Students' self-efficacy and fear of failure - OECD iLibrary

PISA 2018 Results (Volume III): What School Life Means for Students’ Lives » © OECD 2019 187

Students’ self-efficacy and fear of failureThis chapter examines differences between countries and economies in students’ general self-efficacy and fear of failure, and how they are associated with student and school characteristics. It also looks at how self-efficacy and fear of failure are related to reading performance, and explores whether students who expressed greater fear of failure are less satisfied with their lives.

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© OECD 2019 » PISA 2018 Results (Volume III): What School Life Means for Students’ Lives188

31Students’ self-efficacy and fear of failure

Self-efficacy is the extent to which individuals believe in their own ability to engage in certain activities and perform specific tasks, especially when facing adverse circumstances (Bandura, 1977[1]). PISA has traditionally asked students to judge their capabilities in specific content areas, such as mathematics or science. In 2018 PISA asked students about their general sense of efficacy, or competence, particularly in the face of adversity.

The other side of this coin is fear of failure, which is the tendency to avoid mistakes because they may be regarded as shameful and could signal a lack of innate ability and perhaps even an uncertain future (Atkinson, 1957[2]; Conroy, Willow and Metzler, 2002[3]). The level of fear is determined by the perceived risk of failure in a given activity or task, but also by the perceived (negative) consequences associated with failing (Lazarus, 1991[4]; Warr, 2000[5]).

Consequently, fear of failure and self-efficacy go hand-in-hand: students who believe they are not capable of performing adequately in certain situations are more likely to be fearful of such situations. Self-efficacy and fear of failure are also closely related to other concepts in educational psychology, some of which have already been examined in previous PISA cycles, such as achievement motivation, avoidance goals, anxiety and perfectionism.

How students judge their abilities, and how afraid they are of failing, can shape their feelings, motivation and behaviour (Bandura, 1991[6]). According to social cognitive theory, students are more likely to set challenging goals for themselves, try harder and persist longer when they believe they will succeed (Bandura, 1977[1]; Ozer and Bandura, 1990[7]). Conversely, students lacking self-confidence may wrongly assume that investing more effort in an activity is a waste of time, which, in a self-fulfilling prophecy, undermines any incentive to persevere, making success less likely (Bandura, 1999[8]; OECD, 2013[9]). Students with less self-efficacy may thus not reach their full potential, and thwart their own education and career aspirations (Bandura et al., 2001[10]; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000[11]).

What the data tell us – On average across OECD countries, 84% of students agreed or strongly agreed that they can usually find a way out of difficult situations, and 56% agreed or strongly agreed that, when they fail, they worry about what others think about them.

– Students in many Asian countries and economies expressed the greatest fear of failure, while students in many European countries expressed the least fear.

– In every school system except Italy and the Netherlands, socio-economically advantaged students reported more self-confidence in their abilities than their disadvantaged peers.

– In almost every education system, girls expressed greater fear of failure than boys, and this gender gap was considerably wider amongst top-performing students.

– In a majority of school systems, students who expressed a greater fear of failure scored higher in reading and reported less satisfaction with life than students expressing less concern about failing, after accounting for the socio-economic profile of students and schools.

A rational and moderate sense of fear may urge students to expend greater effort on academic tasks. For instance, many students complete their homework because they are afraid of upsetting the teacher; others show good behaviour in class so they are not denied recess; yet others study for final exams to avoid repeating a grade. However, students who are overly concerned about failing often find it difficult to concentrate on a given activity because their minds are too busy trying to cope with the associated stress and anxiety (Ashcraft and Kirk, 2001[12]; Bandura, 1982[13]).These students also tend to avoid challenging situations that are essential for their personal growth (Heckhausen, 1975[14]; Kaye, Conroy and Fifer, 2008[15]). These avoidance behaviours, such as procrastinating, withholding effort and misbehaving, can result in students not performing in a given activity or task as would be expected (Beilock et al., 2004[16]; Kaye, Conroy and Fifer, 2008[15]; Martin, Marsh and Debus, 2003[17]).

