and Beowulf

has helped bring into focus the major differing opinions

on the subject in order to show that the question of the

oral composition of Beowulf is still a matter for debate.

The statistical results of the present study, that bracket

Chaucer with the Beowulf poet in the frequency of their

use of repetitions, tend to cast doubt on the validity of

Magoun's evidence for saying Beowulf was composed orally,

without necessarily doubting the truth of his conclusion.

Using Magoun's line of reasoning (that is, his

adaptations of Parry's criteria as he applied them to B39-

yglf) and imposing them on Chaucer, it could be said, on

the basis of this study, that Chaucer composed his poetry

39"The Diction of Beowulf," p. 319.

holbide, p. 3180

27

orally, yet we know he did not. If the argument is turned

around, and it is said that Chaucer 33933 his poetry and

that it contains almost as many repetitions as Beowulf,

could it not be said of Beowulf that it too was part of the

lettered tradition? Chapter I of this study illustrates

fairly conclusively that Chaucer as a writer of poetry used

normalized diction, with its consequent repetition, because

he intended his work to be recited. Could it not be said,

by the same token, that the Beowulf poet as a writer of

poetry "relied on a familiar idiomatic style"h1 because

he intended his work to be recited? Such a view, of course,

accords with that of the traditionaliSts and is mentioned

here to show there is no more reason for Magoun to say that

Beowulf was gaglly composed, g§,g;§ evidence, than there is

for me to say that Beowulf was written, on the evidence of

this study.

Yet the unqualified success Parry had in proving

the oral composition of the Homeric poems militates against

negating Magoun's conclusion, even if his application of

Perry's techniques to Beowulf is not conclusive. The feel-

ing is inescapable that Magoun is somehow right in his

hunch and that he simply used the wrong, but very attrac-

tive, yardstick and could not see that it was not quite

“lThe phrase is Whallon's in "The Diction of B32-

wulf,", PMLA, LXXVI (1961), 318. But Brodeur, defending

the Beowulf poet against Magoun, attests to the poet's

use of the "vernacular" (p. 70). In context the word has

connotations of "normal," perhaps even "colloquial."

28

long enough to measure Beowulf. In deference to him and to

his important scholarship in this field, new approaches

should be taken; other criteria should be developed and ap-

plied to the poem to prove about Beowulf what Parry in a

different time proved about Homer. The Whallon approach

to oral composition through the study of the use of diction,

particularly the kenning, marks a beginning. Only after

the oral composition of Beowulf is established beyond ques-

tion can the hoped-for "oral poetics" that pre-occupies

Notopoulos"2 be eXpanded and eventually be fully formulated

to encompass not only Homer and Beowulf and Lord's Serbo-

Croatian epics, but to encompass all oral poetry, irrespec-

tive of epoch and milieu.

thotopoulos, p. 65.

CHAPTER III

The conclusions and inferences drawn in the two

preceding chapters are based on the detailed evidence pre-

sented in this chapter, which consists of four tables. The

first three contain, respectively, repetitions in Chaucer,

Beowulf, and Milton; the fourth contains five charts in-

tended to indicate graphically in capsule form how Homer,

the Beowulf poet, Chaucer, and Milton are related with

respect to the use of repetitions.

TABLE I

The following table lists on the left margin phra-

ses of four or more consecutive syllables in two or more

words appearing in Chaucer's Miller's 13;; that are re-

peated at least once in a larger segment of Chaucer's

poetry, the Knight's gals, the Miller's gals, and the

Reeve's Iglg. These phrases are listed in the order of

their appearance in the Miller's 2313. Beneath each phrase,

this table further lists, indented from the left margin,

all the lines from the larger segment in which that phrase

is repeated. Merely to state that Chaucer saw fit to use

in the relatively short Miller's 2312 131 phrases that he

repeated 330 times in the larger segment of a little more

than 3,000 lines would be to verify statistically a common

assumption. After all,when Chaucer scholars have for dec-

29

30

ades noted that Chaucer is repetitive, statistics like

these have a way of being neglected, or at best accepted

in the abstract. A table of this kind, however, strikes

the eye in a way that no cold statistical total ever could;

it is a visual demonstration of the pervasiveness of

Chaucer's normalized diction in the body of his poetry.

All lines and line numbers appearing in this table

are taken from Albert C. Baugh's edition of Chaucer's

poetry. Occasionally Chaucer has more than one Spelling

for the same word largely because Spelling rules had not

yet been regularized. As long as the variant Spellings

contained the same number of syllables for a word, they

were considered to be vocal equivalents.

ther was dwellynge

Whilom ther was dwellynge at Oxenford 3187

With hym ther was dwellynge a povre scoler, 3190

a carpenter

And of his craft he was a carpenter. 3189

But if he koude a carpenter bigyle." 3300

his fantasye

Had 1erned art, but a1 his fantasye 3191

The folk gan laughen at his fantasye; 38AO

men asked hym

If that men asked hym in certein houres 3195

31

Or if men asked hym what sholde bifalle

sholde bifalle

Or if men asked hym what sholde bifalle

Upon the sterres, what ther sholde bifalle,

I may not rekene hem alle

I may nat rekene hem alle though I wolde.

0f everything; I may nat rekene hym alle.

hende Nicholas

This clerk was cleped hende Nicholas.

Now bere thee wel, thou hende Nicholas,

And hende Nicholas and Alisoun

Me reweth soore of hende Nicholas.

With hende Nicholas and Alisoun.

and of solas

Of deerne love he koude and of solas;

In bisynesse of myrthe and of solas,

allone, withouten any compaignye

Allone, withouten any compaignye,

Allone, withouten any compaignye,

Crete and smale

His Almageste, and bookes grete and smale

Save al this compaignye, grete and smale!

3197

3197

3h59

20h0

3198

3199

3397

3h01

3h62

3832

3200

365h

2799

320A

3208

4323

32

and al above

And a1 above, depeynted in a tour, 2027

And a1 above ther lay a gay sautrie, 3213

and after that

And after that with Sharpe Speres stronge 1653

And Quyked agayn, and after that anon 2335

And after that another compaignye 2572

And after that cam woful Emelye, 2910

And after that right thus he seyde his willez2986

And after that he song the kynges noote. 3217

And after that a tubbe and a kymelyn, 3621

this carpenter

This carpenter hadde wedded newe a wyf 3221

This carpenter awook, and herde him synge, 336A

This carpenter was goon til Osenay; 3a00

This carpenter to blessen hym bigan, 3Ah8

This carpenter wende he were in despeir, 3h7h

This carpenter answerde, "What seystow?" 3h90

This carpenter goth doun, and comth ageyn, 3h96

"Yis," quod this carpenter, "Ful yoore ago." 3537

This carpenter seyde his devocioun, 36A0

Fil on this carpenter right, as I gesse, 36hh

This carpenter out of his slomber sterte, 3816

in the snare

Til that Fortune had brought him in the snare.

1h90

33

But Sith that he was fallen in the snare,

this yonge wyf

Fair was this yonge wyf, and therwithal

Fil with this yonge wyf to rage and pleye

and therwithal

And therwithal he bleynte and cride, "A!"

And therwithal on knees doun he fil,

And therwithal Dyane gan appeere,

Fair was this yonge wyf, and therwithal

of the same suyte

And of the same suyte he cladde Arcite.

Were of the same suyte of hir coler;

and sikerly

And sikerly ther trowed many a man

And sikerly she had a likerous ye;

in al this world

"In al this world, that som tyme he ne deyde.

In al this world, to seken up and doun,

world to seken up and doun

In al the world, to seken up and doun,

In al this world, to seken up and doun,

on hir legges

Somme woln ben armed on hir legges weel,

Hir shoes were laced on hir legges hye.

3231

3233

3273

1078

1103

23h6

3233

2873

3242

2101

32hh

28h6

3252

2587

3252

2123

3267

3h

this hende Nicholas

That on a day this hende Nicholas

She loveth so this hende Nicholas

And atte laste this hende Nicholas

hir housbonde

Whil that hir housbonde was at Oseneye,

And she answerde hir housbonde therwithal,

was at Oseneye

Whil that hir housbonde was at Oseneye,

Upon the Monday was at Oseneye

and prively

And prively he caughte hire by the queynte,

And prively he sente hem to his in,

God me save

Or I wol dyen, also Cod me save!"

A myrie child he was, so God me save.

My moder yaf it me, so God me save;

this Nicholas

This Nicholas gan mercy for to crye,

This Nicholas no lenger wolde tarie,

This Nicholas sat evere caPYng uprights,

This Nicholas sat ay as stille as stoon,

This Nicholas answerde, "Fecche me drynke,

This Nicholas his dore faste shette,

3272

3386

3h87

327A

3368

327A

3659

3276

3622

3281

3325

3795

3288

3&09

3hhh

3h72

3&92

3h99

35

This Nicholas was risen for to pisse,

This Nicholas anon leet fle a fart,

For to crye

This prison caused me nat for to crye,

This Nicholas gan mercy for to crye,

That it had been to late for to crie,

atte laste

But atte laste the statue of Venus shook,

With othere rytes mo; and atte laste

That she hir love hym graunted atte laste,

And atte laste this hende Nicholas

and swoor his ooth

And swoor his ooth, as he was trewe knight,

And swoor his oath, by seint Thomas of Kent,

by seint Thomas

And swoor his oath, by seint Thomas of Kent,

And seyde, "I am adrad, by Seint Thomas,

He saugh net that.

at his commandement

And ryde anon at his commandement.

He can at his commandement in hye.

That she wol been at his commandement,

of jalousie

Therwith the fyr of jalousie up sterte

But yet, by seint Thomas,

3798

3806

1095

3288

#196

2265

2h30

3290

3h87

959

3291

3291

3&25

31.61

2869

2979

3292

1299

36

Of jalousie or any oother teene.

"Myn housbonde is so ful of jalousie

I woot right wel

I woot right wel, thou darst it nat withseyn.

I woot right wel I nam but deed," quod she.

I nam but deed

I nam but deed; ther nis nomoore to seye."

I nam but deed; ther nis no remedye."

I woot right wel I nam but deed," quod she.

Myn herte is broken, help! I nam but deed!

as in this cas

Thyn aventure of love, as in this cas."

"Ye moste been ful deerne, as in this cas."

But what availeth hym as in this cas?

Quod Nicholas

"Nay, therof care thee noght" quod Nicholas.

"Now John," quod Nicholas, "I wol nat lye;

"Hastou nat herd," quod Nicholas, "also

as I have told biforn

To forthre me, as I have toold biforn.

To wayte a tyme, as I have told biforn.

so God me save

A myrie child he was, so God me save.

My moder yaf it me, so God me save;

3106

329A

11h0

3296

1122

127A

3296

4289

2357

3297

3385

3298

3513

3538

11h8

3302

3325

3795

Q

0‘

37

in al the toun

In al the toun for deeth of this Theban.

In al the toun nas brewhous ne taverne

That he was holde wood in al the toun;

this Absolon

This Absolon, that jolif was and gay,

This Absolon ful joly was and light,

This Absolon doun sette hym on his knees

This Absolon gan wype his mouth ful drie.

This Absolon knokketh a1 esily,

This Absolon ne roghte nat a bene

And therwith spak this clerk, this Absolon,

this carpenteris wyf

And namely on this carpenteris wyf.

Thus swyved was this carpenteris wyf,

I dar wel seyn

I dar wel seyn in this world ther nas.

