steven patrick male - ROS Theses Repository

A CRITICAL INVESTIGATION OF PROFESSIONALISM

IN QUANTITY SURVEYING

by

F

STEVEN PATRICK MALE

Submitted in fulfilment

of the requirements for the

Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

of the

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING

of the

HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

July 1984

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No:

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction 1 Major ojectives 1 Thesis structure 1

CHAPTER 2 THE DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATION OF QUANTITY SURVEYING AS AN OCCUPATION

INTRODUCTION 3 THE STUCTURE OF THE SURVEYING 5 PROFESSION QUANTITY SURVEYING 7 THE DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTITY 9 SURVEYING

The English dimension 9 The Scottish dimension 15 The Irish dimension 16

THE PROFESSIONAL' ASSOCIATIONS 16 The RICS 16 The IQS 21 Other institutions 22

EDUCATION AND TRAINING 23

The RICS 23 QUANTITY SURVEYING EDUCATION 31 AND TRAINING

The RICS 31 The IQS 32

THE TRAINING INSTITUTIONS 34 PROFESSIONALISM AND THE CLAIMS 35 TO PROFESSIONAL STATUS

Professional status and the 37 quantity surveyor

QUANTITY SURVEYORS IN 46 ORGANISATIONS

The general structure of 48 practice Private practice- 48 The public sector 52

CLIENT ORGANISATIONS 57 INTERNAL DEBATE WITHIN 59 QUANTITY SURVEYING

Quantity surveying 60 roles

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Professional status 61 and the Quantity Surveyor The State and the 63

surveying profession EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE ON. 64, INDIVIDUALS IN QUANTITY SURVEYING CHAPTER SUMMARY 70

CHAPTER NOTES 79

CHAPTER 3 PROFESSIONS AND THE PROFESSIONAL 83 MODEL

THE PROFESSIONS 83

Introduction 83 The concept of 83 profession The historical 83 impetus Professions as 85 institutions The sociology of the 86 professions - Occupations and 87 professions Professionalism 88 Professionalisation 91 Qualifying associations 94 Recruitment, education 95 and training The knowledge base 98 Professional conduct 101 and professional behaviour Professional monopoly 104 and privilege The producer consumer 106 relationship Section summary 112

DIFFERING MODELS OF 116 PROFESSIONS

The taxonomic approach 116 The Neo-Weberian and 118 Marxist models Institutionalised 120 strategies for occupational control The cruciality, - 126 mystique model Hall's structural and 127 attitudinal model The process model 132 The professional status 135 model

ii .

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An assessment, and 136 comparison of the models Section summary 139

CHAPTER NOTES 140

CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANISATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE 143

Complexity 144 Formalisation 145 Centralisation 145 The relationship 147 between complexity, formalisation and centralisation Factors affecting 147 organisational structure Organisational 155 typologies Section summary 161

PROFESSIONALS AND 162 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

Professionalisation 163 and bureaucracies Reference group 164 orientation Structure and 169 organisational commitment and conflict Professional/organi- 171 sational conflict Section summary 176

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE 178 AND WORK ROLES

Section summary . 184

ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE 183 Definitions of climate 186 Findings on climate 190 research Problems with climate 190 Section summary 192

CHAPTER NOTES 193

CHAPTER 5 THE DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY

INTRODUCTION 194 ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION 195

Major theoretical 195 developments

iii

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_--ý

The importance of 198 the-situation-

for achievement Need 199

and achievement values Sources of need for 200 achievement Occupational selection, 204

mobility and-need for achievement. Characteristics of 205 entrepreneurs Measurement of need 209 for achievement Criticisms of 211 achievement motivation theory Need for power 213 Need for affiliation 215 Section summary 216

THE INTERPERSONAL DIMENSION 218 OF PERSONALITY

Interpersonal 219 behaviour The interpersonal 220 personality-system The link with 225 environmental psychology Section summary 230

CHAPTER'NOTES. 233

CHAPTER 6A SYNTHESIS AND PARADIGM 235

INTRODUCTION 235

THE INDIVIDUAL PERSPECTIVE 235

Need for achievement 235 Interpersonal 237 behaviour and McClelland's Trichotomy of Needs Need for achievement, 240 interpersonal behaviour and professionalism Section summary 240

THE ORGANISATIONAL 241 PERSPECTIVE

Introduction 241 A general organi- 242 sational schema Organisational 244 structures and work roles The contingency 246 factors

iv

Organisational' commitment Organisational conflict Organisational climate Section summary

THE OCCUPATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Application of models Other perspectives Conclusions on ' quantity surveying at the occupational level

THE PARADIGM Family influences Occupational structuring - membership of RICS versus IQS Sector of employment - private practices, government and contracting Hierarchical position Structural effects The effect of task The effects of achievement climate Organisational size

CHAPTER 7 METHODOLOGY INTRODUCTION THE SAMPLE

DATA COLLECTION

The choice of approach Questionnaire design and structure Choice of standardised questionnaire

DATA ANALYSIS

The choice of statistical procedures and statistical package Parametric versus non-parametric models Classification of variables Management level Task variables

CHAPTER SUMMARY

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249

251

252

252 253

253 264 270

271 271

271

272

272 273

273

275 275 275 275 275 279

281

290

290

291

292

293 294 294

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CHAPTER 8 RESULTS INTRODUCTION 295 THE SAMPLING-FRAME 295

THE FACTOR ANALYSIS OF 295 SCALES SCALE RELIABILITY ANALYSIS 298

A GENERAL PROFILE OF THE 298 SAMPLE

Demographic 301 characteristics Employment 305 characteristics

THE TYPICAL QUANTITY 311 SURVEYOR

THE EXPLORATION OF THE 312 PARADIGM

Family influences 312 Occupation structuring - 316 the RICS versus the IQS Sector of employment - 319 private: practice, government and contracting Structural 326 Task relationships 329 Relationships'öf 332 achievement climate Organisational size 334

OTHER FINDINGS 335 Social class 335 Occupational 339 structuring - the RICS versus the IQS Sector of employment 340 Hierarchical level 342 Professionalism 345 Role structuring and 350 task variables Route to qualifications 350

CHAPTER SUMMARY 352

CHAPTER 9 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 353 Family influences 353

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Occupational struct- 353 uring - the IQS versus the RICS Sector of employment - 354 private practice, government, contracting Hierarchical level . 356 Degree of structuring 357 on role positions Task variables 358 Achievement job climate. 359 Organisational size 359

OTHER FINDINGS Professionalism 360 Tasks 361 Need for achievement . 361

A SYNTHESIS AND RE-APPRAISAL

Introduction 362 The individual perspective 362 The organisational 365 perspective The occupational 368 perspective

CHAPTER SUMMARY 379

CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

-Introduction 380 The individual 380 perspective The organisational 380 perspective The occupational 381 perspective

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE 383 RESEARCH

BIBLIOGRAPHY 385

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1 DATA ON INTERPERSONAL CHECK LIST

Table 51, Kuder Richardson estimates of reliability Table 52 Factor analytic studies of ICL

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Table 53 ICL Factor structure - Level 2 Source Golding &

Knudson (1975)

Table 54 ICL Factor structure - Level 2 Source Truckenmiller &

Schafe (1979)

APPENDIX 2 COVERING LETTER AND FOLLOW-UP POST CARD

APPENDIX 3 QUESTIONNAIRE

APPENDIX 4 DESCRIPTION OF UNADJUSTED MANAGERIAL LEVELS

APPENDIX 5 TASK VARIABLES - ITEM DESCRIPTIONS

APPENDIX 6 DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE BY SECTOR OF EMPLOYMENT

Table 55 Distribution of sample by age and sector of employment. Table 56 Distribution of sample by adjusted management level and sector of employment

Table 57 Distribution of project values per annum by sector of employment Table 58 Distribution of sample by income and sector of employment Table 59 Distribution of sample by sector of employment and organisational size Table 60 Distribution of sample by father's social class and sector of employment

viii

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Table 61 Distribution of sample by age and adjusted management level

Table 62 Distribution of sample by income and adjusted management level

Table 63 Distribution of sample by social class and adjusted management level

APPENDIX 7 CORRELATION MATRIX OF STANDARDISED QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS (excluding ICL)

APPENDIX 8 FACTOR ANALYSIS OF STANDARDISED SCALES (including ICL correlation matrix)

APPENDIX 9 DESCRIPTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS

APPENDIX 10 OPCS (1980) GUIDELINES

ix

LIST OF TABLES

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CHAPTER 2 TABLE 1 4 Main building and civil engineering professions: numbers and distribution by type of employment

TABLE 2 44 The core of quantity surveying activity TABLE 3 45 Professional requirements and experience

TABLE 4 47

. The principal. services of the chartered quantity surveyor TABLE 5 47 Activities of the contractors quantity surveyor TABLE 6 66, Career choice influences Source Coates 1977

TABLE 7' 66 Career choice Source Taylor 1980 TABLE 8 68 Present Interests TABLE 9 68 Reasons for Association membership TABLE 10 79 RICS divisional membership TABLE 11 81 Codes of conduct for the RICS and IQS

CHAPTER 3 TABLE 12 92 Professionalisation scale scores TABLE 13 96 Proportion of school leavers by major qualifying associations TABLE 14 108 Patterns of professional privilege - characteristics TABLE 15 109

Patterns of professional privelege - mechanisms-

X

CHAPTER 4 TABLE 16 Dimensions of environment TABLE 17 Breakdown of research studies into major classifications according to studies undertaken in the area and number of organisations investigated

TABLE 18 Professional and bureaucratic orientations - similarities and contrasts TABLE 19 Bureaucratic and professional orientations and deprivation by position

CHAPTER 5 TABLE 20 Correlations between ICL and EPPS variables

CHAPTER 6 TABLE 21 The essential characteristics of 'quantity surveying in private

-practice

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150

153

165

168

227

263

CHAPTER 7 TABLE 22 Reliability coefficients. Hall's professionalism scale

CHAPTER 8 TABLE 23 Factor analysis of Fineman's (1975) n-Ach scale using data from the current research study

TABLE 24 Co-efficient alpha's for standardised scales used in the current research across studies

TABLE 25 Co-efficient alpha's for octant scores on ICL

TABLE 26 Distribution of total sample by age TABLE 27 Distribution of sample by father's social class TABLE 28 Distribution of sample by current employment

289

297

299

300

302

304

307

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TABLE 29 307 Distribution of sample by project responsibility

TABLE 30 309 Distribution of sample by adjusted management level, TABLE 31 313 Spearman Rank-order correlation co-efficients between major variables TABLE 32 314 Spearman Rank-order correlation co-efficients of major organisational variables

317 TABLE 33 Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA. Dimensions of personality by professional association

317 TABLE 34 - Distribution of sample by social class and professional association TABLE 35 318

Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA. Dimensions of professionalism by professional association TABLE 36 320

Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA. Dimensions of personality by sector of employment TABLE 37 320

Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA. Dimensions of professionalism by sector of employment TABLE 38 321 Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA. Dimensions of organisational structure and job climate by sector of employment TABLE 39 321 Task variable by sector of employment TABLE 40 335 Distribution of sample by social class by highest qualification obtained TABLE 41 338 Spearman Rank-order correlation . co-efficients, major educational variables, 0 level only group

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TABLE 42 338 Spearman Rank-order correlation co-efficients, major educational variables -A level only group TABLE 43 339 Distribution of sample by social class and sector of employment TABLE 44 339 Type of school attended, by professional association

340 TABLE 45 Distribution of sample by, highest qualification and professional association

341 TABLE 46 Distribution of sample by highest qualification and sector of employment

341 TABLE 47 Distribution of total sample by sector of emp loyment and structuring of practice s etting TABLE 48 342 Distribution of sample by raw hierarchical level and highest- qualification obtained TABLE 49 343 Distribution of sample by adjusted hierarchical level and highest qualification obtained TABLE 50 364 Comparison of WPQ data from Fineman and p resent sample

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

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CHAPTER 2 FIGURE 1 6 The traditional construction process for new building and civil engineering works

11 FIGURE 2 The building industry during the 18th century 11 FIGURE 3 The building industry during the first half of the 19th century

FIGURE 4 14 The building industry in the late 19th century and to the present day

49 FIGURE 5 Parallel group working FIGURE 6 49 Production line group working FIGURE 7 71 The historical development of the quantity surveying profession FIGURE 8 72 The historical development of the professional associations associated with quanti. ty. surveying FIGURE '9 75

The dilemma facing the RICS on graduate entry

CHAPTER 3 FIGURE 10 90

Continua in the professional ideal type FIGURE 11 99 Systems of social selection FIGURE 12 107 Patterns of professional privilege in pre-industrial. and industrial England

FIGURE 13 119 The Taxanomic approach FIGURE 14 128 The two dimensional cruciality mystique matrix

xiv

CHAPTER 4 FIGURE 15 Antecedents and outcomes of the organisational professional conflict

FIGURE 16 Difference between.. profess-ional practice in different settings. FIGURE 17 The model of an organisation FIGURE 18 Integrative model, of organisational analysis FIGURE 19 ' A contingency view of managerial work FIGURE 20 Major influences on structure and climate

CHAPTER 5 FIGURE 21 The dual role of motivation as a determinant of cumulative achievement FIGURE 22 Flow chart showing interrelationships among the key variables related to entrepreneurial behaviour

FIGURE 23 Possible determinants of entrepreneurial characteristics FIGURE 24 An example and synthesis of a number of circumplex models of interpersonal behaviour FIGURE 25 The interpersonal check list FIGURE '26 A model for environmental psychology

CHAPTER 6 FIGURE 27 Paradigm of the influences on professionalism

CHAPTER'7 FIGURE 28 Questionnaire structure

CHAPTER 8 FIGURE 29 Distribution of total sample by birth order

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174

175

179

181

182

189

197

203

208

221

226

229

274

280

303

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FIGURE 30 306 Distribution of total sample by highest qualification obtained FIGURE 31 308 Distribution of total sample by geographical location FIGURE 32 310 Distribution of total sample by size of employing organisation FIGURE 33 310 Distribution of total sample by non adjusted management level FIGURE 34 315 Relationships between occupational structuring and major dimensions of personality and professionalism FIGURE 35 318 Relationships between occupational structuring and major dimensions of personality and professionalism FIGURE 36 322 Relationship between sector of employment and role, personality and professionalism variables FIGURE 37 325 Relationships between hierarchical level and major variables of role, personality and professionalism FIGURE 38 328 Relationships between structuring on role positions and major variables of personality and professionalism FIGURE 39 331 Relationships between task variables, personality dimensions and professionalism FIGURE 40 333 Relationship between achievement climate and major variables of personality and professionalism FIGURE 41 334 Relationships between organisational size and task variables FIGURE 42 336 The relationships between social class, education and need for achievement for total sample

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FIGURE 43 337 Relationships between educational variables, n-Ach, managerial level and social class for those with 0 levels only

FIGURE 44 337 Relationships as indicated in Figure 43 with social class for those with A levels only FIGURE 45 344 Relationships between major variables, hierarchical level and age FIGURE 46 345 The relationship between personality dimensions, övir, -all professionalism and age FIGURE 47 346 The relationship between personality dimensions, age and dimensions of professionalism 347 FIGURE 48 Relationships between attendance at professional seminars, extent of professional qualification, age, hierarchical level and over all professionalism FIGURE 49 348 Relationships between degree of structuring on role positions and dimensions of professionalism FIGURE 50 347 Relationships between tasks variables and dimensions of professionalism FIGURE 51 350 Relationships between degree of structuring on role positions and task variables FIGURE 52 351 The complexity of the qualifying process

CHAPTER 9 FIGURE 53 366 Major relationships established between sector of employment, role variables, hierarchical level, personality variables and attitudinal professionalism FIGURE 54 369 Major relationships established with occupational structuring

xvii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to Professor John Hunt, Plowden Professor of Human Relations, Dean of Faculty, London Business School,

without whose expert help and guidance, this thesis may never have been completed.

I would like to thank Professor Torrance, Head of Department

of Building, Heriot Watt University, for allowing me the freedom to persue this research study, and Mr. Peter Lansley, Assistant Director of Research, Ashridge Management College, for his statistical advice.

Thanks also to Laura Jannetta and Chris and Carole Gledhill for processing questionnaires, and to Aileen Dailly and Cathy Wawro for typing the thesis under difficult circumstances.

A special thanks goes to my wife, Angela, for all her help

and support.

xviii

ABSTRACT

The research study was an investigation of the ideology

of professionalism in Quantity Surveying. The premise

of the study was that professionalism is an occupational

power strategy used, in conjunction with the characteristics

of profession, to exercise control over recruitment and

client behaviour in the market place. The attitudinal

aspects of professionalism were explored with respect to

the major dimensions of Belief in Professional Association

as a Major Reference, Self Regulation, Professional

Autonomy, Vocation and Public Service. The first three

dimensions were considered aspects of occupational power. The study used a framework derived from historical,

individual, organisational and occupational perspectives.

Data were gathered by survey questionnaire from qualified quantity surveyors (N=449) who were members of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors or the Institute of Quantity Surveyors. The study was undertaken in 1981/82 just prior to the amalgamation of the two institutes in 1982/83. Three variable sets provided the research paradigm - Individual, Organisational and Occupational. Achievement Motivation and Interpersonal Variables were employed to

explore the Individual perspective. Major role variables of Task, Degree of Structuring and Climate explored the

organisational perspective by sector of employment and hierarchical rank. The Occupational perspective was investigated using literary evidence and results from the individual and organisational levels of analysis.

On the-basis of these data the major finding was that Quantity Surveying is a highly specialised occupation, but

not a profession.

xix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

The impetus for the present study came from the author's

own experiences in Quantity Surveying. The study further

developed with a growing interest in the effects of

organisational and occupational influences on individuals

and the consequences for occupational development in'the

social structure. Pilot study work was commenced in 1979/80 and the full study was undertaken in'1981/82, just prior to the amalgamation, in 1982/83, of the Institute of Quantity Surveyors with the Royal Institution

of Chartered Surveyors.

Major objectives

The major objectives of the study are:

i) To explore issues surrounding the ideology of professionalism in Quantity Surveying within an

'historical, sociological and managerial framework. ii) To use an individual, organisational and occupational

perspective to develop a broad theoretical framework to undertake the study.

iii) To reach conclusions about the occupational standing of. Quantity Surveying within this framework.

iv) To reach conclusions about the effects of individual and organisational factors on professionalism as an occupational power strategy.

Thesis structure

The thesis is structured in the following manner:

Chapter 2. deals with the historical development of Quantity Surveying up to the time of the amalgamation of the IQS and RICS. Other issues

explored include the training, recruitment and education of individuals. The organisational setting of occupational practice is also explored together with the "professional

culture" of Quantity Surveying.

Chapter 3 provides the sociological perspective on professions, professionalisation and professionalism.

1

It includes differing models for exploring

occupational power, control and the relationship between the client and practitioner. It also

explores issues surrounding professional

privilege.

Chapter 4 provides the organisational perspective. Issues

raised include the effects of organisational

structure, climate and size on individuals

together with the major dimensions of technology,

power and the environment.

Chapter 5 explores the individual perspective and

concentrates on achievement motivation theory

and interpersonal relations.

Chapter 6 synthesises the literature survey into a research

paradigm.

Chapter 7 sets out the methodology for exploring the

research paradigm.

Chapter 8 presents the results of the study.

Chapter 9 provides an analysis and discussion on the

results within the context of the theoretical framework discussed in the literature survey together with other'findings that-have emerged from the. study.

Chapter 10 presents the conclusions of the study in terms

of the research paradigm and the individual,

organisational and occupational perspectives

of the theoretical framework.

2

CHAPTER 2

THE DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATION

OF QUANTITY SURVEYING AS AN OCCUPATION

INTRODUCTION

Quantity Surveying, as a specialism, is-inseparably linked

with the development of the Surveying Profession as a whole. This is primarily due to the dominance of the Royal

Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) as the main institutional body to represent the interests of Quantity

Surveying and other surveying specialisms. Quantity

surveyors were, until recently, also represented by the

Institute of Quantity Surveyors. (IQS). However, the two

professional associations amalgamated in 1983. NEDO (1978),

in their study of the resources of the construction industry,

indicated the relative distribution of professionals by

association. The figures are presented in Table 1

Quantity Surveying is explored under the following section headings.

The Structure of the Surveying Profession Quantity Surveying The Development of Quantity Surveying The Professional Associations Education and Training Quantity Surveying Education and Training The Training Institutions Professionalism and the Claims to Professional Status Quantity Surveyors in Organisations Client Organisations

Internal Debate within Quantity Surveying Empirical Evidence on Individuals in Quantity Surveying

The chapter plan reflects areas considered important for

establishing and exploring the status of Quantity Surveying

as an occupation or profession. As the thesis is concerned with intra occupational dynamics, much of the evidence presented in the following pages is discussed in

chronological order. This procedure is adopted to reflect the development in thinking of the surveying and specialist 'collectivity'. The terms 'profession' and 'professional' are used throughout the present chapter because of their customary use in the occupation of Quantity Surveying. However, they are not expressions of an assumed status of the occupation. That status is not discussed until the evidence presented in the following pages is critically

3-

Table 1 Main building and Civil Engineering professions: numbers and Distribution by tvp! e of employment

Source; MEDO (1978)

Quantity Surveyors

(RICS) (IQS)

Civil Engineers

(ICE)

Architects (RIBA)

Building Services Engineers

(CIBS)

Structural Engineers (IStructE)

Corpolate membership in UK 9280 4430 35 635 21 131 6888 7285

Percentage employment 2

Private practice and self employment 59 na 18 48 20 51

Contractors and other 19' companies 7 majority 22 5 45

Local authorities 19 na 33 31 12 183

Central government and public corporations, 9 na 23 13 18 7

Education and other 6 na 4 3 5 5

Total 100 100 100 100_ 100 100

1. For dates between December 1976 and June 1977 2. For same dates, except ICE 1976, IStructE 1975, and CIBS for IHVE corporate

. members in 1973 (IHVE joined with others to form CIBS) 3. Includes further education teaching

The above table presents corporate membership only, it does not present student, probationer and licentiate members.

In addition to the above main institutes there are others whose members may be employed in construction, eg., mechanical and electrical institutes employed in building services. Furthermore 5-10% of practicing Architects are registered with ARCUK but are not members of the RIBA.

'4

appraised within the context of a management and

sociological framework.

The quantity surveyor, in his normal wdrking role, forms

part of a design team facing a potentially complex

construction process. Figure1 places the quantity surveyor

within the context of the numerous personal relationships

encountered and the complexity of the building process as

a whole.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE SURVEYING PROFESSION The structure of the surveying profession is adequately described by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission (HMSO

1977). It concluded that this profession covers a wide diversity of occupations. However, it noted that the common element between them was their concern with some aspect of the measurement, management, development or valuation of land, property or buildings. The Commission commented that

many of the surveying functions from which the profession grew were conducted by stewards, architects and lawyers.. The growth of the profession is, therefore, an aspect of the developing trend towards specialisation especially evident in the 19th Century.

Denman (1976) supported this view when he stated,

... The surveyor's profession Is the, land management profession. Its several parts fit together to that end: the land surveyors to measure and tell us what we have got; the land managers and the market men to advise on how to arrange and dispose of the land assets; and the quantity surveyors to calculate the outcome of dispositions made". (p. 102).

The Future of the Profession Report (RICS 1970) indicated the profession was probably structured on three levels of activity. These were: -

The Professional level, comprising individuals of high educational standard who accept full responsibility for their own decisions and those of their subordinates. The Technical level, comprising individuals who are subordinate to professionals but have some formal technical training and,

5

rººASt": PAR"rlt"IrANrS Acrrtyt rtI s

Consrptu: il x"11 ont ^ýr . 1. "vr ýý tit ta" talrot ttI viat Ion l: anrrpt ton of 1 tn: mca" Land Owner t)t m: 1nd 5ourro Vulu: it ton Surveyor tJvnt I Brat Lwyc rs tku lL nu Ft n: mcILrr Prux)aals and ý IDC, 001' Officials Vla lltty Town and Country Dect. ton

Planners Architect or Civil Approvals: 1DC. UUP.

10u-Cline planning Site Acquisition Engineer Qu; intity Surveyor Cos[ Building, Services Planning

Engineer

Design Architect or Civil Engineer

Struct. Engineer Building Services

Engineer Quantity Surveyor Other design

Professionals Specialist Contrac

Contractor Town and Country

Planners Building Regulation

Officers Fire Authority

Officers Financier Client

Specialist Contractor Desi n

Contract Quatity Surveyor n Documentation itect or Civil Arc

Engineer Specialist

Contractor Main Contractor Letting Specialis Lawyers Contracts Financiers Client Trade Unions

Constructioh Main Contractor on Site Arc itect or Civil

Engineer Quantity Surveyor Building Services

Engineer input of Struct: Engineer

Specialist Materials and Contractor Components

Other Sub - Contractors

Contract Management Technical and

Clerical Staff Tradesmen Unskilled and Semi-

Skilled operative Off- site support

ser f Plant Utilisation Materials producers

Component Manufacturers

Trade Unions Builder's Merchants Plant Manufacturers Building Inspector Client lawyers

[Design Nrief

Scheme Destgn

Detailed Design Civil Eng: Struct: Eng: Architect Quantity Building Services Surveyor

Engineer Other Specialists

Detailed Planning Permission and Bye-Law Approval

Confirmation of Finance and Viability

Contract Documentation

Preparation of Tender

Lettine Main Contract

Contract Administration and Site Supervision Civil Eng: Architect, Ouantity Surveyor

MY- me Ithl-h

rrc l (ml n. i ry Vlaht llty

Type of Cgntrlet

Iasu- of Design Biief

Final VSabiLLCy Agceptance

Commitment of Long Term Finance

Decision to 11

Construct

Maan Loncractor Man power Input Adman Staff Professional & Technical staff Clerical Staff Operatives

Specialist Contractor Input

As for main Contractor

Sub-Contract Input

As for main Contrnctnr

Construct Imt i

FIgvre I The 7rndItI". cc. oI ConrcCructInn I'rucess for New üuflif ing and CfvLL IngIneering WorkM l: niircc": nd: c;, tc". I from FIF. IX)(I91M; 4)

6

coptnnco mb MML%-. tt, ninK

The Operative level, comprising support staff

such as draughtsmen and clerks who may have a less

formal training.

The above views, a blend of 'official policy', State

investigation and personal inclination present a picture

of a profession which although diverse, is unified through

a common bond in the land. However, much of the discussion

that follows presents a picture of not only tensions from,

but also within a specialism. These tensions are explored

when concentrating on Quantity Surveying, probably one

of the most vociferous specialisms within Surveying.

QUANTITY SURVEYING The Chartered Quantity Surveyor is defined to be,

"... a building economist, sometimes described as a construction cost consultant. He advises building owners and Architects on probable costs of building schemes and on the cost of alternative designs. His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within pre-determined limits of expenditure. He also advises on procedures for arranging building contracts. He prepares Bills of Quantities and where appropriate negotiates contracts with builders: he also prepares forecasts of final costs and valuations for payments to the builder as work proceeds. He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variation in the work.: during the contract and for the preparation and agreement of the builder's final account" (RICS 1972).

As a specialism within the Surveying profession, Quantity

Surveying has had a very chequered history with the

Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RIC§). This

uneasy relationship was exemplified by the FOP Report (RICS 1970), which acknowledged that it was virtually a separate profession from the remaining Surveying professions. This sentiment was further supported by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission (HMSO 1977), which stated

".,. Quantity Surveying ... is best regarded

as distinct from other forms of surveying" (p. 4, para 11).

7

The RICS elaborated on this independent specialism in their

case presented to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission.

The distinguishing features were: -

1. The nature of the work. Much of the quantity surveyor's work was said to

be of a largely uniform, technical character

especially in the area of measurement. However,

the RICS noted that it still required a high degree

of skill, precision and a close constant regard for

the client's interest.

2. The Clients. The RICS argued that clients were usually large,

informed bodies, for example, local and central

government and property developers, who would normally

have their own salaried quantity surveyors. Further-

more, regardless of size, client bodies would normally

also be advised by architects and the quantity surveyor

would usually receive instructions based on this advice.

3. The relative importance of individual engagements.

The length of time, from inception to commissioning,

for construction projects meant the number of engage-

ments for a practice would be small in any one year.

Quoting general figures, the RICS indicated that for

a major firm of quantity surveyors instructions for

engagement could be less than 200 jobs per year and

a smaller firm, of less than 5 partners, could receive less than 50.

The problem that Quantity Surveying presents to the surveying

profession as a whole is also evident. within Quantity

Surveying itself. The historical development of Quantity

Surveying has produced surveyors who are commercially

oriented and are predominantly employed in contracting

organisations. A split, be it artificial or real, exists between those working in private practice and those working in commercial organisations.

8

THE DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTITY SURVEYING

The following sections deal with the countries of England,

Scotland and Ireland where the fate of the quantity surveyor

and his development resulted from different impetuses.

The English Dimension

In England, Quantity Surveying had its roots in the Great

Fire of London in 1666 (Thompson 1968). Because of the

enormity of the fire damage, considerable restructuring in

the building industry followed. During the Middle Ages the

building Industry had been organised on a Guild structure.

However, after the Great Fire it came under increasing

pressures to cope with the upsurge in construction activity.

Consequently, a number of the Master craftsmen from the old

Guilds became entrepreneurs during the ensuing boom.

Cotemporaneously, the architects were developing their role

into that of designers and coordinators of craftsmen.

Architects were 'educated gentlemen' rather than artisans

since the property landlords, in London, were invariably

of the nobility (Higgins and iessop 1965).

Payment for building works, by the client, was usually

conducted on a materials and labour basis with payment

established by physical measurement 'as complete'. The

property boom placed architects under increasing pressures

due to the considerable demand for design work. Consequently

they began to divest themselves of their measuring function

although still maintaining the cost estimating function for

the client (Thompson 1968). As the building boom eased

many of the less talented architects were forced to under-

take supplementary work, as well as the design function, and

subsequently, became architect-surveyors and architect- builders.

The first claims to professional status for 'measurers'

came with the publication of Venturus Manday's "Marrow of

Measuring" in 1682. Manday placed the 'measurer' in the

position of an independent arbiter and described him as a

professional man in his own right. However, as Thompson

notes, the claim was premature since two measurers existed

at the time; one for the client and one for tradesmen.

9

By the mid 18th Century restructuring had occurred once

more in the industry with the emerging pattern of the

architect operating directly for the client. The former

acting as employer for various separate single trades.

During this period groups of artisans employed a 'measurer'

to measure the completed work and negotiate with the

architect for payment. The 'measurers' invariably pressed the claims of craftsmen and as a consequence the architect began to employ his own independent 'measurer' to counteract these claims. (Higgins and 3essop 1965), Figure 2

The date from which Quantity Surveying existed as a full-time

occupation is conjectural (Thompson 1968). He indicates

that the architect-surveyor began to call himself quantity

surveyor by the mid 18th Century. Higgins and Jessop (1965) agree, chronologically, but use the term 'measurer'

to indicate a separate function of building measurement was being practiced around this period. However, Tyrrell Evans (1954), places the common use of the term 'Quantity

Surveyor', around the 20th Century, although it was occasionally in use from 1859 onwards.

Further developments in the techniques of building measurement occurred with the publishing of William Hawney's "The Compleat Measurer" in 1717 and Thomas Skaife's "A key to Civil Architecture - the Universal British Builder" in 1774. During this period pre-construction estimates were beginning

to be used, based on priced quantities, calculated from

plans and elevations. This procedure, to produce an overall cost estimate in advance of construction, was advocated by Skaife although it was in direct opposition to the common method used at the time of estimated costs based on square area of building.

