Stone Vessel Production Caves on the Eastern Slope of Mount Scopus, Jerusalem

Stone Vessel Production Caves on the Eastern Slope of Mount Scopus, Jerusalem

David Amit, Jon Seligman and Irina Zilberbod

In the summer of 1999, during construction work for a new road to connect Jericho and Ma’ale Adumim to Jerusalem, a bulldozer broke though the ceiling of a large cave. The cave is located on the northern slope of one of the eastern promontories extending from the Mount Scopus and Mount of Olive ridges (G.R. 17516/13305) (Fig. 20.1). After slightly enlarging the opening we were able to enter the cave using a rope ladder and it was immediately clear to us that the man-made cave functioned as a quarry and workshop for stone vessels well known from many sites associated with the end of the Second Temple period ( early Roman period, first century bc to first century ad). During this period the stone vessel industry flourished in the areas of Jewish population throughout Eretz Israel (Jewish ‘Land of Israel’ or Roman Palestina). A variety of vessels, of varying types and sizes were produced for storage and table use. This phenomenon is usually understood to be the result of increased observance of Jewish religious practice concerning purity and contamination, as interpreted by the rabbinical authorities who were formulating Jewish ritual law (Halacha) at that time. This so-called oral tradition was based on interpretation of the very concise written laws in the Pentateuch. As food stuffs, and especially liquids, were specifically susceptible to contamination, the sages set strict rules concerning the types of containers that would not be contaminated through such usage. This ruling is clearly stated in the Babylonian Talmud (Shabbat 58a):

Stone vessels, dung vessels and (unfired) earthenware vessels do not contract impurity according to the words of the Torah or according to the words of the Scribes

The large quantity of stone vessels found at sites of this period, together with other finds, such as Jewish coins, ritual baths (Miqva’ot) and often historical identification provide clear evidence for the ethnic definition of these sites as centers of Jewish population. The discovery in the last few years of production centers of stone vessels, such as that described in this article, with the chronological and functional attachment to Jewish population, has led most researchers to connect the information found in the written sources with the archaeological data. As we have stated, Halacha dictates that stone vessels do not become ritually impure through use for food and drink, unlike the more commonly utilized pottery vessels. Thus the use of stone vessels for food storage and table ware became prevalent (Magen 2002:138–47; Miller 2003). For this reason, archaeological excavations in Jerusalem and the surrounding region recover numerous

StoneVeSSelProductioncaVeSontheeaSternSloPeofMountScoPuS 321

types of stone vessels. Furthermore, these vessels are frequent finds in other Second Temple period sites in Judea, Transjordan, Galilee and the Golan (Magen 2002:148–62; Gibson 2003:300–1). In contrast to the frequent appearance of the vessels, quarries and production sites associated with this industry are rarely found. Caves similar to the one described below were discovered and researched by Yizhak Magen and Shimon Gibson near the village of Hizma, some five kilometers north-east of Jerusalem (Magen 1994; 2002; Gibson 1983). Similar remains of quarrying and vessel production were found in Jebel Mukkabar and Tell-el Ful in the environs of Jerusalem (Magen 2002:2). Following exposure of the cave on Mount Scopus, a preliminary study was conducted to docu-ment and excavate a limited part of the cavern by the authors (Fig. 20.2). 1

Figure 20.1 Location map of caves.

322 neWaPProacheStooldStoneS

We soon realized that this was not one cave but rather an underground complex forming a series of chambers in two separate caves, the first discovered with the initial commencement of the work and the other exposed during the course of our investigation. The whole cave system was carved by hand by cutting into a limestone layer belonging to the Senonian geological period. This rock level was specifically chosen for the softness of the stone, relative to the harder surface rock found on the surface, and its suitability as a raw material for the manufacture of stone vessels.

The Excavation

Our preliminary excavation indicated that the complex was entered from a central ovoid courtyard sunk five meters into the bedrock surface (No. III, Fig. 20.3). The courtyard measures 13 × 8 m. The two caves extended from this area.

Cave IThis cave was carved into the side of the entrance courtyard, at first at a slight downward angle and then on a horizontal plain, the quarriers cutting and advancing from the central courtyard to the north, east and west, forming a fan-shaped space. The radius of the cut grew with the progression of the quarrying, reaching a distance of thirty meters from the courtyard and covering an area of 4000 square meters. Close to the openings the ceilings were up to four meters above the floors, but the further the workers distanced themselves from the courtyard the height diminished, and was only two meters in the innermost portions of the cave. Due to the immense size of the space formed, the softness of the stone and natural cracks in the rock, the laborers left rock pilasters and pillars at even spans to support the ceiling. These columns divide the cave into a series of large halls.