I dar wel seyn, if she hadde been a mous,

this parissh clerk

This parissh clerk, this joly Absolon,

This parissh clerk, this amorous Absolon,

this joly Absolon

This parissh clerk, this joly Absolon,

Fro day to day this joly Absolon

2829

333k

38b6

3339

3671

3723

3730

376A

3772

380k

33h3

3850

1886

33h6

33h8

3657

33h8

3371

ir

ar

ar

38

in his herte

And was a1 his, in chiere, as in his herte.

That dwelled in his herte syk and soore,

Hath in his herte swich a love-longynge

love-longynge

Hath in his herte swich a love-longynge

My love-longynge, for yet I shal nat mysse

Ywis, lemman, I have swich love-longynge,

and Absolon

And Absolon his gyterne hath ytake,

And Absolon, hym fil no bet ne wers,

And Absolon gooth forth a sory pas.

And Absolon hath kist hir nether ye;

and forth he gooth

And forth he gooth, jolif and amorous,

And forth he goth, a twenty devel way,

til he cam to the

Til he cam to the carpenteres hous

Ne breed ne ale, til he cam to the celle

to the carpenteres hous

Til he cam to the carpenteres hous

He rometh to the carpenteres hous,

the carpenteres wal

That was upon the carpenteres wal.

2683

280k

33h9

33h9

3679

3705

3353

3733

37h1

3852

3355

#257

3356

3822

3356

3691+

3359

39

And wente unto the carpenteris wal.

this passeth forth

This passeth forth; what wol ye bet than weel?

This passeth forth a1 thilke Saterday,

woweth hire

So woweth hire that hym is wo bigon.

He woweth hire by meenes and brocage,

on a scaffold

An heraud on a scaffold made an "00!"

He pleyeth Herodes on a scaffold hye.

that Absolon

That Absolon may blows the bukkes horn;

For though that Absolon be wood or wrooth,

and so bifel

And so bifel that in the taas they founde,

And so bifel, by aventure or cas,

And so bifel it on a Saterday,

hende Nicholas and Alisoun

And hende Nicholas and Alisoun

With hende Nicholas and Alisoun.

that Nicholas

That Nicholas shal shapen hym a wyle

That Nicholas stille in his chambre lay,

3787

3370

3h19

3372

3375

2533

338A

3387

339#

1009

107h

3399

3h01

3832

3h03

3&20

40

and if so be

And if so be that thou my lady wynne,

And if so be thou wolt nat do me grace,

And if so be the game wente aright,

and right anon

And right anon it ran hym in his mynde,

And right anon swich strif ther is bigonne,

And right anon, withouten wordes mo,

withouten wordes mo

And right anon, withouten wordes mo,

Withouten wordes mo they goon to bedde,

He sit hym up withouten wordes mo,

no lenger wolde

For ire he quook, no lenger wolde he byde,

This Nicholas no lenger wolde tarie,

mete and drynke

And mete and drynke this nyght wol I brynge

Bothe mete and drynke for a day or tweye,

1617

2322

3405

1402

2438

3408

3408

3650

3819

1576

3409

3411

3411

Get us som mete and drynke, and make us cheere,A132

for to seye

If that I hadde leyser for to seye,

And to hire housbonde bad hire for to seye,

this sely carpenter

This sely carpenter hath greet merveyle

1188

3412

3423

41

This sely carpenter goth forth his wey.

This sely carpenter bigynneth quake;

the chambre dore

And at the chambre dore whil that he stood,

And to the chambre dore he gan hym dresse.

maister Nicholay

"What: How! what do ye, maister Nicholay?

And thou wolt seyn, 'Hayl, maister Nicholay!

but al for noght

But al for noght-he was broght to the stake.

But al for noght, he herde nat a word.

ful lowe upon

An hole he foond, ful lowe upon a bord,

That stant ful lowe upon his boures wal.

and at the laste he

And at the laste he took conclusioun

And at the laste he hadde of hym a sighte.

Goddes pryvetee

Men sholde nat knows of Goddes pryvetee.

I wol nat tellen Goddes pryvetee.

of his studiyng

He shal be rated of his studiyng,

He shal out of his studiyng, as I gesse"

3601

3614

3435

3468

3437

3579

2648

3439

3440

3677

2857

3443

3454

3558

3463

3467

L2

if that I may

If that I may, by Jesus, Hevene Kyng!

If that I may, yon wenche wil I swyve.

as I gesse

But Venus is it soothly, as I gesse."

He shal out of his studiyng, as I gesse"--

Fil on this carpenter right, as I gesse,

for the nones

And of the grete bataille for the nones

For he was yong and myghty for the nones,

His knave was a strong carl for the nones,

and hente hym by the

Withinne his brest; and hente hym by the herte

And hente hym by the sholdres myghtily,

of the dore

And on the thresshfold of the dore withoute:

Right at the entree of the dore bihynde

pater-noster

For nyghtes verye, the white pater-nosterl

"Now, Pater-noster, clom!" seyde Nicholay,

this carpenter answerde

This carpenter answerde, "What seystow?

This carpenter answerde, "Allas, myn wyf:

For what so that this carpenter answerde,

3464

4178

1102

3467

3644

879

1423

3469

1300

3475

3482

4243

3485

3638

3490

3522

3843

43

in pryvetee

And after wol I Speke in pryvetee

And heng hem in the roof in pryvetee.

his hooly blood

"Nay, Crist forbede it, for his hooly blood!"

Therfore he wolde his hooly blood honoure,

I wol nat lye

"Now John," quod Nicholas, "I wol nat lye;

But right fair was hire heer, I wol nat lye.

the moone bright

As I have looked in the moone bright,

For at an hole in shoon the moone bright;

allas, my wyf

Allas, myn hertes queene! allas, my wyf!

This carpenter answerde, "Allas, my wyf!

fiuod hende Nicholas

"Why, yis, for Code," quod hende Nicholas,

"A berd! a herd!" quod hende Nicholas,

I undertake

I undertake, withouten mast and seyl,

Thanne shaltou syymme as myrie, I undertake,

hire and thee and me

Yet shal I saven hire and thee and me.

3493

3623

3508

3985

3513

3976

3515

4298

2775

3522

3526

3742

3532

3575

3533

44

But whan thou hast, for hire and thee and me,

hastow nat herd

Hastow nat herd hou saved was IMoe,

"Hastou nat herd," quod Nicholas, "also

thilke tyme

Al be that thilke tyme they were unborn,

At thilke tyme, than alle his wetheres blake

a knedyng trogh

A knedyng trogh, or ellis a kymelyn,

He gooth and geteth hym a knedyng trogh,

a kymelyn

A knedyng trogh, or ellis a kymelyn

And after that a tubbe and a kymelyn

the remenant

The remenant of the tale is long ynough.

Of al the remenant of myn oother care

Th' encens, the clothes, and the remenant a1

But for a day,-Fy on the remenant!

aboute pryme

Aboute pryme, and in the toun alight.

Aboute pryme upon the nexte day.

I wol nat tellen

I wol nat tellen eek how that they goon

I wol nat tellen Goddes pryvetee.

3563

3534

3538

2033

3542

3548

3620

3548

3621

888

1569

2277

3552

2189

3554

2963

3558

45

out of doute

Thus artow of my conseil, oute of doute,

Thy wyf shal I wel saven, out of doute.

Greet sokene hath this millere, out of doute,

go now thy wey

Go now thy wey, and Speed thee heer-aboute.

Go now thy wey, I have no lenger Space

knedyng tubbes

Ygeten us thise knedyng tubbes thre,

He hadde yboght hym knedyng tubbes thre,

Into oure knedyng-tubbes wol we crepe,

knedyng tubbes thre

Ygeten us thise knedying tubbes thre,

He hadde yboght hym knedyng tubbes thre,

thanne shaltow

Thanne shaltow hange hem in the roof ful hye,

Thanne shaltou swymme as myrie, I undertake,

hem in the roof

Thanne shaltow hange hem in the roof ful hye,

And heng hem in the roof in pryvetee.

the corde atwo

And eek an ax, to smyte the cords atwo,

And with his ax he smoot the corde atwo,

1141

3561

3987

3562

3596

3564

3836

3594

3564

3836

3565

3575

3565

3623

3569

3820

46

thanne wol I

But shortly to the point thanne wol I wende,

Thanne wol I clepe, 'How, Alison! how, John!

And al the nyght thanne wol I wake and pleye."

be murie

Biforn hym stood and bad hym to be murie.

But after we I rede us to be merye,

Be murie, for the flood wol passe anon.’

his preyere

Ne clepe, ne crie, but been in his preyere;

And stille he sit, and biddeth his preyere,

and weylawey

Ful ofte he seide "Allas" and "weylawey,"

"Allas," quod Absolon, "and weylawey,

And gan to crie "Harrow!" and "Weylawey!

his pryvetee

That knew his pryvetee and al his cas,

And to his wyf he tolde his pryvetee,

but natheless

to wedden whan tyme is, but nathelees

But nathelees she ferde as she wolde deye,

go forth thy wey

And seyde, "Allas! go forth thy wey anon,

Goth forth thy wey, or I wol casts a ston,

2965

3577

3686

1386

3068

3578

3587

3641

3602

3714

4072

1411

3603

1832

3606

3607

3712

Q

47

ful many a

Ful many a riche contree hadde he wonne;

Ful many a tame leoun and 1e0part.

Ful many a yeer, and woost what I desire,

He siketh with ful many a sory swogh;

a furlong way

They seten stille wel a furlong way.

This John lith stille a furlong wey or two,

and the melodye

Up goon the trompes and the melodye,

There was the revel and the melodye;

day bigan to Sprynge

The Sunday nyght, er day bigan to Sprynge,

Aboute his dore, syn day bigan to Sprynge.

moote I thrive

So moot I thrive, I shal, at cokkes crowe

864

2186

2301

3619

3637

4199

2565

3652

2209

3674

3675

For, John," seyde he, "als evere moot I thrive

a twenty devel wey

And lat me slepe, a twenty devel wey!"

And forth he goth, a twenty devel way,

heeled of his maladye

He shal be heeled of his maladye.

For he was heeled of his maladie.

4177

3713

4257

2706

3757

40

48

a, benedicitee

"The God of love, a, benedicitee! 1785

*Why rise ye so rathe? ey, benedicitee! 3768

hoote kultour

That hoote kultour in the chymenee heere, 3776

The hoote kultour brende so his toute, 3812

in a poke

Or in a poke nobles alle untold, 3780

They walwe as doon two pigges in a poke; 4278

and Nicholas

And Nicholas amydde the era he smoot. 3810

And Nicholas is scalded in the towte. 3853

For to dye

Broght hem hyder bothe for to dye. 1797

And for the smert he wende for to dye. 3813

as he were wood

As he were wood, with face deed and pale, 1578

Armed, and looked grym as he were wood; 2042

As he were wood, for wo he gan to crye, 3814

And herde oon crien "water" as he were wood, 3817

gan to crye

That she was wel ny mad, and gan to crye, 2342

*The difference between the "a" and "ey" sounds is

negligible in this kind of oath. What is significant is

time; they both represent a single vowel sound preceding this

cart ,

49

AS he were wood, for wo he gan to crye, 3814

"What, whilk way is he geen?" he gan to crie. 4078

he gan to crye

As he were wood, for wo he gan to crye, 3814

"What, whilk way is he geen?" he gan to crie. 4078

Goddes herte

"Help! water! water! help, for Goddes herte!" 3815

By Goddes herte, he sal nat scape us bathe 4047

Nowellis flood

And thoughte, "Allas, now comth Nowellis flood!"8 8

3 1

He was agast so of Nowellis flood 3834

and doun gooth a1

Ther stomblen steedes stronge, and doun gooth a1;

2613

And doun gooth a1; he foond neither to selle 3821

par compgignye

To sitten in the roof, par compaignye. 3839

The wenche rowteth eek, par compaignye. 4167

my leeve brother

Ne in noon oother cas, my leeve brother; 1136

They seyde, "The man is wood, my leeve brother"-

3848

leeve brother

And soothly, leeve brother, this is al. 1184

They seyde, "The man is wood, my leeve brother"§8h8

50

al the rowte

Unto the seetes preeseth al the route. 2580

This tale is doon, and God save al the rowte. 3854

TABLE II

The following table lists on the left margin the

repeated half-lines in the first six-hundred lines of Egg-

£21; that are repeated at least once in the complete poem.