Even if fear of failure could be used to improve student conduct and performance in certain situations, it would still be problematic, as it threatens the social and emotional well-being of students (Elliot and Sheldon, 1997[18]). Amongst other negative outcomes, fear of failure has been associated with stress, anxiety, burnout and depression (Conroy, 2001[19]; Gustafsson, Sagar and Stenling, 2017[20]; Sagar, Lavallee and Spray, 2007[21]). Previous studies have also shown that girls often experience greater fear of failure than boys do (Alkhazaleh and Mahasneh, 2016[22]; Mcgregor and Elliot, 2005[23]), and that girls’ fear translates more easily into poorer learning outcomes in mathematics (Wach et al., 2015[24]).



Figure III.13.1 Student self-efficacy and fear of failure

Based on students’ reports

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

100 %60 800 20 40

OECD averagePercentage of students who agreed or strongly agreed with the following

Percentage of students who agreed or strongly agreed with the following statements:

Partners

Index of self-efficacyIndex of fear

of failureA B C D E F G H

Albania 93 92 78 92 95 52 45 46Argentina 87 84 61 78 82 41 57 51

Baku (Azerbaijan) 84 87 82 84 86 64 56 58Belarus 86 73 56 79 90 49 53 48

Bosnia and Herzegovina 86 90 81 87 87 39 40 46Brazil 76 88 57 75 77 55 59 57

Brunei Darussalam 87 87 56 77 78 74 70 73B-S-J-Z (China) 82 90 61 81 74 78 53 51

Bulgaria 82 82 74 77 84 54 51 51Costa Rica 91 96 79 84 89 47 48 42

Croatia 91 94 77 83 89 47 47 46Dominican Republic 85 87 77 84 86 60 56 50

Georgia 82 72 69 84 83 48 44 42Hong Kong (China) 74 84 66 72 73 82 71 72

Indonesia 72 90 71 91 89 59 46 39Jordan 80 86 79 87 80 47 46 49

Kazakhstan 78 60 77 85 88 45 43 34Kosovo 88 90 76 91 92 53 55 61

Lebanon 67 75 71 70 73 41 47 53Macao (China) 79 85 51 65 72 80 78 66

Malaysia 63 85 55 80 80 75 69 67Malta 91 90 70 74 83 58 65 72

Moldova 87 85 72 86 88 64 55 50Montenegro 87 91 83 84 90 39 39 40

Morocco 80 86 71 80 80 44 54 53North Macedonia 84 92 85 88 90 51 48 55

Panama 87 92 74 87 88 53 56 50Peru 89 93 74 88 90 49 49 42

Philippines 84 89 76 83 83 72 60 63Qatar 80 87 74 69 82 50 53 58

Romania 93 87 68 85 91 46 48 41Russia 67 76 61 75 82 53 48 49

Saudi Arabia 83 87 74 86 80 47 43 41Serbia 84 91 80 82 88 42 41 48

Singapore 94 95 62 77 86 72 73 78Chinese Taipei 85 86 57 73 80 89 84 77

Thailand 89 94 67 90 86 66 68 64Ukraine 90 88 59 80 86 51 50 39

United Arab Emirates 88 89 76 82 85 55 58 64Uruguay 90 90 73 76 85 46 57 54

Viet Nam 88 93 30 90 79 67 53 52

Percentage of students who agreed or strongly agreed with the following statements:

OECD

Index of self-efficacyIndex of fear

of failureA B C D E F G H

Australia 93 92 73 67 86 62 64 68Austria 85 85 71 73 84 51 43 41

Belgium (Flemish) 89 91 64 57 83 47 44 53Canada 93 91 73 71 87 62 65 68

Chile 92 91 78 75 84 51 64 59Colombia 89 93 75 91 90 48 51 44

Czech Republic 91 70 68 63 82 59 52 55Denmark 91 87 78 71 90 58 58 47

Estonia 92 85 71 71 87 46 48 45Finland 94 89 68 71 84 50 45 41France 92 87 67 59 75 47 62 62

Germany 85 82 69 68 84 48 38 37Greece 88 84 75 78 86 55 53 50

Hungary 91 91 74 80 90 55 51 47Iceland 91 83 76 69 84 64 54 50Ireland 94 90 72 66 85 64 63 65

Israel 84 82 69 80 85 m m mItaly 85 86 68 72 86 57 59 57

Japan 65 69 41 56 59 77 74 61Korea 86 91 55 77 81 75 66 54Latvia 83 79 70 72 84 55 50 49