Figure 20.2 General view of cave exterior.


Figure 20.3 Plan and section of caves.


The quarrying was conducted by cutting grooves around the required stone block in the walls, floors and ceiling of the cave producing rectangular blocks averaging around 1.5 by 0.7 meters. After cutting around the block it was released from the bedrock with the aid of metal wedges hit behind it with hammers. This activity left a network of typical grooves and ridges on all the surfaces of the cave. Marks, the remnants of the place in which the wedges were inserted, are also visible in many places. The quarrying produced huge quantities of chips that remained in large piles inside the cave, in some areas reaching the height of the ceiling. Pathways between the stone piles allowed access to all areas of the cave. For illumination, small horizontal notches were incised in the walls to hold inserted flat stones, forming a tiny ledge upon which oil lamps were placed. Many of these improvised lamp ledges were found in situ. The oil lighting left telltale soot marks on the cave’s ceiling both above the ledges and at numerous other points, pointing to the gradual enlargement of the front of the cave over time. Close to the cave openings to the courtyard four relatively small chambers were shaped from the rock (Figs. 20.3:1–4; 20.4). The finds from these rooms shows that they functioned as production halls for stone vessels from the raw material brought from the inner parts of the cave.

Cave IIShaped like an elongated ovoid, this cave was smaller then Cave I. Its maximum length was 24 m and width 17 m, forming an area of around 1000 sq. m. It was cut to the south east, in the upper section of the courtyard, up towards the slope of the hill. It was thus at a higher level than the previous cave, overlapping that cave in part. At the cave entrance terraced stone steps left by the quarrying are visible. Rock columns to prop up the ceiling were left, similar to those in Cave I. On the side of the first column were a few short letters, written with charcoal, with the Greek letters ‘ON, IN’. Below them was a delicate drawing of leaves, similar to designs incised on many stone ossuaries found in tombs of the same period as the caves.

Figure 20.4 Production hall 1.


Quarrying

Quarrying was conducted on all the surfaces of the cave, the floor, walls and ceiling. Rectangular blocks of stone, with an average size of 1.5 × 0.7 meters, were cut from the bedrock. These were then cut into small blocks, which were then shaved into cores that were used for the fabrication of stone vessels in the production areas of the cave. The system used to remove the blocks, as we reconstruct it here, was uniquely suited to the quarrying of soft limestone and is unknown at other ancient quarrying sites. The stone was quarried in stages. First, channels that defined the edges of the block were cut to the required depth using an adze. On three sides these channels were perpendicular to the face of the stone, while on the fourth side, always the long vertical edge, the channel was cut at an angle to the back of the block. Next, a number of iron wedges were placed at the back of the angled channel at set distances from each other. Each wedge was set upon a rectangular piece of metal that was used as a base to guide the wedge at the correct angle behind the stone block. The wedges were driven slowly, one after the other, behind the blocks with a mallet, until a fissure was created allowing the block to separate from the bedrock. The quarrying left an imprinted network of channels on all the surfaces of the cave. In many instances one can discern the mark of the wedges in the angled channels as a negative impression of the wedge’s shape and particles of metal that remained on the rock. These particles rusted over time and they are thus particularly noticeable as reddish-brown stains on the white rock. At one of the quarried faces a complete wedge and adze were found (Fig. 20.5 A–B), while pieces of other wedges were located at other places within the cave complex.

Stone Vessels and their Production

Although no stone vessels were found in the inner quarrying areas of the cave, thousands of stone vessel wasters, discarded after becoming damaged at various stages of their production, were discovered close to the openings from the courtyard at the cave entrance. Large quantities of stone

Figure 20.5 20.5A Adze; 20.5B Wedge.

A B


cylinders of different sizes that were removed from the vessels during lathe turning were found with the wasters. These were thrown to the sides by the artisans, accumulating to create huge heaps of wasters, evidence of fabrication of tens of thousands of vessels. The waste was not removed or ejected from the cave to a separate dump. Whole vessels were not found in the cave, as these had presumably been taken to the markets of the nearby city of Jerusalem and its environs. The hand-carved vessel types (see below) discovered in the cave included the so-called ‘measuring cups’ and large bowls with shelf handles on the rim (Fig. 20.6). Lathe-turned vessels included fine table vessels, bowls of various shapes and sizes faithfully copying ceramic forms, and large lathe-turned storage jars known by the name ‘kallal’ (Fig. 20.7). An important discovery from this cave was the unfinished ossuary fragments, the first evidence for a manufacturing site of these items. In two sondages, excavated into the waster heaps that accumulated in room number 1, the largest of the four production halls surrounding the courtyard, many thousands of cylinders and vessel seconds were collected in a pile over a meter high.