They are listed in the order in which they appear in the

poem itself. Beneath each of these half-lines and indented

from the left margin are listed all the lines in which that

half-line appears. At the end of this table is a small

group of Six phrases that are not, strictly Speaking, half-

lines because they bridge the caesura, but nevertheless

represent repetitions of significant size to appear here

and be counted. In all, there are 140 repeated half-lines

in the smaller sample that appear 407 times in the complete

poem. Since Old English is a much more highly inflected

language than Middle English and modern English, allowances

had to be made for different case endings. Wherever it was

clear that half-lines varied only in inflections, they were

included as repetitions.

All lines and line numbers are taken from Fr. Klae-

ber's third edition of Beowulf.

peod-cyninga

beodcyninga brym gefrunon, - 2

Ba icam pearfe [gefnmgn] peodcyninges 2694

51

52

monegum nagpum

monegum magpum meodosetla ofteah,

manigre magpe geond pisne middangeard,

manigum magpa geond bysne middangeard

syddan arest weard

egsode eorflafl, syooan.arest wears,

inwitnida, syoban.arest wearb

'pat was god cyning

gomban gyldan; hat was god cyning!

gLadne Hroogar, ac hat was god cyning:_

Geatum wealdan; hat was god cyning.

'bat hie ar drugon

be hie ar drugon aldodléase

inwidsorge, be hie ar drugon

inwitnipas, be hie ar drugon.

longe hwile

lange hwile; him.pas Liffrea.

leod Scyldunga lange hwile;

longe hwile, ligegesan wag

wuldres Waldend

wuldres Wealdend woroldare forgeaf,

wuldres Waldend, Wa bib ham be sceal

wuldres Waldend, weorbmynda $21.

75

1771

1947

11

863

2390

15

831

1858

16

2159

2780

17

183

1752

I'll-ll!)

53

swase gesibas

swase gesipas, swa he selfa had,

swasra gesida, nefne sinfrea,

swase gesioas ond hyra sylfra feorh.

swase gesioas: "Nolde ic sweord beran

wine Scyldinga

penden wordum weold wine Scyldinga-

wine Scyldinga, weana gehwelcne.

Bat was wnac micel wine Scyldinga,

wine Scildinga, worold ofLatest;

winum Scyldinga weorce on mode

(fiafab has geworden wine Scyldinga,

Me pone walrus wine Scildunga

hringed-stefna

Dar’at hyoe stod hringedstefna

hringedstefnan,-- holm storme weol.

hladen herewadum hringedstefna.

leofne peoden

aledon pa leofne peoden,

Ne meahton we geLaran leofne beoden,

beaga bryttan

beaga bryttan on bearm scipes,

beaga bryttan, swa bu bena eart,

beaga bryttan, breac ponne moste-

29

1934

2040

2518

30

148

170

1183

1418

2026

2101

32

1131

1897

34

3079

35

352

1487

54

billum ond byrnum

billum ond byrnum; him on bearme Lag

bill ond byrnan, 06 Sat his byre mihte

madma manigo

madma manigo, pa him mid scoldon

madma menigeo, maga Healfdenes,

beod-gestreonum

peodgestreonum, pon pa dydon,

bedflgestreona, ond gepeoh tela,

umbor wesende

anne ofer yae umborwesende.

umborwesendumzar arna gefremedon."

segen gyldenne

Ba gyt hie him asetton segen thdenne

segen gyldenne sigores to leane,

him was geomor sefa

geafon on garsecg; him was geomor sefa.

goldwine Geata. Him was geomor sefa,

sagde gesidum --him was sefa geomon--:

rnen ne cunnon

murnende mod. Men ne cunnon

mistige moras; men ne cunnon,

40

2621

41

2143

44

1218

46

1187

47

1021

49

2419

2632

50

162

55

seleéradende

secgan to sooe, selenadende,

selenadende secgan hyrde,

longe prage

leof leodcyning longe brage

lange brage; he him has lean forgeald.

lifde after lapum, lange brage,

geond bisne middangeard

manigre magpe geond bisne middangeard,

manigum magba geond bysne middangeard,

earfoolice

Ba se ellengast earfoolice

earfoalice heora aghwaprum

earfodlice; atrihte was

earfoolice, ob bat afen cwom;

earfoblice, pat he on eoraan geseah

ob bat an ongan

eadiglice, ob bat an ongan

eald ebelweard—-, 06 bat an ongan

he him has lean forgeald

lange prage; he him 625 lean forgeald-

ladlicu lac. He him has lean forgeald,

swefan.after symble

swefan after symble; sorge ne cubon.

51

1346

54

114

1257

75

1771

86

1636

1657

2303

2822

100

2210

114

1584

119

swefeb after symle.

ece drihten

ece Drihten,

ecean Dryhtne;

ecean Dryhtne,

ofer ealde riht

grim ond gnadig

grim and gnadig,

grim ond gnndig,

panon eft gewat

britig begna;

Danon eft gewiton

wica neosan

mid hare walfylle

Gewiton him 6a wigend

mare peoden

micel morgensweg.

marne beoden,

marum.beodne

beoden marne

mares beodnes,

Swa manlice

marne beoden;

mare beoden

56

Ba was aal ond mal,

has be he Abel slog;

him has endelean

has be ic on aldre gebad,

ecean Dryhtne

gearo sona was,

bat bar gumena sum

banon eft gewat

ealdgesibas

wica neosan.

wica neosian

Mare beoden,

pa him was manna bearfo

min arende ,

ymb binne 316,

bar hie meahton swa.

users beoden,

pa das monige geweard.

mondreamum from.

1008

108

1692

1779

2330

121

1499

123

853

125

1125

129

201

345

353

797

1046

1598

1715

57

marum deodne? Ic Gas modceare

marne peoden. Him.pat to mearce weard;

marum peodne, ponne his myne sohte,

peoden marne pegn ungemete till,

He 6a mid Dam maomum marne bioden,

peodnas mare, ha bat par dydon,

alegdon 6a tomiddes marne peoden

aeaeling ar-god

abeling argod, unblibe sat,

Labeling].argod, swylc {Eschere was!

abeling argod ende gebidan,

wergan gastes

wergan gastes; was hat gewin to strang,

wom wundorbebodum wergan gastes;

lab and longsum

lad ond longsum! Nas hit lengra fyrst,

lab and longsum, be on 6a leode becom,

flahde ond fyrene

flahoe ond fyrene; was to fast on Dam.

fyrene ond flahbe fela missera,

flahoe ond fyrena, buton Fitela mid hine,

fahde ond fyrene, swa hyt gefrage vses,

husa selest

husa selest. Was seo hwil micel;

1992

2384

2572

2721

2788

3070

3141

130

1329

2342

133

1747

134

192

137

153

879

2480

146

58

on heahstede husa selest 3'

Hafa nu ond geheald husa selesg

weana gehwelcene

wine Scyldinga, weana gehwelcne,

weana gehwylces, swa ic be wene to."

undyrne cub

ylda bearnum undyrne cub

on minre epeltyrf undyrne cud;

fela missera

fyrene ond fiahoe fela missera.

He [6a] fratwe geheold fela missera,

feo pingian

feorhbealo feorran, fea bingian,

Siaoan pa fahbe feo pingode;

atol aghaca

(ac se) aglaca ehtende wees,

atol aghaca ealdre binum,

atol aglaca anra gehwylces

atol agLaca; him on eaxle weard

dugube and geogobe

deorc deapscua, dugupe ond geogope,

dugupe ond geogope dal aghwylcne,

dugude ond iogobe, hat bu him ondnadan ne

bearft,

285

658

148

1396

150

410

153

2620

156

470

159

592

732

816

160

621

1674

59

feond mancynnes

Swa fela fyrena feond mancynnes.

mancynnes feond. 0nd his modor pa gyt

oft gefremede

atol angengea oft gefremede,

eatolne inwitscear oft gefremedon-

gretan moste

no he bone gifstol gretan moste.

bat we hine swa godne gretan moton."

to gefremmanne

wib fiargryrum to gefremmanne.

to gefremmanne, folces hyrde,

after dead-dage

after deaddage Drihten secean

after deabdage dom unlytel,

maga Healfdenes

Swa 6a malceare maga Healfdenes

"Gebenc nu, se mars maga Healfdenes,

mago Healfdenes mapmas twelfe;

sona me as mara mago Healfdenes,

madma menigeo, maga Healfdenes.

Piigelaces pegn

bat fram ham gefnagn Higelaces pegn

heard be hiltum Higelaces begn

164

1276

165

2478

168

347

174

2644

187

885

189

1474

1867

2011

2143

194

1574

60

Let se hearda Higelaces pegn 2977

magenes strengest

se was moncynnes magenes strengest 196

se pe manna was magene strengest 789

on pam dage pisses lifeS

on ham dage pysses lifes, 197

on ham dage pysses lifes. 790

on dam dage pysses lifes 806

secean wolde

ofer swanrade secean wolde, 200

sunu Healfdenes secean wolde 645

snotere ceorlas

Bone sibflat him snotere ceorlas 202

pa selestan, snotere ceorlas, 416

Sona pat gesawon snottre ceorlas, 1591

peah he him leof ware

1ythwon logon, peah he him leof ware ; 203

labum dadum, peah him leof ne was . 2467

Geata leoda

Hafde se goda Geata leoda 205

"We synt gumcynnes Geata leode 260

ofer geofenes begang Geata leode; 362

in ham guosele Geotena leode 443

61

after gudsceare, Geata leode

Geata leodum ond Gar-Denum

ne to gneao gifa Geata leodum,

hu se guosceaoa Geata leode

Geata leode Gub-Scilfingas,

Him 6a gegiredan Geata leode

Swa begnornodon Geata leode

beorhte fnatwe

on bearm nacan beorhte fnatwe,

bar on bearm scipes beorhte fnatwa.

obres dogores

ob pat ymb antid opres dogores

ofer ylda bearn opres dogores,

Wedera leode

Wedera leode on wang stigon.

wigSpeda gewiofu, Wedera leodum.

cwao pat wilcuman Wedera leodum

"Nu is wilgeofa Wedra leoda.

Geworhton Ba Wedra leode

gubgewadu

gubgewado; Code pancedon

his gadelinges gubgewadu,

geaf him 6a mid Geatum gubgewada-

gubgewadu, par me gifede swa

1213

1856

1930

2318

2927

3137

3178

214

896

219

605

225

697

1894

2900

3156

227

2617

2623

2730

’lni.