Lithuania 90 89 72 81 85 62 53 50Luxembourg 87 83 73 68 81 50 49 54

Mexico 91 95 78 86 89 54 63 57Netherlands 90 89 66 69 88 45 35 36

New Zealand 94 93 68 66 85 65 63 68Poland 88 90 73 69 83 54 57 58

Portugal 91 92 68 73 85 56 56 54Slovak Republic 80 77 65 66 79 59 60 53

Slovenia 89 79 75 77 85 63 55 54Spain 85 92 82 73 84 51 53 48

Sweden 93 74 74 66 83 53 56 53Switzerland 88 86 71 71 85 43 44 45

Turkey 87 91 79 84 86 66 57 64United Kingdom 90 86 66 59 80 63 63 70

United States 94 92 74 75 88 58 60 65

A I usually manage one way or anotherB I feel proud that I have accomplished thingsC I feel that I can handle many things at a timeD My belief in myself gets me through hard timesE When I’m in a difficult situation, I can usually find my way out of it

F When I am failing, I worry about what others think of meG When I am failing, I am afraid that I might not have enough talentH When I am failing, this makes me doubt my plans for the future

Source: OECD, PISA 2018 Database, Tables III.B1.13.1 and III.B1.13.2.12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888934030591



This chapter examines students’ self-efficacy and fear of failure. PISA asked students to report the extent to which they agree (“strongly disagree”, “disagree”, “agree”, “strongly agree”) with the following statements about themselves: “I usually manage one way or another”; “I feel proud that I have accomplished things”; “I feel that I can handle many things at a time”; “My belief in myself gets me through hard times”; and “When I’m in a difficult situation, I can usually find my way out of it”. These statements were combined to create the index of self-efficacy whose average is 0 and standard deviation is 1 across OECD countries. Positive values in this index mean that the student reported higher self-efficacy than the average student in OECD countries.1

Students were also asked to report the extent to which they agree (“strongly disagree”, “disagree”, “agree”, “strongly agree”) with the following statements about themselves: “When I am failing, I worry about what others think of me”; “When I am failing, I am afraid that I might not have enough talent”; and “When I am failing, this makes me doubt my plans for the future”. These statements were combined to create the index of fear of failure whose average is 0 and standard deviation is 1 across OECD countries. Positive values in this index mean that the student reported a greater fear of failure than the average student in OECD countries.

HOW STUDENTS’ SELF-EFFICACY AND FEAR OF FAILURE VARY ACROSS COUNTRIES, SCHOOLS AND STUDENTSThe 15-year-olds who sat the PISA test expressed confidence in their ability to get things done, even when facing difficult situations (Figure III.13.1). For instance, on average across OECD countries, 89% of students agreed or strongly agreed that they usually manage one way or another; 86% agreed or strongly agreed that they feel proud when they accomplish things; and 84% agreed or strongly agreed that they can usually find a way out of difficult situations. However, fewer students agreed or strongly agreed that their belief in themselves gets them through hard times (71%) and that they can handle many things at a time (70%).

Interestingly, on average across OECD countries a majority of students expressed a fear of failure (Figure III.13.1). For instance, 56% of students agreed or strongly agreed that, when they fail, they worry about what others think about them; and 55% of students agreed or strongly agreed that, when they fail, they are afraid of not having enough talent. Even the percentages of students who strongly agreed with the three statements were sizeable. For instance, almost one in five students across OECD countries strongly agreed that failing makes them doubt about their plans for the future.

Students’ self-efficacy varies considerably across countries and economies, and often in unexpected ways (Table III.B1.13.1). For instance, 15-year-old students in countries and economies whose average reading performance is below the OECD average, such as Albania, Baku (Azerbaijan), Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Kosovo, Mexico, Montenegro, the Republic of North Macedonia, Panama, Serbia, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates (Table I.B1.4), expressed more self-confidence in their general abilities than the average student across OECD countries. By contrast, many of the education systems where students reported the lowest self-efficacy were high performers, such as Hong Kong (China), Japan, Macao (China), Chinese Taipei and the United Kingdom.

Students in many Asian countries and economies expressed the greatest fear of failure while students in many European countries expressed the least fear (Figure III.13.1 and Table III.B1.13.2). For instance, 84% of students in Chinese Taipei agreed or strongly agreed that, when they fail, they are afraid of not having enough talent, whereas less than 40% of students in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Montenegro and the Netherlands reported so.