Figure 20.6 Measuring cups and large bowl damaged during production.

Figure 20.7 Lathe turned vessels.


Yizhak Magen has described two main production techniques, both documented in our excavations. The simpler technique involved the carving of the vessels from stone blocks using a hammer, chisel and carving tools. In this manner it was possible to fashion a variety of vessel forms that continued to be made after the introduction of the lathe. These vessels are characterized by thick crude sides and vertical shaved lines left by the carving. The most common vessel manufactured using this technique was the ‘measuring cup’. The other major production technique involved the more advanced technological device, the lathe, which produced the majority of the vessel wasters. Cores from the center of the vessels were found in the thousands in piles in the production areas (Fig. 20.8). The fine vessels and the ‘kallal’ storage jars were fabricated in this manner. The fact that more wasters of this technique were found is not an accurate representation that this was the main vessel produced here, because the fine vessels produced in this fashion were more likely to break in comparison to the crude shaved vessels. Indeed the ‘measuring cups’ are a more common find in Second Temple period levels. Attempts, mostly by Magen (2002:116–31), to reconstruct the lathes and the technology used to cut the vessels have been based on evidence from the vessel wasters and on the anthropological analogy from traditional stone vessel workshops in Israel and other places. Smaller vessels were made on a small mobile lathe, but producing the larger vessels would have required a larger, more permanent and complex lathe. During our excavations we uncovered some metal pieces probably belonging to the lathe for the larger vessels. These were two sets of long iron spikes with the top bent at a right angle (Fig. 20.9), together with a pyramidal block. The long arm of the spike was 17 cm. long and the shorter top section only 4 cm. The maximum width was 2.3 cm with a depth of 1.5 cm. The spike was tapered and sharpened at both ends. We propose that the top of the long arm was set in a wooden block (Fig. 20.10). The rounded point at the end of the short arm would have been the axis to fit in a socket with a diameter of 0.7 cm cut in the wide base

Figure 20.8 Cores of various sizes from lathe-turned vessels.


of the pyramidal block. The frame of the lathe, according to this reconstruction, was constructed of wooden beams in the shape of three sides of a square (1, 2 and 3 on Fig. 20.10). The base and the vertical sides would have been permanent while the upper side (3) was fixed to match the height of vessel required. The long arm of the spikes (4) would have been fixed to the two horizontal beams with the two short arms facing each other. In the space between them, that was variable in order to match the required distance, the core block was place vertically. The block would have been crudely carved prior to fixing on the lathe to form a rough cylinder (Fig. 20.10). The vessel block (6) was fixed by setting the pyramidal plug (5) into sockets cut into the block’s base. Bases with a trapezoid socket in their base that matched the pyramidal plugs were found among the wasters in the production areas. Magen notes a similar socket in vessels he uncovered in the Hizma caves, though he suggested that a wooden spike was set in the socket and that the stone block twisted around it (Magen 2002:38–9, 130). The block was shaped into a vessel with a blade while it was turned using

Figure 20.9 Spikes and plugs from large vessel lathe.


a drive belt (7) that turned a flywheel (8) attached to the other side of the lathe. Together with the metal pieces of the lathe an iron carving tool was located that was used to form the vessels. After the external face of the vessel was shaped, the vessel was removed from the lathe and the internal space was cut using hand tools. The smaller vessels were formed on a small mobile lathe (Fig. 20.11). The stone block was set horizontally and fixed to the lathe on one side. The system used to fix the vessel can be reconstructed using marks on discarded vessels. The block was shaped on the base side prior to attachment to form

Figure 20.10 Reconstruction of large vessel lathe.


a cone. We suggest that the block (10) was attached using three finger-like arms (11) cut in a round wooden fixing block. These fingers were flexible enough to allow the block to be set between them and then be closed using a fastening ring (12) that tightened the fingers from the outside around the cone of the block. Magen proposed an alternative fastening system utilizing bitumen to glue the stone block to a wooden axis attached to the lathe (Magen 2002:127–8). The absence of bitumen remains in the production caves makes this proposal difficult to accept.