An evolutionary process was occurring in the building industry during the period between 18th to 19th Centuries

especially in the roles of the participants in the

construction process. Construction was becoming more commercial, with a transition away from patronage towards

professionalism and specialism in the design and supervising functions. Architects began to dissociate themselves from building, surveying and measuring. This was effectively

10

Client,

Master Bricklayer

INI

Master Mason -'.

Architect Measurer Master Carpenter /

Measurer Master

Contractual Relationship

Service Relationship

Figure 2 The Building Industry during the 18th Century Source: Higgins and Jessop (1965: 40)

--i- only one of these relationships exist at any one time

Quantity

Main Sub- Contractor Traders

Client Architect Bricklayer Masonry Carpenter Tiling etc Plumbing etc

Figure 3 The Building Industry during the first half of the 19th Century Source: Higgins and Jessop (1965: 43)

11

establishing a status hierarchy within the building

industry, since surveyors were beginning to be held in lower

esteem. During this transitional period from 1770 onwards

and lasting for approximately eighty years, the surveyors

were also dissociating themselves from builders. However,

there still remained a considerable blurring of function

(Thompson 1968).

At the turn of the 18th Century the Napoleonic Wars

produced the next environmental impetus for the development

of Quantity Surveying (Thompson 1968, Higgins and 3essop

1965). The upsurge in barrack room construction in London

produced a move towards single contractors undertaking

responsibility for the whole construction process through

a single contract with an architect. The rise of the

Master Builder revolutionised contracting. A further

developmental impetus came with the design and building

of the new Houses of Parliament, eventually commissioned in 1837. The major part of the construction was let as a

single contract using detailed drawings, Bills of Quantities

and a preliminary cost estimate based on them. The new

Houses of Parliament also gave Quantity Surveying its

first public recognition in 1836 with the provision of

evidence to the Parliamentary Committee on the building of

the new Houses. The evidence was given by H. A. Hunt, then

considered to be at the head of the new Quantity Surveying

'profession'. The measuring function had by now become

highly specialised with the establishment of the Quantity

Surveyor in the 1850s, Figure 3

The growing tensions between architects and quantity

surveyors came to a head in the mid 1800s when the former

instigated a, smear campaign against the latter. The underlying reason behind the campaign was an attempt, by

architects, to salvage their already flagging image. To

this end they suggested the elite in Quantity Surveying

were forcing many of the traditional measurers into under-

hand practices. Tactically the architects emphasised their

design function and denigrated all non architectural functions. Their prime target was the architect-surveyor

who occupied a no man's land between the traditional

12

measurer and the architect. This successful tactic led

to the formation of the Royal Institute of British

Architects in 1834. Thompson (1968) quoted an address

given before a meeting of the RIBA on 2nd July 1834,

excluding or expelling from membership

... any Fellow or Associate either. för having. engaged since his election in the measurement, valuation or estimation of any works undertaken or proposed to be. undertaken by any building artifices, except such as are proposed to be executed or have been executed under the Members own design or directions; or for the receipt or acceptance of any pecuniary consideration or emolument from any builder or other tradesman whose works he may have been engaged to superintend; or for having any interest in or participation with any trade contract, or materials supplied at any works, the execution whereof he may be or have been engaged to superintend" (p. 93).

Thompson continued in his own words to indicate the direct

consequence was that,

"... they excluded from the Architectural profession the new, skilled, specially trained quantity surveyors into whom the best of the measurers were growing. The professional future of quantity surveyors, with their manifold links with the building industry and Architecture, was thereby turned towards other surveyors, and the ultimate forging of a surveying profession" (p. 93).

Thompson noted the old fashioned measurer was already a dying breed and-the strategy adopted by the architects hastened their end, completed the structural change within the Architectural profession and effectively established the new occupation of Quantity Surveying.

Technological developments were having considerable effects

on the building industry in tandem with the restructuring

of the Architectural profession (Higgins and ZJessop 1965).

These mainly included the invention of Portland cement in

1825 and the use of steel. The impact of these developments

caused the roles of the specialist designers and sub

contractors to diverge. Furthermore, the roles of the

Architect and specialist designers, as being responsible for

the whole project, became very confused. This confusion was further compounded by a development in the use of nominated sub contractors by architects, Figure 4

13

Construction Con

I trol Work on Building '-t

ýX X Plumbing

Main N Quantity

-- Contractor Floors 0 Surveyor i

Bill XXxx A

I

Cost Advice

I x X-C-x X Concrete

Client Architect -X-X->(-X- X. Steel :: 1 p

E

Engineer' 0

ýE-X->(-X-X Services Design

- -- '- -1 Sub- contractors

-X--X- Control Function Contractual Relationships

--ý- Only one of these exist at any one time

Figure 4 The Building Industry in the late 19th Century and to the present day

Source: Higgins and Jessop (1965: 43)

14

Clients were becoming increasingly dissatisfied as the

discrepancies between estimated costs, and the final account became more pronounced due to increasing project complexity (Bennett 1977). Two developments in Quantity Surveying

assisted with this problem. First, the development of the

Bill of Quantities, in its present form, occurred during

the 19th Century in the wake of construction activity

associated with the Industrial Revolution. The Bill of

Quantities allowed submitted tenders, from contracting

organisations, to be compared against each other. Second,

in the post World War Two period cost planning techniques

were developed allowing the'. Quantity Surveyor to be involved

in the economics of the design process.

The Scottish Dimension

During the 17th and 18th Centuries measuring was more organised in Scotland than in England. Measuring was often practiced by tradesmen who were members of craft guilds and chapels. Certain trades, especially Masonry, were developing standard

methods of measuring quantities. Consequently, in conjunction with the responsibilities of guild membership, Scottish measurers had reputations far in excess of their

English counterparts (Thompson 1968). By 1862 Quantity

Surveying was well established in Scotland (Tyrrell Evans

1954).

The Scottish surveyors formed a more cohesive group in

comparison to their English brethren because of their long

standing connection with the municipal authorities. The

craft guilds were abolished in 1847 but it remained the

practice for measurers to be ordained-by the City Sheriffs. The measurers developed a growing awareness of the

necessity for forming their own voluntary associations to

enforce standards and conduct exams. In general, the Sheriffs in the Cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow co-operated with the measurers' associations by refusing to ordain anyone failing to qualify through the societies examinations (Thompson 1968).

Measuring practices in Scotland were aligned with the

organisation of the Scottish building industry in which

15

I

single trades contracts were the norm. The Scottish and English systems of measurement did not fit well together.

However, a shift in the structure of the Scottish

construction industry caused the Scottish surveyors to

rethink their approach to English surveying practices. The

increasing trend for Scottish building projects to be let

under a single comprehensive contract usually meant that

English contractors were employed and the Bills of

Quantities prepared by English -quantity surveyors. The

increasing competition between Scottish and English

surveyors forced the former, through their Faculty of

Surveyors, to amalgamate with the RICS in 1937 (Thompson

1968).

The Irish Dimension

Measurers were in existence in Dublin and Belfast in the

1870s. However, the. Irish Land Agents considered'thero inferior. Links were forged between the English and Irish

surveyors in the late 19th and early 20th Century but an Irish surveyor was unable to practice in England and. Wales

unless he had passed the equivalent examinations (Thompson

1968).

THE PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors'

The Monopolies and Mergers Commission (HMSO 1977) concluded that the RICS,

"... is the dominant professional body concerned with fees for the supply of surveyors' services. This dominance arises because of the Institution's historical. prestige and the large size of its membership and the fact that the Institution's scales, or parts of them are agreed with or adopted by other professional bodies" (para 41).

The FOP Report (RICS 1970)'was explicit in stating that the

structure of the RICS was based on the premise that the

activities mentioned in the Royal Charter constitute it to

be a single profession. It is this dominant position,

enjoyed by the RICS, that has caused many of the tensions,

mentioned earlier, within the specialisms inherent in the

16

Surveying Profession. This is especially true of Quantity

Surveying and has often led to power struggles within the Surveying Profession.

1 The origins

Like many professional associations the RICS has its

historical foundations in social clubs. The main purpose

of these clubs was to provide a forum for exchanging ideas

notably without any conscious notion of forming a regulatory body. The antecedents of the RICS were in the Surveyors

Club - founded in 1792, the Land Surveyors Club - founded

in 1834 and the Surveyors Association - founded in 1864. The important criterion for membership of these clubs was

eminence in the emerging field of surveying. The skills found among the members'included the valuation of land,

boundary measurement in connection with Private Bills and

Quantity Surveying. Quantity Surveying was noted to be

"already a distinct profession" (Monopolies and Mergers

Commission HMSO 1977, p. 93). 2

The Institute of Surveyors (forerunner to the RICS) was

established in 1868 (Thompson 1968). The 20 founder members

were predominantly London based surveyors representing

auctioneering and estate management. Thompson noted their

common bond was railway work. Founding membership was

again based on eminence in their chosen field. Many of the

founders had served under articles to established surveyors

although several had trained in their father's offices. Thompson gave an insight into the motivational forces

behind the formation

"... Surveyors.; inhabiting a no man's land in the

. world of building. and construction, were being urged to organise, firstly because they were felt to have reached professional calibre and secondly, they needed the protection, the facilities and the status, which an institution could provide" (p. 137).

The RICS gained public recognition in 1878 with the passing

of the Metropolis Management and Building Acts (Amendment)

Act. This was the first Act to give statutory recognition to the Institute (Monopolies and Mergers Commission HMSO

1977). A Royal Charter was granted in 1881 and Royal

17

Patronage bestowed in 1921. The name of the Institution

%-. -as changed in 1930 to the Chartered Surveyors Institution

and renamed the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors in

1946.

The RICS took approximately seventy years from its foundation

until it performed the full range of functions associated

with a professional body. The prime objective during this

period was surveying competence. The code of ethics for

the Institution took approximately seventy years to evolve.

This lengthy gestation was predominantly caused by the

difficulties of enforcing standards in the operations of

the property market. The first Professional Practice

Committee was established in 1898-9 enabling the Institution

to exercise disciplinary powers over members. During the

formative years establishing a professional base preoccupied

members rather than keeping a close rein on professional

integrity (Thompson 1968). 3

The Architectural profession, Thompson notes, within the

boundaries of the RIBA, adopted the reverse approach and

was initially concerned with integrity due to their poor

professional image in the early 1800s. Thompson adds the

question of competence was a more thorny issue since it

involved aesthetic judgement.

2 Surveyors and Dissention

During the period 1868 to 1900 the Quantity Surveying

specialism within the RICS, was the fastest growing section

and became a dominant part of the Institution's membership (Thompson 1968). The recognition and status of Quantity

Surveying, as a profession, was believed, by Thompson, to

have come when the occupation came within the sphere of the Institution. However, dissention between the quantity Surveyors and the RICS was growing and reached a head in

1903 when the Quantity Surveying Association (QSA) was formed; it was incorporated by the Board of Trade in 1904 (Tyrrell Evans 1954). Conflict erupted for two reasons. First, quantity surveyors now felt more secure in their

professional standing and began to feel the RICS was no longer the Institution best suited to represent their aims.

18

Second, quantity Surveyors were anxious to

a separate specialist profession. However,

aim of the RICS was the unification of-the Profession. To this end incorporation, by

Trade, for the QSA was strongly opposed by

(Thompson 1968).

be recognised as

an important

Surveying

the Board of

the RICS

Tyrrell Evans (1954) noted that the impetus for the formation

of the QSA came not only from dissenting RICS members but

also unattached quantity 'Surveyors. The membership of the QSA saw it as a reforming body and not a splinter group. To this end it held qualifying examinations but did not

grant titles or diplomas. Its main objectives were to

standardise measurement procedures, regularise fees and increase the protection of quantity surveyors interests. In response to the formation of the QSA the RICS formed the Quantity Surveyors Committee in 1904.

The QSA amalgamated with the RICS in 1923. The newly

established Quantity Surveyors Committee enjoyed considerable autonomy and was subject only to the final policy decisions

of the Council of the RICS. Furthermore, amalgamation brought with it the designation Chartered Quantity Surveyor (Thompson 1968).

Further dissention broke out again in, the 1930s resulting in the formation of the Institute of Quantity Surveyors (IQS). The formation of the IQS was brought about for three

main reasons. First, there was internal wrangling between

certain Quantity Surveying members of the RICS and the Institution itself. Second, those quantity surveyors who were employed by contracting organisations were barred from

membership of the RICS and they felt they needed a corporate voice. Third, quantity surveyors desired professional respectability for their occupation (Dolan 1979, IQS 1983). Consequently the IQS was formed in 1938 and incorporated in 1941.

3 Consolidation of the Surveying Profession

a) Past amalgamations The RICS, in the formative years, was essentially an English and Welsh association of surveyors. The

19

different land laws and occupational histories of the Scottish surveyors resulted in a general lack

of interest, by them, in the RICS, Interest from Ireland was also one of indifference (Thompson 1968).

The Faculty of Surveyors in Scotland represented the

main Institute for the protection of Quantity Surveyors interests north of the border. It was founded in 1913

through the amalgamation of the Society of Ordained Surveyors (founded in 1899 and centred in Edinburgh)

and the Glasgow Institute of Measurers (founded in 1881). The RICS had established a Scottish Branch in 1897. A special dispensation was granted to senior Scottish

surveyors enabling them to be elected to membership without examination. The Branch remained small and

represented a narrow range of surveying interests

since, in the main, the majority of Scottish practitioners found the Faculty of Surveyors to be adequate for the

profession (Thompson 1968). The Faculty of Surveyors

had been granted a Royal Charter which it sacrificed in its amalgamation with the RICS in 1937 (Tyrrell Evans 1954).

The links with Ireland were established in 1895 through

the Irish Land Agents Committee (formerly the Irish

Land Agents Society) (Thompson 1968) and amalgamation

with the Irish Quantity Surveyors Association (formed

in 1924) (Tyrrell Evans 1954). The Irish branch, like

the Scottish, was given considerable autonomy.

b) Recent amalgamations

The first major amalgamation took place with the

unification, in 1970, of the Chartered Auctioneers and Estate Agents Institute, the Chartered Land Agents Society and the RICS (Monopolies and Mergers Commission 1977). The second major amalgamation took place in 1982 when the IQS membership voted to unify with the RICS, administrative amalgamation taking place in March 1983.

20

The Institute of Quantity Surveyors4

The IQS differed in two important respects from the RICS.

First, it catered for quantity surveyors only and accepted

no other class of surveyor. Second, it did not discriminate

between those employed in commercial organisations and those

in private practice. It therefore allowed its members to

undertake the Institute's examinations whilst employed in

the offices of an approved commercial organisation (IQS

1980).

The majority of the founders of the IQS were from private

practice but were concerned about the interests of the

contractor's quantity surveyor (IQS 1983a).

Relationships between the IQS and RICS have at times been

difficult. In 1948 the RICS threatened court action against

the former for its use of the. words 'Incorporated Quantity

Surveyor'. In the event the RICS did not proceed (Lester 1983).

The RICS had considered they had the sole right to use the

designation and felt IQS members were attempting to pass

themselves off as members of the RICS.

Public recognition for the IQS came during a High Court

action in 1952. Council for the Plaintiff passed derogatory

remarks about the standing of the IQS in comparison to that

of the RICS. The IQS were allowed to publicly defend them-

selves and on consideration of the evidence the judge upheld

the professional reputation of the IQS. The IQS unsuccess-

fully submitted a petition to the Privy Council for a Royal

Charter in 1977 (Lester 1983).

The combined future of the IQS and RICS was initially given

consideration in 1969. Following the Report of a joint

working party it was concluded that amalgamation was not

possible. However, in the long term it would be,

"... beneficial to the Public, to the Clients served by both societies and finally to the Profession itself" (IQS ]983b p: 295)

Progress towards amalgamation was slow, especially as both

Societies had differing aims. At the time the IQS was only interested in liaison although the RICS (as it appeared to

the officials of the IQS) was only interested in amalgamation.

21

J Furthermore, the RICS was unlikely to accept the training

of quantity surveyors in contractors' offices. By 1973 the IQS Council were of the opinion that the RICS appeared

reluctant to liaise at working party level. Furthermore,

RICS headquarters had instructed certain branches to refrain from conducting joint local meetings (IQS 1983b). By 1974

local RICS branches had disregarded this directive and

negotiations reopened again. The IQS membership were next

consulted concerning amalgamation in 1976 but pressure groups

within the IQS voiced their dissent and the membership

rejected amalgamation. However, only a small proportion of

those eligible to vote, in both Societies, did so (Lester

1983). "Grass roots" feeling within the IQS stepped in and joint meetings were conducted once again with unification

meetings taking place in 1981-2. Unification was passed

by ballot in 1982 (IQS 1983b).

Other Institutions Associated with Quantity Surveying

1. The Chartered Institute of Building (CIOB)

The CIOB was formed in 1834 as the Builders Society.

Membership covers a wide range of activities in contracting but a proportion of the members undertake quantity

surveying functions. It was granted a Royal Charter in July 1980, eighteen months after the Institute's

application (Building ]. 980).

2. The Faculty of Architects and Surveyors (FAS)

The FAS was founded in 1926 to serve the professions of Architecture and Surveying. The FAS amalgamated with the Institute of Registered Architects in 1974. FAS

rules require that practicing Architects must be registered with the Architects Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK). The majority of surveyors are employed either as building or quantity surveyors (Monopolies

and Mergers Commission HMSO 1977).

3. The Incorporated Association of Architects and Surveyors (IAAS)

The IAAS was formed in 1925 to serve the interests of architects and surveyors. IAAS rules also require that

22

practicing members of the architects section must be

registered with ARCUK. Those practicing surveying are predominantly in the areas of building and quantity

surveying (Monopolies and Mergers Commission HMSO 1977).

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Education and training are intimately connected with the

operation and structuring of a profession. The education and training of quantity surveyors is heavily influenced by the general educational and training policy of the RICS together with the policy formulated by the Quantity Surveying Division of the RICS. In view of this complexity the following discussion is structured to deal with RICS educational policy documents, non-educational policy documents and finally

those statements produced by the QS Divisional Council and the IQS.

The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors

I. Surveying Education and the Qualifying Examinations

Surveying education has traditionally been 'learning by doing' in an office environment. The approved method has been by articled pupilage with a surveyor of

established reputation. The period of training was

usually of three to five years duration. This mode of training was especially prevalent for quantity surveyors from the 19th Century onwards (Thompson 1968). However,

articled pupilage was expensive and time consuming and many trainee surveyors were unable to afford either. The alternative to articles was usually to seek employment as a salaried, junior, assistant in a surveyor's office undertaken with the hope of gaining balanced

experience. Both methods had their drawbacks and gradually articles decreased in importance as a method of training. The RICS attitude towards training was generally one of allowing others to undertake the function and maintaining influence over what was taught through the examination system. The granting of the Royal Charter in 1881 gave the RICS prestige and moral authority over

23

its membership (Thompson 1968). The most important

change to follow from, but not a condition of, the

granting of the Charter was the establishment of

qualifying examinations. Thompson noted these grew

mainly from the concern for professional education. The

corporate designations of Fellow and Professional

Associate were initiated after the establishment of the

examination system. Initially each grade had its own

examination but modifications were made in 1913 with the

establishment of a single final qualifying exam. Under

the new system the Professional Associate became

eligible after five years experience in a responsible

position. The distinction between the two grades was,

therefore, primarily one of length of service (Thompson

1968).

The complex structure of the Surveying profession

inevitably entailed a complicated examination structure. The Professional Education Committee in 1880 set up three divisions of proficiency examinations to cope with the structure.

5 These divisions remained until 1932

when they were restructured into four divisions. 6

Further modifications occurred during the period 1951-61

with the structure developing into five divisions. 7

2. Post World War Two Educational Policy

The RICS, during the period after 1945, had to grapple

with a number of problems in surveying education. First,

the educational standards in the country as a whole were increasing. Second, the profession was facing graduate entrants and third, the Institution wanted to attract the right calibre of entrant to the profession. These

problems are still of major concern for the RICS and it has yet to formulate a coherent policy to adequately deal with them.

The Watson Committee (RICS 3.950) produced the first Report designed to grapple with these issues. The Committee

adopted a dual approach to degree exemption. First, individuals with degrees in Estate Management from either

24

Cambridge or London University were eligible for

immediate election to Professional Associate on fulfilment

of two years' approved professional'training. Second,

individuals with other approved cognate degrees were given

partial exemption from the Institutions examinations.

Thompson (1968) concluded the net result was the

inhibition of full time higher education as a means of

entry. The third method of entry to the profession,

the preferred method, was by approved practical training

supplemented by academic study through evening classes

and correspondence course.

The Wells Committee (RICS 1960) conducted a fundamental

reappraisal of the education and training for the

profession. It reached a number of significant conclusions: -

i) The profession had recruited individuals of a lower

academic ability than desirable. Consequently a dual system of entry was established for the school leavers; the '0' level standards were raised but

concessions were given, in the Institutions exams, for those with approved 'A' levels.

ii) Academic study was to shift in emphasis from the

pureacquisition of facts to general principles. Practical training should be complementary and enable

principles to be put into use.

iii) Surveying, in comparison to other professions, had-. _,

failed to have an impact on University thought and life in general. Therefore to develop its status the -Surveying Profession must become a clearly defined discipline and be fully accepted at higher

educational levels.

iv) In comparison to other professions, senior members,

of the Surveying Profession did not contribute

significantly to teaching. There were consequent

repercussions for the quality of practical. teaching

and research.

25

v) The concept of the 'technologist' was introduced.

He was defined as a person

".... who is competent by. 'virtue of his fundamental education and training to apply scientific method to the analysis and solution of technological problems, and to make his own contribution to the advancement of knowledge. He is the man entitled to full professional status in our own profession. By contrast, a technician is one who is qualified to apply existing proven techniques, or new techniques prescribed by a professional technologist, in surveying, his equivalent would be 'sub professional"' (p. 5).

The RICS revised its entry standards in 1966 due to the

changing national educational standards. The requirement

was now in terms of 'A' level standards, therefore

placing entry requirements on par with those of the

Universities.

The Eve Report (RICS 1.967) probably marked a watershed in RICS educational policy. It concluded: -

i) The future professional surveyor would be a degree

holder. The degree having been obtained by full.

time or sandwich courses.

ii) There was a substantial and clear difference between

practical training and professional experience. Practical training was rooted in the absorption of

routine and procedure. Professional experience

was the exercise of professional judgement based

on sound theory.

iii) Formal examinations test the academic competence

of the individual. The examination system was to be viewed in the light of the individual gaining theoretical knowledge when he wished and embarking on post examination professional experience. The individual was now required to pass a Test of Professional Competence (TPC) prior to corporate membership. The post examination period was to be a minimum of three years with a remission of one year in approved cases.

26

iv) The Educational Committee was to consider the

establishment of post qualification refresher courses.

v) Senior surveyors still remained insufficiently involved in teaching.

vi) A technical qualification was to be established for those individuals who had completed some professional exams but had failed to reach corporate membership.

The Brett-Jones Report (RICS 1978a)consolidated the work commenced in the Wells and Eve Reports. Its main conclusions were: -

i) The profession's impact on the University sector had been steady rather than spectacular. However,

the impact of the profession on University research had been small.

ii) The profession was not as optimistic as in the

early 60s. The Report attributes this to two

reasons. First, it considered the younger generation was disenchanted with higher education and second, evidence existed to indicate the profession was not fully behind full time higher education.

iii) The creation of the two tier profession, initially

envisaged in the Eve Report, had failed to

materialise. The Report suggested four reasons. First, the technician's role. was difficult to identify in certain divisions of the RICS. Second, the status of technician was unattractive in

comparison to that of the professional. Third, the demand for support staff would be affected by the general economic climate and finally there had been fundamental changes in the national technical education framework.

iv) Pressure from the EEC could force the RICS to adopt a full. time educational route to professional qualification. The EEC was only prepared to

recognise professional qualifications based on degrees. However, the Report maintained the option

27

of both the full and part time-route.

v) The Institution's examination structure had come

under heavy criticism, especially for the high

failure rates at each successive stage of the exams. Furthermore, employers did not assist candidates

in preparation for the examinations. Potential

employees were urged to enter into training agree-

ments with their respective employers.

vi) Degree and Diploma courses had come under heavy

criticism from the profession. The Report argued, however, that the profession was in part to blame.

First, employers had too high an expectation of the

capabilities of new graduates. Second, the failure

of the two tier concept for the profession essentially

meant that technical. support had not emerged. Third, the profession needed to give greater

consideration to degree exemptions.

vii) From 1986 only holders of Honours degrees in cognate

subjects would be given exemption from written examinations. Those with unclassified degrees would be required to sit the Final exam of the Graduate Entry Scheme.

viii) The research dimension of the profession was suffering due to the Institutions failure to

recognise academic research as contributing towards

the requirements of corporate membership. The

Report recommended creating a special membership

class whose practical experience was wholly academic except for one year's practical experience counting towards the TPC.

ix) The Report recommended that from 1980 a minimum of twenty hours per year (or sixty hours over three years) structured learning was necessary for

qualified members as part of a system of Compulsory Professional Development.

x) The concept of the two tier profession was to be

revised to consider the possibility of more than

28

two tiers. The members of the profession were seen and defined to be involved in the following areas

of work: -

Technicians, those individuals providing factual information for use and interpretation by others.

Technicians and Professionals, individuals providing, using and interpreting with techniques developed according to well documented and accepted principles and factual information.

Professionals, individuals equipped to innovate, solve structured and unstructured problems and who were involved in policy making.

In a recent Report the Education and Membership Committee (RICS 1983) concluded: -

i) Approximately two thirds of those individuals

qualifying as Professional Associates would have

taken a degree or diploma exempting them from the Institution's examinations.

ii) There existed a strong body of opinion remaining in

favour of maintaining a part time route to

qualification, for those individuals preferring this route.

iii) Part time degree courses had developed in certain parts of the country and had generally proved more acceptable to students and practitioners in

comparison to the examinations they had replaced.

iv) Some practitioners were still reluctant to grant day release, facilities due to the disruption of

office work programmes. There was also evidence to indicate that employers preferred to employ

graduates from fully exempting courses and expect school leavers and non cognate graduates to study in

their own time, The Report, by implication,

concluded that colleges offering part time degree

courses would have to adjust to the needs of the

profession by changing the format and timing of these courses.

29

v) The Institution viewed the TPC as its own assessment of candidates on completion of their academic and professional training, including at least one year of practical experience on completion of the

Final examination or the equivalent.

3. Non Educational Policy Documents

The FOP Report (RICS 1970) concluded: -

i) The profession was not generally education conscious. There was a'lack of interest by practitioners in

education and a consequent lack of acceptance of responsibility for teaching.

ii) The Report recognised that the status of the

profession could be raised by a closer integration

of practice and teaching. It therefore recommended first, that teachers who were not qualified members

of the Institution should be encouraged to become

Professional Associates, allowing them to participate in RICS affairs. Second, those graduates who were

academically qualified for corporate membership but elected to teach or undertake research should be allowed to count this towards their period of professional experience, if it was of practical value.

iii) Specialisations should be'developed from a general professional education and occur at the post graduate stage.

iv) The Report recognised the permanence and personal nature of a University qualification. Graduates

would be in a position to-gain employment on the strength of their degree and experience alone. The Report considered that membership of a professional body should be an additional status. The TPC should therefore be considered as ensuring and signifying the professional ability and integrity of individuals as a means of entry to a professional society.

v) The Institution should retain control of all mid career training for the profession and ensure a

30

viable scheme was devised.

The Institution undertook a major policy review in 1980

culminating in the report 'Surveying in the Eighties'

(RICS 1980). In terms of educational and research

policy it indicated: -

i) The Department of the Environment had verified that

corporate membership of the Institution was at least

equivalent to a related first degree.

ii) There were three areas of research activity relevant

to the Institution's activities. These were first,

the determination of priorities for the RICS.

Second, to indicate broader issues of public policy

on which the RICS would wish to comment and third,

the advancement of professional knowledge and the

development of professional techniques contributing

to the competence and efficiency of the profession.

QUANTITY SURVEYING EDUCATION AND TRAINING

The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors

The following developments in the education and training of quantity surveyors must be placed within the context of the

general educational framework of the RICS, mentioned earlier. The following discussion is an amalgam of general educational

policy and its particular effects on the Quantity Surveying

Divisional Council together with specific reports produced by the latter.

The Wells Report (RICS 1960) introduced minimum periods of training to be completed prior to admission to each of the three tiers of examinations. These were: -

Part 1 One year Introductory subjects Part 2 Three years Mainly advanced technical subjects Part 3 Five years More professional aspects

The Report on the Future Role of the Quantity Surveyor (RICS 1971) indicated the quantity surveyor should be trained in the following areas: -

31

Construction Economics Techniques of Cost Planning and Control

Engineering Services

Resource Allocation and Programming

Data Communication and Computer Usage

Methodology of Design and Design Economics

The Report considered that mid career training was essential

for the quantity surveyor as he could well suffer from

educational obsolescence.

The Mason Report (RICS 1982) was essentially a policy

document setting out the minimum requirements, expected by

the Institution, of the new graduate and the newly. qualified

quantity surveyor. The Report concluded considerable

differences existed in the course syllabi and contents of

the various educational establishments offering Quantity

Surveying courses. It noted these Institutions had the

right to design their own course structures, however, the

profession as a whole failed to appreciate this fact.

Consequently, as indicated in other policy documents cited

earlier, practitioners felt there were differing standards

of graduate competence. This had reinforced the hardening

of attitudes towards higher education especially with some

practices having had to. provide a number of their graduates

with further basic technical training.

In response to this criticism the Report acknowledged that

academic establishments were unable and should not be

expected to undertake a level of technical training that

could only be achieved with practical experience and the

subsequent passing of the TPC.

The Institute of Quantity Surveyors

1. Qualifying Examinations

The Institute's examinations had received recognition' by the Local Government Examinations Board (LEGB) in

1948. The LEGB had approached the IQS to assess the

standard of the examinations for consideration under the

conditions of service approved by the Board. However,

in 1951 the LEGB revised its opinion of the standard of

the examinations and was only prepared to classify them

32

as equivalent to Technical Examinations (Lester 1983).

In 1963 the examination system was, restructured from a

two to three tier procedure, similar to that of the

RICS. The new examination system was phased in over a

three year period, commencing in 1965. A graduate member

grade was also introduced at the same time (Lester 1983).

The IQS Initiated a Test of Professional Competence in

1964-5. Revised examination syllabi were introduced in

1975 (Dromgoole 1983). 8

In November 1980 a further refinement to the examination

structure was introduced with the Professional Qualifying

Requirement. This essentially required applicants for

corporate membership, who had passed their Finals;

Graduate Entry Examination or Direct Membership

examination, to provide written evidence of at least two

years' approved professional training (IQS 1979).

2. Education and Recruitment

The entry requirements were set, in 1963, to five

'0' levels obtained in any one sitting with concessions

given to those with approved 'A' levels. The entry

requirements were further revised in 1966 to those of two 'A' levels (Lester 1983).

Healey (1975), using statistics produced by the IQS,

indicated that recruitment to the Institute proceeded

along six main avenues. In ascending order of importance

these were: -

i) Entry by direct membership. Recruitment by this

route was constant but small.

Entry by CIOB qualifications at graduate level. This route had gradually increased.

iii) Entry by HNC/HND occurring at probationer level.

iv) Entry by degree and diploma, at probationer and graduate levels. This had shown a gradual increase

accelerating significantly in the few years up to 1975.

33

v) Entry by RICS qualifications. This had remained stable at all levels although increasing significantly in the period 1973-75.

vi) Student entry, which remained stable except for 1973

when it increased by 60% over the previous year's figures. This was the largest source of entry.