In every school system except Italy and the Netherlands, socio-economically advantaged students reported more self-confidence in their abilities than their disadvantaged peers (Figure III.13.2). And in almost every education system, and consistent with findings from previous studies, girls expressed greater fear of failure than boys, and markedly so in Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom. However, boys reported higher self-efficacy than girls in just over one in three school systems, while girls expressed more confidence in their general abilities than boys in just over one in four school systems. Moreover, in a majority of education systems, students with an immigrant background expressed similar levels of self-efficacy and fear of failure as those without an immigrant background.

In the analysis of schools, PISA finds that just under 2% of the variation in the indices of self-efficacy and fear of failure lie between schools, on average across OECD countries, which is a lower proportion than for the other indices analysed in this report (Tables III. B1.13.7 and III.B1.13.8). Students in socio-economically advantaged, city and private schools reported greater self-efficacy and fear of failure than students in disadvantaged, rural and public schools, respectively.

HOW STUDENTS’ SELF-EFFICACY AND FEAR OF FAILURE ARE RELATED TO READING PERFORMANCEGreater self-efficacy is associated with stronger reading performance in a majority of countries and economies, even after accounting for the socio-economic profile of students and schools (as measured by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status) (Figure III.13.3). Specifically, across OECD countries a one-unit increase in the index of self-efficacy was associated with an increase of six score points in the reading assessment, on average. The strongest positive associations between general self-efficacy and reading performance were observed largely in countries and economies whose average reading performance



was below the OECD average, whereas the weakest associations were observed often in education systems whose reading performance was at or above the OECD average. In Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang (China) and Japan, students who expressed more self-confidence in their ability to succeed and accomplish tasks scored lower than students who expressed less self-confidence.

Figure III.13.2 Student self-efficacy and fear of failure, by student characteristics


1. Higher values in the index indicate a greater fear of failure.Source: OECD, PISA 2018 Database, Tables III.B1.13.5 and III.B1.13.6.12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888934030610

A Girls - boysB Advantaged - disadvantaged studentsC Immigrant - non-immigrant students

Positive difference Negative difference Difference is not significant Missing values

A B C A B C20 74 12 69 30 7 Countries/economies with a positive difference23 2 43 6 37 46 Countries/economies with no difference33 0 15 1 9 16 Countries/economies with a negative difference

OECD

Difference in the index of self-efficacy:

Difference in the index of fear of failure:1

A B C A B COECD average

Australia

Austria

Belgium (Flemish)

Canada

Chile

Colombia

Czech Republic

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Iceland

Ireland

Israel

Italy

Japan

Korea

Latvia

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Mexico

Netherlands

New Zealand

Poland

Portugal

Slovak Republic

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

United Kingdom

United States

Partners

Difference in the index of self-efficacy:

Difference in the index of fear of failure:1

A B C A B CAlbania

Argentina

Baku (Azerbaijan)

Belarus

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Brazil

Brunei Darussalam

B-S-J-Z (China)

Bulgaria

Costa Rica

Croatia

Dominican Republic

Georgia

Hong Kong (China)

Indonesia

Jordan

Kazakhstan

Kosovo

Lebanon

Macao (China)

Malaysia

Malta

Moldova

Montenegro

Morocco

North Macedonia

Panama

Peru

Philippines

Qatar

Romania

Russia

Saudi Arabia

Serbia

Singapore

Chinese Taipei

Thailand

Ukraine

United Arab Emirates

Uruguay

Viet Nam



Perhaps more surprisingly, in a majority of school systems, students who expressed a greater fear of failure scored higher in reading than students expressing less concern about failing, after accounting for the socio-economic profile of students and schools (Table III.B1.13.10). Even after accounting for gender (remember that girls tended to express greater fear of failure and tended to perform better in reading) the relationship still holds in 35 out of 75 education systems. In this case, the strongest positive associations with reading performance were observed in many countries and economies whose reading performance was at or above the OECD average, whereas the weakest and negative associations were largely observed in education systems whose reading performance was below the OECD average.

Amongst the items that are components of the indices of self-efficacy and fear of failure, those that were more positively associated with reading performance were “I usually manage one way or another” and “I feel proud that I have accomplished things”, on average across OECD countries and after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile. By contrast, students who agreed with the statement “When I am failing, this makes me doubt my plans for the future” scored similarly in reading to those who disagreed with the statement (a difference of one score point, after accounting for socio-economic status).