Figure 20.11 Reconstruction of small vessel lathe.


Scopus Stone Vessel Factory Product List—The Typology

Previous research of early-Roman period stone vessels in the Jerusalem area has established a typology for such assemblages. These typological studies are divided between those based on finished vessels found in their primary, functional context such as those in the City of David (Cahill 1992) and the excavations to the south of the Temple Mount (Magen 2002:63–115), and those based on remains from the production center at Hizma (Magen 2002:18–51; Gibson 1983). Vessel types found at the Scopus cave fall into the same typological groupings defined in the above studies, so we will be using and referencing the three classification systems previously used at Hizma, the Temple Mount and at the City of David. Detailed references are provided in the figure tables and will not be repeated in the text. Furthermore the referenced texts also provide lists of parallels from other sites in the Jerusalem area and elsewhere. In some instances, types overlap between the different classifications: for example, the defining criteria between sloped and straight sides is somewhat subjective. We do not claim more objectivity than our predecessors! It should be noted that, because the Scopus cave is a production center and not a place of use for these vessels, the artifacts found are wasters. Thus complete finished vessels are missing from the assemblage. The vessels are classified by production technique, either as lathe-turned or hand-carved, and further sub-divided by size and type, similar to ceramic typologies.

Lathe-Turned VesselsMass production of stone vessels was accomplished using lathes. The result was simple vessels without handles or decoration. The striations of the lathe work are clearly visible on all the vessels. As the vessels are wasters many still have rough, unfinished edges, including parts of the attached central core. The following types were found in the Scopus assemblage.

Bowls (Fig. 20.12)a) Small Shallow Bowls with Straight Sides (Figs. 20.12:1–5) These vessels are small shallow bowls or saucers with a flat base (Figs. 20.12:1–4) or with a low disk base (Figs. 20.12:5), sides that are either straight or taper outwards on the internal face and simple rims. The bases are either finished on the lathe or hand-finished with an adze (Fig. 20.12:3). Note vessel with internal core still attached that clearly shows a stage of the production procedure using the lathe (Fig.20.12:1). All of the examples recovered were unfinished prior to breakage, but completely finished vessels are well-known from settlement sites such as the City of David (Cahill 1992:figs. 12:12–22). It has been suggested that this bowl type copies ceramic forms, especially Terra Sigillata and Eastern Sigillata vessels (Magen 1988:45, 150; Cahill 1992:202).

b) Small Shallow Bowls with Sloped Sides (Figs. 20.12:6–11) These bowls are very similar to the previous grouping in form and in size. The difference is in the strongly outward sloping of the vessel sides. Some of the examples have external everted rims (Figs. 20.12:9–11) similar to many ceramic forms.

c) Deep Open Bowl (Fig. 20.12:12)The vessel shown is a deep bowl with outwardly sloping sides and a rounded connection between the base and sides. In its final form the vessel would have had a shallow disk base and may have had an everted and internally grooved rim though our vessel has a plain rim, but again we must remember that it was unfinished.


d) Hemispherical Bowl (Fig. 20.12:13)Another common type is a deep hemispherical bowl with inward round sides and a simple rim. In its finished form the bowl would have had a shallow disk base. The form may well be based on ceramic, or even wooden, bowls of very similar shape (Cahill 1992:203).

Cups and Gobletsa) Cup with Straight Sides (Figs. 20.13:1–3) These are small cups with deep interiors, straight sides and plain rims. The sides curve down to a small flat base. Finished vessels often had decorative ribbing around the central section of the external wall and are highly polished.

b) Cup with Sloped Sides (Figs. 20.13:4) These cups have straight outwardly sloping sides and a plain rim. Finished vessels have an external grooved rim.

c) Hemispherical Cup (Figs. 20.13:5–8) These cups are smaller versions of the hemispherical bowls with maximum diameters of 11 cm narrowing to 8 cm at the rim. The rims are simple, some with an external groove (Fig. 20.13:5–6).

Table 20.1 Lathe-turned chalk bowls.

Fig. 20.12 No.