It is interesting to note that Franklin (1973) and Sparey

(1973) indicate that the RICS revised syllabi were to

be introduced in the period 1973-75. Furthermore, the

RICS introduced the TPC in 1973. The upsurge in IQS

recruitment noted in (v) and (vi) above may well have

been as a direct result of these introductions.

3. Research

The IQS, like the RICS, has a Research Committee.

However, Skoyles (1979) intimated that, by its very nature,

the Quantity Surveying profession had been non scientific

and with poor academic standards. He noted that in the

pre World War Two era training, by part time courses

and articled pupilage, was strictly controlled by the

dictates of professional examinations. The post war

period, especially in the 1960s, saw considerably more

opportunities for training, stemming from the growth in

the number of Universities and Polytechnics. However,

Skoyles concluded there was little incentive or opportunity for an individual to undertake research, primarily due

to the fact that Quantity Surveying, as an academic discipline, was in its infancy.

THE TRAINING INSTITUTIONS

The prime objective of this section is to establish the first impetus for the establishment of training institutions for the education of surveyors. It is, therefore, not concerned with the numerous educational establishments existing at the present time.

1. Institutions in England

Links with University standard education were developed

34

with the establishment of the College of Estate

Management (CEM) in 1918 and a degree course in Estate

Management at Cambridge University'in. 1919. The"RICS were initially reluctant to acknowledge the CEM (Thompson

1968). The CEM was given its Royal Charter in 1923.

In the period 1930-45 the College expanded its full

time teaching and research capabilities and subsequently

laid the foundation for the post war expansion as a full

time University educational establishment. In the early

1960s the CEM was anxious to form a close association

with a University and to move outside London. Transfer

. to Reading University was completed In 1973 to form

the new Faculty of Urban and Regional Studies (Lofthouse

1977, Thompson 1968).

The CEM was established initially to provide tuition in

Estate Management. However, with the move to Reading

University and'in response to the needs of the profession,

the CEM ceased full time education and developed

professional training through correspondence courses in

all aspects of surveying. The postal courses mainly

catered for RICS examinations (Thompson 1968, Lofthouse

1977).

2. Institutions in Scotland

The Glasgow Institute of Measurers andthe Edinburgh

Society of Ordained Surveyors formed close links with

Stowe College, Glasgow and Heriot Watt College,

Edinburgh respectively. Both Colleges provided non

agricultural surveying courses run by qualified surveyors

and were the first to do so in Britain.

PROFESSIONALISM AND THE CLAIMS TO PROFESSIONAL STATUS

1. General Claims

The Journals of the RICS have, on numerous occasions,

presented articles from prominent professionals on the

general nature of the ideals of 'profession' and 'professionalism'. A number of these articles are

35

presented below to provide an insight into the-surveying

culture. Lord Denning (1971), Lord Scarman (1972) and Sir Desmond

Heap (1973), all notably eminent lawyers, presented

their views on professions and the professional.

In summary they were concerned with: -

Professional confidentiality and judgement

Entry standards, training and discipline

The duty to the client Service to the community The maintenance of professional standards of

technical competence and the protection of

society The maintenance of professional integrity

Benson (1980), ex-president of the Institute of Chartered

Accountants, believed the

"... primary function of a true profession is to give advice and service to the community in a specialised field of learning"(p. 151).

To Benson the essence of a profession was to raise

standards and ensure people with appropriate skills

were available to serve. Furthermore, the period of

training was justified to protect the public and would

only be undertaken if the unskilled were unable to do

the same work. There should, according to Benson, be

no artificial restrictions on entry to a profession

except on two issues. First, a university degree should be a necessary condition for a professional career and

second, numbers of entrants should be restricted to

those who could be given practical training by competent

practitioners.

2: Specifics

The FOP Report (RICS 1970) noted that

"... Traditionally, professionalism has imported, in addition to the ingredients of knowledge and an educational process for acquiring that knowledge, the characteristics of a standard of qualification(based on character, training and proved competence), a standard of conduct

36

(based. on courtesy, honour and ethics), recognition of status (normally by the State, through a Charter or registration) and a professional organisation devoted to the advancement of the profession as a whole" (p. 4).

Howes (RICS 1980) noted professionalism had remained an

essential and developing feature of surveying practice for more than a century. Howes, like Strachan (1978)

felt professionalism, the professional man and the

professions were coming tinder Increasing criticism by

society as being elitist or monopolistics. The above

views were predominantly RICS based. It is interesting

to note a comment made by the Monopolies and Mergers

Commission (HMSO 1977), which pointed to the problems

that are inherent in the Quantity Surveying specialism.

"... Since 1968 the rules which prevented members of the Quantity Surveying Division from working as directors or employees of contractor's organisations have been relaxed and there is no longer any such prohibition. However, members performing the function of Quantity Surveying are not allowed to work in a contractor's organisation and to be engaged in professional practice at the same time. For those purposes 'contractors organisations' includes a property company having a wholly owned subsidiary whose business consists of building or civil engineering contracting. Contractors organisations employing Chartered Quantity Surveyors are not permitted to hold themselves out as providing an independent surveying function to the public" (p. 97).

Professional Status and the Quantity Surveyor

1. RICS Policy

The FOP Report (RICS 1970) envisaged the Quantity Surveyor, apart from his traditional functions,

extending his speciality into the areas of civil engineering, the costing of engineering services and 'Social Accounting', ie, environmental economics.

The Future Role of the Quantity Surveyor Report (RICS

1971) was more specific on the above points. It

concluded there were a number of areas where the quantity surveyor could fruitfully be employed. These were: -

37

i) The economic management of a project,

The RICS believed the involvement of the q-uantity surveyor in the financial control aspects of

construction activity, contractual and tendering

procedures and his communications responsibilities

equipped him for this role. The Report-believed

this to be the most suitable area.

ii. ) Production and Resource Control

Clients were increasingly utilising Quantity

Surveying expertise prior to the commencement of design. They were increasingly expecting the

quantity surveyor to take full responsibility for

firm estimates in the decision for financial

resource commitments. In order to undertake this

responsibility the quantity surveyor must have an

appreciation of the impacts, on cost, of inter-

ruptions to and alternatives of production methods.

iii) Cost Engineering

This was in an embryonic form on industrial

engineering projects. A number of Quantity Surveying

practitioners were already involved in the petro- chemical field. The Report noted this role should be expanded.

iv) Mechanical and Electrical Services and Civil Engineering

These areas had few established Chartered Quantity Surveyors and again the Report intimated the area should be developed. The Report considered that

clients did not obtain or receive adequate financial

control in the'M &E field or in civil engineering, although noting that civil engineers considered design and costing tobe their respondibility. However, the Report concluded that the field could benefit from the independent quantity surveyor.

v) Contracting Organisations

The Report stated that the quantity surveyor should

38

P

be encouraged to accept appointments with high levels of management responsibility.

The expansion of traditional roles into the above areas

was seen as a natural progression due to the quantity surveyor's growing concern with the economy and financial

aspects of construction and development in the early

stages of a project.

RICS policy on the expansion of the quantity purveyor's

role was further elaborated with 'A Study of Quantity

Surveying in Planning' (RICS 1979x). It emphasised

that the involvement and influence of the quantity

surveyor was almost nil. The unique provision of the

quantity surveyor would be in the provision of information

and judgements on building costs. This lack of involve-

ment was postulated to be for several reasons. First,

planners felt that the quantity surveyor was too narrow in his outlook and could not adequately function without hard facts on which to base estimates. Second, the

structure of Local Government organisations inhibited

professional interaction. Third, individual careers

could suffer due to specialisation. Fourth, engineering departments had developed close relationships with

planners and provided cost information on infrastructure.

The quantity surveyor was seldom involved, and finally

cost information was also provided by Local Government

Treasury Departments.

The Report, although indicating that individual

surveyors appeared indifferent to taking tip appointments in planning, concluded the specialism should be

encouraged to develop its own contribution in this area.

2. Personal views on the Professional Role

Tyrrell Evans (1954) and Male (1977) stress the importance of impartiality. The latter considered the Quantity Surveyor had a duty to interpret and administer the building contract to honour both client and contractor. However, subject to this consideration the quantity surveyor operated entirely and exclusively in the client's interest. -

39

In keeping with the expanding role of the quantity surveyor, Bennett (1977) believed if the quantity surveyor was to accept responsibility for cost control he must influence the early and formative design stages by

utilising cost planning techniques. Bennett considered the involvement of the 4uantity surveyor in the early design stages was'important for the status of the

profession. Furthermore, the development of cost planning

techniques was of central importance to the development

of. the profession.

3. The Management Role

In a Report produced by the IQS (1976) it"was suggested that the quantity surveyor also had a potential role in

project management. The Report defined project management as

"... the function of planning, managing and controlling a construction project on behalf of a client in order to achieve a completed protect which satisfies the client in terms of his own needs within the constraints imposed upon the client and the project by society and the maintenance of the project through its life" (p. 8).

4. Professional Status

Higgins and Zlessop (1965) considered cost planning to be

a significant development in the quantity surveyor's

claim to professional status. They believed the

traditional function of measuring, either from drawings

to produce a Bill of Quantities or 'as complete' for

valuations and final account purposes, was less than

a full professional function. The full professional role required not only expertise but also the participation in decision making by using expert judgement. The measuring function, although considered necessary for decision making, did not directly affect clients in the same way as the judgement or advice of the architect or consultant.

Higgins and Jessop believed it was only since the Second World War, with the development of Cost Planning techniques,

40

that the expertise, judgement and advice of the quantity surveyor had brought him within the decision making

arena. Furthermore, they concluded that cost planning

placed the quantity surveyor in a role of high discretion;

a role where he would be held responsible for decision

outcomes. They indicated that measurement alone placed

the quantity surveyor in a role of low discretion because

Standard Methods of Measurement fully prescribed the

procedures to be undertaken in the production of Bills

of Quantities.

Higgins and 3essop continued to emphasise the developing

professional status of the quantity surveyor with the

evolution of cost estimating and cost control techniques. They noted the former was originally'provided as a

service to the architect but client bodies now approached the quantity Surveyor directly to provide this service. The latter service of cost control, according to Higgins

and Jessop, placed the quantity purveyor fundamentally in

a decision making role during the design and construction process. The developments of cost estimating and control rest predominantly on the same techniques'and information

sources as cost planning.

5. Fee scales versus competition

The RICS, in their case presented to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission (HMSO 1977) utilised three arguments to justify their adoption of fee scales for the

provision of services. The arguments were: -

i) The concept of professional conduct

The Institution considered the professional man to be on his honour to protect his client's interest. Profit maximisation, even in the long term, was considered to play no part in the profession. The

securing of business through competition was seen as militating against the attitude of mind required of professional men.

ii) The Quality of Service

The Institution considered the prohibition of

41

competition was in the public interest because it

would allow the provision of a reliable service. Any competition should be channelled into education

and training, to enable the profession to establish

a reputation, rather than to succumb to competition

based on price alone.

iii) The protection of surveyors themselves

The RICS argued that work, in the. construction industry, was cyclical and services offered by

quantity surveyors were relatively homogeneous. The

Institution noted clients were considerably more

economically powerful than surveyors. Therefore,

the prospect of securing an individual project would be more important to the latter than the former.

The Commission also noted,

"... Members of the Institute of Quantity Surveyors are also expressly debarred from competing with one another by reducing fees. The IQS claims that the public shows wisdom in using the services of the IQS members whose standard of expertise is recognised rather than the services of the unknown, unqualified Quantity Surveyor. The public has neither the ability nor expertise to judge the standards of service of different surveyors and thereby to derive any real benefit from cut throat competition between surveyors" (para. 155').

4-

6. Influence and Power

Strachan (1978) suggested that professionals in the

Surveying Profession should, in view of the criticisms

made against the professions, adopt a more active stance

and could no longer remain outside political life.

This sentiment was echoed by the Report 'Surveying in

the Eighties' (RICS 1980). On the issue of public

affairs the RICS indicated four areas in which it could have influence. These were: -

i) The promotion of informal debate on policies

prior to them becoming party political issues.

42

ii) The provision of advice to Government when called upon.

iii) The initiation of continuous dialogue with legis-

lators as a means of supplying facts and advice.

iv) The responding to consultative documents.

The Report emphasised however, that the RICS should, "... avoid all shades of political contention but

attempt to influence all shades of political opinion".

7. Knowledge bases and core activities

Bennett (1977) saw the central core of Quantity

Surveying knowledge as

Construction technology Analysis and measurement Communications

Statistics Financial administration and control Construction economics

He further considered the Quantity Surveyor should have some knowledge of

Law Economics

Computer techniques Management and information science Architectural and engineering design Land economics

Bennett argued the latter group of subjects would enable the quantity surveyor to involve other professions and utilise their advice if the need arose.

The Mason Report (RICS 1982) concluded that construction analysis and measurement underpinned the whole of Quantity Surveying. The Report defined the core constituents of Quantity Surveying activity, these are set out in Table 2 The IQS requirements for professional competence are indicated in Table 3

43

Table 2 The. Core of Quantity Surveying Activity Source Mason Report (RICS 1982)

1. Project Appraisal Cost planning as a member of the design team in

the application of construction analysis and measurement

the establishment of maintenance/operating costs the establishment of initial costs the evaluation of marketing/operating costs the determination of value for money advising on investment and profitability exercising cost control

2. Contractual Arrangements advising on tendering methods and processes the application of construction analysis and

measurement the preparation of contract conditions and

contract documentation advising on legal implications tender evaluation

3. Contract Settlement the application of construction analysis and

measurement preparation of final accounts establishing and agreeing rates and prices evaluation and agreement of contractual claims preparation of cost reports advising on contractual liabilities, responsibilities

and legal implications 4. Ancilliary professional duties

supervision of staff at various levels the anticipation of cost significant and contractual

factors inherent in the project and its design advising clients in clear and unambiguous terms

bearing in mind their best interests the acceptance and adherence to professional

ethics

5. Support services requiring knowledge of construction technology and an ability to understand

and analyse drawings costing (i) analysis of prices (ii) cost analysis (iii) principles, terms and techniques of cost

planning contract documentation (I) the format of'the Bill of Quantities including

and understanding preliminaries (ii) translation of drawings into measurement

items (iii) sound knowledge of the different forms of

building contract currently in use accounting (i) evaluation of work in progress (ii) final account structuring (iii) post contract procedure

44

Table 3 Professional Requirements and Experience Source Professional Qualifying Requirements.

and Experience (IQS 1980) 1. Measurement

Site surveys and physical measurement Measurement of building, civil engineering and services

work Processing dimension sheets into contract bills Drafting contract conditions, preliminaries and trade

preambles Editing contract bills Specification writing Measurement of variations and remeasurement

2. Cost Planning Cost Control Compilation and development of cost analysis data Preparation of outline and detailed approximate

estimates Cost planning Ascertainment of grants and taxation allowances Assessment of maintenance and cost in use information Cost evaluation of alternative design or method of

construction Preparation of periodic cost reports

3. Contract documentation and administration Advising on forms of contract and their preparation Examination and evaluation of tender documents Preparation of valuations for interim-payments Pricing variations and preparing final accounts Preparing variation of price claims Preparation and evaluation of contractual claims

4. Tendering and Estimating Obtaining and building up prices for resources Building up prices for unit and preliminary rates Ascertaining margin for overheads and profit and

compiling the tender sum Preparing tenders for Design and Build schemes,

including preparing quantities and specifications Evaluation of contractors and sub contractors tenders Cost reduction exercises including negotiations

5. Construc. tion Management Planning programming and determining the requirements

of resources Advising on cost, contractual implications, procurement

of resources or progress during the work Cash flow forecasting Placing orders with sub contractors and suppliers Cost studies on site activities Monitoring and predicting profitability of

construction work and preparing management accounts 6. Specialist activities Surveys, schedules of conditions and delapidations

on existing structures Insurance matters Arbitration proceedings Legal proceedings. Insolvency of a party

45

8. Tasks

The tasks undertaken by the Chartered Quantity Surveyor

are indicated in Table 4, (RICS 1978b).

Table 5 details those tasks

quantity surveyor working'in

organisation (IQS 1980). Th

larger company tasks tend to

covering a narrower range of departments. handle different

normally undertaken by a a smaller contracting

e IQS noted that in the be more specialised, activities, since different

activities.

In practical terms, the QS Practice Study (RICS 1974)

noted that Quantity Surveying remained a profession of

generalists with considerable emphasis on experience. Partners were usually involved with the provision of budgets for client organisations, other Quantity

Surveying staff were involved in only providing technical backup. The Mason Report (RICS 1982) to a

considerable extent validated this finding, although it noted there was often no clear distinction between

those involved in technical and professional skills. However, the Report noted these latter skills were more

predominant at senior levels. The Practice Study also indicated that in local and central government, senior Quantity Surveyors were more likely to be performing

a management function; this would also be prevalent for those working in more senior levels within contracting

organisations. The Study concluded there was some

correlation between specialisation and size, with specialisation more pronounced in the public sector.

QUANTITY SURVEYORS IN ORGANISATIONS

The following discussion presents information from a number

of studies, undertaken mainly by the RICS, on the work

settings of the Quantity Surveyor. The section is structured to deal with the general arrangements of working practice

and subsequently organisational arrangements in the Private

and Public sectors.

46

Table 4 The Principal Services of the Chartered Quantity Surveyor Source RICS (1978b)

Preliminary Cost Advice Advising on Contractual:. Methods Advising on contractor selection Preparing tender documents Obtaining or negotiating tenders Cost Planning Valuing construction work Preparing and agreeing accounts Preparing expenditure statements Technical auditing Assessing replacement values for Project control' Expert advice in arbitration and

with contractors for tax and accounting

Insurance

disputes

Table 5 Activities of the Contractors Quantity Surveyor Source IQS (1980)

Preparing Bills of Quantities Agreeing measurement with Private Quantity Surveyors Collecting and collating information allowing the

contractor to prepare future estimates Preparation of material requirements for jobs in hand Preparation of bonus targets Preparation of interim costings for project financial

control Contract planning and preparation of progress charts in

conjunction with site management Preparation of variation orders for the Architect Agreeing sub contractors accounts Cost comparisons of alternative production methods

47

The General Structure-of Practice-

Turner (1979) discussed three means by, which working arrange-

ments can be divided. These divisions are dependent on the

size of firm and workload.

1. The Parallel Group (Figure5 )

Staff are divided into a number of groups each capable

of carrying out the total scope of work undertaken by

the office. Turner noted this arrangement effectively

breaks the structure of the practice into small offices.

Working procedures involve a large contract being under-

taken by the whole group with smaller projects dealt

with by one or two surveyors. Individuals within the

group are responsible for individual projects at the

post contract stage. Staff, in general, have a

preference for this structure.

2. The Production Line Group (Figure6

Working procedures are divided into stages with groups responsible for undertaking one stage only. Specialisation is the primary reason behind this

structure. Further subdivision can be achieved,

especially in larger practices, where the pre-contract

stage can further be subdivided into estimating and cost

planning; production and tender examination and,

negotiation.

Staff continuity on any one project is lost with a

possible loss in individual satisfaction. However

productivity may increase.

3. The Complex Structure

In larger practices the previous two arrangements may be combined. A practice may be structured into major groups and then subdivided into production groups and parallel groups, depending on project size.

Private Practice

Evidence presented in this section deals specifically with a 'typical firm': it details research data set out in the QS Practice Study (RICS 1974).

48

r_ Group -4

Pre Contract . -.. -*.. Post Contract

Settlement Client Commission

Pre Contract Post Contrac

Figure 5 Parallel Group Working

Source: Turner (1979)

r Group__, r- Group --i

Client-4--Pre Contract -. Post Contract --. Settlement Commission

Figure 6 Production Line Group Working

Source: Turner (1979)

49

1. The typical one or two man firm

This organisation is likely to have the following

characteristics

i) It will be staffed by a sole principal supported by a technical assistant or two partners with no

other technical staff.

ii) The organisation will be relatively young,

established since 1955.

J iii) The firm will be located in South East England

and operate from a suburban address.

AV) The firm will have a relatively heavy workload,

regularly producing Bills of Quantities and Final

Accounts but its overall workload will normally bein. areas peripheral to mainstream Quantity

Surveying.

v) The principal or partners will not be studying for

higher degrees or be involved in occasional teaching.

vi) Securing a steady workload will-be a problem

although the staff will adjust their private lives

to suit fluctuations in workload.

2. The typical small firm

Characteristically this organisation has the following

properties

ji) The organisational size will vary from two to ten

people and represents the most common sized practice.

J ii) The organisation will have been founded in the

post war period, usually established during the

period 1945=69.

Jiii) The firm will have a definite structure. It will be located in South East England and any branch

office will have some degree of autonomy.

iv) Working relationships will be informal with a staffing pattern of one qualified surveyor per partner.

50

v) The organisation's main income will be derived J from Bills of Quantities and Final. Accounts but

work will tend to be in non mainstream Quantity Surveying.

vi) Commissions will probably come direct from clients

although forecasts of workloads are still

problematic.;

vii) The partners are unlikely to favour full time

.ý Quantity Surveying education and employment policy

will tend to reflect this.

3. The typical medium sized firm

i) The organisational size will be in the range ten

to fifty.

. iii) The organisation will be more geographically

dispersed although the tendency remains for it to

be located in London.

iii) The firm will have been established during the

period 1945-55.

iv) Organisational structures will be problematic with branch offices tending to be administered centrally.

V) Working relationships tend to remain informal

with staff being encouraged to specialise. Staffing patterns will probably be one or two

qualified surveyors per partner.

vi) Commissions will usually be direct from clients especially if they are public sector organisations.

vii) Partners will tend to have responsibilities for

groups of clients but will not normally have

administrative roles except in branch offices.

viii) Medium sized forms are the most innovative in the

profession and professionalism is taken seriously.

ix) Work loads are usually in mainstream Quantity Surveying and the firm often works in close co- operation with other Quantity Surveying firms.

51

x) Partners will not favour full time Quantity

Surveying education but will have employed graduates.

4. The typical large firm

This type of organisation will have the following

characteristics

, Ji) Organisational size will be in the range fifty to

three hundred.

ii) The firm will have been established during the

period 1.914-39.

� iii) Head office will be located in central London.

iv) The organisational structure is more formalised

with staff arranged in permanent 'or semi permanent

teams under the control of an associate or partner.

Team sizes are in the order of four to ten surveyors.

Branch offices are common.

J V) The staffing pattern is normally three qualified

surveyors to one partner.

vi) The firm's workload will be in mainstream Quantity Surveying with the bulk of its income

coming from traditional Quantity Surveying work.

Furthermore, the organisation will have a

comprehensive costing system.

vii) Commission for work will come direct from private

and public sector clients.

viii) Staff specialisation is not evident except in

Mechanical and Electrical. services.

The Public Sector

The consensus of opinion gained from a number of Reports is

that the public sector quantity surveyor is at a disadvantage

especially in Local Government.

The RICS (1971) noted that quantity surveyor appointments

are seldom at Chief Officer level with the profession often

subordinated to another profession, usually Architecture or

Engineering. Turner (1979) went further when he commented

that the quantity surveyor does not stand in an entirely

52

independent position since he'is a direct employee of the

client organisation. He concluded however, this should not

affect his professional integrity but'standing orders and

procedures may limit his freedom of action. Turner noted, that in spite of these difficulties, most public service

quantity surveyors will operate in a manner similar to

those in private practice. The Study of QS Practice

(RICS 1974) was more explicit. It noted that sub-

servience to another profession is a constant source of dissatisfaction for those employed in Local Government.

However, it should be noted that research evidence, on which the Report was based, had been gathered just prior to the

reorganisation of Local Government. The evidence presented below on the organisational contexts within which certain

public sector surveyors are employed can, therefore, only

be considered as an indication of employment circumstances.

1. Local Government

The Chief Quantity Surveyor holds only a third or fourth tier position. Organisational structures

greatly affect the nature of the work and the extent of the quantity surveyor's responsibilities. Further-

more, Engineering Departments closely guard measurement tasks which they consider as being part of their

speciality. It is also unlikely the quantity surveyor

will be in a policy making role, at Committee level, but will normally be in a supportive role to his Head

of Department.

a) The typical County Council

Quantity surveyors will normally be organised in a 'section' forming part of the Architects Department. The section characteristics are,

i) Section size usually less than twenty

professionals and technicians.

ii) The Chief Quantity Surveyor holds a third tier position and reports directly to the Chief Architect.

53

iii) Professional subservience is more marked at Committee level where the County and Deputy

Architect report on cost and project planning

advice direct to the Committee.

iv) The section is structured on a semi permanent team basis. Principal Quantity Surveyors act

as team leaders backed up by qualified

surveyors. The Principal will report direct to

the Chief Quantity Surveyor with technical and trainee staff floating between teams.

v) The Chief Quantity Surveyor will be responsible for recommending, commissioning and controlling

external Quantity Surveying consultants who

are often employed regardless of in house

'workloads.

vi) Tasks in the section, apart from traditional

services, also include the budgeting implications

of Departmental construction programmes,

monitoring workloads and resources within the County Architects Department.

b) The typical County Borough

The section will be of a similar size and organisation to the County Council. The section characteristics

are,

i) Job titles of section heads are not necessarily that of Chief Quantity Surveyor.

ii) A higher proportion of the services are supplied to the Department although some outside

consultants are used. The consultants are commissioned in the same manner as County Councils.

iii) Tasks are mainstream Quantity Surveying duties

with cost planning used to a greater extent. The section will be involved in framing

construction programme budgets although to a lesser extent than County Councils.

54

c) The typical Borough

The Quantity Surveying section forms part of an Architects Department, an Engineers Department or

the Borough Surveyor's. Its characteristics are,

i) Section size of less than ten professional and technical. staff.

ii) The Chief Quantity Surveyor may be responsible directly to his Department Head or an intermediary.

iii) The section will provide a high proportion of

mainstream Quantity Surveying services to the

Department.

iv) The use of outside consultants is less frequent

and the section will be unlikely to recommend

or control them.

2. New Towns

Tradition plays a less important role than in Local

Government and contact with senior management is more

probable. The quantity. surveyors are likely to form

part of the Architects Department although they may form a separate Department. However, the status of the

quantity surveyor is still similar to that in Local

Government.

Departmental considerations are less influential; the

project forms the main focal point= Quantity surveyors

are., therefore, more likely to participate in inter

departmental decisions due to less formal organisational

structures. The typical New Town Development Corporation

has a Quantity Surveying section structure whose characteristics are

i) A section size of over twenty professional and technical. staff.

ii) If the section is organised as a separate department

it will be under the direction ofa Chief Quantity

Surveyor. If it does not, have Departmental status but forms part of the Architects Department it will

55

be under the direction of a surveyor who will be

directly responsible to the Chief Architect.

However, in either case the surveyor will not be of

equal status or responsibility to the Chief

Architect or Chief Civil Engineer.

iii) The section will provide most if not all Quantity

Surveying services to the corporation. It will

also recommend, commission and control outside

surveying consultants appointed by the corporation.

3. Regional Hospital Boards

The quantity surveyors will normally be under the control

of a Regional Architect. Section size will normally

be less than twenty professional and technical surveyors

and they will provide services in the area of general

cost control within the Department's procedural frame-

work, normally as a member of a particular project team.

The Regional Quantity Surveyor will be a member of a

Planning Group but will be unlikely to be involved at

Committee level or in a position to offer cost advice. Private practice consultants are likely to be involved

in a proportion of the Department's work load.

4. Nationalised Industries

There is no typical Quantity Surveying office. However,

two types of structures exist. First, the surveyors

form a small advisory group consisting of less than ten

people. Second, a large organisation comprising twenty

to fifty professional and technical staff.

In either case the section is likely to be part of an Architect's or Engineer's Department. The Quantity

Surveyors will provide a high proportion of the normal

surveying functions as well as measurement of civil,

mechanical and electrical engineering work.

The use of outside surveying consultants is more wide-

spread with nationalised industries. The surveying

section will be responsible for recommending, commissioning and controlling the consultants.

56

5. The Civil Service

A dual status exists within the Civil Service for

quantity surveyors. In areas other than with the

Department of the Environment (DoE) and the Property

Services Agenny (PSA) the top Quantity Surveying posts

are normally two grades below the top Architectural

positions. In the DoE and PSA the Chief Quantity

Surveyor is of equal status as other professions.

The-Proeertx-Srvices-A2ncX --- -- --- -------- --- There is no typical office. The Agency is structured

on a Regional basis with a Headquarters Directorate

located in London. Quantity surveyors are employed in

all offices and headed by a Superintending Quantity

Surveyor. Certain characteristics are common amongst

the offices

i) Quantity Surveying staff are responsible for a

major proportion of normal professional services.

ii) External surveying consultants are also utilised

with Agency surveying staff responsible for

recommending, commissioning and controlling them.

iii) In addition to normal services, quantity surveyors

may also be involved in research, development and

advisory work.

CLIENT ORGANISATIONS

Higgins and Jessop"-(1965) distinguished between. levels of

sophistication among clients in the construction industry.

The sophisticated client can be an individual or organisation

who has a good knowledge of the building process and the

contributors to that process. This knowledge will normally be derived from experience.

At the other end of the spectrum is the naive client. This

may again be an individual or organisation who has never built before or"who has only used the services of the

construction industry intermittently. Higgins and 3essop

57

noted that prior to reaching a decision to build, the naive

client will normally seek advice or obtain information

from a position of almost complete ignorance. His initial

contact may, in view of this position, be another client of

greater sophistication than himself.

Crichton (1966) concluded that the traditional view of the

industry is the architect "taking a brief from his client". He noted the inherent assumption in this idea is communication

on a one to one basis. However, Crichton emphasised this

to be an obsolete concept since, in the majority of cases,

the client is a complex of systems. Furthermore, the client 'complex' seldom has a relationship with a single member of

the building industry. Crichton concluded even if the

relationship is initiated through individuals it rapidly becomes "... a conference of groups on both sides".

Traditionally, the first contact has been the architect.

However, with sophisticated clients it may be the quantity

surveyor or builder. The choice of initial contact is

determined by the building needs of the client (Higgins

and Jessop 1965). NEDO (1983) although specifically

dealing with industrial projects, noted, for purpose built

projects the customer can vary in size from the small

family business and partnership to multi-national and

corporate enterprises. For advanced projects a similar

diverse client universe is evident. These include public

bodies, financial institutions and development companies.

NEDO concluded that, of the projects they surveyed, those

that invariably went well, involved experienced customers

who were prepared to supply a substantial management input

into the project. The inexperienced clients were usually involved in an array of relationships with firms and

generally found the building process to be highly complex. Furthermore, NEDO noted clients are not a homogeneous

group and are in no position to apply uniform standards to

professionals and organisations with which they have

contact. NEDO also indicate there are no readily accessible

sources of information to guide their expectations and

choices. NEDO believed, therefore, inexperienced clients

58

are disadvantaged as they have no certainty of obtaining

maximum service from the industry every time.

The complexity facing the client organisation has previously been indicated in Figure 1 page 4, where the construction

process is presented diagrammatically.

INTERNAL DEBATE WITHIN QUANTITY SURVEYING

This section explores certain issues raised earlier in the

chapter. The primary objective is to highlight some of the internal and external dynamics facing the profession.

Education

The most significant appraisal of policy on surveying education. was the publication of the Brett-Jones Report (RICS 1978a). The profession produced a number of comments on the Report and in general it was received with mixed feelings. The significant points raised in the debate are highlighted below (RICS 1979b). %

The membership was in favour of maintaining full and part time routes to qualification with a distinct preference for

the latter in certain areas of the profession. The Report

was criticiesed for underestimating the practical bias of the profession, differing specialisms had differing needs and as a consequence the Report had been unwise in handing

over examination responsibilities to academic bodies.