.a:

.1.

62

gubgewadu par se gomela Lag; 2851

pat he genunga gubgewadu 2871

gode pancedon

gubgewado; Gode pancedon 227

grette Geata leod, Gode pancode 625

Ahleop 6a se gomela, Gode pancode, 1397

Eodon him pa togeanes, Gode pancodon , 1626

fyrdsearo fuslicu

fyrdsearu fuslicu; hine fyrwyt bnac 232

fyrdsearo fuslic,-- no ymbe 6a flahoe Sprac, 2618

hine fyrwit bnac

fyrdsearu fuslicu; hine fyrwyt bnac 232

fiagre fricgcean, hyne fyrwet brac, 1985

fratwum gefyrdred; hyne fyrwet bnac, 2784

lind-habbende

lindhabbende, ne ge leafnesword 245

lindhabbendra. Lastas waron 1402

gearwe ne wisson

gubfremmendra gearwe ne wisson, 246

para pe gumena bearn gearwe ne wiston, 878

secg on searwum

secg on searwum; nis pat seldguma. 249

secgas on searwum, hwaber sel mage 2530

secg on searwum, pat Bat sweord gedeaf 2700

63

wapnum geweordad

wapnum geweordad,

wapnum gewurpad, pa bar wlonc baled

hord-geneatas

ond Higelaces heorogeneatas

Donne he Hroogares heorbgeneatas

heordgeneatas; nas him hreoh sefa,

penden halo abead heordgeneatum ,

hlafordes(hrfire, heorbgeneatas ;

wide geond eorban

witena welhwylc wide geond eorpan,

wigend weorbfullost wide geond eorpan,

sunu Healfdenes

sunu Healfdenes secean cwomon,

Wille ic asecgan sunu Healfdenes,

sunu Healfdenes secean wolde

bat to healle gang Healfdenes sunu;

Bonne sweorda gelac sunu Healfdenes

"Hwat, we be pas salac, sunu Healfdenes,

sunu Healfdenes --swigedon ealle--:

sunu Healfdenes on(midne sylfes dom;

secean cwomon

sunu Healfdenes secean cwomon,

pat he sigehrebig secean come

nafne him his wlite leoge, 250

331

261

1580

2180

2418

3179

266

3099

268

344

645

1009

1040

1652

1699

2147

268

1597

”114.1?-111:

6h

Deniga frean

Deniga frean; ne sceal bar dyrne sum

Deniga frean; cube he dugube peaw,

aefter deofla hryre Denigea frean,

secgan hyrdon

swa we soplice secgan hyrdon,

swylcra searoniba secgan hyrde

bet he fram SigemundeE] secgan hyrde

selenrdende secgan hyrde,

deorcum nihtum

deogol dadhata deorcum nihtum

deorcum nihtum draca rieflflan,

worda ond worca

worda ond worca, se be wel benceb.

wordum ne worcum ware ne bnace,

wordum 0nd weorcum, pat 1c be wel herige

frean Scyldinga

frean Scyldinga. Gewitap fora beran

frean Scildinga frinan wille,

be at fotum aat frean Scyldinga,

ic eow wisige

wapen ond geuadu, ic eow wisiges

wundur under wealle, 1c eow wisige,

271

359

1680

273

582

875

l3h6

275

2211

289

1100

1833

291

351

500

292

3103

i.i

’».-u-..

65

arum healdan

arum healdan, op art eft byreb

arum heolde, pat bar’anig mon

arum bealdan, gyf bu.er bonne he,

leofne mannan

ofer lagustreamas leofne mannan

as be er lange tid leofra manna

after ligetorne leofne mannan.

leofes mannes 11c eall forswealg,

leofne mannan; hio beet 11c aetbaer

leofes monnes. Lyt swigode

leofne mannan par he longe sceal

sidéfatmed scip

seomode on sale sidflapmed scip,

salde to sande sidflabme scip

ongitan mihton

geatolic 0nd goldfah ongyton mihton;

ar he bone grundwong ongytan mehte.

pat hie Geata clifu ongitan meahton,

bat he pone grundwong ongitan meahte,

fold buendum

hat was foremmrost foldbuendum

foldbuende; no hie flader cunnon,

296

1099

1182

297

1915

19h3

2080

2127

2897

3108

302

1917

308

1h96

1911

2770

309

1355

66

lixte se leoma

lixte se leoma ofer landa fela.

Lixte se leoma, leoht inne stod,

heard hand-locan

heard handlocen, hringiren scir

heard handlocen helpe gefremede,

bugon be to bence

bugon pa to bence,-- byrnan hringdon,

Bugon be to hence bLmdagande,

samod mtgwdere

saemanna searo samod etydere,

seon sibbegedriht samod etgedere;

swefan sibbegedriht samod aatgedere,

Beer wees sang 0nd sweg samod aetgaedere

oret-mecgas

oretmecgas after mpelum fnagn:

bone yldestan oretmecgas

ofer ealowmge oretmecgas,

heard under helme

heard under helme: "We synt Higelaces

311

1570

322

551

327

1013

329

387

729

1063

332

363

#81

3&2

heard under helme, bet he on heo[r]6e gestod.h0h

heard under helme, hiorosercean bar

beod-geneatas

beodgeneatas; Beowulf is min nama.

2539

3h3

breac bolgenmod

Wulfgar mabelode

Wulfgar mabelode

Wulfgar mabelode

feorran cumene

"Her syndon geferede

feorran cumene,

wordum wrixlan

wordum wrixlan;

wordum wrixlan;

cnihtwesende

Ic hine cube

Wit pat gecwadon

angan dohtor

angan debtor;

and 6a Iofore forgeaf

for arstafum

for arstafum

and for arstafum

to West-Denum

to West-Dennm,

dare he he geworhte

67

beodgeneatas,

--p£t was Wendla 190d9

to his winedrihtne=

feorran cumene

bat we fundiap

no bu him wearne geteoh

welhyylc gecwab,

cnihtwesende;

cnihtwesende

is his eafora nu

angan dohtor,

us onsende,

usic sohtest.

has ic wen hrbbe,

to West-Denum

1713

3h8

360

361

1819

366

87k

372

535

375

2997

382

#58

383

1578

68

has ic wen habbe

to West-Denum, pas ic wen habbe, 383

walnib wera, has be icEwen]hafo. 3000

wib Grendles gryre

wib Grendles gryre. Ic Dam godan sceal 38h

on Grendles gryre. God eape mag A78

beo bu on ofoste

Beo bu on ofeste, hat in gan 386

Bio nu on ofoste, pat ic erwelan, 27A?

Denigea leodum

Deniga leodum." Ba to dura eode 389

leode Deniga, ac he lust wigeb, 599

Denigea leode. Ac him Dryhten forgeaf 696

Denigea leodum. Dead isAEschere, 1323

ond to deabcwalum Deniga leodum; 1712

deabwerigne Denia leode 2125

heard-hicgende

heardhicgende hider wilcuman. 39h

heardhicgende hildemecgas, 799

leode mine

9a me pet gelardon leode mine , #15

Forpan he to lange leode mine 1336

lo hat londbuend, leode mine, 1345

has be 1c moste minum leodum 2797

r.

..

69

se scel to gemyndum minum leodum

pa selestan

pa selestan, snotere ceorlas,

bone selestan sawolleasne

firm selestan be sam tweonum

bone selestan bi arm tweonum ,

bone selestan smcyninga

wean ahsodon

'wnzc‘Wedera nib --wean ahsodon--,

sybban he for w1enco wean ahsode,

brego Beorht-Dena

brego Beorht-Dena, biddan wille,

brego Beorht-Dena; gehyrde on Beowulfe

eodur Scyldinga

eodor Scyldinga, anre bene,

eodur Scyldinga ut of healle;

Wigendra hleo

pet bu me me forwyrne, wigendra hleo,

ofer werpeode, wigendra hleo,

pat bar on worbig wigendra hleo,

hafalan hydan

hafalan hydan, ac he me habban wile

hafelan [beorgarj‘k nis beet heoru stow '.

280A

416

1&06

1685

1956

2382

123

1206

#27

609

128

663

#29

899

1972

hh6

1372

'1“...311_.u.1

Spa».

70

gif mec hild nime

Onsend Higelace, gif mec hild nime,

hondgesellum, gif mec hild nime;

wine min Beowulf

"Forlgpwyfimtum bu, wine min Beowulf,

geond widwegas, wine min Beowulf,

to handbonan

wearp he Heapolafe to handbonan

Wearb him on Heorote to handbanan

to handbonan, Huge cempan;--

panon he gesohte

Danon he gesohte Sub-Dena folc

bonon he gesohte swasne ebel,

Ar Scyldinga

ofer yba gewealc, Ar-Scyldinga;

eaforum Ecgwelan, Ar-Scyldingum;

folca Deniga

ba ic furpum weold folce Deniga

folces Denigea fyftyne men ,

unlifigende

min yldra mag unlifigende,

unlyfigendes eal gefeormod,

unlifgendum aefter selest. .

eorl ofer obrum unlifigendum,

#52

l#81

#57

170#

#60

1330

2502

#63

520

#6#

1710

#65

1582

#68

7##

1389

2908

gumena mngum

gumena angum,

to gegangenne

gumena anig,

beore druncne

Ful oft gebeotedon

beore druncen

bidan wolde

pat hie in beorsele

bidan wolde;

bidan wolde,

on beor-sele

on beorsele

on beorsele

in biorsele,

middangeardes

efre merba bon ma

bat he ne mette

a‘hirum nebdon

aldrum nebdon?

aldrum nebdon,

s°rhfu1ne sib

sorhfullne sib,

sorhfulne sib,

71

hwat me Grendel hafab

gumena enigum.

nefne God sylfa,

beore druncne

ymb Brecan apnace,

bidan woldon

brimwylm onfeng

ac mid bale for,

benc gerymed;

byldan wolde.

be us bas beagas geaf,

middangeardes

middangeardes,

Ne inc enig mon,

ond bat gerfndon swa.

pa git on sund reono’

sunu deob wrecan.

#7#

2h16

305#

#80

531

#82

l#9#

2308

#92

109#

2635

50#

751

510

538

512

1278

1!

v.1!)