Description Hizma Type

Temple Mount Type

City of David Type

References

1 Shallow Bowl, Straight Sides

I.1.A.i Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.4.1)


I.1.A.i Form 1

I.1.A.iii Form 1 1.a.i.F Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.4.10)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 15.16)


I.1.A.i Form 1

I.1.A.iii Form 1 1.a.i.F Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.4.4)Temple Mount (Magen 2002: fig. 3.5.5)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 15.12)


I.1.A.i Form 1

I.1.A.iii Form 1 1.a.i.F Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.4.4)Temple Mount (Magen 2002.fig. 3.5.5)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 15.12)


I.1.A.i Form 1

I.1.A.iii Form 1 1.a.i.B City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 15.2)

6 Shallow Bowl, Sloped Sides

I.1.A.i Form 2


I.1.A.i Form 2

Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.6.2)


I.1.A.i Form 2

I.1.A.iii Form 2 1.a.i.F Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.6.7) Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.5.8)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 15.12)


I.1.A.i Form 2

Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.6.4,7)


I.1.A.i Form 2


I.1.A.i Form 2

12 Deep Open Bowl

I.1.A.ii Form 2

1.a.i.E Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.8.7) Temple Mount (Magen 2002: fig. 3.5.8)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 15.7,8)

13 Hemispherical Bowl

I.1.A.iii 1.a.i.I Hizma (Magen 2002: fig. 2.11.4) City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 16.6)


The base is either a wide or narrow disc. Cahill (1992:2033) places the hemispherical cup in the same typological group as the bowl but again the small size makes its use as a bowl improbable.

d) Deep Cup with Profiled Rim (Fig. 20.13:12) Highly polished cups with straight sides and a sculpted profiled rim undercut by a concave depression.

e) Shallow Goblet (Figs. 20.13:13–14) Shallow, hemispherical bowl-like goblets with highly polished sides, rims with decorative relief and carinated decoration. The first goblet (Fig. 20.13:13) had an outset, square-profiled rim with a number of deep ridges. The second (Fig. 20.13:14) has a carinated rim decorated with two ridges. This vessel group displays constant decorative variation. Indeed the vessels shown from this group in the City of David have quite distinct decoration. Magen links the shallow and deep goblets into a single grouping. The shallow goblets have a rim diameter ranging from 12 to 16 cm.

e) Deep Goblet (Figs. 20.13:15–16) In their finished state the goblets had a stemmed base but all the vessel wasters found in the Scopus cave were missing this base. The cup part of the goblet is deep (up to 11 cm). The rim is externally profiled with multiple incised ridges with further ridges and grooves below. The very smooth sides

Figure 20.12 Bowls.


are straight, turning at the waist ridge to form a hemispherical bottom. Goblets complete with the base were not found at the Scopus cave and indeed are rare; an example was found in the Jewish Quarter excavations (Avigad 1983:182, photo 209.2). The shape of these goblets suggests ceramic forms (Magen 1988:47) or even glass goblets.

Stoppers, Cores and Large Lathe-Turned Vessels (Fig. 20.14)a) Stoppers (Figs. 20.14:1–2) Stoppers have round flat disc tops, with a groove around the side, set above a tapered conical plunger. They were used as plugs or lids for narrow-necked bottles and other appropriate vessels, the groove probably incised to attach cord in order to secure the stopper to the vessel below. The stoppers were not necessarily fabricated for use with only stone vessels but may also have been utilized to plug ceramic jars, bottles and jugs. We present here two stopper types, the first (Fig. 20.14:1) with a narrow disk top and a long projectile-like plunger, and the second (Fig. 20.14:2) with a wide disk top and a short tapered plunger.

Table 20.2. Lathe-turned cups and goblets.

Fig. 20.13 No.


Temple Mount Type

City of David Type

References

1 Cup, Straight Sided

I.1.B I.1.B Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.14.1)


I.1.B I.1.B 1.a.i.J Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.13.4,5) City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 16.16)


I.1.B I.1.B 1.a.i.J Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.14.2)

4 Cup, Sloped Side

I.1.A.iii Form 3 1.a.i.H Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.5.9)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 16.1)

5 Cup, Hemispherical

I.1.A.iii I.1.A.vi 1.a.i.I Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.13.2,3) City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 16.2)


I.1.A.iii I.1.A.vi 1.a.i.I Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.11.2)Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.13.2)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 16.2)


I.1.A.iii I.1.A.vi 1.a.i.I Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.13.3)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 16.2)


I.1.A.iii I.1.A.vi 1.a.i.I Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.11.4)


I.1.B I.1.B 1.a.i.J Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.14.2) City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 16.7)


I.1.B


I.1.B I.1.B 1.a.i.J


I.1.B 1.a.i.K Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.14.4)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 16.17-19)