The profession supported the stance taken on academic entry requirements but felt that more consideration should be

given, in terms of exemptions, for those with technical

qualifications. The profession supported the existence of the TPC. Academics felt the. TPC should be strengthened whilst practitioner's felt the requirements should be eased for those undertaking a part time route to qualification. Furthermore, practitioners also felt degree courses should be more closely monitored by the RICS since standards appear to vary among institutions.

Research proved to be a thorny issue. The profession supported the case for research experience counting towards

59

all but one year of the TPC. However, there was a lack of support for a special class of corporate membership for

researchers. Practitioners felt strongly that these

individuals should not be entitled to the designation

Chartered Surveyor. Academics believed the concession to

the TPC should be sufficient.

Practitioners accepted in principle the need for CPD, but

had reservations about compulsory ]earnings Many members

regarded CPD-as an attack on their competence and integrity.

The concept of a two tier profession was not supported.

Quantity Surveying Roles

Higgins and Oessop (1965) saw the traditional role of the

quantity surveyor "more as a St Christopher" assisting the

passage of the construction project from the professionally

oriented design stage to the commercially oriented con-

struction stage. In this role he is acting predominantly

as a communicator with the Bill of Quantities as the

communicating medium. However, they concluded

"... He (the Quantity Surveyor)* drew the . chess board and made the pieces and even kept the score, as it were, but was never involved in the game" (p. 45).

The IQS, in their comments on the Future Role of the

Quantity Surveyor Report (RICS 1971), pointed out that until

comparatively recently Quantity Surveying had emerged from

the needs of the contractor. It acquired its usefulness to

clients and architects only in the process. (IQS 1970). The

IQS further added that the strength of the quantity

surveyor's role lay in two areas. First, the use of Bills

of Quantities allowed price reduction since their accuracy lowered the margin of error between estimates and the final

account, leading to a reduction in disputes between . architects

and contractors. Second, the independent -quantity surveyor occupied a quasi-judicial role.

However, the IQS noted the growing trend amongst large and

medium sized contracting firms, to employ their own quantity surveyors, had driven the independently engaged surveyor

closer to the side of the building owner. They concluded,

60

"... There is far less confidence placed by the contractors in the impartiality of independent surveyors whose interests have appeared all too often to have been in future commissions rather than in just settlements of contentious issues. The standards of professional integrity, have in many contractors eyes, dropped concurrently with the standard of Bills of Quantities" (p. 103).

Professional Status and the Quantity Surveyor

The status of the quantity surveyor has sparked off

considerable debate within the profession. The flavour

of this debate is best captured by quotation. The RICS

noted,

"... Recent developments in the profession's role.. have taken place-rapidly. They have been largely based on pragmatic and practical considerations and there has been Insufficient examination of their underlying theoretical validity. These circtim- stances leave Quantity Surveying as a strong practical profession with an inadequately defined academic base. The lack of an established science of Quantity Surveying inhibits research and development, limits the profession's education and in the future may restrict the development of practice. The vitality of practice suggests that research and development should be directed towards the study and advancement of the profession's basic disciplines of analysis, measurement and valuation to meet changing requirements" (RICS 1979c, para .

'The state of the Quantity Surveying Profession').

Doig (1975) considered a fundamental reappraisal is required

of Quantity Surveying and Architectural roles especially.

at the tender stage. Doig believed tender and contract

procedures should. be the responsibility of the Quantity

Surveyor, under his cost control function. He based his

argument on the principle that the tendering system is

concerned with the economic use of construction resources

and not with obtaining the lowest possible price. Doig was of the opinion that the system would be improved if the

'quantity 'surveyor was to measure site productivity and advise

on the basis of construction costs. He considered this to be the next significant step for the profession.

In a"vocifer. ous article commenting on the Future Role of the Quantity Surveyor Report the IQS felt the profession

61

had drifted in recent years and the essentials of a

profession were being lost. The article indicated,

"... To qualify surely as a profession, an exclusive service must be offered, which only the members can properly give; accountants, architects, dentists, doctors, engineers and lawyers all provide services, which only they, by their training, can perform. They are self sufficient, with the possible exception of the architect" (IQS 1970 p. 104).

The article continued,

"... The role offered for quantity surveyors by the RICS Committee, involves nibbling a little at the architect's profession, a little at the accountants, a little at the valuation surveyor's and a little at the computer services, also dabbling into factory control"

again,

"'.,.. The. new_ technologist, as he is called, is, therefore to be a hybrid and as such the fear must be expressed, he cannot last long as a profession, since such a role will always be better performed by a team than-by one man" (p. 104).

The IQS believed the translation of drawings and specifi-

cations, for building works, into a document capable of

being priced is the only function exclusive to Quantity

Surveying? The Institute considered this to be true

regardless of how quantity surveyors are employed;

";.. Civil . engineers - are. still., jealous of... their.. own production of tender documents, and it is only the fact that architects are normally tempera- mentally incapable of doing the job that gave quantity surveyors their opportunity as a separate profession in the first place"

Furthermore,

"... another similar area is cost planning, but however much more capable quantity surveyors may be in the techniques of cost planning, the permanent divorce of cost considerations from the design function is unthinkable for the survival of Architecture as an independent profession, whose divorce from the construction side of the industry Is already being seriously questioned. Kept independent, architects must become self sufficient by their own devices. Unite them with contractors and no separate cost consultant' will be required"

62

Many of the sentiments mentioned above were reiterated by

the Monopolies and Mergers Commission. They concluded,

"... In-their respective.. fields,. bivil engineers'. and mechanical and electrical engineers offer to prepare Bills of Quantities and carry out post contract Quantity Surveying services. It is

quite often the case that consulting engineers and architects have Chartered Quantity Surveyors on their staffs to undertake this work but engineers in particular tend to consider that Quantity Surveying services are within the purview of their own discipline" (HMSO 1977, p. 97).

The Quantity Surveying profession not only faces problems

of lack of clear disciplinary boundaries. It also faces

a lack of awareness in the eyes of the public. Edge (1975),

a polytechnic lecturer, noted on recruitment,

".... The Quantity Surveying profession... is a: fairly restrictive profession. We have in our careers. meetings and conferences, which we have attended or mounted, found that we have an interest from school children at fourth or fifth year levels in Quantity Surveying, but they don't understand what it's all about. They think they are carrying bricks still" (p. 126-137).

Coates (1977) also a polytechnic lecturer, echoed these

sentiments. He noted Quantity Surveying is a self effacing

profession. After more than fifty years of Chartered status its functions are little understood by the general public. It has failed to share the self esteem which other disciplines have acquired through public respect. Further-

more, a full sense of vocation was almost always. -lacking or had been misdirected in applicants for diploma or degree

course places.

The State and the Surveying Profession

The Monopolies and Mergers Commission disputed many of the

claims made by the Surveying profession, mainly the RICS, in connection with fees and competition. The Commission's

arguments were,

1. Profit maximising vs the client's interest

The Commission considered that profit maximisation would be against the surveyor's training, ethics and long

term interests due to the consequent loss of reputation.

63

The Commission believed surveyors would not take on jobs

at prices preventing them from discharging their

responsibilities to clients.

2. Quality of Service

The Commission did not accept the assumption that

competition was incompatible with seeking to establish

a reputation for efficiency and quality of service.

In answer to the IQS argument concerning the, ability

of the public to assess the service provided, with or

without competition, the Commission argued this

conflicted with the notion that price competition should be limited to allow reputations to be established for

efficiency and quality of service. The Commission

concluded,

"... If clients are unaware of and unresponsive- to different standards it is difficult to see how quality of service can be a basis of competition. By and large, we think the public is able to judge; indeed many clients of surveyors have their own professional staff who are well able to assess the quality of service offered by different surveyors in private practice"

The Commission, on consideration of all the evidence, believed it was in the client's and public interest

that they be allowed freedom of choice. To that end the Commission concluded restrictions on competition for fees act against the former's interests. Sub-

sequently certain fee scales for surveying services have been abolished.

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE ON INDIVIDUALS IN QUANTITY SURVEYING

Empirical studies of individuals in Quantity Surveying are'

few. Those that have been undertaken differ in their

objectives and have a number of limitations. Taylor (1980)

sampled lower and middle ranking surveyors (generally RICS

qualified) who were salaried employees in private practice (N=58) and public service (N=20). The sample was restricted

64

geographically to Edinburgh. Trushell (1980) had similar 'limitations. His sample was geographically restricted to Glasgow and salaried employees in private practice. His

sampling frame consisted of architects and quantity purveyors.

Coates (1977), dealing mainly with the education of surveyors,

sampled in the main RICS qualified surveyors. 2 The sampling

frame consisted of private practice surveyors and those

working in contracting organisations. '(Total N=509).

West (1980) randomly sampled RICS, CIOB and IQS respondents. Her sampling frame was predominantly builders and quantity

surveyors (N=150), across a number of organisational types. Her objective was, however, primarily concerned with career

choice influences.

Their findings are summarised under the following headings: -

1. Occupational drifting

Taylor reports 56% of his sample had drifted into the

profession. West reported a higher figure of 70%.

Both agree that many surveyors had entered the

profession based on poor information, even though the

professional institutions had information readily

available.

2. Occupational choice influences

Taylor and Coates both questioned their sample on career

choice influences. Responses, in order of importance,

for both samples are indicated in Tables6, and? , although there is some discrepancy between the results, the general trend can be distilled as the nature of the job; interest and family influences on par; security and finally professional status. The 'nature of the job' forms part of a dual response to Coates' question. Professional status and the nature of the job, as a single category, are rated highest in terms of influence. However, professional status alone is rated of low importance.

3. Vocation

Taylor reported 65% (categories 'Definitely and Probably Yes') of his sample indicating a vocation for the

65

Table 6 Career choice influences Source Coates (1977: 45)

Career choice influence

Professional status and work not office bound Interest in Construction Parental or other human influence Relative security Interest in Architecture Professional status Interest in Costing and Accounting Dissatisfaction with other occupations No outlet for abilities more suitable Career Advice Non response

Table 7 Career choice influences Source Taylor (1980)

Career choice influence

No specific influence Security Family tradition Interest - Status Salary

56 40 40 23 18 16 14

8 8 7 5

%

24 21 19 14 10 10

66

profession. This surprisingly high figure should possibly be interpreted as post career choice justification since both Taylor and West indicated high incidences of 'drift' into the profession. Drifting

does not easily equate with a 'calling'. .

Furthermore,

Coates noted respondents declared their present work interests to be largely pecuniary. Table 8 presents Coates data on present career interests.

4. Work satisfaction

Evidence on work satisfaction is mixed. Trushell

indicated that his sample of surveyors were generally highly motivated and satisfied with their work. Taylor

presented a slightly less optimistic picture. He

reported 36% of the sample had realised their career

expectations, the majority - 59% - had realised their

expectations only a little. Coates reported 25% of his respondents to be apathetic to their work. However,

he noted that occupational interest increases with

seniority and undertaking more progressive work. In

terms of occupational reselection, Taylor reported 42%

who probably or definitely would not reselect Quantity

Surveying if given the opportunity again. Coates

presented a figure of 41%. The latter noted, however,

that his non selectors were disenchanted because of

unfulfilled capabilities or the inequality in status

of the quantity surveyor as part of the design team.

5. Task factors

The importance of task factors, in terms of work satisfaction, is supported in three studies.

Trushell noted that to motivate and satisfy surveyors, skill variety, task significance and job feedback were all essential. Taylor reported dissatisfaction related to lack of. task variety and Coates reported the application of acquired skills and varied work were highly important in maintaining interest in Quantity Surveying (Table 8 ).

67

Table 8 Present Interests Source Coates (1977: 45)

Present interests in. Quantity Surveying %

Application of acquired skills 63 Varied work 59 Standard of living 50 Personal security 48 Challenging work 41 The building process 40 Intellectual satisfaction 33 The negotiating process 28 Team work 25 Contribution to the needs of society 13 Social status 11 Equity 6 Other 4 Non response 2

Coates notes 36% of respondents declared their interests have changed in emphasis over the years.

Table 9 Reasons for Association membership Source (Coates 1977: 46)

Relative importance of reasons for membership of Professional Institutions (Rank 1= Highest ranking)

Total Graduates Sample

Gaining client confidence 11 Professional status 25 Protection of profession's interest 22 Upkeep of research and development 42 Interchange of ideas and experience 54 Securing and maintaining employment 66 Social status 77

68

6. Background factors

Coates presented data on the influence of parental background on time taken to qualify. He classified

parental occupations as practical; mainly intellectual

or medial. Findings indicated that on average it took less time to qualify for those individuals deriving from the medial or intellectual groups than from the

practical. Furthermore, those surveyors born between

1938 and 1947 tended to be derived from practical

parents compared to those born between 1948 and 1957.

The former group also tended to get more parental

encouragement in career decisions.

7. Professional Institutions

Coates questioned his sample on the reasons for joining

professional institutions. Table 9 presents their

absolute ranking of responses. Furthermore, Coates

found interest in educational policy and local

professional branch activities was no more than

moderate.

I

69

Chapter Summary

The Surveying profession covers a wide diversity of occupations. The present study is concerned with Quantity Surveying.

Quantity surveyors have been defined as building economists (RICS 1972). The historical development of Quantity Surveying,

as an occupation, is set out in Figure 7. It is linked with

that of the Surveying profession as a whole, with the RICS

as the dominant professional institution representing the

latter. Its Royal Charter presupposes Surveying is a single

profession (Thompson 1968). However, Quantity Surveying

has been recognised as a virtually separate profession (Monopolies and Mergers Commission 1977, RICS 1972).

Reference has been made to five institutes representing the

interests of quantity surveyors, namely, the RICS, IQS,

CIOB, FAS and IAAS (Monopolies and Mergers Commission 1977).

Figure 8 sets out the development of the two main institutes

concerned with quantity surveyors, the RICS and IQS.

The separate status of Quantity Surveying has created an

. uneasy relationship with the RICS. As a specialist division,

within the RICS, it has a large proportion of the membership. Furthermore, the measuring function of the quantity surveyor has a long history which is, in part, linked with-the Architectural profession. This in itself has created an

awareness, on the part of quantity surveyors, of a sense

of identity not specifically linked with the development

of the Surveying profession (Thompson 1968). This almost

separate identity has been the cause of considerable dissention within the RICS. A break-away group formed the QSA in 1903 (Thompson 1968) and, in association with quantity surveyors in contracting, the IQS in 1939 (Dolan 1979, IQS 1983-a). The RICS has used a number of tactics to resist this threat to the unity of the Surveying profession. The incorporation of the QSA, by the Board-of Trade, was strongly resisted. In response, the RICS formed the Quantity Surveyors Committee in 1904 (Thompson 1968, Tyrell Evans 1954). The RICS threatened court action against the IQS for

using the designation 'Incorporated Quantity Surveyor' in 1948. After unsuccessful amalgamation talks, the RICS was reluctant

70

Figure 7 The historical. development of the Quantity Surveying profession

Date

Great Fire of London 1666

Venturus Manday's "Marrow 1682 of Measuring" published. First claim to professional status for measurer (albeit premature).

1700

Thomas Skaife's "A key to 1774 Civil Architecture - the Universal British Builder" published.

Architect emerges as clients representative. Moving away from patronage to professionalism. Construction becoming more commercial. Architects dissociate themselves from surveyors and builders. Term Quantity Surveyor tentatively used. Scottish surveyors more organised.

Napoleonic Wars cause 1800 upsurge in barrack room Emergence of single contractor construction. to take total responsibility

for construction. Introduction of Portland 1825 Cement and steel as building materials Surveyors begin to dissociate

themselves from builders. 3A Hunt (Quantity 1836 Surveyor) presents evidence to a Parlia- mentary Committee on new Houses of Parliament. Abolition of Scottish 1.847 Guild structure Architects and quantity

surveyors locked in wrangling over status. Irish measurers known to be in existence. Term Quantity Surveyor coming into more common use. Scottish surveyors coming

. 1900 under increasing pressure from

English counterparts. Continuing development of Bills of Quantities Development of cost planning techniques. 1945

'j.

Figure 8 The historical development of the professional associations associated with Quantity Surveying

Founding of Surveyor's Club Founding of Land Surveyor's Club

Founding of Surveyor's Association

Date

1792

1834 Founding of RIBA

1864

Founding of Institute of Surveyors (Forerunner 1868 to RICS). Common bond of railway work and land development. Eminence in field of work is membership criterion. IoS gains public recog- 1878 nition in Act of Parliament

IoS gains Royal Charter 1881

1895

IoS establishes Scottish 1897 Branch IoS forms Professional 1898 Practice Committee 1899

1903

Glasgow Institute of Measurers founded.

Links forged with Ireland, Irish Land Agents Committee.

Society of Ordained Surveyors formed in Edinburgh

Dissention breaks out in IoS resulting in formation of QSA

1913 Faculty of Surveyors in Scotland formed from amalgamation of Glasgow Institute of Measurers and Society of Ordained Surveyors.

Royal Patronage bestowed on IoS 1921

1923

1924

IoS changes name to 1930 Chartered Surveyors Institute CSI in conjunction with 1932/5 three other land surveyingi937 professions develop code of ethics 1938

CSI changes name to RICS 1946 1970

1982

72

QSA amalgamates with IoS Irish Quantity Surveying Association amalgamates with IoS.

Faculty of Surveyors amalgamates with CSI. Dissention'breaks out in CSI resulting in formation of IQS.

Major amalgamation with Chartered Auctioneers and Estate Agents Institute, Chartered Land Agents Society and RICS. IQS amalgamate with RICS.

to liaise with the IQS at working party level and advised branches not to liaise at local level (IQS 1983b, Lester 1983).

However, local RICS branches eventually disregarded this

directive in 1974. Pressure groups within the IQS were also in evidence. They successfully mounted a campaign to

prevent amalgamation in 1976 and due to a low poll by

RICS and IQS members the motion was defeated. A counter-

vailing group within the IQS restarted the impetus for

amalgamation in 1980-81 (IQS 1983b, Lester 1983).

In education, recruitment and training the RICS has used its dominant position to produce a general policy for these

areas with a more specific specialist policy for Quantity

Surveying worked out at division level. This inevitably

tends to influence policy for the IQS. Quantity Surveying

and the Surveying profession in particular have a complex

entry system. A dual approach had been instigated and

maintained to degree exemptions (RICS 1950,1978a). Entrance

requirements have undergone considerable revision in line

with national educational standards. Concessions are granted depending on the nature and standard of the qualification (Lester 1983, RICS 1960,1978a).

Furthermore, there has been a consistent preference, both

at an institutional and membership level, for part-time

routes to qualification, (RICS 1950,1978a,: 1979b, 1983).

Healey (1975) has reported no fewer than six routes of

entry to the IQS. However, the RICS are facing problems

with education, recruitment and training. In response to

the Brett-Jones Report (RICS 1978a)the membership emphasised the highly practical nature of the profession. The membership were reluctant to see examination responsibilities

placed in the hands of academics and they felt greater consideration should be given to those undertaking part-time routes to qualification or those with technical qualifications (RICS 1979b). A number of other points are also worthy of consideration. First, the Brett-Jones Report (RICS 1978ä) indicated the EEC may force the RICS to adopt a full-time

route to qualification. Second, employers have been

reluctant to grant day release facilities for candidates (RICS 1983). Third, the examination system of the RICS has

73

also been heavily criticised for high failure rates at each successive stage (RICS 1978a). Fourth,. the RICS may have created a problem for themselves with the emphasis on 'on the job' training. It has been stated (Thompson 1968)

that in the past the RICS had adopted an approach of allowing

others to undertake the training function and influence what

was taught through the examination system.

The Institutions's wishes for the development of training

and education have not reached fruition. Education for

surveyors had until the 1950s involved 'learning facts'. In the 1960s the emphasis shifted to 'learning principles' for application in professional. practice. The importance

of higher education was recognised especially in terms of status for the profession with the emphasis moving towards

graduate entrants (RICS 1960,1967). Corporate membership of a professional institution was seen as an additional status to that of a degree (RICS 1970). However, by the late 1970s the picture had changed considerably. The'

profession was reluctant to accept full-time education and the competence of graduates had been severely criticised (RICS 1978a, 1979c, 1982). Members of the profession were, in turn, not facing reality. They failed to appreciate the rights of educational establishments to design their

own courses and they did not have realistic expectations of the capabilities of graduates (RICS 1978a, 1982). The dilemma facing the RICS is summed up in Figure 9. Their

entanglements with the EEC have added to the problem. Corporate membership of the RICS has been recognised as equivalent to first degree standard (RICS 1980). This was in response to a refusal by the Projects Directorate of the EEC to recognise that Chartered Quantity Surveyors, without a degree, were acceptable for employment in their advertised posts (RICS 1977).

The knowledge base of the profession has also been referred to. Quantity Surveying is a profession of generalists with a considerable emphasis on experience and a practical base (RICS 1974,1979'b). The core constituents of Quantity Surveying have, within the bounds of some consensus, been

74

1b0h,, ( "A S' Irum of "I'rtiI Iuu: 1Is $tI H, rtid ActidemIe b+ýxrJ by 1'r hýýirl. ýnv ýIrvt" Iýp"rv

Insura that those I'r+ýctlclnh I`rýýIt' sIo . iI'

/

doing trchnlcat work arr so trainrd and labelled Kequlre a fair share

of the top people

Must Demand Univ: equivalent entry Most 'best'

School Leavers go to College

Each Division must Define its own Interface In-House Training 1Must Demand Some

x Graduate Entry Sub-qualified Recognised as Technical Material On the beat' Will Require Full

-1 I Experience Time Education Slimmed Down Institution

Strong Viable ailor Made External Syllabus Technicians [Product Society

Distractions through External Exam. raining and Assessment

BRIDGE

Low pass High Pass Rates Rates

RIOS prof: Exams. Slanted Soft

Oriented Option Papers Accusation

Breadth with xperience DOUBLE STANDARD Depth without

Practice

Absorb all Technical Work CRISIS OF Sense of Relative Available IDENTITY Inferiority Expectations of

Substantial Salaries and Ripid Promotion

ALL sit one ra uates will Examination not Enter for

Two Similar Examinations

Institution set Universities will College Exams. not Waive their

Rights

RICS Moderate Partial Exemptions Counter f'.

Assumes Colleges Sanctions to Courses Productive Care. The Better Withdraw S Monitor Partial Resit They Are, The Less Recogntstlon Exam Results Student They Care

e Pnal[sed TraLninj a s

no t Use Strong TPC Suitable to Demonstrate

'4 Management Skill 1 Er(IIVALE: CE Use Strong g to Ensure Graduates are Practically Adequate

Concentration on } Professlonnl and BALANCP. Academically Orient ed Judgement Skills for Teaching and

Development

FIKure 9 The »II mmn Pnclnp, the RICS on Crnduntn Entry Source: k1C: i(It)7h: 271

7S

set out (Bennett 1977, RICS 1982). However, it has been

admitted there is a lack of an adequately defined academic discipline for Quantity Surveying (RICS 1978a, 1979c, Skoyles 1979). Furthermore, the research dimension, of considerable importance for the development of a knowledge

base, is lacking in the profession (RICS 1978a, Skoyles 1979).

This was attributed to a number of reasons. First, lack

of opportunity or incentives for research (Skoyles 1979). Second, failure on the part of the profession to accept research as counting towards corporate membership and the belief, from some quarters, that individuals working in

research were not entitled to the status of a Chartered Surveyor (RICS 1978a, 1979b). The expansion of 'the knowledge base In the list of research priorities for the RICS is low (RICS 1980). The profession also lacks a commitment to teaching and it has been admitted that the profession is not education conscious (RICS 1960,1967,1970). In an attempt to improve the situation there has been a move towards compulsory post qualification structured learning (RICS 1967,1978a), However, although accepting this in

principle, the profession was reluctant to accept the

compulsory aspect and some have viewed it as an attack on their integrity. (RICS 1979b).

The professional standing of Quantity Surveying has been

explored. There is a considerable body of rhetoric in the journals and reports, produced by the profession, on the

nature of -a profession and professional men (Denning 1971, Scarman 1972, Heap 1973, Benson 1980), professionalism (Howes 1980, RICS 1970) and integrity (Male 1977, Tyrrell Evans 1954). A sustained attack on the professional standing of Quantity Surveying has come from the Monopolies and Mergers Commission(HMSO 1977). Other evidence on the status of Quantity Surveying has also been reviewed. Construction analysis and measurement underpins the whole of Quantity Surveying (IQS 1970, RICS 1982). However, the role of the quantity surveyor has shown elements of expansion (RICS 1970,1971,1979a, IQS 1976). Higgins and Jessop (1965) concluded the measuring function was less than a full professional role and it was only with the emergence of cost planning and cost

76

control that the quantity surveyor could lay a claim to

such status. The RICS by their own admission note

measurement is of a largely routine and technical nature (Monopolies and Mergers Commission 1977). The expanding

role of the quantity surveyor, suggested by the RICS, has

been heavily criticised by the Institute of Quantity

Surveyors (IQS 1970).

The function of Quantity Surveying is not well understood by school leavers or the general public (Edge 1975, Coates

1977). Quantity Surveying does not'share the self esteem

of other professions (Coates 1977) and recruits to certain

educational. establishments have been found to have a misdirected sense of vocation (Coates 1977).

A number of research studies dealing with different aspects

of Quantity Surveying have been reviewed. There is evidence

of drifting into the occupation (Taylor 1980, West 1982).

The nature of the job has been suggested as an important

reason for joining the profession (Coates 1977, Taylor

1980). Approximately 40% of respondents in two studies

would not reselect Quantity Surveying given the opportunity. One important reason has been the inequality of status of the quantity surveyor in the design team (Coates 1977,

Tayor 1980). The primary reason for membership of a

professional institution has been reported to be for gaining

client confidence. Furthermore, in the same study interest

in educational policy and local branch activities was found to be low (Coates 1977).

The diverse organisational settings within which quantity

surveyors practice have repercussions for professional

status. The structuring of the work environment has

implications for staff morale (Turner 1979). In the

private sector organisational size has a positive relation-

ship with increasing formalisation of organisational

structures. The smaller practices tend to be involved in

non-mainstream Quantity Surveying activities and have

problematic workloads. In the public sector the quantity surveyor is at a disadvantage. In local government the

quantity surveyor is subservient to another profession

77

whilst in the Civil Service top Quantity Surveying posts are

normally two grades below top Architectural positions. Those

working in government departments will normally be involved

in recommending and supervising consultants (RICS 1974).

Clients to the construction industry are complex organisational

systems and have been designated naive or sophisticated (Higgins and Jessop 1965, Crichton 1966). There is a diversity

of client types and they will either be advised by an Architect

or have their own quantity surveying staff. Furthermore,

clients are in an economically more powerful position than

Quantity Surveying practices (Monopolies and Mergers

Commission 1977, NEDO 1983). There is a strong correlation between organisational size and direct appointment by public

sector clients and between organisational size and frequency

of recommending contractors and architects, especially in the

public sector (RICS 1974).

The following chapter explores in greater detail the nature

of a profession and reviews a number of models that can be used to investigate the occupational status of Quantity

Surveying.

78

Chapter Notes

Table 10 RICS Divisional Membership Source RICS Yearbook 1982

Fellows & Professional Associates

Students, Probationers & Housing Managers

Totals

Quantity Surveying 12 511 4 712 17 223

Building Surveying 2 952 1 867 4 819

General Practice 21 903 6 414 28 317

Land Agency and Agriculture 3 668 591 4 259

Land Surveyors 761 570 1 331

Mineral Surveyors 495. 279 774

. Planning &. Development 1 106 22S 1 394

TOTALS 43 396 14 721 58 117

79

2 Millerson (1964) placed a slightly different perspective

on the Institute's formation. He noted the precipitating factor for the. formation of the RICS was the mid Victorian

upsurge in land development, estate management and

valuation. Without this the formation of. the RICS would

not have occurred. There was a considerable number of Private Bills passing through Parliament sanctioning town

improvements, public works and compulsory purchase of land.

This created the need for skilled surveyors and land

valuers. Land and Quantity Surveying were already firmly

established.

3 Millerson (1964) noted that the four land surveying professions co-operated, from 1932 onwards, on producing a code of conduct. Until this time ethical codes had

remained more or less unwritten or uncodified. The, main impetus came from the Chartered Surveyors Institution (predecessor to the RICS). It insisted on the three

associations producing and securing uniformity of action. A Code of Conduct Liaison Committee was established and a basic code agreed. Each association was then able to adopt the code of rules separately. In 1935 the four associations produced a revised set of schedules of charges common to all bodies. However, each association maintained specific scales applicable to itself.

Table 11 sets out a comparison of IQS and RICS codes.

4

80

Table 11 Codes of Conduct for the RICS and IQS Source Adapted from Millerson (1964 Table 6.1: 167)

IQS

Professional Must maintain client professional or

standard agreements

Professional professional

Professional public

Must not solicit or seek to supplant a professional colleague

RICS

Must maintain professional or standard agreement

Must not solicit or seek to supplant a professional colleague

Must not avoid responsibility by forming a company

Principal must be responsible for juniors

Must not secretly engage in another occupation which brings work or may compromise position

Must not encroach on legitimate work of other professions

Must not receive or give commissions or discounts

Must not advertise except in prescribed ways.

Must not receive or give commissions or discounts

Must only share remuneration with partners/employees

Must not advertise except in prescribed ways

Must uphold the dignity of profession and/or honour and dignity of association

81

4. Membership of the IQS at 31/12/75 (IQS 1976)

Fellow and Graduates, Subscribers & Total Associates Probationers Members

" 4777 4118 128 9023

Approximately 600 Fellows or Professional Associates

of RICS are also Fellows or Associates of IQS.

5. Chiefly Land Agency; Chiefly Valuation; Chiefly Building.

6. Land Agency; Valuation; Building and Quantities; Mining. The number of examinations to be undertaken by entrants was also revised. Those in Quantity Surveying were required to pass the Intermediate, Final Part 1 and Final Part 2 to become qualified. Furthermore, on reviewing educational policy in 1939, the RICS required the individual to have completed four years' practical

experience prior to sitting the Part 2 examination. Two

of the four years to have been spent in an office approved by the Institution (Thompson 1968).

7. General Section; Agriculture and Land Agency; Quantity Surveying; Mining Surveying and Land Surveying.

8. The revised 1975 syllabi grouped examinations into four

areas. -Technology; Building and Civil Engineering

Measurement; Management and Professional Practice;

Applied Economics and Law.

0

82

CHAPTER 3

PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONAL MODELS

THE PROFESSIONS

Introduction

Professions are about influence, power and status. Historical

and current evidence will be presented to validate this

statement and highlight those crucial factors that have been

necessary for the sustained privilege of certain occupations. Other occupations, whilst laying claim to professional status,

have been unable to raise themselves to the elite levels of

the clergy, the law and medicine. In the sentiments of

Carr-Saunders and Wilson (1933) they have never gained access

to the coveted inner circle.

The Concept of ProfessionI

Millerson (1964) sets out a number of principles essential to the understanding of the concept of profession,

-A profession is a higher grade, non-manual occupation

with the intellectual or practical technique dependent on a substantial theoretical training.

- The designation of profession refers to a comparative status level between occupations. It is not a

permanent monopoly of a few occupations and is attained after deliberate action by an occupation.

- Professional status may possess a dynamic quality depending on changes in social and economic circum-

stances surrounding the determinates of status.

- Organisation does not make an occupation a profession. Conversely, an organised occupation may not be a profession. To provide a competent service the

practitioner must gain knowledge (in a well defined

area of study or practice) and experience in the application of that knowledge. Competence can be assessed by actual performance or through standardised occupational examinations.