.I

.3.

r

72

sorhfulne sib on seglrade,

wadu weallende

wado weallende, wedera cealdost,

wadu weallendu. No ic wiht fram pe

helpe gefremede

heard hondlocen helpe gefremede,

nemne him heabobyrne helpe gefremede,

golde gegyrwed

golde gegyrwed. Me to grunde teah

golde gegyrede gummanna fela

golde gegyrede; mas mid Geatum ba

hilde-bille

hildebille; heaponas fornam

hildebille, hond sweng ne ofteah,

la b’g-geteonan

Swa mec gelome labgeteonan

no by leng leofab labgeteona

3W8 hit gedefe was

deoran sweorde, swa hit gedefe was,

deabcwealm Denigea,

deoran sweorde

deoran sweorde, swa hit gedefe was.

discas lagon ond dyre swyrd,

swa hit gedefe was.

l#29

5#6

581

551

1552

553

1028

2192

557

1520

559

97#

561

1670

561

30#8

73

under heofones hwealf

under heofones hwealf heardran feohtan,

under heofones hwealf healsittendra

sibes werig

sibes werig. Da mec aa opbar,

sona him selebegn sibes wergum,

dad gefremede

swa deorlice dad gefremede

purh Drihtnes miht dad gefremede,

dadum gefremed, pat bin [domJnyab

to banan wurde

peah bu binum brobrum to banan wurde,

under bordhreoban to bonan wurdon,

sunu Ecglafes

sunu Ecglafes,

sunu.Ecgpafes,

Secge ic be to sobe,

Da was swigra secg,

sunu Ecglafes, heht his sweord niman,

Sige-Scyldinga

swibe onsittan, Sige~Scyldinga;

Sige-Scyldingum sorge gefremede,

Repeated Phrases That Bridge the Caesura

Hrobgar mapelode helm Scyldinga

Hrobgar mapelode, helm Scyldinga:

576

2015

579

179#

585

9#0

95#

587

2203

590

980

1808

597

200#

371

Hrobgar

Hrobgar

mapelode,

mapelode,

73a.

helm Scyldinga: #56

helm Scyldinga: 1321

sibbegedriht samod.atgadere

seon sibbegedriht samod atgadere;

swefan sibbegedriht samod atgadere,

pa fahbe feo

Sibban pa fahbe feo pingode;

Ic be pa fahbe feo leanige,

Heorote par

hador on Heorote. bar was haleba dream,

Com pa to Heorote, bar Bring-Dene

eat fotum sat frean Scyldinga

be at fotum sat frean Scyldinga,

at fotum ant frean Scyldinga; gehwylc hiora

his ferhpe treowde,

B eowulf map elode bearn Ecgbeowes:

Beowulf mapelode, bearn Ecgpeowes:

Beowulf mapelode, bearn Ecgpeowes:

Beowulf mabelode, bearn Ec[g]beowes:

Beowulf mapelode, bearn Ecgbeowes:

Beowulf mapelode, bearn Ecgpeowes:

Beowulf mabelode, bearn Ecgbeowes:

Beowulf mapelode, bearn Ecgbeowes:

Biowulf mabelode, bearn Ecgbioes:

Biowulf mapelade, bearn Ecgbeowes:

387

729

#70

1380

#97

1279

500

1166

529

631

957

1383

l#73

1651

1817

1999

2#25

1.3.11

.r.“Ha

..

i

TABLE III

The following table lists at the left margin phra-

ses of four or more consecutive syllables in two or more

words appearing in the first 500 lines of Book III of Para-

dise Lost that are repeated at least once in a larger seg-

Books I, II, and III of Paradise

ment of Milton's poetry:

Lost.l These phrases are listed in the order in which they

appear in these first 500 lines of Book III. Beneath each

phrase, this table further lists, indented from the left

margin, all the lines from the larger segment in which that

phrase is repeated. All lines and line numbers are taken

.from the Merritt Y. Hughes edition of Milton's works.

The 33 phrases in the small segment that appear 79

tines in the large segment neither by their number nor by

1It is sometimes difficult to discern the exact

ntuwber of syllables in his phrases because Milton is in-

ccunsistent in his use of the principle of elision. 0f

Ltilton, Douglas Bush says: "Thus in his normal concern for

thia decasyllabic line and the avoiding of a supernumerary

SYllable he commonly elided the 'e' of 'the' before a

thvel, but often he--or the printer-~did not; 'heaven' and

'eVening' are commonly Spelled as a monosyllable and disyl-

1alile respectively, but there are many exceptions. . . .

Sillce Milton had both to compose and to read proof with

he: aid of amanuenses, we often cannot be sure whether such

inconsistencies are accidental or deliberate . . ." ("Pre-

face" to The Complete Works 91; John Milton LBoston: Bough-

t30h Mifflin Company, 19653, p. “vi—)1 '."""'—'Ittherefore seems

Prludent to classify the phrase "Th"Almighty," even if only

hree syllables, with "The Almighty," the phrase "The wall

25‘ Ileav'n" with "The wall of heaven," and the phrase

he«Etv'n and earth" with "heaven and earth."

7#

75

their nature challenge the long-accepted view of Milton's

diction. They show clearly, as James Holly Hanford first

concluded forty years ago, that "Milton's language . . .

has little relish of the Speech of men." His preference

is "for the unusual and recondite, in vocabulary and con-

struction, which leads him to archaism on the one hand, and

to substitution of foreign idiom, particularly Latin, for

native on the other."2 More recently T. 3. Eliot has de-

nied that Milton maintains any contact with the conversa-

tional tone. He Speaks of James Joyce and Milton as two

"blind musicians, each writing a language of his own based

on English."3 However mistaken T. 3. Eliot may be in his

other observations on Milton, his point here it well-taken.

It is interesting to note that of the thirty-three

repeated phrases in the sampling only three are repeated

more than once, and only two of those are repeated more

than twice. Those two, "Th' Almighty" and "Heav'n and

Earth," in being used as often as they are, would tend to

bear out the traditional view of Milton as a conscious imi-

tator of Vergil in his use of epic devioes--here an approxi-

mation of an epithet and a set phrase. More significant,

however, are the thirty remaining phrases, which, as they

2A Milton Handbook (#th ed.; New York: Appleton-

Century-Crofts, Inc., 195#). p. 293.

3"Milton" in Milton Criticism: Selections from

Four Centuries, ed. by James Thorpe {New York: Rinehart &

ompany, Inc., 1950), p. 323.

I

”jg-ma..5.at...

1,.

..

76

are repeated only once, point up the conscious artificiality

of Milton's syntax and diction.

thee I revisit

Thee I revisit now with bolder wing, III, 13

Though hard and rare: thee I revisit safe, III, 21

the Stygian

Both glorying to have scap't the Stygian flood

I, 239

Escap't the Stygian Pool, though long detain'd

III,1#

to reascend

Hath emptied Heav'n, shall fail to reascend I, 633

The dark descent, and up to reascend, III, 20

Celestial Light

For that celestial light? Be it so, since he

I, 2#5

So much the rather thou Celestial Light III, 51

th' Almighty

With vain attempt. Him the Almighty Power I, ##

We shall be free; th' Almighty hath not built

I, 259

Matchless, but with th' Almighty, and that strige

Th' Almighty Victor to Spend all his rage, II, l##

Unless th' Almighty Maker them ordain II, 915

Now had th' Almighty Father from above, III, 56

£3.

77

Wondering; but soon th' Almighty thus repli'd:

III, 273

No sooner had th' Almighty ceas't, but all III, 3##

Made visible, th' Almighty Father shines, III, 386

th' Almighty Father

Now had th' Almighty Father from above, III, 56

Made visible, th' Almighty Father shines, III, 386

His only Son

His only Son; on earth he first beheld III, 6#

Thus to his only Son foreseeing Spake III, 79

the wall of Heav'n

Coasting the wall of Heav'n on this side Night

III, 71

Up to the wall of Heaven a Structure high, III, 503

begotten Son

Only begotten Son, seest thou what rage III, 80

Begotten Son, Divine Similitude, III, 38#

deSperate revenge

Deeperate revenge, and Battle dangerous II, 107

On deSperate revenge, that shall redound III, 85

Mercy and Justice

The other none: in Mercy and Justice both, III, 132

Of Mercy and Justice in thy face discern'd,III, #07

through

78

Heav'n and Earth

Through Heav'n and Earth, so shall my glory excel,

III, 133

By his permissive will, through Heav'n and Earth:

III, 685

Heav'n and Earth

Spirits

the Son

Gods, yet confest later than Heav'n and Earth

I, 509

Now lately Heaven and Earth, another World II,100#

Through Heav'n and Earth, so shall my glory excel;

III, 133

For which both Heav'n and Earth shall high extol

III, 1#6

0 thou in Heav'n and Earth the only peace III, 27#

New Heav'n and Earth, wherein the just shall dwell

III, 335

By his permissive will, through Heav'n and Earth:

III, 685

elect

All Heav'n and in the blessed Spirits elect

III, 136

With these that never fade the Spirits elect

III, 360

of God

Beyond compare the Son of God was seen III, 138

By doom severe, had not the Son of God, III, 22#

the Adversary

Meanwhile the Adversary of God and Man, II, 629

0r shall the Adversary thus obtain III, 156

grim

a...«3.5.

79

whom the great Creator

To whom the great Creator thus repli'd. III, 167

On whom the great Creator hath bestow'd III, 673

the great Creator

The great Creator? But thir Spite still serves

II, 385

To whom the great Creator thus repli'd. III, 167

On whom the great Creator hath bestow‘d III, 673

obedience due

To pray, repent, and bring obedience due.III, 190

to prayer, repentance, and obedience due,III, 191

.high Supremacy

And put to proof his high Supremacy, I,132

Against the high Supremacy of Heav'n, III, 205

'the multitude of

Then with the multitude of my redeem'd III, 260

The multitude of Angels with a shout III, 3#5

to mortal men

To mortal men, hee with his horrid crew I, 51

To mortal men, above which only shone III, 268

merit more than

Could merit more than that small infantry I, 575

By Merit more than Birthright Son of God,III, 309

’fl_.

‘3.

;Ha‘..'flmw

80

worthiest to be

Found worthiest to be so by being Good, III, 310

Pleasant to know, and worthiest to be all III, 703

for ever shut

These Gates for ever shut, which none can pass

II, 776

Thence forth shall be for ever shut. Meanwhile

III, 333

regal sceptre

Then thou thy regal Sceptre shalt lay by, III, 339

For regal Sceptre then no more shall need,III, 3#0

Without number

Though without number still amidst the Hall I, 791

Loud as from numbers without number, sweet

III, 3#6

for man' s offense

Began to bloom, but soon for man's offense

III, 355

For man's offense. 0 unexampl'd love III, #10

the glorious

And hazard in the Glorious Enterprise, I, 89

Amidst the glorious brightness where thou sit'st

III, 376

to execute

At thee ordain'd his drudge, to execute II, 732

To execute fierce vengeance on his foes: III, 399

81

so strictly, but much more to pity

So strictly, but much more to pity incline:

III, #02

So strictly, but much more to pity inclin'd

III, #05

the neighboring moon

Not in the neighboring Moon, as some have dream'd;

III, #59

Night would invade, but there the neighboring Moon

III, 726

of Paradise

And they who to be sure of Paradise III, #78

Just o'er the blissful seat of Paradise, III, 527

TABLE IV

This table contains five charts which will, when

compared, lend clarity to the present study by putting its

results into scholarly perspective. Three of the charts,

two by Parryl, and one by Magoun2 , are here reproduced be-

cause they represent the heart of their respective research

on formulas and oral composition. In the first two Parry

traced and recorded repetitions in the Opening lines of

first The Iliad and then Th3 Odyssey as they appeared in the

corpus of Homer; in the third, Magoun, following Parry but

with significant adaptations, traced and recorded repeti-

tions in the Opening 25 lines of Beowulf as they appeared

in all Anglo-Saxon poetry, a rough equivalent of the length

of the two Homeric epics combined--about 30,000 lines. Ac-

cording to the pattern established by Parry and adopted by

Magoun, similar charts have been constructed for both Chau-

cer and Milton. A comparison of the five charts and their

"Supporting Evidence" shows that with respect to the use of

repetitions the four poets fall into three distinct groups:

(1) Homer, (2) the Beowulf poet and Chaucer, and (3) Milton.

Perry's results clearly show that Th2 Iliad with 38

1”Studies in the Epic Technique of Oral Verse-Mak-

ig :21: Homer and the Homeric Style," HSQE, XLI (1930),

2"Oral Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative

Poetry," Speculum, XXVIII (1953), #6#-65.

82

-.

.

.._.