13 Shallow Goblet I.1.C 1.a.i.D City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 15.5)14 Shallow Goblet I.1.C

15 Deep Goblet I.1.C I.1.C 1.a.ii Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.17.1) Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.15.1)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 16.20,21)

16 Deep Goblet I.1.C I.1.C 1.a.ii Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.17.5) Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.15.1)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 16.20,21)


b) Cores (Figs. 20.14:5) Cores, thousand of them, formed the main part of the stone vessel assemblage from the Scopus cave. The cores are the remains left after production on the lathes. The internal part of the vessels was cut with the lathe blade from the top to form channels around the central block which was then detached by snapping it from the base. The detached cores were discarded. Every discarded core therefore represents a complete vessel taken for sale and use in the settlement sites supplied by the Scopus cave, especially Jerusalem. The cores were usually cylindrical or conical with striations causes by the blade on the stone. The base of the core is broken indicating how they were snapped out of the vessels. The core shown here is still attached to the base of a cup that shattered before the core could be detached.

c) Storage Jar—‘Kallal’ (Figs. 20.14:6–9)These large lathe-turned stone jars, modeled after Calyx kraters (Magen 2002:88) are one of the type fossils of the Second Temple period. They have been widely discussed in the literature and they are generally accepted as being identified as the ‘kallal’, a large stone container noted in the Mishna (Parah 3.3 Danby 1933:698) (Brand 1952:496–8; Avigad 1983:179 and Magen 2002:88, note

Figure 20.13 Cups and goblets.


122). Theories concerning the use of these vessels has also been widely discussed and include use as covered containers for ritually pure water or wine (Rahmani 1974:68) as prescribed in the Mishna (Yadaim 1.2 Danby 1933:779 and Kelim 10.1 Danby 1933:618–9) and intimated in the New Testament in the wine miracle of Cana (John 2:6). Magen (2002:80–90) identifies three varieties of this type of which only Form 1, the barrel shape, is represented in the Scopus assemblage. They have wide sculpted mouths with a diameter of 35 to 45 cm. The rims vary but usually have incised ridges and grooves forming an external triangular profile just below the top. Under the rim are a series of ridges and grooves set above a clear carination of the body. The rest of the body is smooth and barrel-shaped and the vessel is set on a high trumpet base, again decorated with incised lines. The vessels illustrated here are of discarded rim sherds. One vessel (Fig. 20.3:9) has an internal ridge allowing a lid to be set. It should be noted that while the external face is cut on the lathe the internal face is hand-cut and clear chisel markings are visible inside the vessels. While we have not given references from primary parallels noted in the corpus quoted here we should note the important place of these vessels in the Second Temple (early-Roman) layers of the excavations south of the Temple Mount (Magen 2002:85) and in the Jewish Quarter (Avigad 1983:127–9, 174–5).

Hand-Carved VesselsMany types were not produced on the lathe but were hand-formed using a chisel or adze. The use of these tools leaves distinctive square, cut facets over the surface of the vessels. Some vessels were then polished to remove the striations left by the chiseling, though within the Scopus assemblage all vessels clearly display these marks. The following types were found in the Scopus assemblage.

a) Flat Round Lid (Figs. 20.14:3–4) The vessels shown are unfinished broken lids. They are produced from rough chisel-cut disks with a diameter of 18–19 cm with a knob handle on the top.

Table 20.3 Stoppers, lids, cores and lathe-turned kraters.

Fig. 20.14 No.


Temple Mount Type

City of David Type

References

1 Stopper I.1.E I.1.G Form 2 1.a.iii.A Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.25.9) City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 17.1)

2 Stopper I.1.E I.1.G Form 1 1.a.iii.C Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.19.8)Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.25.8)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 17.3)

3 Lid I.1.D I.1.F. Form 3 1.a.iv Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.19.2) Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.25.6)

4 Lid I.1.D I.1.F. Form 3 1.a.iv Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.19.2) Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.25.6)

5 Core I.1.G Form 1

I.1.H 1.a.vi.B Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.24.3)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 17.22)

6 Krater I.2.B I.2.B.i. Form1 1.b.i Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.31.1)Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.34.2,4)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 18.3)



9 Krater I.2.B I.2.B.i. Form1 1.b.i Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.31.1) Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.34.2,4)City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 18.3)


Figure 20.14 Stoppers, cores, lids and large lathe-turned vessels.