- Professional or non professional status is not determined by the presence or absence of a code of

'conduct. The nature of'the professional task and the

* See Chapter Note 1 for a profusion of definitions.

83

professional situation determines the degree of control

required.

- Professional status is acquired by subjective (the

collective membership) and objective (the user of the

service and the general public) recognition of

occupational status. Recognition may take the form of higher incomes and delegation of responsibility or

authority to cccupational members.

These principles provide a base line for understanding the development of professions but to a degree, in the words of Elliot (1972), they provide "... form at the expense of

substance" (p. 139). An understanding of the substance can be

found in a brief exploration of the historical impetus for

the professions.

The Historical Impetus

Professions in pre- and post-industrial society differed

sharply in their characteristics resulting in two types of

professionalism. Status professionalism associated with

occupations at a high level in the social structure but of little importance to the organisation of work or community

services. Occupational professionalism is associated with

specialisation of knowledge and tasks. Post industrial

professions are derived from their pre industrial counter-

parts based on the decline of status and the rise of

occupational professionalism (Elliot 1972). Many of the

early professions evolved from the Church, law and medicine (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933, Millerson 1964).. Further-

more, the notion of profession. was usually'associated with the image of the 'gentleman' (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933,

Elliot 1972). However, Millerson (1964), criticises this idealised image on three counts. First, respectability for

the professions only emerged in the 18th Century and-was consolidated in Victorian times. Second, compulsory tests

of'competence were applied relatively late, circa 1830. Third, the high prestige of the three traditional professions was not solely dependent on control over the profession and the nature of the service. Practitioners often had

84

considerable involvement in local affairs and the legal and medical professions provided considerable opportunity for

social mobility.

Portwood and Fielding (1981) argue that contemporary professions are as much a product of the past as the present. They use the term 'unresolved dialectic' to refer to the fact that the professional is, at one and the same time, expected to be a gentleman (the historical image) and an expert (the

present situation). The growth of professions during the

post industrial period has made them a possible major force

within the framework of society.

Professions as Institutions

The professions have been viewed as a stabilising force in

society (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933). Elliot (1972)

believes the professions serve the important function of managing conflict and crisis in society. However, by

undertaking this function they and society are part of an interdependent network. Elliot believes it is this lack of self sufficiency that confronts 'the professions with one of their fundamental problems. Elliot continues,

"... The professions are divided among themselves by subject, tradition and status. Different types of training, association and employment situation are to be found between and within different professions. The individualism of the professional career acts as a divisive force within each profession. The continuing decline of private practice may have the effect of removing one of the basic divisions within and between professions, but it remains to be seen whether common experience of employee status will change the basic values of professionalism. " (p. 143)

The vulnerability of the professions is exemplified in the following quotation,

The upshot is that a profession is by nature a vulnerable institution. It makes'claims; it demands unique privileges; and it has to perform. But 'it', of course, does not exist as a single entity; it is a dozen or a few hundred or many thousands of individuals, who differ as widely as all other human beings, yet who, as professionals, are expected to act in a standard manner and to be invariably successful in their art. At this point

85

one might conclude that a profession was not merely vulnerable but naturally unstable, a scheme beyond human strength to live up to... Nonetheless, professionals of all kinds have existed for thousands of years, and it is this apparent continuity that gives them the illusion of immortality. What every professional should bear in mind is the distinction between a profession and a function. The function may well be eternal; but the profession, which is the cluster of practices and relationships arising from the function at a given time and place, can be destroyed - or can destroy itself - very rapidly" (Barzun 1978: 68).

As institutions, of apparent immortality, the professions have given the sociologist the most trouble and the most fertile ground for theory, counter theory and confusion par

excellence.

The Sociology of the Professions

The drive towards professional status for many occupations has provided the sociologist with two fundamental questions. First, the extent to which professional occupations' could be

regarded as a unique product of the division of labour in

society - be it economic, political or social (Johnson 1972).

Carr-Saunders and Wilson (1933), _

in-their classic and oft quoted

study, believe the rise of a profession is inevitable where a technique is specialised. Professional cohesiveness, the

detailing of the social structure within which professions"

play a part, or the social organisation of a given

profession have, according to Bucher and Strauss (1961),

been the main focus. However, it would require a full

comparative social and historical analysis to understand the

professions. This would probably highlight similarities but

major differences exist among professions in different

societies and at different historical times (Barber 1963). The consequence for the sociology of the professions has been that many of the inconsistent findings are due to the fact that research has concentrated on different professions at different points in time. Furthermore, research has also failed to take account of any contradictory processes that

may have existed in the development of a single profession (Johnson 1972). Therefore,

86

"... the result has been a confusion so profound there is even disagreement about the existence of confusion" (Johnson 1972: 72).

In view of the existence of such confusion the analysis of literature will be restricted to issues raised in Millerson's

guiding principles (see p. 83 ) and the stance adopted by

Johnson (1972) that a profession is not an occupation but a

means of occupational control.

Occupations and Professions

Turner and Hodge (1970) define an oc-cupation in terms of the

similarity of activities carried out within a general scheme of the division of labour. Similarities may exist without there being any social relationships between individuals. Furthermore, it is not necessary for individuals to perceive these similarities. Turner and Hodge consider, in theory, the only limitation on the number of occupations is the degree

of analytic distinction that can be made between the types and properties of activities undertaken by individuals. Cullen

'(1983) in an empirical attempt to differentiate occupations and professions,. using dimensions of professionalism, found his sample of 203 occupations clustered into three groups representing, to some degree, conventional views on the nature of professions. The first cluster consisted predominantly of a small group of medical occupations, to

a large extent self employed. The second cluster, contained most of the accepted professions employed in formal

organisations whilst the third, and largest cluster,

consisted of occupations scoring low on all dimensions. Cullen concluded theorists and researchers are not entirely wrong in assuming that professions are unique occupational types. However, a number of cautionary notes are required. First, Cullen admitted'that certain occupations have attributes closer to occupations in other clusters than their own. Second, he further admitted some occupations usually classified as professions by some researchers were missing from their expected clusters. Third, Cullen's research was based on the 'attribute' or 'trait' approach which has come under serious criticism (to be discussed later under models of

professions).

87

Harries-Jenkins (1970)' confirms the manifest problems of differentiating professions from the general occupational

milieu. Many occupations define such alarge expanse of

work as their domain that non-occupational members are

unable to evaluate the nature of the task being undertaken.

This is especially common in those occupations requiring

specialised knowledge. Furthermore, as a direct consequence

the group will then be allowed to evaluate the work carried

out. Inevitably, specialisation becomes. equated with

professionalisation. There is a resulting claim to professional

status by the occupational group, invariably on the grounds that they, and they alone, have the specialised skills and knowledge to undertake the task.

Barber (1963) suggests that the difference between an occupation and a profession is one of degree., He argues that

no absolute difference can be found between professional and

other kinds of occupational behaviour, only relative differences with respect to certain attributes common to all

occupational behaviour.

Summarising the above, occupational specialisation is related to the division of labour, often being equated with professionalisation. Certain attributes differentiate

occupations from professions but it will be a question of degree.

There are, however,: social consequences for occupational

specialisation. These include relationships of social and

economic dependence and, paradoxically, social distance.

Social distance, in turn, creates a structure of uncertainty between the producer and consumer of goods and services (Johnson 1972).

It is structural uncertainty which lies at the heart of professional activity and. may be manifested in an ideology

of professionalism. An ideology common to professional and

would-be professional groups alike.

Professionalism 2

Professionalism has been a powerful middle-class ideology for two hundred years. The practical. impact isaquest for

*See chapter note 2 for definitions 88

self governing autonomy by occupational associations with

a view to gaining control over practitioners and recruitment (Parry and Parry 1977). Elliot (1972)'agrees with the

foregoing argument but couches it in terms of occupational

self sufficiency. For Elliot the pursuit of self-sufficiency

is änpursuit of occupational power, within certain limits.

Professionalism can, therefore, be said to be a strategy (Layton 1971). for gaining occupational power. As an

ideology it has a certain dignity since the professional

renounces, at least verbally, any form of selfish behaviour.

Furthermore, it gains group advantages on the pretext of

protecting the public (Layton 1971). Gordon and Ross (1962)

add weight to this argument when discussing professionalism and the engineer. The ideology has been advanced as a reason for joining or not joining a union, to promote employee solidarity and differentiation and to promote identification with or distinguish them from management. In short, Gordon and Ross conclude, there has been so much

confusion created by professionalism that it can be used to justify the differing positions of any interest group.

Professionalism can be considered the extent to which an occupational group believes it has attained professional status (Harries-Jenkins 1970). The pre-requitite is the desire to associate and the ability to do so (Carr-Saunders

and Wilson 1933). However, there is growing empirical evidence that it is multi-faceted (Hall 1969, Schriesheim '

1978) and as such can be conceptualised as a series of interlocking continua - Figure 10

Schriesheim (1978) developed a psychological measure of professionalism utilising six dimensions isolated from the literature by Kerr, von Glinow and Schriesheim (1977). Using a sample of respondents (N'=129) in an engineering division of a public utility she found the following

- The separate dimensions of professionalism covary differently indicating it to be a multi dimensional

construct. Therefore, utilising an overall professionalism score may well mask important

differences among professional attitudes.

89

Non-professional

Technical, Knowledge Craft skill 0 0-

Routine Tasks

Programmed ,

Decision-making

Ends decided by society (or other, Authority institutions)

Other or Identity non-work

Means to non- Work work ends

Occupational/ Class advancement,, Career

Limited Education

Specific Role

Professional

Broad, Theoretical knowledge used in

Non-routine situations to reach

Unprogrammed decisions accordingI to

Ends (derived from knowledge) decided for society (or institution within it) and supported by

1 Occupational group because work. and

on are occupati I

Centr. a. life interest and are also basis for

Individual achievement which involves meeting initial entry

ations through qualificI

Extensive education, showing skill and meeting other latent status requirements involved in the

Total role (that is expectations extended beyond expertise and work situation)

Figure 10 Continua in the Professional Ideal Type Source Elliot (1972: 96)

90

- There was no conclusive evidence about differences

between graduate and non-graduate engineers, although

self-selection and small sample sizes were suggested

possible causes.

-A weak non-significant relationship between professionalism

and father's socio-economic status. The lack of strong relationship was attributed to restrictions on sample ranges, differing effects of adult and childhood socialisation processes, differing time perspectives on status measures or the fact that the relationship may only hold for traditional professions.

Closely allied to the concept of professionalism is that

of professionalisation. In general terms professionalism is the ideology adopted by an occupation as it proceeds through a process of professionalisation to become a profession.

Pr of essionailsation3

Hall (1969) believes professionalisation to be a two-way

process. The occupation must take action to become a profession but the public at large must accept it as such. The action usually taken by an occupation may involve a combination of establishing ethical. standards, establishing full-time educational establishments and organising around occupational associations that will probably certify competent practitioners.

Hickson and Thomas (1969), utilising Millerson's (1964)

work on Qualifying Associations, attempted to establish an empirical scale of professionalisation - Table 12. The

results indicate that it is probably a uni-dimensional

construct rather than multi-dimensional. However, the

results are tentative for several reasons. First, Hickson

and Thomas have, by their own admission been selective in the dimensions scaled. They have omitted two components often cited as important in the literature on professions; 'skill' based on theoretical knowledge and 'altruistic

service'. Second, they concede that the results may well

*See chapter note 3 for definition

91

Table 12 Professtonalisation Scale Scores Source Hickson and Thomas (1969: 47)

Qualifying Association (N=43) PROF SCALE SCORE

ACE AS AT

1967

NO OF ' MEMBERS (IN 100s)

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists 13 38 13 Royal College of Physicians of London 13 449 52 Royal College of Surgeons of England 13 222 135 College of General Practitioners 11 15 67 Institute of. Civil Engineers 11 149 303 Law Society 11 142 182 Royal Institute of British Architects 11 133 204 Institution of Electrical Engineers 10 96 512 Town Planning Institute 9 53 45 Inns of Court 9 667 20 Institution of Mechanical Engineers 8 120 580 Institute of Chartered Accountants 8 87 365 Chartered Institute of Secretaries 8 76 287 Royal Aeronautical Society 7 101 112 Institute of Marine Engineers 7 68 155 Institute of Physics and the Physical Society 7 49 83 Chartered Society of Physiotherapists 7 73 172 Chartered Auctioneers and Estate Agents' Institute 7 81 104 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors 7 99 262 Institute of Quantity Surveyors 7 29 43 Institution of Production Engineers 6 46 135 Institution of Metallurgists 6 22 62 Pharmaceutical Society 6 126 "88 Association of Certified and Corporate Accountants 6 63 111 Textile Institute 5 57 74 Institute of Medical Work 5 64 18 Society of Chiropodists 5 22 37 Royal Institute of Chemistry 5 90 160 Institute of Transport 4 48 108 Institute of Biology 3 17 32 Institute of Bankers 3 88 604 Library Association 2 90 119 Institute of Welding 2 44 51 Royal Institute of Naval Architects 2 107 47 Society of Radiographers 2 47 52 Chartered Insurance Institute 2 70 493 Corporation of Secretaries 2 43 102 Advertising Association 2 41 5 Institution of Railway Signal Engineers 1 55 15 Institute of Marketing and Sales Management 1 56 101 Institution of Works Managers 0 36 51 British Institute of Management 0 20 158 Institute of Company Accountants 0 39 51

Range 0-13 15-667 5-604

Mean 5.9 94 153

'Standard Deviation 3.72 113 153

92

be different if attitudinal data were used. In fact, the

result should be considerably more complex. Third, with

specific recourse to the example of Quantity Surveying, the

two professional institutes (RICS and IQS) score equally

on the professionalisation scale. This is not surprising

since founder members of the latter were former members of

the RICS. Therefore, higher professionalisation scores can

be attributed to the IQS on the grounds of identical

organisational functioning and bear no relation to the

linear process of professionalisation often hypothesised in

the literature. This may well be the case for other Institutes scaled by Hickson and-Thomas and adds weight to

consideration of internal divisions within occupations. Fourth, taking into account political manoueverings among

occupational associations, the scale may well be a mixture

of lineal progression, status and power. A view tentatively

supported by Harries-Jenkins (1970) who notes there Is a

correlation between professionalisation and status at the

extremes but a considerable grey area in between.

Harries-Jenkins, concludes the educational process is too

complex to make categorical statements about the level of professionalisation for occupational groups. He does, however, concede a high level of professionalisation can be

attributed to those occupations limited to exclusive graduate entry. A low level of professionalisation is

associated with those groups having non graduate entry and

offering considerable exemptions from intermediate and,

more importantly, final examinations. He further concedes that high professionalisation is associated with the service ideal. Montagna (1968) in his study of Chartered Public

Accountants, considers the impetus for professionalisation

comes from movement into new areas of uncertainty as old practices become routinized.

Johnson (1972) considers professionalisation to be a term, developed by sociologists, to resolve the problem of the

manifest differences in the prestige attached to certain

occupations, such as law and medicine at the top level and

others, such as teaching and social work at a lower level of

prestige.

93

Qualifying Associations

The professional world is generally organised on a craft basis. There are two motives for organisation. First, to

differentiate the competent from the incompetent and foster

the study of the technique. Second, to a lesser extent,

protection of members, (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933).

A Qualifying Association is one of six types of professional

association (Millerson 1964). It has the function of

- the advancement of a subject area and/or the technique involved in practice.

- to qualify.

- to control professional conduct.

- to raise professional status.

In the period 1910-1950 Qualifying Associations were forming

at a rate of approximately two dozen in each decade. The distribution of the most numerous is as follows,

Function N Engineering 18 Accountancy 8 Surveying, Auctioneering, Valuation 8 Management and Administration 8 Insurance 4

The above together with the auxiliary medical services, accounted for approximately 50% of all associations in England and Wales in 1964 (Millerson 1964).

A Qualifying Association can be considered a Mutual Benefit Association (Blau and Scott 1963). The membership is the ppime beneficiary. The crucial issue facing a Mutual Benefit Association is the maintenance of internal democracy. It faces two problems; first, the question of membership apathy and second, oligarchic control. The two problems are related by the fact that activists run the association and are invariably voted into positions of power by other activists. The system inevitably becomes self-reinforcing due to continued member apathy.

94

The idealised image which the association attempts to project is usually closer to reality at the time of origin when there

was perhaps a struggle for existence (blau and Scott 1963).

A Qualifying Association, has in a number of studies, been

taken as a reliable indicator of the extent to which an occupational group is professionalised. The establishment of an Association is normally taken to be the starting point of the professionalisation process and proceeds in a chronological sequence of events. Other studies have

utilised the type of professional association formed as an indicator of professionalisation. However, methodological problems abound (Harries-Jenkins 1970),

- The occupational group may be represented by more than one type of association. Consequently there will be classification problems.

- Society may place a status value on the conferred qualification. Length of training can be assessed quantitatively but not qualitatively for any given Qualifying Association.

- Qualifying Associations may vary in the extent of entrance and behaviour control.

- Occupational groups exist that are normally considered to be highly professionalised but do not have Qualifying Associations.

The foregoing comments also cast doubt on the empirical scaling of professionalisation undertaken by Hickson and Thomas (1969) since their measure was based entirely on an analysis of Qualifying Associations.

Recruitment, Education and Training

1. Recruitment

The status professions of medicine and theology have

maintained very close links for recruitment with the older universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Furthermore, these professions have a high predominance of public school recruits. These educational establishments are perceived to be of high status and have helped to ensure

95

that professionals are recruited from high status groups

in society (Elliot 1972).

The Robbins Report (1963) states that a major proportion

of members from the four largest Qualifying Associations4

had finished full time education before the age of

eighteen; also, al. large proportion had not been educated in state secondary schools - Table13 .

Table 13 Proportion of school leavers by major Qualifying Associations Source Robbins Report (1963)

Institution Proportion Proportion leaving school attending independent at 18 or direct grant

schools

Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors 74 31

Institute of Chartered Accountants in E&W 64 50

Chartered Institute of Secretaries 82 30

Law Society 41 63

In the scientific and technological disciplines and their

associated professions there is considerable diversity of

social background (Elliot 1972). Research undertaken by Gerstl and Hulton (1966) supports this view. This

study was specifically concerned with members of the

Institute of Mechanical Engineers. The authors report 25% of graduate members and approximately 50% of non

graduate members of the Institute had fathers in manual

occupations. However, 40% of graduate members came from

professional or executive backgrounds; the corresponding figure for non graduates was 20%. In comparing the

younger and older age groups Gerstl and Hulton found

4

96'

there was a tendency for the socio-economic composition to widen during this century. The incidence of self

recruitment was low, only 4%. had fathers who were

engineers. Furthermore, the data indicate a diversity

of type of work, work setting and routes of entry.

2. Education

For the status professions, the thrust of the education process in the 19th Century was in the testing and developing of the general ability of the individual. Education was concerned with developing the whole man and learning a specific expertise was postponed until afterwards. However, education for the occupational professions was predominantly concerned with vocational learning and an emphasis on skill acquisition for

practice (Elliot 1972).

The educational system for the professions remains complex. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (1933) distinguish three types of process. The uniportal system,, where a profession has only one route to qualification. The

multi portal systems, where a profession has several routes to qualification and the intermediate system lying between the other two. Harries-3enkins'(1970)

classification is more detailed than the preceding groupings. He distinguishes,

- Graduate entry only. This can be exclusive or concessional (ie complete exemption dependent on degree curriculum and can be either total or partial).

- Non graduate entry which includes graduate and other qualifications. Basic entry requirements are 0 and A levels with concessions granted to degree holders. Other qualifications may also be granted considerable exemptions.

The complexity of the process does, according to Harries-Jenkins, provide no clear indication of the extent of professionalisation.

97

Within the professional framework the educational

system acts as an intervening mechanism between social

status origins and future occupational position. Figure 11 is essentially a static representation of an

essentially dynamic-process.

3. Training

Professional work is complex, non rationalised, yet in

part recorded and specified. Training is, therefore, a key element and specifically involves a process of teaching job related skills and knowledge (Mintzberg

1979). Training is intimately bound up with the

educational process and varies considerably from

profession to profession and over time,

"... Traditionally, the basic method of professional training was the apprenticeship method, that is 'learning by doing', or 'on the fob training'. This differed to a very limited extent from the method of education and training which was adopted for the acquisition of craft skills. Subsequently, examinations were introduced as a test of professional competence, although a typical pattern of development was one in which these examinations supplemented, rather than replaced, the principles of apprenticeship. The realisation that such tests, carried out in an atmosphere of part-time study, were an inadequate assessment of the amount of theory which the member had acquired, has led occupational groups to recognise the importance of a full-time educational process. The typical pattern of education and training for a professional group, today, is thus one in which the required body of systematic theory is obtained by individuals in a formal academic environment" (Harries-Oenkins 1970: 74).

The Knowledge Base

The knowledge base is usually accorded an important place in the literature on professions. It has implications at two levels. It operates at the occupational level where it represents the accumulated wisdom of the profession. It also operates at the individual level where theory is put into practice. However, each has separate implications for practitioners.

98

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At the occupational level it is a source of occupational

power (Blau and Scott 1963, Elliot 1972). The knowledge

or theory rests on expertise in areas of uncertainty. However, this renders the power unstable since increasing

knowledge decreases uncertainty. This is in complete

accord with Montagna (1968), cited earlier, who believes

the impetus for professionalisation comes from moving into

new areas of uncertainty. Furthermore, there is a close

relationship between theory, skill and professionalisation. The practice of a skill can exist independently of any body

of theory. Practitioners would then be classified as 'craftsmen' rather than 'professional'. The greater the link between theoretical knowledge and skill the greater the

professionalisation (Harries-Jenkins 1970). In practice is

the picture this clear? The knowledge base may often be a

mixture of practical and theoretical knowledge (Hughes 1963).

Any claim to special knowledge or conscientiousness can, in practice, be made by any occupational group. The issue is mainly one of degree (Friedson and Rhea 1965).

The picture, at the occupational level, therefore, is one of blending theory and practice whilst maintaining a power base through uncertainty. However, at the individual level, the practitioner has a very personal relationship with his professional knowledge. He has probably undertaken a prolonged period of education"and training and through his natural abilities acquired a substantial but not totally complete assimilation of the profession's knowledge base. Knowledge is3therefore, largely an individual property. The application of knowledge is basically an individual act and as such the professional has ultimate responsibility for his decisions. It is the exercise of judgement, in areas of uncertainty, that frequently underlies professional demands for immunity from social pressures and allows professionals to take risks without the social repercussions of failure (Etzioni 1964).

The importance of uncertainty to the profession and the professional is reflected in Hontagna's (1968) study of CPA's. He discovered that formalisation of much of

100

professional practice into rules and written procedures

meant knowledge had passed from an intellectual to a

mechanical technique,

"... The power of the expert disappears as soon as the area uncertainty (professional judgement) can be translated into rules and programs" (p. 143).

The response by practitioners and firms of CPAs was to

expand into new areas of uncertainty. The firm and the individual gained new knowledge and techniques for professional judgement. However, the organisation suffered adverse consequences. These movements into new areas of uncertainty required individual organisations to develop their own codes of ethics and procedures until the slower moving professional associations eventually incorporated these innovations in

practice into profession wide norms.

At the social and occupational level the degree of structural uncertainty gives rise to institutional forms in an attempt to reduce uncertainty. Power relationships will determine if the uncertainty is reduced at the expense of the consumer or producer. Specialist esoteric knowledge (le. mystique) becomes a significant element in producing variations in the degree of uncertainty. The extent to which this variation is possible will create the potential for

occupational autonomy (Johnson 1972).

Professional Conduct and Professional Behaviour

The emerging attitude in the 19th Century, towards professional behaviour, appears to be one of trust and faith in personal integrity. Although competence was assessed by examination there was a feeling, in professional associations, that there should be a flexible clause, in the Articles of Association, to allow incidents of misconduct to be investigated. Should a charge be proved, the Association wanted to reserve the right to expel the guilty member (Millerson 1964).

Professionals are usually accredited with altruistic motives. However, it has been argued (Hall 1969) this is only one side of the coin. Hall believes the growth of professions can be attributed to altruistic and selfish motives.

101

The selfish motive becomes evident through a concern for

improved status and economic bargaining power as an organised

group. Furthermore, the professions are able to exert

control over the labour market by exclusion of the

unqualified. This in turn enhances their position within

the division of labour. The altruistic motive surfaces

in a desire, by some members of the profession, to improve

the service and performance of members through stricter

entrance requirements and codes of conduct. Hall concludes however, that whichever motive is dominant, both will have

occupationally beneficial results.

Haga (1975) is less benevolent than Hall. He bluntly

concludes intimidation is the essence of professional behaviour. A profession is in a position of authority over

others and becomes free from the authority of others by the

granting of., occupational autonomy. In Haga's view an

occupation becomes a profession when it can rely on intimidation as its ultimate, even if covert, weapon. He

continues,

"... Note carefully that a genuine profession need only fall back upon its power to intimidate when all other means have failed. In most daily interactions, members of a profession will likely employ both argument and persuasion in dealing with significant others at work. Persistently skeptical clients are labelled as 'difficult' by professions. In the market place, these same clients would be admired as rational consumers. But the status of profession-. Is only slightly founded on rationality. As a last resort, a member of a profession handles 'difficult' others by an ultimatum threatening to withdraw services. If an occupation is truly a profession, the prospect of losing its service will be quite intimidating to its clients or employees" (Naga 1975: 175).

The literature of professions will often concede that the

profession's most distinctive claim is self-regulation. In

empirical studies it often forms one of the dimensions of professional ideology (Hall 1969, Schriesheim 1978). However, evidence exists to indicate that at the practitioner level, it may well be impossible and, in reality, professionalism may act as a barrier to peer regulation. (Friedson and Rhea 1965). Although utilising a single

102

atypical study of physicians in a clinic, Friedson and Rhea

discovered that professional members do not have equal

access to information about each other,. their assessment of

, available information varies with specialist perspectives

and those who do have access to information do not all pay

the same attention to it. Furthermore, there was

considerable reluctance on the part of colleagues to discuss

each other's performance (even to the extent of quoting it

could be positively socially dangerous). The evidence

supports the conclusion that peer regulation, if it occurs

at all, will be on a slow, individual, trial and error

basis through personal experience.

Behaviour regulation, if it occurs at all, is likely through

the professional associations and their codes of conduct.

The code of conduct sets out the social standard expected

of practitioners. It also helps to maintain occupational

group existence (Harries-Jenkins 1970). Millerson (1964) in

his study of Qualifying Associations, analysed the content

of 25 codes that were readily available. They were greatly

concerned with competition in terms of finding work and the

method of payment. There was little emphasis on service to clients or any duty to expose professional incompetence.

Eighty percent of codes prohibited soliciting of work

or attempts to supplant colleagues. The same percentage

also restricted 'advertising to within specified limits. Two

thirds of the codes condemned practice in another occupation

that provided opportunities to obtain clients through

underhand means. Furthermore, 50% stipulated that

practitioners can only receive remuneration through a salary

or professional fee and prohibited any form of discount or

commission. The same percentage stated that practitioners

must maintain professional charges or-standard agreements. In sum, the majority of codes of conduct are concerned with restrictions on inter practitioner competition and there is

scant attention paid to the service ideal or the exposition of incompetence.

The highly professionalised groups are often governed by

two codes. The written code regulates behaviour between

103

the professional and his client. This sets the external

standard. The second code will be the, body of unwritten

rules and procedures that govern the informal relationships

between practitioners. These will set internal standards

for the profession (Harries-Jenkins 1970). The existence of

two codes of conduct will effectively avoid dual standards

of behaviour and are-evident in the older professions of

law and medicine.

Professional Monopoly and Privilege

Professional monopoly is based on the existence of a

specialised technique. The advantage of a monopolistic

situation will, be more easily attained if legal protection

can be obtained by the profession (Carr-Saunders and Wilson

1933).

The Monopolies and Mergers Commission (1970), in an extensive

investigation of professional and occupational monopoly, decided a monopolistic situation existed where,

- standards of qualification denied or hampered access by the unqualified, to the market place.

- certain methods of competition were prevented. The

business element in the transaction was inescapable

since a price must be charged for the provision of

a service.

The Commission also concluded

- it was against the public interest to prevent the

unqualified from offering a service except where

serious risks to the public.

- restrictions on advertising were, in general, against the public interest except where they would jeopardise

the client practitioner relationship. Professional

associations and practitioners should provide information

on the services provided.

- restrictions on certain types of organisational arrangements, such as limited companies, were against the public interest except where they would jeopardise the client practitioner relationship.

104

- that competence should be tested by examination and

practical tests where applicable with standards to be determined by individual professions. Minimum

age limites for entry requirements were acceptable

except to higher grades where the criterion should be competence. Furthermore, if experience and

responsibility were essential for candidature to

higher grades a precise definition of acceptable

responsible posts should be provided.

The Monopolies and Mergers Commission essentially applied

a comparative standard with the business world in general.

Rewards for business and those for professional work have

been considered incompatible by some writers. Barber (1963)

is an example. He considers money income to be an approp-

riate reward for individual self interest, commonly attributed

to the. business world, and prestige and honours to be

appropriate rewards for community interest, an ideal under-

pinning certain perspectives on professionalism.

Hughes (1963) believes, "... Professions come near the top

of the prestige ratings of occupations" (p. 658). In previous

sections evidence has been presented that indicates, for

a variety of reasons - historical development, close

relationships with aristocracy, high social status, social

mobility and high status education - professions,

especially the three traditional professions, occupy a unique

position in society. They. __also

have occupational prestige. Much of the foregoing can be subsumed under the term

professional privilege. Professions enjoy a dual privjlege. They are privileged occupations and they also have

professional elites that form an integral part of the dominant elites of society (Portwood and Fielding, 1981).

Portwood and Fielding have undertaken an empirical investigation of five professions using wealth, status and power as their starting points. The professions they investigated were,

105

Lawyers ) Doctors ) Traditionally considered to be the The Clergy) most privileged

University teachers as knowledge creators and gatekeepers to higher status occupations and,

Accountants as occupying an essential control function in corporate capitalism

Using the model indicated in Fig 12 , Portwood and Fielding's

data provided evidence that privilege is complex and multi-

faceted - Tablel4 . It is attained by a variety of

strategies but the most prominent are a mixture of social

and political mechanisms from the pre- and post-industrial

periods - Table 15. Privilege has a dynamic quality and is heavily influenced by institutional structures and ideologies from the past. The most crucial factor appears

to be the participation of top professionals in the dominant

organisational elites of society. Professionals can,

therefore)be viewed as not only servants but also exercisers

of power. Privilege has an enduring quality: once gained it is usually maintained.

The status and prestige attributed to an occupation has

important implications for recruitment. However, the

prestige attached to membership of an institution is also dependent on the entrance qualifications demanded. These

cannot be demanded until prestige has been acquired. Acquiring prestige is a prolonged and difficult activity (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933).

The Producer Consumer Relationship

The idealised client-professional relationship is characterised by a sense of responsibility, pride in service and a lack

of interest in personal profit. However, in relation to the wider community, this ideal may well be lacking since the poorer members of the community are often unable to

afford the professional's services (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933).

There is growing evidence, from a different perspective, that the idealised image does not correspond to reality.