Figure III.13.3 Student self-efficacy and reading performance

1. The socio-economic profile is measured by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS).Note: Statistically significant values are shown in darker tones (see Annex A3).Countries and economies are ranked in descending order of the score-point difference associated with the index of self-efficacy, after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile.Source: OECD, PISA 2018 Database, Table III.B1.13.9.12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888934030629

Score-point difference in readingassociated with a one-unit increase

in the index of self-efficacy

20 2510 15-5-10 0 5 35 40 4530

LebanonJordan

Saudi ArabiaPhilippines

IsraelMoroccoGeorgiaEstonia

QatarUnited Arab Emirates

BulgariaNorth Macedonia

ThailandIcelandFinland

LatviaBrunei Darussalam

MaltaGreece

Dominican RepublicLuxembourg

LithuaniaPanama

Chinese TaipeiBosnia and Herzegovina

PeruMalaysia

SerbiaKosovo

RomaniaPolandTurkey

MontenegroMoldovaSlovenia

Slovak RepublicSwitzerland

Belarus

ColombiaAlbaniaSwedenAustria

OECD averageDenmark

ArgentinaUkraine

ItalyBaku (Azerbaijan)

KoreaBrazil

HungaryCanadaMexico

GermanyKazakhstan

CroatiaMacao (China)

AustraliaCosta Rica

UruguayCzech Republic

NetherlandsNew Zealand

RussiaUnited States

PortugalIrelandFrance

United KingdomChile

Belgium (Flemish)Hong Kong (China)

SingaporeIndonesia

JapanB-S-J-Z (China)

Before accounting for students' and schools' socio-economic profile¹After accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile

Score-point difference in readingassociated with a one-unit increase

in the index of self-efficacy

20 2510 15-5-10 0 5 35 40 4530



Moreover, students who agreed that their belief in themselves gets them through hard times scored considerably lower (a difference of 11 score points) than students who disagreed with the statement, probably because the students who agreed with this statement were implicitly admitting that they often go through “hard times”.

At the system level, the greater the fear of failure expressed by students, the higher the reading scores in that education system, on average (Figure III.13.4). However, many countries and economies did not conform to this observed pattern. For instance, in Estonia, Finland and, to a lesser extent, in Germany, students expressed less fear of failure than the typical OECD student, but scored above the OECD average in reading. By contrast, in Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Malta, the Philippines and Thailand, students expressed more fear of failure than the typical OECD student, but their reading scores were below the OECD average. Interestingly, a large number of English-speaking and East Asian education systems were amongst those whose students were both more likely to report a fear of failure and to be high performers in reading.

Figure III.13.4 Fear of failure and average reading performance

Source: OECD, PISA 2018 Database, Tables III.B1.13.2 and I.B1.4.12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888934030648

Mean index of fear of failure

Average reading score

0.50.30.1-0.1-0.3

580

530

480

430

380

330

-0.5 0.7

OEC

D av

erag

e

OECD average

G r e a t e r f e a r o f f a i l u r e

R2 = 0.13

Australia

Austria

B-S-J-Z (China)

Baku (Azerbaijan)

Belarus

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Brazil Brunei DarussalamBulgaria

Canada

Chile

Chinese TaipeiCzech RepublicDenmark

Dominican Republic

EstoniaFinland

France

Georgia

Germany

Greece

Hong Kong (China)

HungaryIceland

Indonesia

Ireland

Italy

Japan

Kazakhstan

Korea

Kosovo

Latvia

Lebanon

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Macao (China)