b) Mugs—Hand-Carved ‘Measuring’ Cups (Figs. 20.15:1–7) Another archetypal well-known form of stone vessel of this period is the mug-like container popularly known as ‘measuring cups’ following a proposal by Ben David (1969) to identify them with cups used to measure the Mishnaic log (1 log = ca. two liters, Menahoth 9.2; Danby 1933:504). As Magen correctly noted, the fact that these vessels do not have standard capacities means that using them for measuring a standard volume is untenable (2002:99). Still the name has stuck! These vessels are formed from a single stone block into a cylindrical shape with neat chisel-cut facets from the top to the bottom around the vessel forming a shape that closely resembles a beer mug. They have one (Fig. 20.15:1–5, 7) or two (Fig. 20.15:6) vertical rectangular handles that are usually pierced in the finished examples. These mugs are ubiquitous in early-Roman layers in the Jerusalem area and in other areas of the country settled by Jews in the Second Temple period.

c) Pitcher (Figs. 20.15: 8) Pitchers are a closely related type to the mug. In fact the only difference is the addition of a spout attached to the rim edge, often with a handle at a right angle to the spout as can be clearly seen in the figure.

d) Large Bowls (Figs. 20.16:1, 3–4) The large hand-carved bowls have thick sides, plain rims, flat bases and two opposite ledge handles set on the outside of the rim. They appear in two sub-forms, the first with straight sides (Fig. 20.19:3) and the second with gentle curved sides.

e) Globular Bowl (Figs. 20.16:2) A unique hand carved globular bowl was found in the cave. It had thick sides (3 cm) that turn in to the externally everted shelf rim. Two ledge handles are cut on opposite sides, just above the waist. The outside surface is smoothed with a decorative band of facets around the bowl at the height of the handles. No parallels to this beautiful vessel are known.

Table 20.4 Hand-carved mugs (‘measuring cups’).

Fig. 20.15 No.

Description Hizma Type Temple Mount Type

City of David Type

References

1 Mug II.A. Form 1 II.A 2.a.i.A.1 Hizma (Magen 2002. Fig. 2.33.1) Temple Mount (Magen 2002. Fig. 3.60)City of David (Cahill 1992. Fig. 20.3)





6 Mug II.A. Form 1 II.A 2.a.i.A.2 Hizma (Magen 2002. Fig. 2.33.3,5)Temple Mount (Magen 2002. Fig. 3.60.1)City of David (Cahill 1992. Fig. 20.2)

7 Mug II.A. Form 1 II.A 2.a.i.A.18 Spouted Mug II.A. Form 1 II.A 2.a.i.B Hizma (Magen 2002. Fig. 2.34)

City of David (Cahill 1992. Fig. 20.6)


f) Lid? (Figs. 20.16:5) This rather strange artifact has an almost square cut piece attached to a tapered foot some 8 cm high. The function of the item is not clear. It may have been used as a lid for a large vessel.

f) Ossuaries Ossuaries are a common find in Second Temple tombs, though the exact site of their production has remained a mystery. In the most comprehensive corpus of stone ossuaries Rahmani (1994:3) suggests that the origin of the ossuaries was the limestone quarries at Hizma and other sites, but wasters of ossuaries were not found at those sites. At the Scopus cave, for the first time, pieces of broken ossuaries were uncovered, including pieces of the ossuaries’ body and their lids. The ossuary lids discovered were of the flat type (Rahmani 1994:4–6) that were placed on top of the box or slid into a shelf insert for sealing and of the vaulted type (Rahmani 1994:4–6, pl. 8:48:R and others).

Figure 20.15 Hand-carved mugs and pitchers.


Table 20.5 Hand-carved bowls (quasi ‘measuring cups’) and basins.

Fig. 20.16 No.


Temple Mount Type

City of David Type

References

1 Large Bowl II.B.iForm 1

II.B. Form 1 Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.60.6)

2 Globular Bowl3 Bowl II.B.i

Form 1II.B. Form 1 2.a.ii.

A.2City of David (Cahill 1992:fig. 20.8)

4 Bowl II.B.iForm 1

II.B. Form 1 Hizma (Magen 2002:fig. 2.40.3)Temple Mount (Magen 2002:fig. 3.60.8)

5 Basin with Leg? Lid?

6 Basin

Figure 20.16 Hand-carved large bowls and ossuary.