106

Figure 12 Pattern's of Professional Privilege In Pre Industrial and Industrial England

Source: Portwood and Fielding (19811761)

Characteristic of Form of Expression/Mode of Operation in Professional Pre-Industrial Industrial England Privilege

WEALTH Income Fees & sinecures via

nepotism

Socio-economic Self-employment; well-being gentlemanly life-style;

status-based collegiality

STATUS Legal Status By ascription & qualification;

protection of function; professional mandate relatively unspeciflea; guaranteed clientele on basis of legal compulsion; confidential relationship with client

Social respect Based on relationship to elite, education, expectations of public service & expertise; expressive and instrumental role in personal but formal context

Fees & salaries via merit & nepotism

Self-employment & employment; gentlemanly life-style for elite; occupationally-based collegiality

By qualification and ascription; protection of title and function; more specific professional mandate; guaranteed clientele by compulsion (property, welfare, schools, eyesight); confidential relationship with client Based on expertise, relationship to various class-based groups, traditional status, expectations of public service, instrumental and expressive role often in formal context

0 POWER Control over By elite appointed by By appointed officer of professional royal patronage professional association, and elite affairs _ which is nominated by elite itself

and members Control over By profession itself; By profession itself & secularised production of unquestioned universities; by meritocratic knowledge and prerogative by virtue of class credentials via professional skills origin; self-accountability (if any). schools; self-accountability

via professional elite and state sanctions via professional and ecclesiastical courts associations

Authority of practitioner to define client need

Control of choice and handling of clients

Based predominantly on traditional and/or supernaturally-legitimated knowledge & collective altruism following class, gender & religious divisions

By professionals as restricted by overt class interests & rules of peers, superiors and any patrons

Predominantly on basis of technical knowledge & personal altruism following class, gender and racial divisions

Political By elite for elite with King manoeuvring and his Ministers and manipulation

State policy By top prcfessionals by formation, virtue of status - elite interpretation with elite and execution

By professionals as restricted by covert class interests, rules of professional association by state regulations and the constraints of any employing agency By professional association and elite individuals for elite and whole professional body with Ministers and top civil servants; by professional association with other professional bodies and occupational representatives; by segments of profession with other segments; by appeal to popular support By professional association representatives & individual expert professionals with . Ministers & top civil servants in relation to both covert class interests and general welfare provision

Ideological and The role of elites and elite By elite and elite Individuals cultural individuals in academic and organised groups in academic influence life, pulpit and in the court life, the media and in

to preserve and adapt values Parliament to both preserve of ruling class adapt and change values in the

context of a rclati e1y diverse power structure; professionalism as a model for work ot\ganlsation

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109

In many instances structuring of expectations occur and the

client and practitioner must conform to each other's

expectations (Hall 1969). Elliot (1972) is more restrictive

on structuring of expectancies. He believes clients are

expected to act the role of client consistent with

professional expectations.

At a structural level the customer's role has been

dichotomised into consumption (receiving goods and services for the satisfaction of needs) and control (over distri-

bution of resources in accordance with needs). The split in the consumer role has resulted in control being taken

away from the consumer and placed in the hands of others (Etzioni 1964).

Etzioni suggests a continuum of consumer control,

Least Consumer Control Most Consumer Control

Public Monopolies Schools, Universities, Private Small Hospitals, Health Monopolies Business Services Duopolies &

Oligopolies

Etzioni considers professionals are difficult to locate on the continuum since their services, especially when organised in an administrative framework, are separate from the fee charged and,, therefore, from direct client pressure.

Hillier (1979), in his study of the UK Architectural

profession, provides a useful insight into the client

professional relationship. It has a direct bearing on Quantity Surveying as work settings and clients are very similar. Major empirical findings on clients to the Architectural profession are,

- Smaller practices have a 3: 1 ratio of private clients compared with larger practices. However, larger

practices have a more stable clientele. 54% of commissions for larger practices were repeat commissions compared to 33% for smaller practices. Smaller

practices compensate for a lower rate of repeat

commissions with a higher rate of commissions through

recommendations by previous clients. Most work,

110

therefore, comes by word of mouth and does not alter

significantly with size of practice.

- Client types vary with size of practice. Larger

practices undertake a higher proportion of work for

Local Authorities than smaller practices. A

similar relationship holds for major public clients

with small practices doing relatively badly.

- If'project value, as opposed to number of projects, is considered the largest practices have approximately four times the proportion of jobs worth over £4m (1978/9 prices). However, taking the total number

of jobs worth £im, they are more evenly distributed

among practices with the larger practices obtaining as many, in total, as the smaller practices. Large

jobs are few in the smallest practices but clients

are as. likely to place £*m jobs with small, as

compared to large practices.

- Many practices specialise involuntarily in types of buildings. This is a direct result of relations

with particular clients. The tendency to concentrate

on one building type was pronounced with large and

small practices but not with medium-sized firms. In

the majority of cases specialisation was unintended.

- In terms of abortive work there are major differences between public and private sectors. In the private sector approximately 20% of projects were cancelled or postponed at the Scheme Design stage and only 12%

at the Production Drawing stage. In the public sector approximately 21% were cancelled or postponed at the Production Drawing stage and only 8% at the Scheme Design stage.

In summary, the Architectural profession is involved in highly complex relationships with clients which are dependent on size of practice, type of client and sector of employment.

111

Section Summary

A number of principles are important in order to understand the concept of profession (Millerson 1964). They provide a framework for guiding the current investigation. Professional

characteristics differ in pre- and post-industrial society. Status professionalism relates to professions in pre- industrial society and occupational professionalism in

post-industrial society (Elliot 1972). However, there may be considerable historical overlap especially with the

persistence of the idealised 'gentlemanly image' of the

professional (Portwood and Fielding 1981). Professions

serve a number of functions in society (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933, Elliot 1972) but they are essentially

vulnerable institutions (Barzun 1978). As an occupational form, professions have attracted considerable interest

from sociologists but much of the literature is confusing (Johnson 1972). The present study takes as its fundamental

premise that a profession is a form of occupational control. Empirical attempts have been made to differentiate

professions from other occupations. To a limited extent this has proved successful but there are considerable methodological problems. At best, professions are a unique product of the division of labour involving highly specialised skills. However, the consequence, for society, of occupational specialisation is the creation of social distance. This leads to structural uncertainty between the

producer and consumer of goods and services (Johnson 1972).

Professionalism is an ideology that has been linked to class divisions in society (Parry and Parry 1977). It is used increasingly as a strategy to justify occupational power and the pursuit of occupational autonomy (Elliot 1972, Layton 1971). As an ideology, it is primarily attributed to

established professions but it will often be used by

occupations in search of professional status. The indiscriminant use of the term has added to the confusion already existing in the professional literature. Professionalism has been shown, empirically, to be multi-

112

dimensional (Hall 1969, Schriesheim 1978) but empirical

evidence on differences between social classes is only

weak (Schriesheim 1978).

Professionalisation is the process of becoming a profession. Occupational action is required to professionalise but

public recognition of occupational status is also necessary (Hall 1969). A preliminary empirical scale of professional-

isation has been developed (Hickson and Thomas 1969), but

it suffers from methodological problems. Sociologists

have viewed professionalisation as a chronological

progression although there is growing evidence that it is

either more complex than a simple linear progression, or it is a convenient concept to circumvent inconsistent

research evidence (Johnson 1972).

There are a number of different types of professional

association (Millerson 1964). The most important for the

present study is the Qualifying Association. The principle functions of Associations are to test competence and

consolidate the profession (Millerson 1964). However, as an

organised body they face problems of membership apathy and

oligarchic control (Blau and Scott 1963). The literature

on professions often relates the Qualifying Association to

the process of professionalisation but there are a number

of definitional problems (Harries-Jenkins 1970). A Qualifying Association provides control over recruitment and training. It is also involved in the educational process. Recruitment, to the traditional professions, reflects high

social status groupings in society who, are predominantly educated in high status educational establishments (Elliot 1972). A high proportion of professionals in the four

major Qualifying Associations left school before eighteen (The Robbins Report 1963). The trend for members of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers is towards diversity-in

social background during this century (Gerstl and Hulton 19166).

The educational system for professions remains complex (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933, Harries-Jenkins 1970) with

no clear evidence linking professionalisation to the

113

educational process (Harries-Jenkins 1970). However, the

educational system serves as a mechanism linking status of origin with future occupational position. Professional

education is moving towards the assimilation of vocational

skills rather than producing the 'rounded gentleman' (Elliot 1972).

Training is concerned with teaching job related skills (Mintzberg 1979). There is a move towards full-time

education rather than part-time study (Harries-Jenkins 1970).

Knowledge is an important power base for professions (Blau

and Scott 1963,. Elliot 1972). At the occupational level, it is a source of power resting on expertise in areas of uncertainty. However, it is an unstable power base since uncertainty decreases as knowledge increases. For this

reason professionals seek uncertainty for continued pursuit of professional practice (Montagna 1968). This

process adds to the knowledge base but consolidation of knowledge by the professional associations tends to be

slow. Uncertainty provides an impetus for professionalisation and for the potential ofýoccupational autonomy. At the individual level, the"-knowledge base confronts the individual with personal responsibility and the consequent claim for social immunity (Etzioni 1964).

Professional behaviour has been viewed as a mixture of altruism and self interest (Hall 1969). True professional authority can rely on intimidation as its ultimate weapon (Haga 1978). Self regulation is the profession's best claim to status and it is an important part of professional ideology. However, peer regulation may not be possible in practice. Professionalism may well act as a barrier to self regulation (Friedson and Rhea 1965). Professional behaviour is often expected to be controlled through codes of conduct (Harries-Jenkins 1970). Written codes are, in the main, concerned with restrictions on inter practitioner competition with little emphasis placed on the service ideal (Millerson 1964).

Many of the attributes used to characterise professions

114

and justify monopolistic privilege have been shown to be

against the public interest (Monopolies and Mergers

Commission 1970). Professional monopoly rests on a

specialised technique and legal sanctions are advantageous in maintaining the monopoly (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933).

Prestige and honours are more appropriate rewards for

professional behaviour (Barber 1963) but empirical and literary evidence suggests professions are privileged not through reward of altruistic motives but through associations with wealth, status and power distributions in society. Furthermore, professional elites consolidate and maintain professional privilege as representatives of the dominant

organisational elites of society (Portwood and Fielding 1981). Status and prestige'are also important for

occupational recruitment (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933).

The client practitioner relationship has an idealised form that may not live up to reality especially at an individual level (Elliot 1972, Hall'1969). - At the structural level,

control has tended to be removed from the consumer. Consumer control may be considered as a continuum. Professionals are difficult to locate on the continuum especially if they are situated in an administrative organisational framework where direct client pressure is difficult (Etzioni 1964). Empirical evidence on client relationships with the UK Architectural profession, a profession intimately connected with the structure of the Quantity Surveying profession, indicates a complex set of relationships that are dependant onýsize of practice, type of client and sector of employment (Hillier 1979).

The following section will review a number of models for viewing professions. They adopt perspectives at the societal, occupational and antra occupational levels of analysis.

115

......... ... .. DIFFERING MODELS OF PROFESSIONS

The literature on-the professions is extensive. The following section deals, mainly in outline form, with the differing approaches and conceptualisations of professions. The list is by no means exhaustive but the selection has been based on those models that will provide a more useful insight into the Quantity Surveying profession. A number

of the models reviewed operate at the societal-occupational level whilst others are concerned with occupational or intra

occupational analysis. The models to be discussed are,

Trait models often subsumed under the 'taxonomic'

Functional approach

Neo Weberian model

Marxist model

Johnson's (1972) occupational control typologies

Haga's (1975) cruciality, mystique model

Hall's (1969) attitudinal and structural model

Bucher and Strauss's (1961) process model

Gordon and Ross's (1962) professional status model

"Where possible, supplementary arguments will be indicated in the text, but, in the main, literature referring to a specific model will be indicated at the beginning of a sub-section.

The Taxonomic approach6

(a) Trait models

'Trait' models are concerned with an attempt to identify

a common core of attributes that will allow occupations to be classified as professions. There tends to be an emphasis on identifying an ideal type (Johnson 1972, Turner and Hodge 1970). More recent additions to this

approach are the work of Cullen (1983) and to a lesser

extent, Kerr, von Glinow and Schriesheim (1977) and Schriesheim (1978). Criticisms of the trait model are

numerous. The basic building block is the acceptance

116

and exi-stence of 'true' professions that have these

attributes, usually the Church, medicine and the law.

There is no theoretical framework for selection of traits. Researchers will often use the definitions

provided by occupation(s) under study. The trait.

model is ahistorical, with no attempt to link over time

the development of an occupation/profession with

environmental. and/or intra occupational influences.

The model builders also tend to ignore the nature of the clientele and often there is considerable confusion over the structural conditions of professionalisation and the defining characteristics of professionalism (Johnson 1972, Turner and Hodge 1970).

(b) The functionalist model

The second approach, the functionalist perspective, is

concerned with isolating those elements that are important for the functioning of society as a whole or

the practitioner client relationship in. particular. This approach is more abstract than the preceding model

with considerably more emphasis on description.

Criticism of the functionalist perpective is again heavy. First, the approach accepts that the knowledge

base of a profession has equal utility to all members of society. Society in turn will reward altruistic

service with prestige and honours. Second, there is an

ahistorical assumption that no other forms of institu-

tional control can exist other than professionalism. Third, it excludes the power dimension. Fourth, there is considerable emphasis on membership homogeneity.

(Bucher and Strauss 1961, Johnson 1972).

Saks (1983), although commenting that criticisms of the taxonomic approach may have been too harsh, concludes there is a severe lack of empirical research using the core attributes to analyse the degree of professionalisation.

The taxonomic model, in sum, has suffered from a number of drawbacks. It has prompted two researchers of the professions to remark,

117

"... many occupations have been surprised by their success in fulfilling most of the prescribed attributes and simultaneously dismayed at what little difference it made in genuinely enhancing their status. This follows since such lists contain traits that are observable results of being a profession. These traits are not the causal factors that can convert-any occupation into a genuine profession" (Naga 1975: 173).

Millerson (1964) continues,

"(The) ... Prevalence of particular aspects perhaps implies agreement, as well as blind acceptance from others" (p. 4).

The use of the taxonomic approach in analysing professions

can, therefore, at best, only provide suggestive evidence for the existence of a prcrfessionalised occupation. It

suffers from the severe limitation of delineating the bona

fide profession (if one exists) from the host of

occupations seeking-its status.

Figure13 sets out the expanisve taxonomic literature. It

is an amalgamation of Tables presented by Cullen (1983)

and Millerson (1964). Columns and rows have been summed to indicate the diversity of results.

The Neo-Weberian and Marxist Models

From a descriptive viewpoint both models are set forth in

Saks (1983). However, a brief resume will highlight important

points from each model.

The neo Weberian perspective is a recent approach to the

analysis of professions which uses, either covertly or

overtly, the Weberian concept of social closure on market forces. It is a market oriented approach. Professionali-

sation is viewed as an exclusionary closure of the market

place using credentials as the major mechanism. Saks

presents a number ofs, urces of' evidence indicating that

professionalisation and professionalism are occupational

strategies for controlling the number of prospective

candidates to a profession. Asa consequence the market

value of the profession is enhanced through the forces of

supply and demand. Saks criticises the Neo Weberian approach

for lack of empirical evidence, both documentary and

118

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119

historically, to substantiate the claims.

The Marxist approach places the professions within a broad

social framework and the general distribution of power in

society. The Marxist perspective considers the professions

to be tied to and generally supportive of the class structure

and capitalism. The lower classes are viewed as victims

of the capitalist class structure. In this vein the

professions are generally considered in a poor light. Saks again criticises Marxist researchers as being empirically unsubstantiated armchair theorists.

Institutionalised Strategies for Occupational Control (Johnson's 1972 Typology)

Mention has already been made of the concept of social distance and its relationship to structural uncertainty. By focusing on the consumer-producer relationship and the

way that structural uncertainty is reduced Johnson has

suggested three strategies for occupational control. These

may not be mutually exclusive. The following discussion

will concentrate on the essential qualities of each of the three forms.

1. Collegiate

Professionalism is one form of collegiate control and arises through an institutional framework based on occupational authority.

The conditions required for its emergence are,

- the producer defines the needs of the consumer and the manner in which those needs are catered for.

- the occupational skills are demanded by a large

and relatively heterogeneous group of consumers. The consumer group has diverse interests, is

unorganised, is dependent and exploitable.

- dependence is created through needs that may be distributed according to socio economic status. Exploitability is dependent on the relative importance of the occupational service to the

community.

120

Technically based authority will often be extended to

broader social contexts again primarily due to the

heterogeneity of the consumer. The profession will

consider it is within its rights to pronounce on matters

important to society that are associated with, but not

a central core of its practice. Professionalism was

originally market based and expanded with the needs

of the industrial revolution. The emergence of

collegiate control, historically, was also facilitated

by close associations with powerful social groups

including the aristocracy.

The producer consumer relationship is on a one to one

basis either through solo practice or partnerships.

The relationship is instituted by the client and

terminated by the professional. Consumer control, as

exercised through consumer choice, is weak due to

consumer heterogeneity and individualisation. The only

recourse, for the consumer, lies with the occupational

association since remuneration is by association defined fees.

Professionalism is associated with a homogeneous

occupational community, both In terms of outlook and interests. Consequently, specialisation within the

occupation is low and recruitment will often be from

similar social backgrounds. However, if general

practice has given way to specialisation then community

identity will be threatened and there may exist the

possibility of divergent interests and missions. Specialisation may occur along consumer status differences

and this will further add to"divergency among the

occupational community.

The occupational association acts as a registering body.

It holds power over the membership through sanction

mechanisms-for the control of occupational and non

occupational behaviour. It will also attempt to impose

a uniportal system of occupational entry and so ensure

a similarity of outlook, interest and mission through

121

the creation of mutual socialisation experiences. The career is a defining characteristic and is considered to be continuous and terminal. It is also an important

mechanism for maintaining the sense of identity, colleague loyalty and shared values. 'Furthermore, the myth of a

community of equal competence generates public trust.

Professionalism creates an occupation of self conscious

practitioners where the work setting and working life

are of central importance. Occupational skills are

considered non transferable. Furthermore, the ideology

of professionalism claims that high economic and social

rewards are justified by lengthy training to acquire

professional skills. However, there are major tensions

within professionalism as a form of occupational control. These tensions threaten its stability. The dominant

source of tension is the conflict between consumer

choice and occupational control. Where the former

is evident, it will operate against occupational control

since it will encourage diversity. The ban on advertising

can be viewed as an occupational strategy to reduce the

threat of occupational diversity. This is especially necessary where there is the possibility of a professional elite capitalising on an already favouraEle position. The strain towards consumer choice may, according to Johnson, eventually eliminate professionalism. This may be especially true of those occupations that have been

subject to investigation by the Monopolies and Mergers

Commission.

2. Patronage

Fully developed institutions of patronage develop where consumers have the capacity'to define their own needs and the manner in which they are met.

The conditions required for its emergence are, - the dominant effective demand for services from a

small, powerful, unitary clientele. Corporate

patronage arises where a few large scale

corporations are the major consumers of expertise.

122

- the patron is relatively independent and unexploit-

able by virtue of wider social power bases.

Technically based authority and occupational autonomy,

stemming from social distance, are at a minimum. The

significance of patronage, for an occupation, is dependent

on the degree to which occupational practice is defined by the patron as opposed to the occupation. Recruitment is based on sponsorship with the main criteria being

shared values and status. Technical competence may be

of secondary importance. Thus, a small serving elite

of practitioners share, to some degree, the same social

origins and characteristics of those using their services. If the. system of patronage is fully developed the

professional elite will work for the more powerful

corporations, either as consultants or employees. As

a consequence an occupational hierarchy will be formed.

Corporate patronage will usually be the cause of large

professional bureaucracies ie. professional firms (the CPA firms of Montagna 1968), that are dependent on corporate business. Furthermore, corporate patronage will also produce a locally oriented professional community.. The evaluation of role performance will, therefore, tend to lie with the organisation rather than

with peer structuring. As a consequence of local

orientations and the needs of the patron there will be

a strong tendency for local knowledge and skills to develop, with local prestige and reputations of more importance for the practitioner. Professional practice will not be viewed as a continuous and terminal career by all practitioners. Advancement in the occupational hierarchy will normally be by association with more and more powerful patrons.

Corporate patronage, as mentioned earlier, produces an occupational hierarchy. This will be manifested in a number of ways. First, in the professional bureaucracies there will be a preponderance of managing partners whose authority will be defined in terms of their role position in an organisational hierarchy. To them,

123

authority is organisationally rather than professionally

defined. Second, within the profession there will be

a move to create technician grades for practitioners.

These subordinate grades will effectively be excluded

from entrance to higher grades. In practice this will

mean greater specialisation by occupational leaders with

routine tasks delegated to technicians. Johnson notes

this is already under way in the Accountancy, Engineering

and Architectural professions.

Corporate patronage is characterised by less stress on

the pursuit of basic knowledge with a greater emphasis

on knowledge specifically related to the needs of the

patron. The neglect of research by patron controlled

occupations has often been associated with a slow development in formal education. Johnson elaborates

using the accountancy profession as an example. There

has been low emphasis on research into accountancy

practice and an emphasis on qualifying by correspondence

courses due to the requirements of local experience. He adds that Articles have been significant in accountancy

education. Usually they are associated with profession-

alism. However, Johnson explains that under

professionalism the tendency is for training to be in

the hands of professionally controlled schools such as

the Inns of Court.

Furthermore, under patronage, theoretical knowledge is

of less importance because practitioners are interested

in the "here" and "now". They will be more concerned

with explanations that can be simply and immediately

applied. The practitioner, under patronage, is to an

extent protected. There are limitations on the

requirements of knowing and doing. He may well be limited in the requiement to learn an extensive body of theory in order to practice.

The ideology of patronage is the opposite of profes-

sionalism. The former stresses superior competence

whereas the latter stresses equal competence.

The major tensions of the patronage system of occupational

124

control are produced by occupational hierarchies and dual

systems of practice. Conflict and competition are introduced into the system with the-stress on technician,

graduate and non graduate grades.

3. Mediation

Under this system of occupational control the State

intervenes in the client practitioner relationship and defines the needs and/or the manner by which these needs

will be catered for. Therefore, the State is attempting to remove from the producer and consumer the authority to determine the content and subject of practice.

A continuum of mediation may exist. At one extreme the State may have minimal encroachment on an already existing system of professionalism (reflecting the bureaucratised professionals as described by Fielding

and Portwood 1980). At the other extreme the State may attempt to ensure a desired distribution of occupational services by providing them through a State agency. Professional employees have a statutory obligation to provide the service.

State mediation provides a guaranteed clientele. The

consumer is defined in terms of citizenship rather than 'by social status or the ability to pay. The result is

a greater diversity of consumer characteristics than

under either of the two previous forms of occupational

control. Uncertainty is managed, under mediation, by

reducing the pgssibility of exploitation from either side of the consumer producer relationship. However, under

mediation there is considerable ambiguity concerning the identity of the consumer. The consumer is a diffused clientele.

Mediation undermines the existing social bases of recruitment by placing it. in the hands of academics. As a consequence, there is considerably more opportunity to enter a state mediation controlled occupation through expanding channels of academic entry. The power relationship shifts away from the occupati. onal community

125

into the hands of the academics.

State mediation will increase the number of occupations

working within the framework of government organisation.

There is an intermingling of professional and organisa-

tional roles as the occupation becomes more bureau-

cratised. Consequently, occupational stratification

occurs, undermining colleague relationships and

neutralising occupational controls that an autonomous

profession may have over its members. Occupational

and organisational stratification will produce a

diversity of interests and orientations, further under-

mining the occupational community. It will be unlikely, in such a situation, for any dominant power group to

emerge on the basis of location alone.

State mediation will also produce a drive towards

localism. Practitioners will identify more with the

organisational hierarchy, especially in terms of career

structures. Often, careers will become Identified with

government administration rather than those available

within a given profession. Therefore, differences in

structural and locational situation may cause differences in the degree of identification with the

occupational community. The occupation is no longer

viewed in terms of a terminal career.

The ideology of state mediation is one of social service rather than one of personal service as under professionalism.

The Cruciality, Mystique Model (after Haga 1975)

A combination of cruciality and mystique defines a true

profession (Naga 1975). The greater the degree of each possessed by an occupation the greater its status as a profession.

1. Cruciality

An occupation possesses cruciality when some group of

significant others defines it as being vitally necessary to their prosperity or survival. This implies that the

occupation has an almost life or death relationship

4

126

with the clientele, its public or employers. Significant

others, for the occupation, must be a group of people it requires as an audience for its 'presentation of

professionalism.

Cruciality, for the individual, is rooted in his/her

own perceived needs that have arisen from his/her own

experiences in life. These experiences may have

represented threats, demands or opportunities. The

more crucial a matter is perceived to be the greater the tendency to seek out the particular profession that

has a monopoly over it.

2. Mystique

Mystique arises from cruciality. When the individual

sees himself as having a crucial problem he will seek

out a practitioner who will be perceived as having more

extensive knowledge on the subject than the layman.

The practitioner is perceived as being in possession

of a mystery. To significant others the practitioner

undertakes esoteric work of a kind that is beyond the

comprehension of ordinary mortals. Therefore, it is

more than Just specialised skills, expertise or competence.

The mystique of a profession creates authority relation-

ships between the participants. The significant others know the problem to be beyond their own comprehension, both in terms of ability and knowledge. Furthermore,

the significant others allow the practitioner to exercise his own judgement to solve the problem since he is

perceived as having the knowledge to understand the

situation. Suspension of judgement by the layman creates the mystique necessary for a profession.

Figure 14 is a representation of the two dimensional

matrix produced by cruciality and mystique.

Hall's Structural and Attitudinal Modell

The model produced by Hall (1969) uses, as a basis, the

taxonomic approach. However, Hall distinguishes between

structural and attitudinal attributes of professions. His

model is also considerably more empirically based than the

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taxonomic model.

1. The Structural Attributes

Hall's structural attributes are those of Wilensky

(1964). They are

(a) The creation of a full time occupation.

This may involve performing existing as well as

new functions and is a reaction to the needs of

the social structure.

(b) The establishment of a training school.

This is a reflection of the knowledge base of the

profession and the efforts of early leaders to

consolidate and improve the standing of the

profession. It is usually assumed that as

professionalisation preceeds the occupation will

affiliate to a university. However, occupations that are currently professionalising will

simultaneously establish a training school and

university affiliation.

(c) Formation of professional associations.

This may often herald a change in occupational title with attempts to more clearly define the

nature of the professional task and test

practitioner competence. Political agitation to

secure state licensing and protection from

competing occupations is common place.

(d) The formation of a code of ethics.

These will be concerned with internal (colleague)'

and external (client and public) relations. The

professional associations will enforce the codes.

The structural attributes are seen as a set of sequential stages through which an occupation passes in the process

of professionalisation.

2. The Attitudinal Attributes

The attitudinal components of professionalisation are,

129

(a) The use of the professional organisation as a

major reference.

The formal professional association and informal

colleague groupings are seen as njajor sources of ideas and judgements for the professional in his

work.

(b) A belief in service to the public.

This includes the notion that the occupation is

indispensable and that it benefits both public

and practitioner alike.

(c) Belief in self regulation.

This is concerned with colleague control and peer

regulation since the professional's peers are

viewed as the only group capable of assessing

competence.

(d) A sense of calling to the field.

This reflects the dedication of the professional to

his field of work and a sense that he will continue

in the occupation even if greater extrinsic rewards

were available.

(e) Autonomy.

This is concerned with the feeling that the

practitioner should be allowed to exercise independent judgement without external pressures

from clients, from individuals who are not members of his profession or the employing organisation.

In an empirical investigation using the model, Hall discovered

the attitudinal and structural components do not always

co-vary. The more"professionalised occupations, structurally, are not always the most professionalised attitudinally.

Hall (1969) concludes the data support the idea that attitudinal components, belief in service to the public and sense of calling to the field, may have little importance to the

position of an occupation in the overall occupational structure.

130

Professional organisation as a major reference, belief in

self regulation and autonomy appear central to profes-

sionalisation.

Autonomy is the key element in professionalisation, according

to Hall, since it has an attitudinal and structural

component. Attitudinally it reflects the degree of independent

judgement exercised by the practitioner in the work setting.

Structurally, autonomy is indirectly related to the efforts

of the-professional association to exclude the unqualified. The knowledge base, community sanction and colleague control

of behaviour are all aspects of autonomy.

The importance of autonomy has been taken up by a number of

commentators. Pavlovic (1983) identifies three simpler

concepts subsumed under the global concept of autonomy. The first two concepts are external to the individual. They

are the concept of relative lack of restriction on action and

the concept of relative absence of coercion. The third

concept is an internal condition of the individual who is

considered to be the initiator of action rather than its

medium. The first two concepts are, therefore, concerned

with freedom of action whilst the third is concerned with

the attribution of personal responsibility.

Freedom of action and the organisational setting are closely

related. Autonomy has a strong inverse relationship with

degree of bureaucratisation (Hall 1968). Organisational

structuring, for the American Architectural profession, has

important implications for autonomy. The degree of autonomy

increases from the heteronomous organisation, autonomous,

professional department to solo practitioner (Foremen 1975).

Furthermore, attempts to attain autonomy, within organisations,

will involve political contests rather than open conflict (Green, 1975). However, Mintzberg (1979) argues that the

individual performing the professional task only appears

autonomous since he is a product of his background ie.

training has inculcated the individual with the ability to

perform without direct supervision. However, the

professional is still in a position to exercise considerable discretion due to task complexity.

131

The Process Model (after Bucher and Strauss 1961)8

Professions are conceived as having segments that are essentially organised coalitions of practitioners with their

own identity. Segments are not static but are constantly undergoing change. A specialisation is considered to be

a major segment but it in turn will have coalitions and oppositions. Professions are therefore conceptualised as loose amalgamations of segments each having different

objectives, pursued in different ways. These loose

amalgamations are held together under a common name at a particular period in time.

Each segment has its own ideology. However, segments are operating within an institutional framework and a large

part of their activity will be taken up in power struggles for either possession of or a place within the institutional framework. Furthermore, the existence of the framework will mean, in practice, that there is a considerable amount of interdependency among segments. The institutional elite are very aware of the importance of status within the profession. They areitherefore, able to operate from positions of relative institutional power and exercise considerable influence over institutional recruitment.

There are seven parts to the process model.

1. The sense of mission

In the early stages of formation the practitioners will characteristically proclaim an exclusive domain and a. sense of unique mission. A statement of the mission will be issued that sets out the unique contribution the

speciality can make to society. The statement may often contain a considerable amount of rhetoric especially if issued during a struggle for existence, recognition and institutional status. However, during the life of a speciality other segments may develop, each with their own missions.

2. Work activities

Task diversity will be considerable with'each segment

offering different ideas on what is the core activity

132

or most characteristic professional act. It will also be highly probable that segments will. weight different

activities as more important for the profession.

Frequently, segments will develop different core and

associated ancilliary activities. This may, in turn,

create further diversity in commitment to any one major

area.

3. Methodology and Techniques

One of the most profound and deep divisions of members

will occur within this area. A division may occur not only among specialisms but also on methodological grounds. Methodological differences may occur across speciality and professional boundaries. Specialists

may share techniques with neighbouring occupations but

not those of their own colleagues.

4. Clients

Segments develop sets of relationships with clients that are peculiar to their own segment. There will be

a characteristic idealised image of the client practitioner relationship for a particular segment. Furthermore, in reality, some professionals may never come into direct contact with clients.

5. Colleagueship

This may be one of the most sensitive indicators of segmentation in a profession since the colleague- colleague relationship is intimately bound up with a practitioner's own standing and place within it. Colleagueship implies occupational unity. Furthermore,

regulated entry into a profession also makes the implicit

assumption that all members of the occupation have a common focal interest. However, the existence of colleague cliques may well cause 'segmentation to occur; what may bind one group together may be anathema to

another. It is beyond the bounds of reality to expect all members of a profession to be considered potential colleagues.