Malaysia

Malta

MexicoMoldova

Montenegro

Morocco

Netherlands

New Zealand

Panama

Philippines

Poland

Qatar

Russia

Saudi Arabia

Serbia

Singapore

Slovak Republic

SloveniaSweden

Switzerland

Thailand

TurkeyUkraine

United Arab Emirates

United KingdomUnited States

Uruguay

Croatia

Portugal

AlbaniaArgentina

Colombia

Costa RicaJordan

North MacedoniaPeru

Romania

IS FEAR OF FAILURE A BETTER PREDICTOR OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AMONGST GIRLS THAN AMONGST BOYS?In virtually every country and economy, girls expressed a greater fear of failure than boys did (Figure III.13.2) and, on average across OECD countries, the gender gap in the index of fear of failure was the largest amongst all the indices analysed in this report. This is not the only way in which fear of failure acts differently amongst boys and girls: fear of failure is a much better predictor of academic performance amongst girls than amongst boys. In the reading assessment, for instance, girls scored nine points higher for every one-unit increase in the index of fear of failure, on average across OECD countries and after accounting for students’ socio-economic status and the index of self-efficacy, whereas boys scored only three points higher (Figure III.13.5). A gender gap, in favour of girls, in the association between fear of failure and reading performance was observed in a majority of school systems, particularly in Chile, Croatia, Estonia, Romania, the Russian Federation and Serbia.



Similar results were observed in relation to mathematics and science performance (Table III.B1.13.13). While girls who expressed a greater fear of failure scored considerably higher in mathematics and science than girls who expressed less fear of failure (differences of five and eight points, respectively, per one-unit increase in the index of fear of failure), boys who expressed a greater fear of failure scored only marginally higher in the two subjects than boys who expressed less fear of failure (a difference of one point in mathematics and two points in science). In 21 countries and economies, boys scored lower in mathematics when they expressed greater fear of failure, while in only 5 countries and economies did girls who expressed a greater fear of failure score lower in mathematics. Overall, these results suggest that girls generally expressed a greater fear of failure than boys did, and that this gender gap was considerably wider amongst top-performing students, as shown in Figure III.13.6. More precisely, amongst low achievers in reading (those scoring below Level 2), the gender gap, in favour of girls, in the index of fear of failure was about 0.3 of a unit; amongst top-performing students (those scoring at Level 5 or above) the gender gap was 0.5 of a unit.

Figure III.13.5 Association between fear of failure and reading performance, by gender


1. Higher values in the index indicate a greater fear of failure.Notes: Countries and economies where the difference between boys and girls is not statistically significant are marked with an asterisk (see Annex A3).The results are based on linear regression analysis, after accounting students’ socio-economic profile and the index of self-efficacy. The socio-economic profile is measured by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS).Countries and economies are ranked in descending order of the difference between girls and boys.Source: OECD, PISA 2018 Database, Table III.B1.13.13.12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888934030686

Score-point difference150 5 10-15-20 -10 -5 20

Score-point difference150 5 10-15-20 -10 -5 20

Romania Estonia Serbia

Croatia Russia

Chile Bulgaria

Singapore Portugal

Germany Qatar

Dominican Republic Kazakhstan

Hungary Thailand

Bosnia and Herzegovina Lithuania

Switzerland Greece

Slovak Republic Moldova Sweden Finland

United Arab Emirates Latvia

Montenegro Brazil Peru

Czech Republic Philippines

Lebanon *Slovenia Belarus Albania

Australia United States New Zealand

Uruguay

OECD average France

Costa Rica Canada Poland *

Brunei Darussalam Luxembourg

United Kingdom *Argentina *

Macao (China) *Colombia *

Baku (Azerbaijan) B-S-J-Z (China) *

Korea *Panama *Mexico *

Malaysia *North Macedonia *

Hong Kong (China) *Morocco *

Indonesia *Ukraine *

Italy *Saudi Arabia *

Georgia *Ireland *Kosovo *Iceland *Jordan *Japan *

Austria *Turkey *

Denmark *Chinese Taipei *

Malta *Netherlands *

Belgium (Flemish) *

GirlsBoys

Students scored higher in reading when

they expressed greater fear of failure

Students scored higher in reading when


Students scored lower in reading when


Students scored lower in reading when


Change in reading performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of fear of failure¹ amongst:



Interestingly, the relationship between the index of self-efficacy and performance was, on average across OECD countries, almost identical amongst boys and girls, and across subjects (Table III.B1.13.13). Regardless of the subject and gender examined, test scores always rose between six and seven points for every one-unit increase in the index of self-efficacy. The results across countries were also more stable than for the index of fear of failure. The index of self-efficacy and test scores were positively associated in a majority of school systems across the three subjects and amongst both boys and girls. The only country where a negative relationship between self-efficacy and test performance was observed was Japan (only for boys’ scores in reading and science).