Other FindsCeramics were also uncovered in both caves, primarily cooking pots and jars dated almost exclusively to the first century ad. These were often found in concentrated areas around the remains of hearths, evidence of cooking by the laborers during work. In addition a small number of juglets and shaved ‘Herodian’ lamps were found. Four coins were also located in the caves, one from the period of the Procurator Antonius Felix and three dated to the Great Revolt—two from the second year of the revolt (67–68 ad) and one to the third year (68–69 ad). The ceramic and numismatic testimony shows that the cave was active from the start of the first century ad, right up to the destruction of the Temple in 70 ad.

Postscript

The discovery of this cave requires us to reexamine a long and very interesting inscription found in a tomb in 1910 at Bet Phage, only 1.5 kilometers away. The inscription, now at the Louvre, has often received scholarly attention (Milik 1971), together with an identical inscription now shown to have been a forgery. The inscribed lines list 23 names and pseudonyms scratched on an ossuary lid. Beside names such as Ben Hazir, Ben Azaria, Yehoseph, Hasharaq, Haglili are registered small amounts of money, for instance, מ2ף ,1ר the letter ר denoting a quarter sela, equaling a dinar or drachma; מ representing a mea or a sixth of a dinar and ף designating a peleg which is equivalent to half a mea. Scholars suggest that this inscription is a roster of workers who laboured in a ossuary workshop, together with a list of their daily wages. Would it be too bold to propose that the new cave and stone vessel workshop on the proximal slope of Mount Scopus is the work site of these laborers?

Notes

1. The preliminary excavation was conducted between 25th July and 10 August 1999 under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority and funded by the Moriah Company. The work was aided by: V. Barzel (area supervisor), V. Asman and S. Protsky (surveyors), T. Sagiv (photographer), Y. Drey (metal surveyor), A. Fromkin and Z. Levy (geologists). We would also like to acknowledge the help of D. Merhav, N. Proderantz and T. Dkaidak of the Y. Gadish Company and S. Carmel of the Z. Barashi Company.

References

Avigad, N. (1983) Discovering Jerusalem. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson.Ben David, A. (1969) Ha-middah ha-yerushalmit: an archaeological solution of a Talmudic-Metrological

problem. Israel Exploration Journal 19:158–69.Brand, Y. (1953) Ceramics in Talmudic Literature. Jerusalem: Rav Kook Institute (Hebrew).Cahill, J. (1992) The chalk assemblages of the Persian/Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods. In Excavations at

the City of David 1978–1985, edited by A. De Groot and D.T. Ariel. Qedem 33. Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, pp. 190–274.

Danby, H. (1933) The Mishnah. London: Oxford University Press.Gibson, S. (1983) The stone vessel industry at Hizma. Israel Exploration Journal 33:176–88.Gibson, S. (2003) Stone vessels of the Early Roman Period from Jerusalem and Palestine. A reassessment. In

One Land—Many Cultures, Archaeological Studies in Honour of Stanislao Loffreda, edited by G.C. Bottoni, L. Di Segni and L.D. Chrupcala. Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, pp. 287–308.

Magen, Y. (1988) The Stone Vessel Industry in Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period. Jerusalem: Israel Society for the Protection of Nature (Hebrew).


Magen, Y. (1994) Jerusalem as a center of the stone vessel industry during the Second Temple Period. In Ancient Jerusalem Revealed, edited by H. Geva. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, pp. 244–56.

Magen, Y. (2002) The Stone Vessel Industry in the Second Temple Period: Excavations at Hizma and the Jerusalem Temple Mount. Jerusalem: Judea and Samaria Publications.

Milik, J.T. (1971) Le couvercle de Bethphagé. Hommages à A. Dupont Sommer. Paris: Libraire d’Amérique et d’Orient, Adrien Maisonneuve, pp. 75–94.

Miller, S.S. (2003) Some observations on stone vessel finds and ritual purity in light of Talmudic sources. In Zeichen aus Text und Stein: Studien auf dem Weg zu einer Archäologie des Neuen Testaments, edited by S. Alkier and J. Zangenberg. Tübingen: Francke Verlag, pp. 402–19.

Rahmani, L.Y. (1974) Table top of the late Second Temple Period. ‘Atiqot (Hebrew Series) 7:65–8 (Hebrew). 9*–10* (English Summary).

Rahmani, L.Y. (1994) A Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries in the Collections of the State of Israel. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority and the Israel Academy of Humanities and Science.

Stone Vessel Production Caves on the Eastern Slope of Mount Scopus, Jerusalem

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Transcript of Stone Vessel Production Caves on the Eastern Slope of Mount Scopus, Jerusalem