133

Bucher and Strauss utilise the concept of circles of

colleagueship to denote the above but have a preference for the term alliances of members rather than colleague-

ship. Alliances possibly reflect a closer proximity to

reality as segments may often have more in common with

neighbouring occupations than with their own profession.

6. Interests and Associations

Bucher and Strauss take a contrary view to the common assumption, in the sociological literature, that

professionals have unity of interest. They argue that interests not only diverge but are often in direct

conflict. Common reasons for open or covert conflict are segmentary concern with affiliations to educational institutions, recruitment and relations with external bodies. Furthermore, it will be highly probable any view expressed by the professional association will be

a reflection of a single segment or alliance of segments.

7. Spurious Unity and Public Relations 4 The view of the profession presented to the external

world- will often reflect the power of certain groups

within the association. Therefore, an apparently unified and homogeneous external front may not reflect the competition between segments for control over the

association's resources.

Bucher and Strauss view codes of ethics to be no more than historical deposits from previous powerful segments. Codes are subject to change if the membership of critical committees alter in favour of certain segments. Furthermore, certification procedures may shift with the relative power of segments with certain methods of training favoured over others.

The professional elite, which control the association, is also in control of the public relations aspect of the

profession. It will communicate its own perceptions of the profession to the public. The new recruit to the profession will encounter the results of the cabal but

may never be aware of the identities of individuals or

134

of the power struggles behind the unified front.

Bridgestock (1976) has criticised Bucher and Strauss's

model for failing to take account of any social influences

that may affect conflict within the profession. These

external influences may be the cause of conflict. The model

makes the assumption that conflict is antra professionally

determined.

The Professional Status model (after Gordon and Ross 1962)

Gordon and Ross (1962) set out a number of characteristics that define a professional and the manner in which he

works. However, these characteristics, although seen as

necessary for the professional client relationship, are not

mutually independent or sufficiently unique to unambiguously differentiate it from any other possible relationship.

The characteristics are,

1. Pre-requisites

(i) The provision and performance of a service that is superior to any that the client or any other individual can provide, without special qualifications.

(ii) The authority and responsibility for the performance

of the service passes from the client to the

professional. However, this transfer is subject

to the following assumptions,

(a) The professional is believed, by the client, to have superior knowledge and judgement.

(b) The client places trust and confidence in the professional which he believes will not be abused.

2. Continuing Characteristics

(i) The professional has the conviction that he provides a service for the client which he believes the latter should have.

(ii) The professional's service is unique, intellectual

and personal. The profession provides formal

135

resources, techniques and knowledge but each

practitioner provides a unique service since he

determines the manner and judgement of how to

utilise these resources in practice.

(iii) The professional must make every attempt to

increase his knowledge in order to assure the

client that every possible alternative has been

considered in the provision of the service.

(iv) The professional has an obligation of

(a) Advising his client on the nature of the service.

(b) Reporting progress and the expectations of

solutions to theoproblem.

3. Evaluative Characteristics

(i) Professional colleagues may only judge the

competence of a professional on a single perfor-

mance.

(ii) The client can, 'over time, evaluate the service

provided by the professional with reference to,

(a) The extent to which client needs have been

met in the past.

(b) The comparison of several professions who may

be in the client's employ.

(c) Other clients who have employed a particular

professional.

(d) The reputation of a particular professional

among his colleagues.

An assessment and comparison of the models

Each of the models provides a different perspective on

professions. Some are concerned with the societal level

whilst others are more concerned with occupational, intra

occupational and individual levels of analysis. Their

similarities are as important as their differences.

The taxonomic model provides a framework for investigating

the characteristics possessed by-an occupation. There is a

136 4

consensus on certain dimensions but considerable diversity

still exists. The consensus, from Figure 13, is that a

profession can be characterised by the following,

(i) Skill based on theoretical knowledge

(ii) Prolonged training and education (iii) Organisation

(iv) Adherence to a code of conduct (v) Assessment of competence

. (vi) Complex occupation (vii) Stress on altruistic service

There is an acceptance, by taxonomic theorists, that profes-

sionalism is the only form of ideology and occupational

control available to professions and as such it tends to be accepted without question.

Hall's (1969) dual component model is essentially taxonomic

in nature but has the advantage of being more empirically based. Wilensky's (1964) chronological sequence of"

professionalisation is used to define the structural

component whilst the attitudinal component represents a

number of occupational traits presented at the individual level. Empirical research has indicated that the dual

components co-vary and can take account of the considerable diversity in occupational professionalisation. However,

Hall's model, like the taxonomic models in general, is

ahistorical and important developmental impetuses at the

societal level are not explored. However, unlike the taxonomic

approach at the occupational level it does, through the

structural and attitudinal dimension of autonomyýalude

to the existence of occupational power.

The power dimension is specifically treated under the Neo Weberian and Marxist models and the typological approach of Johnson (1972). Johnson focuses on the consumer-producer relationship and mechanisms for reducing uncertainty. He

suggests that professionalism, as an institutionalised means of occupational control, is one of a number of possible means of controlling the consumer-producer relationship. By

exploring the existence of other forms, Johnson is able to

distinguish the relative effects of each on a profession.

137

The Neo Weberian perspective views professionalism and

professionalisation as strategies for occupational closure

and potential for enhancing market standing. The Marxist

perspective is more general. It is concerned with linkages

between professions, the power distributions in society and

support for the capitalist class structure.

However, unlike Hall's model, the Neo Weberian and Marxist

models and Johnson typology are more theoretical. Apart

from suggestive descriptions in the literature, applications to particular professions are limited.

Haga's (1978) model is concerned with the causes of a

profession. The model lays particular emphasis on the

audience (Significant Others) to whom a particular occupation

presents its notion of professionalism. The importance of

significant others to a profession is related to the degree

of cruciality and mystique possessed by an occupation. By

implication, uncertainty is a factor which lies behind these dimensions. Furthermore, cruciality and mystique are intimately

related to status and the consequent potential for occupational power. Haga couches it in terms of intimidation as the

ultimate weapon for a true profession.

Gordon and Ross's (1962) model operates at the individual

level and like Johnson's typology and Haga's model it is

concerned with influence, power and professional authority.

The model highlights the provision of a unique service and

the duty to continued professional development. However,

unlike the taxonomic theorists, Gordon and Ross do not accept the myth of peer regulation. They consider it is only

applicable to a single performance by a professional. The

client has the ability, over time, to assess the work of a

particular professional and exercise a degree of choice. This is supportive of Johnson's contention that

professionalism is vulnerable, over time, through the

exercise of consumer choice. Gordon and Ross, Haga and Johnson all stress the importance of the professional client authority relationship. However, only the latter indicates that through the exercise of power and influence, by either the client or the professional (or a third party under

138

mediation), can different forms of occupational control

emerge.

Bucher and Strauss's (1961) process model views the

dynamics of power from a different perspective. Their

model is antra-occupationally oriented and highlights

the potential for conflict or consensus by the exercise

of antra-professional power and influence. Furthermore,

it points to the fact that professional elites, in their

institutional positions of power, have the ability to

mould a profession depending on whichever segmental

group is in the ascendency. Bucher and Strauss do not,

therefore, view professions as static but dynamic

institutions that are as susceptible as any other

organisation to political manoeuvering. The taxonomic

literature fails to consider this perspective but suggests

that professions are a community of colleagues.

Johnson also questions this myth but he expresses it as the effects of the particular emergent form of occupational control on the operations of a profession.

Section Summary

A number of models for analysing professions have been

presented. These are the taxonomic approach, Hall's

(1969) dual component model, the Neo Weberian and

Marxist perspectives, Johnson's (1972) typology of

collegiate, patronage and mediation, Haga's (1978)

cruciality-mystique model and finally, Gordon and Ross's

(1962) professional status model. Each model provides

a different perspective for analysing issues raised in

the chapter on Quantity Surveying. The similarities

and distinctions between the models have been explored.

139

Chapter Notes

1. Definitions of a profession abound'in the literature,

samples are given below. Carr-Saunders and Wilson.

(1933) refused to venture a definition. However, they

are of the opinion that a complex set of characteristics delineate a profession from other vocations. For the

traditional professions these characteristics were

prolonged and specialised training, a technique enabling

them to render a specialised service to the community. Payment for the service being fixed by fee or salary.

Cogan (1953,1955) concludes he can find no definitive

statement on a profession but does however suggest a tentative definition "... A profession is a vocation

where practice is founded upon an understanding of the theoretical structure of some department of learning

or science, and upon the abilities accompanying such understanding. This understanding and these abilities are applied to the vital practical affairs of man. The

practices of the profession are modified by knowledge

of a generalised nature and by the accumulated wisdom arid experience of mankind, which serve to correct the errors of specialism. The profession, serving the vital needs of man, consider its first ethical imperative to be

altruistic service to the client" (1955: 320).

Millerson (1964) is considerably less grandiose. He defines it to be "... a type of higher grade, non manual occupation, with both subjectively and objectively recognised occupational status, possessing a well defined area of study or concern and providing a definite service, after advanced training and education" (p. 10).

Haga (1975) defines a profession to be "... A field of work that enjoys a higher social status than occupations not so ordained" (p. 172).

The Monopolies and Mergers Commission (1970), like Carr-Saunders and Wilson, would not venture a definition of a profession. They did, however, suggest the following

guidelines would serve for the enquiry,

140

(a) Practitioners apply a specialised skill which enables them to offer a specialised service.

(b) The skill had been acquired-by intellectual and

practical training in a well defined area of study.

(c) The service requires a high degree of detachment

and integrity on the part of the practitioner in

the exercise of judgement on behalf of the client.

(d) Collectively, practitioners have a sense of responsibility for maintaining the competence and integrity of the occupation as a whole.

(e) Certain methods of attracting business are forbidden.

(f) Practitioners are organised in bodies that may or

may not have a form of state regulation. They have

machinery for testing and regulating standards. of

competence and conduct.

2. Vollmer and Mills (1966) use the term professionalism to refer to an ideology and associated activities that

can be found in many and diverse occupational groups

where members aspire to professional status.

Haga (1975) defines the term as referring "... to a behaviour acting like a member of a profession. It is

an affectation of the outward symbols of profession" (p. 173).

3. Vollmer and Mills (1966) consider the term to indicate

a dynamic process in which many occupations change certain

crucial characteristics in the direction of a 'profession'.

The crucial characteristics are specifiable criteria of professionalisation.

Millerson (1964) defines the term as "... the process by which an occupation undergoes transformation to become a profession". Furthermore, "... (it) entails conformity, internalisation and sanction of specific norms... by members of a particular occupation" (p. 10).

Haga (1975) defines the term as "... The deliberate, programmed process that members of an occupation undertake in trying to convert to a profession" (p. 173).

141

4. Millerson (1964) believes the Qualifying Associations

have contributed directly to the changing values of National Certification. This route to professional

qualification now constitutes a second and more arduous

road since it no longer has the comparable standard of

university degree.

5. Surveying is classified by Carr-Saunders and Wilson (1933) as a multi-portal system because exemption is

granted from all examinations in EstateýManagement from

either London or Cambridge university.

6. Johnson (1972) in his discussion of much of the literature

on the professions divides it into trait and functional

theories. Klegon (1978), like Johnson, notes there is considerable overlap and treats both theories under the taxonomic approach.

7. The structural attributes are concerned with linkages

in the social structure. The attitudinal attributes

are concerned with how the individual perceives his

work situation. These may be the most crucial of all

since they may well be related to professional behaviour (Hall 1969).

8. Bucher and Strauss (1961) based their process model on the medical profession.

142

CHAPTER 4

THE ORGANISATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE 'Organisational

structure is the sum total of the ways in

which labour is divided into distinct tasks and co-ordination achieved among them (Mintzberg 1979: 2). Organisational

structure serves two basic functions. First, it minimises

or regulates the effects of individual variations in

behaviour on the organisation. It ensures individuals

conform to organisational requirements. Second, structure is the setting in which power is exercised by delineating those positions that have it. It is the setting in which decisions are made and largely determines the information flowing into them. It is also the setting in which organisational activities are carried out (Hall 1977: 102). From a different perspective, however, structure may only- exist in the minds of individuals (Hunt 1972). A number of different types of structure exist to cope with varying degrees of external and internal uncertainty (Hunt 1979, Mintzberg 1979, Robbins 1983). The most commonly designated types in the literature are - the simple structure, the mechanistic and professional bureaucracies (after Weber), the divisionalised form, the organic-mechanistic (Burns

and Stalker 1961) and the adhocracy. i

Two distinct approaches have been adopted in the literature to measure organisational structure. They are the objective and subjective methods (Payne and Pugh 1975). The former is evident in those studies using the methodology developed by the Aston researchers (Child 1972, Grinyer and Yasai- Ardekani 1980, Hinings and Lee 1971, Pugh et al 1963, 1968,1969). The latter approach is represented by the work of Aiken and Hage (1967), Hage and Aiken (1967a, 1967b, 1969), Hall (1963), Hall and Tittle (1966), Hunt (1972). Objective and subjective measures of structure have shown only moderate relationships with each other. However, different objective measures of structure have produced reasonably stable relationships (Payne and Pugh 1975). Kmetz (1978)

used both approaches as a comparison. The data supported the view that they were different measures. He concluded,

143

however, this would not make one valid and the other invalid.

The important point is the theoretical. perspective adopted

by the researcher..

The following section deals with the major components

of structure represented in the literature, namely,

complexity; formalisation and centralisation.

Complexity

Complexity is "... the degree of structural differentiation

within a social system" (Price 1972: 70).

Three dimensions of complexity are usually differentiated

in the literature. These are (Hall 1977);

Horizontal differentiation, referring to the sub-division

of the task performed by an organisation among its members.

The task can be broken down and assigned to highly trained

specialists who perform a comprehensive range of activities.

These can be non-routine and variable. The tasks can also

be minutely sub-divided to allow performance by non-

specialists. These will be routine and uniform (Hall 1977).

Vertical differentiation, referring to the depth of the

hierarchy. An assumption is often made that authority is

distributed according to hierarchical level. However,

according to Hall (1977), a false hierarchy may be wrongly

observed if levels, as defined by the organisation, are

used. This will be especially true in professional organi-

sations where salary ranges do not exist for job titles and

titles may change without an apparent change in task.

Alternatively, a professional may perform a wider task

with a subsequent increase in salary, but no change in job

title.

Spatial dispersion, referring to either horizontal or

vertical differentiation where activities and personnel are dispersed spatially by separation of power centres or tasks.

Hall noted these three dimensions can vary together or independently. However; Price (1972) argued there is little

agreement among researchers on conceptualising complexity

either as a single concept with a series of dimensions or

144

as a series of separate concepts. Furthermore, Price argued

that dispersion should be measured according to dispersion

of membership not dispersion of operating sites. Price

does not include spatial dispersion within the notion of

structural differentiation.

Formalisation'

Formalisation is "... the degree to which the norms of a

social system are explicit". (Price 1972: 107). Formali-

sation is not to be equated with the use of written

norms. They are a part of formalisation but unwritten

norms and standards can be equally as binding as codified

norms (Hall 1977, Price. 1972).

//Organisations formalise behaviour to reduce its variability

and allow it to be controlled and predicted. Formalisation

represents the extent of organisational discretion for an

individual and can occur in three ways. First, the organi-

sation can attach behavioural specifications to the job

in the form of a job description. Second, the workflow

can be formalised by attaching specifications to the work.

Third, by using rules to specify actions to be taken in

all situations and collecting them in a policy manual (Mintzberg 1979).

Formalisation and training are methods of co-ordination.

The organisation can stress one or the other but not both

equally. They are, therefore, substitutes (Mintzberg 1979).,

Centralisation2

Centralisation is "... the degree to which power is concent-

rated in a social system" (Price 1972: 43).

The major defining characteristic of centralisation is the determination, in advance, of the power distribution by the organisation. The degree of organisational centralisation indicates the extent to which the organisation trusts per-

sonnel to make decisions or evaluate themselves (Hall 1977).

Power distribution varies along a continuum from centralised to decentralised (Mintzberg 1979).

Decentralisation can occur vertically and horizontally. Vertical decentralisation is the distribution of formal

145

I

power down the line hierarchy. Horizontal decentralisation

refers to informal power and represents the extent to which decision-making power rests outside the normal managerial line hierarchy. The more professionalised an organisation

the more the structure will be decentralised both

vertically and horizontally (Mintzberg 1979).

The relationship between complexity, formalisation and

centralisation

There is an inverse relationship between centralisation and

complexity (Robbins 1983). Decentralisation is associated

with high complexity. The centralisation formalisation

relationship is ambiguous. Robbins dotes high formalisation

can be found coupled with either a centralised or decentralised

structure. If employees are unskilled there will be a

greater degree of rules and regulations to guide actions. Managers tend to'keep authority centralised. . If professionals are employed then low formalisation may be coupled with decentralisation. However, in the latter case decentrali-

sation is selective.. Professionals prefer decentralised decision-making in matters affecting work-related issues. This need not apply to the appraisal of personnel performance or to strategic organisational decisions (Robbins

1983).

Robbins believes professionals may want the predictability

associated with standardised personnel matters. Decentrali-

sation may, therefore, be coupled with extensive rules and regulations in this area. Furthermore, Robbins also believes

that professionals are more concerned with the technical

aspects of their work and consequently lack the interest to be involved in strategic organisational matters. This

can result in low formalisation and centralisation, with centralisation restricted to strategic decisions rather than professional tasks where it will have little impact.

Factors affecting organisational structure

The following discussion will*'be restricted to considering the effects of the authority structure, the environment, technology and organisational size on structure since they

are the most likely to influence individuals at the work

role level.

146

1. Authority structures within organisations.

Etzioni (1964) distinguished three types of power. These

were,

Type Means of enforcement

Coercive Physical. threats

Utilitarian Goods and Services

Money (essentially symbolic but having a similar effect)

Normative Prestige Esteem Social symbols - love and acceptance

Organisational commitment will depend on the type of power

used and varies from

Increasing Commitment

Coercive Utilitarian Normative

Furthermore, the type of power used will also vary depending on organisational rank. Less alienating means

will be used as organisational rank increases (Etzioni

1964).

The labels 'complex' and 'formal' organisations are frequently

used in the literature (Blau and Scott 1963, Etzioni 1961).

Hage and Aiken (1967) noted they have an empirical foun-

dationbut essentially refer to different types of power distribution within organisations. 'Complex organisations are more likely to be decentralised with considerable

reliance on the skill and expertise of members. Formal

organisations are more likely to be centralised and rely on rules and procedures for control. The former, typical of an organisational setting where professionals are employed, will rely on self-control whilst the latter will place a greater emphasis on close supervision and occur where members have not been professionally trained. %

--J The presence of professionals in an organisational setting can produce potential problems for the methods of organi-

sational control. Knowledge, the supposed mainstay of

147

professional practices is highly individualistic in its

application. This is diametrically opposed to the organi-

sational principle of administrative authority which assumes.

a power hierarchy in order to stress compliance with rules

and procedures through superiors (Etzioni 1964).

2. The Environment

The effects of the external environment on organisations has

received considerable research interest (Burns and Stalker 1961, Emery and Trist 1965, Lawrence and Lorsch 1967, Stewart 1970, Thompson 1967).

The environment impinging on organisations has been

hypothesised to have four basic dimensions (Mintzberg 1979).

These are,

(a) Stability

This can range from stable to dynamic where changes are unexpected. A stable environment will allow an organisation to predict work patterns. A dynamic

environment. makes work uncertain or unpredictable.

(b) Complexity

This can range from simple to complex'. Organisational

structures will be affected through the ease with

which work can be understood by the organisation. A

complex environment requires an organisation to have

extensive knowledge. As the environment becomes more

simple the organisation is able to break it down for

easier understanding.

(c) Market diversity

This can range from integrated to diversified. Market diversity results from a range of clients, services or geographical areas in which the organisation

markets its outputs. The organisational structure will be affected through the diversity of work to be

undertaken.

(d) Hostility

The environment can range from munificent to hostile.

148

Organisational relationships with unions, government

and pressure groups will affect the degree of hostility.

The availability of resources and competition will

also be of importance in the extent of hostility

facing an organisation. The dimensions of hostility

and stability are closely related since hostile

environments are typically dynamic. Hostility will

affect structure through the predictability of work

and the speed of response required from the organisation.

Table 16 sets out the types of organisational structures

expected in a two dimensional matrix of environmental

types.

3. Technology

Technology refers to the process or methods used to

transform inputs into outputs in the organisation (Robbins

1983). Technology has produced a considerable amount of debate in the literature as to its exact impact on

structure (Aldrich 1972, Child and Mansfield 1972, Hickson

et al 1969, Perrow 1967, Pugh et al 1968, Thompson 1967,

Woodward 1965). Hunt (1972) concludes the term is too broad for useful research and prefers to-use the'Technical System' as his nomenclature. Hunt defines the technical

system as,

"... the collective instruments introduced into the action system, including all physical influences which operate in conjunction with members but which are themselves systems independent of members" (p. 100).

4. Technology and Task

In line with Hunt's, reasoning the present study has not measured technology per se but has concentrated on the nature of the task undertaken by the individual. It is at the level of the individual job. or operating core where tech-

nology, if it has any real effect, will be felt, (Gerwin

1979, Robbins 1983). Furthermore, jobs can be specialised in two dimensions its 'breadth' and 'depth' (Mintzberg 1979). Breadth refers to how many different tasks are contained in each job and how broad or narrow these tasks

149

Table 16 Dimensions of environment Source Robbins (1983: 153)

SIMPLE COMPLEX

STATIC

DYNAMIC

Low perceived uncertainty Moderately low perceived uncertainty

Environment Environment

Small number of factors and Large number of factors and components in the environment; components in the environment; these factors and components are these factors and components are somewhat similar to one another, not similar to one another but remain basically the same, and remain basically the same. are not changing.

Structure Structure

High complexity, high formalisation High complexity, high formalisation and centralisation. and decentralisation.

Examples Examples

Container firms (Lawrence'and Hospitals, universities. Lorsch 1967), mass production manufacturing firms (Woodward 1965).

Moderately high perceived High perceived uncertainty uncertainty Environment Environment

Small number of factors and Large number of factors and components in the environment; components in the environment; these factors and components are these factors and components are somewhat similar to one another, not similar to one another and and they are in a continual they are in a continual process process of change. of change.

Structure Structure

Low complexity, low formalisation Low complexity, low formalisation and centralisation., and decentralisation.

Examples Examples

Entrepreneurial firms where chief Plastics firms (Lawrence & Lorsch) executive maintains tight, NASA, electronics firms. personal control.

150

are. Depth refers to the control over the work. Mintzberg encompasses these two components under the

concept of fob specialisation.

5. Organisational size

Size is "... the scale of operations of a social system" (Price 1972: 174). The effects of organisational size

on structure has probably produced one of the most

controversial debates in the organisational literature.

Size as an important determinate of structure is supported by Blau and Schoenherr (1971) and the Aston studies (cited previously). However, the relationship is not

without its critics (Aldrich 1972, Hall, Haas and Johnson 1967). Hall (1977), in reviewing a considerable body of research evidence on the effects of organisational

size, concluded there was some agreement on how to

measure size but little agreement on the impact of size on structure.

Current research evidence muddies the waters even

further. The traditional method of measuring organisational size (especially evident in the Aston studies) is to take

a simple count of the number of employees. Argarwal (1979) used three measures of size in an investigation

of life assurance companies. These were the total

number of salaried employees, total assets and dollar

volume sales. The data indicated that size measures

were all highly correlated and proportional to each other. On the size/structure debate Argarwal concluded the estimate of the relationship was independent of the

size measure used. However, this was subject to the qualification that size measures are highly correlated and proportional, an assumption that should not be

assumed a priori especially if samples are heterogeneous in terms of the industries used.

Grupta (1980) compared three different perspectives on measuring size. These were,

the cycles approach where structure is viewed as a set of interrelated events or cycles.

151

the energic approach, which uses the amount of

energy imported by the organisation as an open

system and,

the components approach, which is the traditional

approach of counting the number of individuals

involved in carrying cut activities.

Gruta concluded the alternative measures were only

moderately correlated and as a consequence the size/

structure relationship could be operationally specific. This latter point is taken up by Kmetz (1978) who noted the majority of studies he reviewed, where size was the principle correlate of structure, had all used the Aston methods and measurement. Results from other

studies, that had used different measures and designs,

disagreed with the Aston group. In an attempt to

clarify the issue Kmetz utilised objective and subjective measures of structure and concluded that the data

generally supported the criticismso"f. the. Aston studies. Kmetz suggested, therefore, that the frequency of impor-

tance of the size/structure relationship, using the Aston design and measures, could be attributable to a

masking effect of the methodology rather than a valid

relationship. Furthermore, an investigation of the 22 studies reviewed by Kmetz (Table 1 1978) indicates the following information,

152

Table 17 Breakdown of research studies into major classifications according to studies undertaken in the area and number of organisations-investigated Source Adapted from Kmetz (1978 Table 1)

Classification Simple count of Organisational Count studies

Manufacturing alone 11

Manufacturing and service 3

State agencies etc 5

Others 3

558 manufacturing

95 manufacturing 73 service

53 state agencies 16 health and welfare

agencies 120 state employment

units 36 hospital units

75 diverse 153 farm co-ops

27 worker sub units

Investigations of the size/structure relationships have

tended to concentrate in two major areas, namely, manufacturing and welfare organisations. However,

results are generally expected to apply globally. It is

not surprising that the size/structure relationship is

ambiguous especially in view of Argarwal's comments

on sample heterogeneity. Child's (1972) study is

especially prone in this. respect. since his national study was stratified by 6 industries. Using the Aston

methodology, Child's (1972) results only partially supported the original Aston studies on the size/ structure relationship. A further cautionary note can be added from Robbins (1983). He notes that a major proportion of the organisational literature is made up of studies exclusively of medium or large organisations. The smaller organisations, especially those of less than

153

100 members have been overlooked by theorists. Robbins

notes the inherent assumption is that findings are univer-

sally appropriate. Those studies that have investigated

small organisations have indicated the inapplicability

of large sections of organisational research and theory. He further adds that issues such as vertical differentia-

tion, decentralisation or information control are of lesser

importance or play a different role in small rather than large organisations.

r CRobbins (1983) reviewed evidence on the size indicator.

Size was found to have a significant influence on vertical differentiation. The effect of size on spatial dispersion

was unclear. Increasing formalisation was closely

associated with increasing organisational size. Further-

more, increasing size was associated with decentralisation. )

Research evidence on smaller organisations indicates

that size has a direct and high order effect with structural

variables (Blau et al 1966, Paulson and Stump 1979). Bryman et al (1983) indicated the inclusion of organi-

sational sizes below 100 did not alter the relationship between size and the Aston measure of specialisation. Paulson (1980) suggested some interesting conclusions

on the size/technology issue. In an investigation of

-small retail businesses in the private sector (average

" size 20.5 with 90% having fewer than 50 employees, N=77)

the data supported the conclusion, that size was more important than technology in explaining complexity. Evidence from other research indicated technology was more important than size for explaining complexity in the public sector.

In the UK Architectural profession Hillier found a subtle relationship between organisational size and work responsibility. His findings were,

The design process was divided into strategic ie dealing with the client end and tactical ie

dealing with the construction end. In larger

organisations, regardless of whether they were in thel, public or private sector, there was a

154

tendency for architects to be more involved in

strategic design and less in tactical design.

This was due to the size factor alone and not

a public/private split.

(ii) The organisational structure was found to be märe

of a hindrance than a help, especially in the

public sector. This varied with size of practice but the larger private practices had more const-

ructive than destructive structures.

(iii) Using a typology of organic, hierarchical tree and

mixed structures, the data indicated that smaller

practices tended to have strong organic forms with

minimal hierarchical differentiation. As size increased, even for the largest private practices, the structure ranged from organic to mixed with

relatively few of the large practices having a

pure hierarchical tree form. In the public sector the structure of practice always reflected a pure hierarchical tree form.

& Organisational typologies

A number of typologies have been produced by theorists on

organisations. They are useful in highlighting important

points that arise in the diverse organisational settings

where individual Quantity Surveyors practice their

occupational techniques.

1. The Blau Scott typology of Formal Organisations

Blau and Scott (1963) suggested four types of formal

organisation. The Mutual Benefit Association has been aluded to in a previous chapter dealing with professions and the Qualifying Association. The

remaining. three were,

(a) The Business Concern

The prime beneficiaries. are the owners when the firm is a private company. It will be operated for

a profit. The dominant problem will be maintaining

operating efficiency to enable the organisation to

survive and grow in competition with other firms.

155

Operating efficiency is the supreme objective within

externally imposed constraints. Blau and Scott

consider the share corporation an example of a

Mutual Benefit Association since the shareholders

are the prime beneficiaries.

(b) The Commonweal Organisation

The prime beneficiaries are the public at large.

The Commonweal Organisation performs either a

protective function or serves the community in an

administrative capacity. The public at large are

both the owners and beneficiaries. The problem

facing the Commonweal Organisation is the mainten-

ance of democratic control in order to regulate the

ends served by the organisation. It faces, in

reality, a paradox. It must maintain democratic

control whilst emphasising efficiency through internal

bureaucratic structuring.

(c) The Service Organisation

The prime beneficiary will be the client and the

emphasis will be on'the provision of a professional

service. Client welfare is the chief concern. The

underlying assumption of this type of organisation

is that clients are not qualified to determine

what is in their best interests.

2. Etzioni's (1961) Power typology

Etzioni's typology differs from that of Blau and Scott (1963)

by emphasising the dominant form of power exercised on lower members within the organisational framework. The

Blau-Scott typology is concerned with the prime bene-

ficiaries of organisational outputs. The Etzioni

typology compliments the work of the former by highlighting

the internal power dynamics of organisations. The coercive type distinguished by Etzioni will not. be discussed since it is of significance to the operations of the Quantity

surveying profession. The discussion will therefore be

restricted to Utilitarian and Normative Organisations.

Utilitarian Organisations are organisations where the

156

major means of control over lower participants will be

remuneration. Normative organisations are those where the major means of control is social in origin. The

professional organisation is one of nine types of Normative Organisation suggested by Etzioni. However,

it is less typical since remuneration plays an important

part in the compliance structure. )Professional organi-

sations can be distinguished according to the rank at

which professionals are employed. These are,

(i) those where professionals constitute the middle

ranks (ii) those where the professionals are lower participants

and where professional goals are pursued.

Professional work is characterised by high intrinsic

satisfaction and positive involvement. The use of

symbolic sanctions will be highly effective. However,

organisational commitment is not as high in other Normative Organisations since remunerative rewards are stressed to an extent.

Etzioni (1964) further distinguished professional

organisations in terms of the length of training involved. The full fledqed professional organisations are those requiring training in excess of five years. They are principally involved in the-creation and

application of knowledge. Professiönals"will'. have the guarantee of privileged communications and they will often be concerned with matters of life and death.

Semi-professional organisations are those requiring shorter training, usually less than five years. They

are more concerned with the communication of knowledge and less with its application. Furthermore, professionals are not guaranteed the rights of privileged communication and they are also unlikely to be involved in matters of life and death.

Each type of professional organisation is related to

administrative authority in a different manner. The former is characterised by professionals having superior

157

authority over non-professionals in matters related to

major professional goals. The latter is characterised by professional work having less autonomy and subject

to greater control by the managerial hierarchy.