CII

"I

83

formulaic phrases that appear well over 200 times and Th3

Odyssey with #8 that appear over 300 times in the corpus

of Homer are much more formulaic and repetitive than the

rest of the poems under study. What makes those figures

even more remarkable is that Parry regarded as a formula

or formulaic phrase nothing less than four words or five

syllables.3 Magoun himself admitted in his work that such

a restriction "could not be applied to Anglo-Saxon verse."h

He therefore expanded the definition of an Anglo-Saxon form-

ula to "a word group of any size or importance that appears

elsewhere in Beowulf or other Anglo-Saxon poems unchanged

or virtually unchanged."5 Granting Magoun the right to

broaden Parry's definition to suit a different language in

a different age allows him to designate as formula or form-

ulaic almost any repeated combination of two or more syll-

ables. The recurrence of these phrases in the corpus of

Anglo-Saxon poetry he records in his "Supporting Evidence."

The evidence here, however, is difficult to discern because

he lists, along with the exact repetitions, near repetitions

and close parallels. A rough count shows that he has 35 half-

lines repeated about a hundred times elsewhere in Anglo-

Saxon poetry. These figures would have to be appreciably

higher to warrant Magoun's bracketing Beowulf with the Hom-

3Perry, I, 8#-85, n. 3.

“Magoun, p. #61, n. 29.

51bid., p. ##9.

8#

eric epics in the use of formulas and repetitions.

Magoun's figures tend rather to show Beowulf as

little more repetitive than Chaucer. The Chaucer chart

shows that in the first 25 lines of the Miller's 1313,

there are 20 phrases repeated #9 times in the body of Chau-

cer's poetry-~about 35,000 lines. Although these figures

seem lower than Magoun's, it must be recalled that with

Chaucer the count was limited to phrases of four or more

consecutive syllables in no fewer than two words and that

only exact repetitions were recorded. If the definition of

"phrase" were broadened, say, to any three consecutive syll-

ables in one word or more, the number of repeated phrases

in Chaucer might well be higher than that in Beowulf. Even

adhering more closely to Parry's conservative idea of a

phrase, this study of Chaucer offers evidence for group-

ing the Beowulf poet and Chaucer together as about equally

formulaic and repetitive, but both far less so than the

Homeric epics.

The Milton chart shows only five phrases in the

first 25 lines of Paradise ngt, Book III, that are repeated

elsewhere in Milton's poetry--about 17,000 lines-~and they

are repeated only once each. The results merely bear out

what everyone has known for centuries and are included here

to illustrate the drastic difference between the artificial

diction and non-formulaic language of Milton and the nor-

malized diction of Chaucer.

4.1

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[22:]

[88]

464 Oral-Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Poetry

CHART I

(Béowulf,ll.1-25)

met, wé Gar-Dena on géar-dagum

‘béodocyningn brymm geirugnon,

lht’i b6 ucficlingas ellen frcmcdon.

6ft ScielcFSiEfing sceai‘Sena bréatum,

6 manigum mzégfium medu-setla oftéah,

egesode Lorie, sibban érest went-b

iéasceait iunden; hé has iréire gcbéd,

wéo; Enairwolcmlm, weorbmyndum béh.

obbeat him i‘ghwelé ymbsittendra

10 oicr hrnn-rédc hicran scolde,

Ea-mban gioldan; beet woes god cyning!

' bém cnfora wees miter conned

geong on gcardum, bone God sende '1

folce to iréfre; firen-bearfe ongeat

16 be hie ér drugon ealdorléase

lange hwile; him 511:3 Um,

wuldres Wealdend weorold-ére forgeaf

Béow wees brémc — hiéd wide sprang —

§ciEldes eaiora Scedch-Bndum on.

20 - S-wifscmong éhfnaWyréan

iramum icoh-giftum on finder bearme

bet hine on ieide cit gewunien_ - _

willgcsifias banne wig cume,

léode gelésten; loi-dédum sceal

25 on mégtia gehwém man gebfin.

SUPPORTING EVIDENCE

le-2b cht, wé icon and néah / gefrigen habbab (E10 l);Hw1et,wé gefrugnon / on

fyrn dugum (And 1); Hwazt, wé bet gehierdon / burh hélge béé (FAp 63, Ele 864, 852);

cht, wé éac gehierdon / be Iéhanne (FAp 23); Hwaat, wé n6 gehierdon / hi1 bet Hélu-

beum (Chr 586, with whose gehierdon cp. Bu}! 2b—311 geirugnon 11111); met, wé hierdon

oft / but so hélige wer (Glc 108); Hwaat, wé butt gehierdon / haalcb eahtian (Jul 1); chl,

wé Ebréisce é leomodon / 126 on iym-dagum iaederas 01’1‘60n (Ele $97-98). 1b XS! 367,

Wan 44. Cp. Chr 251 be on géar-dagum; Bwf 1854 borne on géar-dagum, 2233 swé hie on

géu—dagum. Note also instrum. use without on: And 1519 gieium géar-dagum;Ele 290

pct 36 géur-dagum, 834 swé hie géar-dagum (also Bwf 2233). Note closely relatedformulas:

on fym-dagum, on ér-dagum, and on eald-dagum (Chr 303, SR 1). 2a Nam. pl. Gen 1966

bead-cyning” / brymme miécle; gen. sg. Bwf 2694 11616 eat bearfe gefmgn / béod-cyninges;

[Hp 18 Ne héodode hé fore brymme / béod-cyninges; Edw 34 hes-be bear-f was / ha

béod-cyninges. 2b See 1—2 above for combination of formulas to express the idea of ‘hau'ng

heard or learned long ago.’ 32 FAp 3 116 176 cfielingas / ellen cyfidon, 85 bus 116 afielingu;

Rid 49, 7 b6 afielinges. Cp. without def. art. but with a preceding word, usually of light stress

Gen 1069 but-be aficlingas, 1647 116 116 aficlingas, 1868 elior afielingu; Dan 689, And

806 Pt! afielingee, 857 Him 126. afielingas. 31) And 1208 Scealt M1, Andrus, / ellen hem-

men. 4!) Jul 672 eceefiena bréate; cp. 010 902 iéonde bréatum.

5: Bwf76 manigre mégfie, 1771 manigum mégfie. 6b Bwf 1947; cp. 1775 sibban Grendel

m); Be 913 siphon indium wéox. Note the more general metrical scheme involving Ii»!!!

plus a two- or three-syllable word plus verb: And 1223 gibbon ge-ypped wee; Ele 18 Ii)!"

[89]

Oral-Formulate Character of Anglo-Saxon Poetry 465

wiper: shot, 841 sibban béeeen geseeh; Rm] 1077, 2124 sibban morgen (mergen) c6m,

1133 si Inn éien 06m, 1689 sibben 66d 0isl6g. 7s Cp. And 181 onfindap iéasceaitne.

3; Cm 1702 wéox b5 under wolcnum; cp. Bwf 714 W6d under wolcnum; Phat 27 wridab

under wolcnum; Gen 1438 wére under wolcnum; Phs: 247 awierde under wolcnum.

3b Em 258 weorb-myndum spree. 9e Ele 865 ob-btet him gccyfidc, 885 ob-bwt him uppan.

9|, Bugf 2734, Etc 33. Up. other inflections: dot. pl. ymbsittendum PPs 78, 4; 88, 35; fern.

ace. pl. Met 35, 14 ymbsittenda. Cp. closely related Gen 2490 ymbstnndendra; PPs 140, 4

ymbstandende.

102 Gen 205 geond hrsn-rhde; And 266, 821 on hran-réde. Cp. Bwf 200, Etc 996 ofer

swan-ride; Jul 675 011 swan-rhde;Bu1f 1429 on segl-rhde. 101) Dan 185; Ele 367; Met 9, 45;

list 1, 31 hieran scoldon. 112 Gen'1977b-7811 niede scoldon, / gomban gicldan. 11b Etc!

863, 2390. Cp. Bwf 1885 but was 411 cyning; Jul 224 best is 361) cyning; 060 23 but was

grimm cyning; Wid 67 Naes but séne cyning, andfurther Bwf 1075 beet woes geémru ides,

1812 but was m6dig secg; Met 26, 35 (P) but was ge6 cyning, etc. 122 Gen 1188 1188 Se

«lore was / Enoc httten. Note and cp. Bwf 123—b eeiora . . . cenned with Gen 1159 M

wear}: on éfile / eaiora iéded, 2394 of idese bib / esiora wmcned. 12b Cp. Card 8 after téode;

[lid 40, 44 and i6 giestran geong conned. 13: Pk: 355, 647; Chr 201 geongre on geerdum.

0p. Jul 35 scans on ghste; Bwf 2446 geong on gealgan. 13b Dan 525 be bidet God sende;

ep. Gen 1371 Dryhtcn sende. 142 E20 88; And 606; Ele 1142; Men 228 iolcum to ir6ire;

Etc 502 folce to ir6ire; Rid 39, 19 manigum to ir6ire; Men 57, Ps 60 148 mannum to ir6ire.

15: B10] 831, 1875; Chr 615 be wé ér drugon; Jud 158 be gé lange drugon. 151) Up. Bwf

2935; And 405 hlhiordléase. Ealdorléas is ordinarily used in the sense ‘liieless.’ 16: Bur]

2159, 2780; Dan 660; DrR 24; Jul 674; Rid 28, 9; Met 4, 46. For numerous formulas to

express a ‘long’ or ‘short time’ cp. DrR 70 géde hwile, also miéele, lytle, sume hwile, and

with iii-age: ealle, lytle, lange, sume, also énige stunde. 16h Cp. E20 271 and éow Lit-free;

0hr 27 hwsnne is Lii-iréa. 17: 3101' 183, 1752; Dan 14;And 193, 539. 182 Sol 182 Salomon

was brémra; Dan 104 D5 wees bréme; Sol 238 béé sind bréme. 18b FAp 6 Lof wide sprang;

cp. Bwf 1588 hréw wide sprang; Jul Lead wide sprang; also Mas: I 194 wide gesprungen.

192 Bwf 897 Wielses eaiora; 1847 Hrétiles eaioran; Gen 1183 Séthes eaiora, 2054 lures

onion; Met 26, 36 Iébes (‘Jooe’s') eaiora; Men 136 Zebedes eafora. Cp. also Gen 1578

«store Nbes, 2834 eaiors Dires. 19b Bwf 2357 Fris-landum on; Gen 1052 éast-landum on. '

Cp. Jul 83 win-(wynn P) burgum on.

202 Bwf 1172, 1534 SW5 sceal man dOn; cp. 2066 Swt. sceal még d611, 2590 swh sceal

fighwelé mum. 21b Cp. Bwf 35, Etc 375 on bearm scipes, 896 bar 011 bearm scipes, 214011

bearm nacan. Note related formula with icfim: Bwf 188 and to Feeder fefimum; Mac It

061 on Feder icfim; And 616 on banan icfime; Ele 765 on drscan icfime. 22.-b 0p. Fall

00 and on ielde eit / eadig weorfian. 22b See 22e—b, also PM 481 long gewunien. 23: Con

2003. 252 Pro 74 lithe ha- 011 1116161.- gehwém.

[901

33190

23195

3:2(30

91

Chaucer's Miller's Tale

First twenty-five lines

Whilom ther was dwellynge at Oxenford

A riche gnof, that gestes heeld to bord,

And of his craft he was a carpenter.