Figure III.13.6 Fear of failure, by proficiency levels in reading and gender

OECD average

1. Higher values in the index indicate a greater fear of failure.Note: All differences between girls and boys are statistically significant (see Annex A3).Source: OECD, PISA 2018 Database, Table III.B1.13.14.12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888934030705

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

Index of fear of failure,¹ by proficiency levels in reading

Students who scored below Level 2 in reading

(low-achievers)

Students who scored at Levels 2, 3 or 4 in reading

Students who scored at Level 5 or above in reading

(top-performers)

GirlsBoys

Mean index

Girls - boys

ARE STUDENTS WHO EXPRESSED A GREATER FEAR OF FAILURE LESS SATISFIED WITH THEIR LIVES?In the introduction to this chapter, it was suggested that a moderate fear of failure may prompt students to expend greater effort on academic tasks, and could therefore help improve their performance – a hypothesis that is in line with the results described in the preceding section. However, previous studies have also pointed out that a greater fear of failure may threaten an individual’s social and emotional well-being (Elliot and Sheldon, 1997[18]; Gustafsson, Sagar and Stenling, 2017[20]). Do PISA 2018 results show that a greater fear of failure is negatively associated with life satisfaction?

PISA 2018 asked students to rate their satisfaction with life on a scale from 0 to 10, where 0 indicates the least satisfaction with life and 10 indicates the greatest satisfaction with life. In 69 out of 71 school systems, students reported less satisfaction with life when they expressed a greater fear of failure, after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile (Table III. B1.13.15). The countries with the strongest negative associations were Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Ireland, Korea, Poland, Slovenia, Sweden and the United Kingdom, all OECD countries, while the only countries where the negative association was not significant were Lebanon and the Philippines. Figure III.13.7 shows that in 37 out of 68 education systems with available data, fear of failure is both positively associated with reading performance and negatively associated with life satisfaction.

Do PISA 2018 results show any gender disparities in the negative association between fear of failure and life satisfaction? Table III. B1.13.15 reveals that, in a clear majority of countries and economies, the negative relationship between fear of failure and life satisfaction was stronger amongst girls than amongst boys. In Korea, for instance, a one-unit increase in the index of fear or failure was associated with a decrease in the life-satisfaction scale of about 0.7 of a point amongst 15-year-old boys and of around one point amongst girls.



Figure III.13.7 How fear of failure is related to reading performance and life satisfaction

Change associated with a one-unit increase in the index of fear of failure1

1. Higher values in the index indicate a greater fear of failure.Notes: Statistically significant values are shown in darker tones (see Annex A3).The results are based on linear regression analysis, after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile. The socio-economic profile is measured by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS).Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the change in the index of life satisfaction associated with a one-unit increase in the index of fear of failure.Source: OECD, PISA 2018 Database, Tables III.B1.13.10 and III.B1.13.15.12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888934030667

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0

Reading performanceLife satisfactionKorea

SloveniaUnited Kingdom

FinlandIrelandPolandSwedenIcelandEstonia

Czech RepublicGermany

B-S-J-Z (China)MaltaItaly

AustriaCroatia

HungaryOECD average

NetherlandsLatvia

United StatesSwitzerland

Slovak RepublicGreeceBrazil

PortugalLuxembourg

SerbiaLithuania

RussiaChile

Hong Kong (China)Japan

Chinese TaipeiMacao (China)

RomaniaColombia

FranceBelarus

United Arab EmiratesBosnia and Herzegovina

MoroccoArgentinaCosta Rica

PeruQatar

BulgariaMontenegro

UruguayUkraineThailandMexico

KazakhstanDominican RepublicBrunei Darussalam

Saudi ArabiaTurkey

MoldovaPanamaMalaysia

IndonesiaNorth Macedonia

AlbaniaJordan

GeorgiaBaku (Azerbaijan)

KosovoPhilippines

Lebanon



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Note1. While the term general self-efficacy is used widely amongst researchers and practitioners in the field of education, Bandura has argued that

there is no such thing as an “all-purpose measure of perceived self-efficacy” as self-efficacy encompasses the capacity to perform well-defined tasks (Bandura, 2006[25]).

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.130.2.224

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0043445

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0361-476X(02)00008-5

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https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264201170-en

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From:PISA 2018 Results (Volume III)What School Life Means for Students’ Lives

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