With hym ther was dwellynge a povre scoler,

Hadde 1erned art, but all his fantasye

Was turned for to lerne astrologye,

And koude a certeyn of conclusiouns,

To demen by interrogaciouns,

If that men asked hym in certein houres

Wham that men sholde have droghte or elles shoures,

Or if men asked hym what sholde bifalle

Of every thyng; I may nat rekene hem alle.

This clerk was cleped hende Nicholas.

0f deerne love he koude and of sales;

And thereto he was sleigh and ful privee,

And lyk a mayden make for to see.

A chambre hadde he in that hostelrye

g;

I..3129;

92

Allone, withouten any compaignye,

33205 Ful fetisly ydight with herbes swoote;

And he hymself as sweete as is the roots

or lycorys, or any cetewale.

His Almageste, and bookes grete and smale,

His astrelabie, longynge for his art,

.3210 His augrym stones layen fairs apart,

0n shelves couched at his beddes heed;

Supporting Evidence

£3187 Whilom ther was dwellynge in my contree

*(D. Fri. 1299)

Whilom ther was an irous potestat, (D. Sum. 2017)

Whilom ther was dwellynge in Lumbardye

(E. Mch. 12a5)

With hym ther was dwellynge a povre scoler,

(A. Mil. 3190)

132189 How that bigyled was a carpenteer, (A. Rv. 3915)

He was a wel good wrighte, a carpenter(A. Prol 614)

Bothe of a carpenter and of his wyf, (A. Mil. 3152)

But if he koude a carpenter bigyle." (A. Mil. 3300)

*These capital letters are the standard designa-

tions for groups of tales in The Canterbury Tales. The ab-

BreViations of The 23353 and line numbers are taken from

augh's edition—51' Chaucer.

hik.’

.gnaw-«1!i

3190

3191

3195

3196

.3197

3198

3 199

93

With a thredbare cope, as is a povre scoler,

(A. Prol. 260)

The folk gan laughen at his fantasye-

(A. Mil. 38A0)

Thanne wolde she suffre hym doon his fantasye

(B. Mk. 3h75)

Agayn his choys, this was his fantasye.

(E. Mch. 1610)

That wonder was to here his fantasie.

(TC. 5. 261)

But lat hym worthen with his fantasie.(TC. 5. 329)

Was absent, 10, this was his fantasie,(TC. 5. 561)

Or if men asked hym what sholde bifalle

(A. Mil. 3197)

Wher-so yow lyst, in droghte or elles shoures,

(F. Sq. 118)

Upon the sterres, what ther sholde bifalle,

(A. Mil. 3A59)

I may not rekene hem alle though I wolde.

(A. Kn. ZOAO)

That on a day this hende Nicholas (A. Mil. 3272)

She loveth so this hende Nicholas (A. Mil. 3386

Now ber thee wel, thou hende Nicholas,

(A. Mil. 3397)

And hende Nicholas and Alisoun (A. Mil. 3501)

.Me reweth soore of hende Nicholas. (A. Mil. 3h62)

And atte laste this hende Nicholas (A. Mil. 3L8?)

"Why, yis, for Gode,” quod hende Nicholas,

(A. Mil. 3526)

3200

3203

3205

3205

3208

.32208

\

01?~

96

"A berd! a berd!" quod hende Nicholas,

(A. Mil. 37A2)

With hende Nicholas and Alisoun. (A. Mil. 3832)

Of Absolon and hende Nicholas, (A. Rv. 3856)

In bisynesse of myrthe and of solas,(A. Mil. 3654)

Of myrthe and of soles; (B. Th. 1905)

I am so ful of joys and of solas (B. N.P. 9360)

At nyght was come into that hostelryeiA. Prol. 23)

When we were in that hostelrie alyght'

(A. Prol. 722)

Forth with his knave, into that hostelrye

(D. Sum.l779)

Allone, withouten any compaigne. (A. Kn. 2779)

With lokkes blake, ykembd ful fetisly. (A. 00. #36)

And with gold beten ful fetysly (R.R. 837)*

Reds in his Almageste, and take it there."

(0. ws.183)

That seith this proverbs in his Almageste:

(D. we. 325)

For he shall fynde enowe, grete and smale,

(A. Mil. 3178)

Safe al this compaignye, grete and smale!

(A. Rv. #323)

Amonges alle his gestes, grete and smale,

(B. Sh. 1214 )

Were a1 forstraught with houndes gret and smale.

(B. Sh. 1295)

*Sincefigugh's edition does not contain The Romance

Rose, this line was taken from the 2nd edition 0

‘ 14. Robinson.

aux—K!.‘phi.I."

3211

95

Ther Spryngen herbes grete and smale,

(B. Th. 1950)

Late youre othes, bothe grete and smale.

(c. Pard. 659)

And sette hire ful of nowches grete and smale.

(E. 01. 382)

For hym was levere have at his beddes heed

(A. Prol. 293)

And fond, as hap was, at his beddes hed,

(T.C. 2. 1696)

11)

15

FIRST TWENTY-FIVE LINES

OF

MILTON'S PARADISE LOST, BOOK III

Hail holy Light, offspring of Heav'n first-born,

Or of th' Eternal Coeternal beam

May I eXpress thee unblam'd? since God is Light,

And never but in unapproached Light

Dwelt from Eternity, dwelt then in thee,

Bright affluence of bright essence increate.

Or hear'st thou rather pure Ethereal stream,

Whose Fountain who shall tell? before the Sun,

Before the Heavens thou wert, and at the voice

Of God, as with a Mantle didst invest

The rising world of waters dark and deep,

Won from the void and formless infinite.

Thee I revisit now with bolder wing,

Escap't the Stygian Pool, though long detain'd

In that obscure sojourn, while in my flight

96

20

25

13

115

19

2C)

97

Through utter and through middle darkness borne

With other notes than to th' Orphean Lyre

I sung of Chaos and Eternal Night,

Taught by the heav'nly Muse to venture down

The dark descent, and up to reascend,

Though hard and rare: thee I revisit safe,

And feel thy sovran vital Lamp; but thou

Revisit'st not these eyes, that roll in vain

To find thy piercing ray, and find no dawn;

80 thick a drop serene hath quencht thir Orbs,

Supporting Evidence

"OffSpring of Heav'n and earth, and all earth's

Lord, (2L, IX, 273)

Though hard and rare. Thee I revisit safe,

(25, 111,21)

Both glorying to have scaped the Stygian Flood

(2;, I. 239)

What the sage Poets taught by th' Heav'nly Muse

(Com 3, 515)

Hath emptied Heav'n, shal fail to reascend

(2L, 1, 633)

331.11!is

CHAPTER IV

The results of this comparative study of recurring

phrases in Chaucer and the Beowulf poet that tend to bracket

the two together as about equally repetitive and at the same

time set them apart from Milton,l who seemed consciously to

avoid such repetition, suggest some significant conclusions,

pose some questions, and provide areas for further research.

First, this study invalidates Magoun's evidence for

saying Beowulf was orally composed in the act of recitation

on the basis of the repetitions and formulas it contains.

.Magoun's contention is, briefly, that the degree of repeti-

tion in Beowulf is totally unlike the degree of repetition

in the works of all known literate authors. Loosely adapt-

:ing the Parry-Lord methodology to his purposes, he chose

éid hoc and subjectively as a basis for counting what seemed

1Milton is almost certainly even less formulaic

‘tlian he appears to be in this study, since this study has

deemed it cautious to include certain phrases written as

«fkiur-syllables but very likely pronounced as three. "The

Stygean" and "The glorious" for metrical needs were pro-

f'lounced as three-syllable eXpressions; for the same reason

53131rits elect" was pronounced as "Sprites elect." Still

811c1ther group of phrases, like "Heav'n and Earth," which

because of the erratic use of the apostrophe by Milton or

,SLES editors, has once again been cautiously included in the

I“*31-i1.‘t.on.cou.nt. Eliminating these as having only three syl-

lables would mark a significant reduction in the number of

Copntable phrases Milton repeats and serve to separate him

st>1lll.further in this regard from Chaucer and the Beowulf

EOet. In addition it might be stated here that this study

fas discovered nothing in Milton that has not been known

agr centuries; however, it has objectively answered doubts

111:th whether gill poetry can be shown to be based on form-

98

whirls.O9i1jx‘w

1

99

to be formulas. Broadening Parry-Lord's restrictive prin-

ciples, he was able to include in his count virtually any

phrase of two or more syllables, even occasionally single

words that recurred elsewhere in Old English poetry. The

evidence he presents to support his theory is insufficient

because his method is inapprOpriate. It is readily admit-

ted, of course, that the results of the present study are

perhaps thin and Open to question, but it is surely sounder

to choose as a basis for counting what seems to be an ap-

propriate length of repeated text (four consecutive sylla-

bles in no fewer than two words) than to be as arbitrary as

Magoun. As this method is sounder, the evidence it pro-

duces is at least more conclusive than the evidence the Old

English Specialists espousing Magoun's theory have provided

for ghgig work. There is simply no escaping the fact that

Chaucer is too close to the Beowulf poet in the use of re-

<:urring phrases for Magoun to say with conviction that B33-

‘zflggf contains a significantly higher number of repetitions

tJian any lettered poet.

Secondly, this study gives rise to a number of

‘Qtlestions that require answers. It might be asked, first

le‘ all, why certain phrases in Chaucer--phrases like "a

Carpenter," "this carpenter," "this Absolon," "this Nicho-

las," "Alisoun and Nicholas," "Nicholas and Alisoun"--should

"(>t3 be excluded from the total count, since they are uncon-

v1l’lcing as formulas and assert nothing of value about Chau-

cer. Yet the same question can be asked of Magoun, for

lOO

phrases like "secgan meahte," "men ne cunnon," and "madma

menigo" are equally unconvincing.2 If one method is undis-

criminating by being overinclusive, so is the other. It

seemed advantageous not to attempt to "purify the evidence,"

so to Speak, and run the risk of invalidating the compari—

son. It might be asked, too,that since Magoun remarks on

the Beowulf poet's use of variation in his formulaic sys-

tem,3 why variations were not included in the Chaucer list

of recurring phrases, or at least discussed as part of

Chaucer's poetic method. First, the variations Chaucer

uses even in the BOOO-line sampling are so numerous as to

make listing them highly impracticable; and second, in the

interest of objectivity it was decided to exclude them from

the list of repetitions. To be brief and over-simple,

Chaucer's variations can be grouped roughly into three cat-

egories. First, there is the simple inversion of word or-

cier in inclusive phrases, as with "smale and grete" instead

(of the more common "grete and smale." Second, there is the

clue or two-word substitution or omission to suit metrical

needs and sometimes rhyme without a change in meaning, as

ijtth "within a litelshyle" and "within a Space," or "witha

<>Lrten wordes mo" and "withouten any wordes mo," or, again

for the sake of variety, as with "within a Space" and "with-

y

2In this reSpect those phrases of Milton, few though

‘tljéiy be, are least convincing of all, as for example, "His

only Son" and "to reascend."

N 3Magoun, "Oral Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon

‘arPative Poetry," Speculum, XXVIII (1953), 1.51-52.

101

in a Stounde." The third group is the most complex. Here

Chaucer often uses a basic phrase, like "bigan to Springe,"

to which he attaches certain prefix words, like "day,"

"sonne," "merci" and "love," depending on his meaning.

Sometimes he Shortens his basic phrase to "gan to Springe,"

or changes it to "gan for to springs" to suit his metrical

needs. These groupings, only loosely definitive and not

mutually exclusive, are illustrated here merely to Show

that Chaucer, like the Beowulf poet, varied his repetitions

perhaps as often as his predecessor and with at least equal

Skill. The apparently larger Size of his vocabulary--drawn

from French as well as from native English--made the lan-

guage more flexible, and this would seem to militate against

his use of repetitions. The increased flexibility, however,

Chaucer seems to have seen fit to utilize in his variations.

It might also be asked, if Magoun is incorrect in

contending that the Beowulf contains formulas because it

*waS orally composed, why the Beowulf poet, and Chaucer for

tihat matter, did use formulas. For one thing, the demands

(If their respective verse forms explain in part their de-

pendence on formula. Many of the formulas in Beowulf are

Ilssed to Sustain the four-stress alliteration that was es-

sential to Old English quantitative verse. To illustrate,

I~{Jr‘othgar's hall, Heorot, is referred to variously as "win

€313rx," "medo mrn," "beor mrn," "ealuzern" (Sometimes the

Word "heall" is substituted for the word "earn" in these

compounds), depending on whether the poet is alliterating

102

on w, fl:.§: or g. Or again, for the word "sea" there are,

among other words, "brim," "flod," "holm," "lagu," "mere,"

"sund," and "water," each of which the poet can substitute

for any other to accommodate his alliterative line. The

principle is clear, although it does not seem to have oc—

curred to Magoun and his followers: the poet surmounts the

problem of alliteration by having many synonyms that alli-

terate in different ways. Chaucer, of course, writing

qualitive verse instead, found the use of formulas conven-

ient for working out his rhymes. In the first twenty-five

lines of the Miller's Tale, there are formulas, like

"droughte or elles shoures," "and of solas," "grete and

smale," and others, that he uses for the sake of rhyme. In

addition, in the large sample of 3000 lines there are scores

upon scores of formulas he uses for the same reason. They

range from the immediately recognizable and familiar, like

"for the nones," "as I gesse," "out of doute," "in al the

toun," "as in this cas," to the lesser known, like "and

welawey," "withouten wordes mo," "I wol not lye," "for to

dye," and others. While neither poet confines his use of

formulas to the external demands of his verse form, it is

clear that both poets found formulas a convenient solution

to problems presented by their reSpective poetic vehicles.

It might further be asked, Since Magoun notes in

his examination of Beowulf certain Significant differences

between the language of the traditional Old English heroic

103

A whypoems and that of the Old English Christian poems,

there is no discussion in this study of the difference be-

tween the language of the Knight's Tale and that of the

Miller's Tale and Reeve's Tale. Two such different genres

as the high chivalric romance and the fabliau represented

by these tales would seem to demand the use of vastly dif-

ferent languages. Yet, there is no difference in language

other than might be eXpected when any author turns from one

subject to another. That is to say, allowing for the change

from the somber and dignified subject of the Knight's Iglg

to the robustly vulgar subject of the Miller's Tale and

Reeve's Tale, there is nothing in this study that helps

distinguish the language of the Knight from the language of

the Miller and Reeve. Moreover, apart from Chaucer's hav-

ing John the Carpenter miSpronounce the words "astonomye"

and "Noe's" as "astromye" and "Noellis," and apart from

Chaucer's attempt to give Allen and John a northern brogue,

it is impossible, on the basis of this study, to distin-

guish the language of any of the stories' participants, one

from another. The repeated phrases, recurring as they do

in the 3000-line sample, militate against one's saying that

the Knight Speaks differently from the Miller, even if it

is felt that he somehow should, although no attempt was

made in this study to tabulate repetitions on the basis of

individual Speakers.

h"0ral Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative

Poetry," pp. #56-57.

10h

This admission brings us to the third and final part

of the results of this study. To take this point just dis-

cussed first, it would be a logical and, I think, profitable

endeavor to regroup all the Spoken lines in these tales un-

der consideration according to Speaker--both pilgrims and

characters in the tales--and scrutinize these lists to de-

termine to what extent Chaucer uses these apparently useless

words and recurring phrases for characterizing his actors.

It would be valuable to try to discover differentiating

Speech patterns of some sort as a means of character delin-

eation by Chaucer. It is entirely possible that a careful

analysis of this seemingly indiscriminate use of tags,

phrases, and formulas will reveal an instinctive sense for

individuation of his leading characters, perhaps even a con-

scious attempt at variety.5 Such evidence could then gen-

erate similar analyses of the rest of the Canterbury Tales

as well as Chaucer's other works, which might well shed fur-

ther light on Chaucer's narrative techniques, that is, on

such scholarly controversies as Chaucer's relationship to

5To cite a case in point, any such positive finding

would serve to clarify the known, but not altogether ac-

cepted, theory that the Miller's Tale is a careful and con-

scious parody of the Knight's Tale, a parody of theme, situ-

ation, character, and courtly love conventions. The parody

of courtly love conventions, by juxtaposing conventional

courtly love language with precipitous action by Nicholas

and Speedy acquiescence by Alisoun that are anything but

courtly, already demonstrates a knowledge of the subtleties

of language. It is not unreasonable to assume that Chaucer

is equally subtle with the colloquial Speech patterns of his

characters. Such discovery might well substantiate the re-

lationships between the reSpective members of the two love

triangles in the tales.

105

his audiences, and to his various narrators, and the rela-

tionship between his narrators and the tales they tell.6

Second, the present study has made manifest the

need for the formulation and development of new methodol-

ogies for solving the problems of English prosody. The

methodology of Parry and Lord as they applied it to Greek

and South Slavic narrative poetry has proved extremely

fruitful, but the results of this study strongly indicate

that this methodology, that is, the underlining technique,

is Simply not suited to English poetry. Some further styl-

istic criteria may well be sought to supplement that of the

Sheer repetition of short passages. The Parry-Lord-Magoun

techniques, for one thing, will not reveal that Chaucer's

verse contained many rhyme pairs that he used regularly and

predictably. To illustrate his extensive use of what might

be called "split formulas," a few examples may be cited.

In the 3000-line sample he uses the words "love" and "above"

twelve times each to end a line, and in every instance they

form rhymes. Again in that same sample the word "grace" ap-

6To cite another case in point, if it can be shown

that the pilgrim Knight's repeated use of phrases like

"saugh I," "maistow se," and many others he uses to describe

the matter of Thebes as an eye witness, are more than hap-

hazard asseverations are more than "mere devices for vivid-

ness of eXpreSSion" (F. N. Robinson, p. 677); if it can be

shown that these eXpressions are consciously and carefully

inserted by Chaucer, then the Knight can be seen either as

a man who, carried away by his story, loses himself in it,

or as a man who knows how to tell a story and usesa these

devices to draw the pilgrims closer to it. AS the Knight

approaches his audience, of course, Chaucer approaches his.

106

pears eight times at the end of a line, and seven times it

rhymes with "place"; the word "lyf" appears sixteen times,

and fifteen times it rhymes with "wyf"; the word "deed" ap-

pears eight times, and seven times it rhymes with "heed."

A complete list of rhyme pairs, or "Split formulas," is too

extensive to appear here. It is sufficient to indicate that

Chaucer not only answers to Beowulf on the basis of recur-

ring phrases, but also contains this further kind of formu-

la that is undiscoverable by the older methodology. It is

suggested also for further research that for four-stress

alliterative verse, a careful examination of alliterative

patterns (single alliteration versus double alliteration,

for example) might prove valuable; for rhymed verse, lists

of chevilles might be collected and analyzed. Beyond that,

a comparative study of French, Irish, Welsh, Icelandic, and

perhaps still other texts would be significant. The point

is that further stylistic criteria, of different kinds for

different prosodic bases and perhaps for different genres,

Should be sought and deve10ped in order to help illuminate

both the poetry and the processes that gave birth to it.

The new capacity for rapid production of concord-

ances that the high Speed computer offers could well pro-

vide tools for such studies, after preliminary eXploration

to determine hopeful bases. In Old English, for example,

a beginning has been made in a series of indexes of alliter-

ating words of Old English poems by Winfred P. Lehmann

107

and others.7

This study, in presenting Chaucer and Milton as

comparisons to Beowulf with reSpect to the use of recurring

phrases and formulas, refutes the validity of the Parry-

Lord-Magoun methodology as it is applied to English litera-

ture and has therefore accomplished its main purpose. Just

as Brodeur has said that there is much more to Beowulf than

8 so itMagoun and his formula counting leave the poet with,

must be said also that there is much more to Chaucer's style

than this study, limited by its methodology, takes into ac-

count. There is more to his style than Manly and his study

of rhetorical influences, than Muscatine and his study of

the formal French influences, even than Crosby and her

study of the popular romance influences, more than any of

the studies, individually or collectively,have asserted.

True, they have contributed to the sum of knowledge

on Chaucer, but as study to try to decipher the mysteries

of Chaucer's prosody continues, it becomes increasingly

evident that if ever we are to discover exactly what in-

forms Chaucer's style, we will do it only by first accept-

ing Chaucer's nearly total dependence--deSpite the fact

7See, for example, W. P. Lehmann and Virginia F.

Dailey, The Alliterations g£_Thg Christ, Guthlac, Elena,

Juliana,—Fates pi the Apostles, and Dream 92 Egg Rood,

KuStin: University of Texas, 1960;“W. P. Lehmann and Take-

mitsu Tabusa, Alliterations 9f Egg Beowulf, Austin: Univer-

Sity of Texas,—195B; W. F. Lehmann, "Alliterations in Old

Saxon Poetry" in Nprsk Tidskrift £93 Sprogsvidenskap, Sup-

plementary Vol. III (19537.

8The Art 9; Beowulf, p. 70.

108

of his composing in the lettered tradition-~on an easy,

bantering, colloquial language, heavily larded with repe-

tition and formula, and then proceed to investigate the

possibility of subtle differences and subtle variations

within that usage that thus far, because we know almost

nothing of fourteenth-century Spoken language and levels of

usage, have escaped us.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baldwin, Charles 8. Medieval Rhetoric and Poetic. New

York, 1959.

Bassett, Samuel E. The Poetry 23 Homer. Berkeley, 1938.

Baugh, Albert C. Chaucer's Major Poetry. New York, 1963.

Bloomfield, Joan. "The Style and Structure of Beowulf,"

Review 92 English Studies, XIV (1938), 395-h03.

Bonjour, Adrien. The Digressions in Beowulf. Medium Aevum

Monographs, V. Oxford, 1955.

Bowra, Cecil M. "The Comparative Study of Homer," American

Journal 9: Archaeology, LIV (1950), 18A-92.

. Heroic Poetry. London, 1952.

Brodeur, Arthur G. The Art 2; Beowulf. Berkeley, 1960.

. "The Structure and Unity of Beowulf," PMLA,

LYVIII (1953), 1183-95.

Bronson, Bertrand. "Chaucer's Art in Relation to his Audi-

ence," Universit of California Publications 13

Englishj‘VTif (19h57, 1-5 .

Brusendorf, Aage. The Chaucer Tradition. Copenhagen, 1925.

Bush, Douglas. The Complete Poetical Works g£_John Milton.

BOStOn , I965 o

Campbell Alistair. Review of Singer of Tales b Albert E.

Lord, Modern Language Review, LVII (I962), 76-77.

Campbell, Jackson J. "Oral Poetry in The Sea-Farer,"

Speculum, XXXV (1966), 87-96.

Combellack, Frederick M. "Milman Parry and Homeric Arte

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