Etzioni (1964) differentiated two other types of

organisation in which professionals can be found. The

Service organisation (conceptually different from Blau

and Scott 1963) where professionals are provided with the instruments, facilities and auxiliary staff necessary

to perform their work. However, professionals are not

employed by the organisation nor subordinate to its

administrative hierarchy. The other type of organisation

is one where goals are non-professional eg industry.

Here professionals are normally assigned to special departments or divisions.

In sum, professional organisations can be distinguished

by their major goal activities, the rank at which professionals are employed, the length of training

required, the privileges enjoyed by professionals, the

professional-administrator relationship and the type

of compliance structure utilised to control them.

3. The Scott and Hall typologies

Scott (1965) developed a typology of professional

organisations related to the degree of autonomy granted to the professional by the administrative control

structure. These were,

(a) The autonomous professional organisation where

organisational officials delegate to professional

employees considerable responsibility for defining

and implementing goals, setting'and maintaining

performance standards. The external surveillance

of professionals is expected to be minimal. Furthermore, administrative and professional tasks

are reasonably well demarcated in terms of boundaries for responsibility. These demarcations

will probably remain even if professionally trained individuals hold positions of administrative

158

responsibility. Hall (1969) further elaborated on this organisational type. Hall believes norms and

sanctions are established according to the expectations of professionals involved in task performance. Professional judgement is maximised since the individual

is expected to reach his own conclusions.

(b) The heteronomous professional organisation where

professionals are subordinate to an administrative framework. The degree of autonomy granted to

professionals is relatively small. An elaborate set of rules and a system of routine supervision

exist to control much of the professional work. Furthermore, there is considerable difficulty in

determining areas of work for which professionals,

either individually or collectively, are held

responsible. Hall (1969) suggested a flat

organisational structure is in evidence with professionals often having the same title and small pay differentials. Advancement will normally be

achieved by professionals leaving the profession and

embarking on a career in managment.

Hall (1969) suggested a further two work settings within

which professionals can be found. These were,

(a) The solo practitioner who, according to Hall, is

an archetypal image of the past. Furthermore, the

solo practitioner is believed, by Hall, to be less

professionalised than professionals in other settings.

(b) The professional department can occur in the

private or public sectors. It is the setting most likely to confront the professional with severe and frequent conflict between professional and organisational norms.

4. A practical assessment of each of the typologies

The Blau and Scott (1963) typology is useful for

delineating, in a global sense, the types of organisations confronting the individual. Within the organisation Etzioni's typology of power will enable the impact of

159

compliance structures on individuals in lower

organisational positions to be considered. Etzioni's

distinction between full fledged and semi-professional

organisations, although useful as a guide, does however,

suffer from methodological problems.

Harries-Oenkins (1970) argued that length of training is

not a reliable indicator of professionalisation. , Etzioni's distinction could, therefore, mask important

occupational differences in work practice by prematurely

classifying professional organisations purely on length

of training alone.

The Scott (1965) and Hall (1969) typologies further

elaborate on the professional work setting. However, on

comparing perspectives, subtle differences occur in

Hall's interpretation of Scott's typology. Scott (1965),

in his article, clearly envisages autonomous and hetero-

nomous organisations existing within the bounds of an

administrative framework. The important point, to Scott, is the degree of autonomy delegated to professionals by the administrative framework. The implicit assumption is that the organisational framework of which the

professionals form a part, sets the major goals. Hall,

although utilising and building on Scott's typologies,

argued that professionals determine the structure of the autonomous professional organisation. A view which

suggests any administrative structure is subordinate to

professional goals. Hall's professional department is

more akin to Scott's autonomous professional organisation. It would appear that Hall has over-elaborated Scott's

position. The former's position may only be partly defensible if, in his conceptualisation, he was considering large professional bureaucracies of the type described by Montagne (1968) and Sorensen and Thomas (1974). However, this still fails to negate the differences in perspective on the importance of the administrative framework. Based

on Etzioni (1964), the large professional bureaucracy would be pursuing professional goals with administrative authority subordinate to professional. Scott would appear not to be describing this type of organisation in his description

of the autonomous professional organisation.

160

The general impression gained from Etzioni (1961,1964),

Scott (1965) and to a qualified extent Hall (1969) is

their concern with professionals in large, usually

public sector, organisations or large departments in

industrial concerns. Mintzberg (1979), in his discourse

on professional. bureaucracies, is also concerned with large organisations. The. organisational literature lacks,

with a few exceptions, a body of knowledge on the

structuring of private practice professional organisations in the small to medium size ranges (perhaps 3- 400 members). There is also a preponderence of research evidence of limited use, gained on occupations that are highly

suspect in terms of their standing as professions

within an organisational context. The work of Blau (1963), Blau and Scott (1963), Blau and Schoenherr (1971) and Scott (1965) report extensively on the work

of professionals in organisations. Much of Blau's work is concerned with social welfare agencies where professional status, for social workers, has been a matter of considerable debate in the literatuiqe. This issue will be further elaborated in later sections.

Section Summary

The importance of organisational structure has been highlighted by a variety of researchers (Child 1972, Hall 1977,

Mintzberg 1979). Two approaches have been used to measure organisational structure. They are the objective and subjective approaches (Payne and Pugh 1975). The major components of structure, namely, complexity, formalisation

and centralisation, have been defined and discussed (Hall 1977, Mintzberg 1979, Price 1972). The interrelationships between the three structural components is complex and to an extent depends on the degree of skill possessed by organisational members. Professionals expect decentralised decision-making on work related issues. They are prepared to accept centralised decision-making on personnel matters and strategic organisational issues (Robbins 1983).

Those variables considered likely to have an important effect on the individual-authority structures, the environment, technology and organisational size - have been discussed.

161

Professional power,. based on, knowledge, can be diametrically

opposed to administrative power based on an authority hierarchy (Etzioni 1964). Complex and formal organisations differ in their power distribution (Hage and Aiken 1967) and

consequently differ in the type of skill expected of indivi-

duals. The environment has four basic dimensions and each

will affect organisational structures in different ways (Mintzberg 1979). Organisational/size structure

relationships are a contro-yersial issue in the literature.

Hall (1977) believes there is considerable agreement on

the measurement of size but not on how it affects structure. Argarwal (1979) and Gupta (1980) have presented evidence

that questions the interchangeability of size measures. Kmetz (1978) has produced evidence, that has subsequently been interpreted within the context of the present study,

to indicate that the size structure relationship has been

researched on medium to large sized organisations, predominantly in manufacturing and welfare agencies (see also Robbins 1983). Research on the size/structure relationship for small organisations indicates it is complex (Blau et al 1966, Paulson and Stump 1979, Paulson 1980). However,

on reviewing the evidence, Payne and Pugh (1975) concluded it is a variable that cannot be ignored in organisational

research. Hillier (1979) has demonstrated the importance

of a size/structure relationship for the UK Architectural

profession.

A number of organisational typologies have been discussed (Blau and Scott 1963, Etzioni 1961,1964, Scott 1965 and Hall 1969) but they are not without their problems. The following section deals, in greater detail, with research on professionals and organisational structures.

PROFESSIONALS AND ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

Professionals, as fee earning or salaried employees, are increasingly facing situations in employment that are highly

structured as a consequence of the complexity of a technological society. Traditionally, the literature on professionals in organisations has tended to view norms

162

inculcated into the professional during training as incompatible with organisational norms. The validity of this assumption will be explored in the following sections. The subject matter will deal with the consequences of bureaucracy, reference group behaviour and the effects

of structure on organisational commitment and conflict.

Professionalisation and bureaucracies

From an organisational perspective, professionalisation

and bureaucratisation are equally acceptable alternatives

for accomplishing organisational missions and co-ordinating

and performing complex tasks (Hall 1977, Mintzberg 1979,

Scott 1966). Professionalisation emphasises the inter-

nalisation of skills and the exercise of control through

direct supervision. Only part of the total task is performed (Scott 1966). Mintzberg (1979) claims that as alternative

co-ordinating mechanisms both cannot be stressed equally

by the organisation. Furthermore, Hall (1977) proposes that the more professionalised the work force, and the

greater the degree of formalisation, the greater the likli- hood of conflict and alienation among professionals. However, as one of a possible number of means of co-ordination, professionalisation does present the organisation with co-ordination problems due to specialisation (Blau et al 1966).

In their investigation of small bureaucracies (N=156) Blau

et al discovered that professional staff required an increasing

proportion of managerial staff than would be expected from

a professionalised work force. This increase was to

provide co-ordination of organisational activities rather than assist with direct supervision. This is in agreement with Etzioni (1964) who noted that professionals and administrators can co-exist depending on the nature of the goals served by each.

r/In professional organisations major goal , activities will be professionally oriented and will be under the authority of professionals. In this instance it is unlikely that a recognised hierarchy will exist. To complement the work of professionals administrators may be organised in a

163

managerial hierarchy in order to perform the secondary

activities associated with administrative functioning.

Furthermore, there may be secondary professional activities

requiring an administrative input. It is possible a hierarchy will exist in this situation. It may give the impression that professionals are subordinate to administrators. In non-professional organisations role reversal will occur. The managerial hierarchy will be performing the major goal

activities of the organisation and in this instance

professionals will be subordinate to administrators. Professionals are designated as holding staff positions,

and since they are outside the main managerial line structure, they will enjoy some degree of autonomy (Etzioni 1964).

Blau and Scott (1963) compared professional and bureaucratic

orientations and concluded that not all aspects of bureau-

cratisation were incompatible with professional judgement.

Table 18 sets out a comparison of these orientations. Incompatibility arose only with hierarchy of supervision

and organisational discipline. The incompatibility stems from the differing reference groups adopted by professional

and organisational members. Professionals are regulated by external peer surveillance whilst bureaucrats are

regulated through the managerial line hierarchy. Reference

group orientation has received considerable empirical investigation.

Reference group orientation

Reference group behaviour has been investigated in a general way and more specifically in association with the

cosmopolitan-local construct. The discussion will be

structured to deal initially with research evidence on cosmopolitan (cosmo after gouldner)-local orientations and then evidence of a more generalised nature.

The cosmopolitan local construct was developed by Gouldner (1957) in his study of a liberal arts college. Cosmos were characterised by low loyalty to the employing organisation, high commitment to specialised role skills and as having

an outer reference group orientation. Locals were characterised as individuals with a high loyalty to the

164

Table 18 Professional and Bureaucratic Orientations - Similarities and Contrasts Source Adapted from Blau and Scott (1963)

PROFESSIONAL BUREAUCRATIC

1. Decisions and Actions Based on objective principles Body of abstract principles independent of individual exist (rules)

cases Principles rest upon and derived from body of specialised knowledge

Practice consists of applying principles to particular cases Acquisition of knowledge and skill requires prolonged training

Application of rules to particular cases

Training period shorter but indoctrination to organisational position required

2. Specificity of Expertise Expertise in limited area Expertise in limited area

Authority limited to area Restricted area of authority of expertise

3. Professional client relationship Affective neutrality Impersonal detachment

Detachment allows exercise of Exercise of reasoned reasoned judgement judgement

4.. Professional status Achieved by individual performance Success dependent on performance in accordance with utilising principles of practice

5. *Ab. turation of self interest

Dependent on technical qualification Success dependent on objective and explicit official criteria

Essential for client welfare Service provided dependent on client need not ability to pay

6. Control structure Subject to control through voluntary association Subject to internalised control through socialisation and long training

Judgement based on competence and subject to peer group

Subject to hierarchical control

Competence judged by superiors

* Only applies in certain types of organisation

165

employing organisation, low commitment to specialised

role skills and as having a higher incidence of inner

reference group orientations. Gouldner (1958) factor

analysed questionnaires used in the study with specific

consideration given to reference group behaviour. He

found four types of local and two types of cosmos. The

cosmo-local construct has often been treated in the

literature in a similar manner to professional bureau-

cratic orientations, namely, as a dichotomy. However,

a number of research studies, including Couldner's (1958)

analysis (although often ignored in the professional literature) have discovered that the orientation is not a straightforward dichotomy. . Blau and Scott (1963) after initially using the cosmo-local dichotomy in a County Welfare Agency, reclassified their data on professional/bureaucratic orientations. The

reclassification into four types of group orientation3 indicated a professional orientation was inversely - related to organisational commitment. Professionals

tended to be cosmos rather than locals. Furthermore,

the data indicated it was reference group that. was_more_.

significant for orgahisational loyalty than mode of training undertaken by individuals. Blau and Scott_

concluded it was the structure of the organisation

rather than the structure of the profession that restricted opportunities for professional advancement. Only when the structure blocked advancement would a cosmo orientation become evident.

Glaser (1963) has suggested a modification to the

normally accepted research evidence that cosmos and locals are two distinct types of orientation. His investigation of research scientists has indicated that it is a dual orientation of highly motivated individuals.

The dual orientation was dependent on the situation facing the individual. It was derived from' institutional motivation that determined both high quality basic research and the accomplishment of non-research oriented organisational activities. The dual orientation arose where the

166

institutional goal of science was similar to organisational

goals. The distinction between the orientations became

evident only when there was a conflict'surrounding the

goals pursued by the organisation.

Goldberg (1976) has suggested that reference group behaviour

is modified by three contextual variables. First, career

stage was found to have a curvilinear relationship with

reference group orientation. Second, the work environment

rewarded locals with monetary inducements for organisational

commitment. The organisation funded locals by meeting the

costs of maintaining contact with their professional discipline. Third, reference group orientation was also

modified by primary occupational role (managerial or

technical). Goldberg used a sample frame of Israeli

graduate engineers (N=170) and found that"a cosmo

orientation was directed towards the professional discipline

and a local orientation with a concern for clients. A

combination of both orientations was optimal in encouraging

practitioners to maintain and increase their expertise through close contact with the discipline and sustain their

commitment to serving the client.

A cautionary note is in order for research on cosmos and locals. Flango and Brumbaugh (1974) replicated Gouldners

(1957-58) study using 16 colleges and universities. Within

the constraints of replication and, on subsequent re-

analysis of their data without these constraints, they

concluded that the number of dimensions comprising the

construct was sensitive to different modes of analysis.

Greene (1978) although not specifically concerned with the

cosmo-local orientation, investigated the relationship between organisational and professional identification,

and role characteristics. His sample comprised senior scientists and engineers (N=247) employed in three organisations having similar characteristics. The results indicated that professional and organisational commitment were moderately and negatively correlated, indicating they are essentially independent orientations. However, Greene isolated four

forms of identification, namely, the professional, the

4

167 a

organisational, the mixed and the indifferent. He concluded that professional and organisational identifications may be combined to provide additional grien*tations that are'_.

not necessarily compromising for the organisation. However,

identification solely with either the profession or

organisation was associated with role ambiguity and

alienation. In certain circumstances, therefore, a failure

to accept orgänisational norms could have unfortunate

consequences.

Sorensen and Thomas (1974) discovered that differences in

perceptions of bureaucratic and professional orientations

were related to member socialisation and organisational

position. Table 19 sets out their results.

Table 19 Bureaucratic and Professional Orientations+ and Deprivation++ by position' Source Sorensen and Thomas (1974: 102)

Orientations Deprivation

Professional Bureaucratic Professional Bureaucratic Position Mean S. D Mean S. D Mean S. D Mean S. D

S S S S x X x x

Partners (N=37) 144.0 12.1 151.3 13.6 -5.54 5.30 -4.51 6.26

Managers (N=38) 148.0 9.0 148.1 10.9 -7.07 7.22 -5.69 6.22

Supervisors/ Seniors(N=95)150.5 9.7 139.4 12.9-12.74 10.7 -1.60 7.45

Juniors (N=84).

.. . 152.6.10.0 133.7 11.8-12.78 9.63 +2.58 7.64

F Ratios 6.7" ... . 24.3" . 15.5" . 17.0"

'p . 05 "p . 01

+ Higher score indicates higher orientation ++ Scores are net algebraic differences

168

.......................... Structure and organisational commitment and conflict

Q The previous section has dealt with the effects of reference

group behaviour on different forms of commitment. Therefore,

structure may play an important part in fostering commitment

or producing conflict. 'The following section will look in

closer detail at the nature of organisational commitment

and the potential for conflict.

j Organisational commitment (Morris.

and Steers (1980), in their study of non faculty

members of a university, made the assumption that employee

perceptions of structure constituted the reality of co-

ordination and organisation of their work. ) Using a hetero-

geneous sample of manual, clerical and professional administ-

rative employees (N=262) Morris and Steers reported results

that indicated decentralisation and functional dependence

were significantly related to organisational commitment. They believed that commitment is an attitude that reacts in

a similar manner to satisfaction (as an attitude) The

structural organisation of tasks is related to emotional

responses that develop during work. Morris and Steers have

suggested that decentralisation and participative decision-

making increase employee involvement and attachment. High

functional dependence will increase an employee's awareness of

his contributions to the work and organisation. Furthermore,

increased formalisation may assist in job and role clarity

and provide means to achieve work and organisational goals in possibly ambiguous situations.

The importance of formalisation in clarifying organisational practices has also been supported by Organ and Greene (1981). Using the same sample as Greene (1978) the results suggested that formalisation has opposing influences on alienation. However, in a more generalised sense, Organ and Greene believe that the positive effects of formalisation may allow access to resource and knowledge bases within the organisation that will lead to a greater sense of autonomy and power. Formalisation will provide a framework within which the

professional can view his contribution to the organisation and

169

the contribution that the organisation can make to professional

goals. Furthermore, it may reinforce many external norms

for professionals and reduce role ambiguity. To this end

Organ and Greene considered that managers should ensure that

organisational rules and procedures are consistent with

professional norms wherever possible.

Engel (1969) supports the foregoing evidence that optimal levels of procedural specifications may be necessary for

effective performance by professionals. The sampling frame consisted of physicians (N=663) working within three

organisational settings. The data supported the view that

a curvilinear relationship existed between the degree of bureaucracy and professional autonomy. Those in moderately bureaucratic settings perceived themselves to have a greater degree of autonomy.

Bartol (1979) found' that. many of the-negative outcomes

normally. associa. ted wfth professionalism were not evident

with the organisational commitment of computer specialists (N=159). Bartol constructed a scale to measure five

dimensions of professionalism. 4 The results indicated

that autonomy (p4.05), professional commitment (p <. 0l)

and ethics (p 4.05) were all positively related to organi-

sational commitment. Collegial maintenance of standards

was negatively related (p 4.05). Professionalism was not

related to role conflict, role ambiguity or turnover.

However, Bartol's sample of computer specialists were

members of a relatively new occupation. They would be

predominantly based in organisations and may lack the

occupational status nornally attributed to a profession. Therefore, it would be unwise to consider Bartol's findings

as anything more than tentative. Thornton (1970), in his investigation of junior college teachers (N=383) in 27

public junior colleges, concluded that professional and organisational commitment can be compatible under certain conditions. The important criterion is the extent to which the professional experiences and perceives the organisational situation as reinforcing and supporting the principles of

professionalism.

170

Professional/Organisational Conflict

`Kornhauser (1962) has suggested four areas that are likely

to produce conflict from professional/organisational Incompatibility. First, the organisation may pursue goals

of excellence or profit. Second, the organisation may

emphasise hierarchical control rather than control exercised

through expertise. Third, professional incentives are

considered to transcend organisational and geographical boundaries whereas the primary reward mechanism in organi-

sations is internal advancement. Finally, the degree of

influence that can be exerted in terms of ultimate decision-

making por. er., Scott (1966)*is less concerned with the

profit/excellence motive conflict but agrees in principle

with the other areas highlighted by Kornhauser. Scott

specifically deals with professional/bureaucratic incompati-

bility. He distinguishes the following areas of potential

conflict, professional resistance to bureaucratic rules and

superiors, resistance to bureaucratic standards and expected

conditional loyalty to the bureaucracy.

rA number of criticisms have been made about assumptions

underlying the existence of professional/bureaucratic

conflict. Kerr, von Glinow and Schriesheim (1977), in an

extensive review of the literature on professionals in

organisations, concluded there is considerable confusion

about the sources, intensity and Inevitability of conflict between professionals and their employing organisation. ' The

literature was inconsitent, contradictory and had few

replicated studies. Furthermore, much of the evidence had used samples of scientists and engineers on the assumption they possessed professional status. Studies using these

occupations also failed to highlight any differences between them. Kerr, von Clinow and Schriesheim also noted an assumption was frequently made that scientists and engineers had similar attitudinal and behavioural characteristics and these were compatible with those of a professional.

Aranya and Ferris (1983) argued that previous research had

tended to assume rather than investigate the existence of

professional/organisational conflict. Differences in findings

171

could, therefore, be attributable to situation specific causes or be peculiar to the organisation under investigation. Two other assumptions are also evident in the literature.

First, the extensive use of the professional department as the setting for the investigation of conflict. Second, the

assumption that professional departments have a similar

structure and operating norms to the rest of the organi-

sation (Hall 1967). Kerr, von Glinow and Schriesheim(1977) are of the opinion that generalising from one occupation to

another and drawing conclusions about professional/bureau-

cratic conflict is valid only to the extent that the assump-

tions made by a researcher hold. Furthermore, systematic differences in professionalism, among occupations, may

account for divergent research findings.

A number of empirical studies have investigated the existence

of conflict. /The relationship between the medical profession and administrators in the NHS was the subject of a study, undertaken by Green (1975). / He classified hospitals as autonomous professional organisations. /Any conflict that

arose was intra-professionally based and was concerned with

competition over resources. In view of the considerable influence the medical profession exercised over the

administration Green interpreted the existence of conflict

more as political manoeuvering for autonomy. To Green

the hospital was the client of the profession and as such the fundamental issue for professional/bureaucratic conflict

was a drive for autonomy rather than an incompatibility

between the structuring of task activities. In this respect the thrust for autonomy, by the profession, was concerned with control over the client. " However, the situation was further complicated by administrators essentially acting as arbitrators between competing professional groups and simultaneously desiring professional status, as an occupation, for themselves.

The existence of professional/organisational conflict was further questionned by Aranya and Ferris (1983). They investigated conflict in a cross-cultural context using a sample of Israeli (N=404) and American (N=469) certified public accountants working in local, regional and national

0

172

firms. The sample was stratified by organisational level

and function. In general, the existence of organisational/

professional conflict was low. Furthermore, they found

organisational and professional commitment were significantly

and positively related with only organisational commitment

significantly and negatively related to perceived conflict. Aranya and Ferris interpreted this as a direct contradiction

of the traditional assumption of incompatibility of norms

and values. ' Organisational/professional conflict,. where it existed, was consistently related to accountants'

migration intentions and job satisfaction. There was no

systematic evidence of cultural effects. Figure15 sets

out their working model for exploring organisational

conflict.

'Hall (1967) has further questionned the validity of generalised professional/bureaucratic conflict. He believes

there may be conflict between a professional department and the rest of the organisation and any severe conflict may be restricted to those individuals in contact with the

remainder of the organisation. Individuals lower in the

organisational hierarchy will experience 'a

lesser degree of

conflict.,;

Hall (1969), in an empirical' investigation of his propositions, reported data from a variety of professionalised and

professionalising occupations that indicated professionals in a large professional department may not necessarily face

a more bureaucratised work setting. Conflict is, therefore,

not inherent between professional and organisational norms. Inter-departmental conflict that existed was restricted to departmental head level and was not passed down the hierarchy. The internal departmental structures tended, in fact, to differ little from those of a professional organisation., Figure 16 summarises much of the foregoing details set out in the previous chapters.

173

Figure 15 Antecedents and Outcomes of the Organisational Professional Conflict Source: Aranya and Ferris (1983: 155)

-0.27' (-0.18*')

Organisational . 0.23 " (0.18") Job Commitment Satisfaction .. ý-

0.21" -0.21" 016" ) (-0.24"

Perceived 0.72' Organisational -0.43- (0.39) Professional (-0.30**)

Conflict

0.18" 0.24- (-0.04) (0.24'' )

t ZZ Professional -0.20 '' (0.01) Migration

ý- Commitment Intentions

0.15" (0.02)

"p.. 0o1

Figures in brackets refer to U. S. C. P. As

174

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Section Summary

Professionals are increasingly involved with highly structured organisations in a complex technological society. From an organisational perspective professionalisation and bureaucratisation are equally acceptable alternatives for

accomplishing organisational missions and co-ordinating

and performing complex tasks (Hall 1977, Mintzberg 1979,

Scott 1966). They are based on.:, different organisational.

principles (Scott 1966). They cannot be stressed equally by organisations and if they are it may lead to conflict and

alienation (Hall 1977, Mirtzberg 1979). However, depending

on the nature of the goals pursued, professionals and

administrators may be complementary to each other. Further-

more, conflict may only emerge if hierarchical authority

and organisational discipline are stressed (Blau et al 1966, Blau and Scott 1963, Etzioni 1964).

The cosmopolitan-local construct has been discussed with particular respect to reference group behaviour. The construct is not a straightforward dichotomy but the number of dimensions isolated may be sensitive to different modes of analysis (Gouldner 1957,1958, Flango and Brumbaugh 1974). The multi-dimensional nature of the construct has

received support from Blau and Scott (1963). The importance

of the organisational structure for the emergence of different orientations has been supported in a number of

studies (Blau and Scott 1963, Glaser 1963, Goldberg 1976). Furthermore, reference group behaviour has also been

affected by contextual factors such as career stage, the work environment and primary occupational role (Goldberg 1976). Greene (1978), although not specifically dealing with the cosmopolitan-local construct, has also added support to the optimal requirements of professional organisational commitment. Perceptions of professional and bureaucratic orientations have been found to vary according to hierarchical position (Sorensen and Thomas 1974).

Organisational commitment is related to decentralisation and functional dependence (Morris and Steers 1980). Formali-

sation has positive and negative consequences for alienation

176

among professionals. In highly professionalised groups it can cause role conflict. However, in a positive sense it can provide a Gestalt within which a professional

can view his contribution to the organisation and the

contribution the organisation can make to professional

goals (Organ and Greene 1981). Furthermore, it can reduce

role ambiguity (Morris and Steers 1980, Organ and Greene

1981). An optimal level of procedural specification may, therefore, be useful for the effective performance of

professionals (Engel 1969, Organ, and Greene 1981).

Bartol (1979) found that autonomy, professional commitment

and ethics dimensions of professionalism were positively

related to organisational commitment. Collegial mainten-

ance of standards was negatively related. Furthermore,

professionalism was not related to role ambiguity, role conflict or turnover. Thornton (1970) has indicated organi-

sational and professional commitment are compatible in

situations where the organisation reinforces the principles

of professionalism.

However, professional/organisational conflict can arise in

a number of different areas (Kornhauser 1962, Scott 1966).

The underlying assumptions have been heavily criticised (Aranya and Ferris 1983, Hall 1967, Kerr, von Glinow and

Schriesheim 1977). Empirical studies have indicated that

in an administrative setting it may be intra-professionally

based rather than occur from task incompatibilities. It

will emerge as political manoeuvering for autonomy and

control over resources (Green 1975). Traditional assumptions have been empirically questioned with a sample of Certified

Accountants in a cross-cultural context (Aranya and Ferris

1983). Furthermore, perceived conflict may be inter- departmental rather than predominantly individual and restricted to senior professional members who are in direct

contact with the rest of the organisation (Hall 1967).

The effects of structure on work roles will be investigated in the following section.

177

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE-AND WORK ROLES

The present study uses the concept of''role to link

different levels (Hunt 1972, Katz and Kahn 1966) of analysis. The concept is concerned with an individual's thoughts,

perceptions and actions (Hunt 1972). At the conceptual level the definition noted by Hunt will be used. He

defined the role to be,

"... The collective expectations on an individual's behaviour resulting from the situational pressures (formal, informal, technical and external) and personality at a moment in time" (p. 32).

Figure 17 sets out Hunt's conceptual model for an individual's

role. However, it must be noted that at the operational level the concept loses its richness since 'expectation'

is a nebulous idea which Is not easily measurable. The

operationalisng of the concept is only as good as the

measuring instruments used and it must be assumed they are

capable of capturing the collective expectancies of a role. In reality, it is an assumption that would probably leave

much to be desired.

Organisations are, therefore, viewed as a series of interlocking roles that have a fluidity about them. The

use of the term role by authors in the following review must be treated'with caution. They may not be specifically dealing with the concept as set out above.

Organisational analysis can be classified into two distinct

approaches in the literature, the macro and micro approaches (Moorhead 1981). The macro approach focuses on the deter-

minants and dimensions of structure and the impact of

structure on organisational effectiveness. The total

organisation is the unit of analysis. Moorhead notes there has been a lack of concern in this approach with the effects of structure on individuals within. the pursuit of effectiveness. The objective and subjective methods of measurement (cited earlier) characterise the methodology of the approach. The micro approach focuses on individuals, job characteristics and the work roles of employees. It is also

concerned with differences among individuals and the way they

178

INPUTS

Formal Structur

ROLE

SYSTEM

Individual Variable

External

Informal Structure

Technical System

Pressures

Figure 17 The model of an organisation Source: Hunt (1972: 11)

ENVIRONMENT

OUTPUTS

0 L4 rzl Cl

M

cr Pq cn

179

react to their jobs. Outcome variables include employee performance and satisfaction. Oldham (1976) is a proponent of this approach. The individual is'the unit of analysis

and investigations will usually use the concept of job

scope. This often comprises 5 dimensions - Oldham (1976);

these are variety, autonomy, task identity, feedback and task

significance. Moorhead in reviewing a number of studies

suggests the impact of structure on role variables will depend, to a certain extent, on the type of occupational

groups studied.

Structural differences will occur across organisational units and according to hierarchical position (Hall 1977). This is further supported by Rousseau (1978) who, using Aston measures of structure, discovered that departmental,

positional and individual characteristics predicted attitudes and behaviour in roles.

5 However, Rousseau concluded that individual characteristics were the best predictors. Furthermore, the evidence supported the conclusion that job

characteristics (as measured by Oldham 1976) mediated the

relationship between departmental characteristics and positional characteristics to attitudes and behaviour.

Moorhead (1981) suggested a preliminary model - Figure 18

for structure/role relationships. However, a preliminary

test of the model, in a hospital setting, failed to support

a number of the linkages. Moorhead suggested this was due

to sample specific problems. Mintzberg (1973) has developed

a contingency model for managerial roles - Figure 19

Mintzberg suggested the work of a manager, at a particular

point in time, is affected by the four nested loops

indicated in the diagram. These variables set out the role requirements and work characteristics for the individual. Mintzberg noted research evidence has found that the level

and more specifically the function account for a great deal

of variation in a manager's job. The role becomes more structured moving down the hierarchy and the individual is

more concerned with 'real' time. There may also be

considerable role specification.

Hillier (1979) provides further insights into the effects

180

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ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES: characteristics of the milieu, the industry, the organisation (eg age and size)

30B VARIABLES: the level of the job and the function super- vised

PERSON VARIABLES:

SITUATIONAL VARIABLES:

Basic managerial role requirements

l

One _ Manager's

Work

personality and style characteristics of the incumbent in the job

temporal features of an individual job

Basic characteristics) of managerial work

Figure 19 A. contingency view of managerial work Source: Mintzberg (1973: 103)

182

n

of structure on role. - ' First, using his typology of

organic, mixed and hierarchical tree structures, an immediate difference emerged between public and private

sectors. / In the public sector structures were predominantly

of the hierarchical tree form with an emphasis on communi-

cation rather than mobility of personnel. Hillier interprets

this to mean greater role rigidity.. The informal structure

evolves to assist the working of the formal structure.

In the private sector structures were either organic or

mixed with a constant emphasis on informality and fluidity.

This occureed regardless of organisational size. The

informal organisation was the 'real' structure with the

formal structure existing for other reasons. Mobility

was emphasised and justified in terms of flexible adaption to the varying workloads induced from outside the organisation.

! ̀Second, Hillier in exploring work roles used the traditional

professional model of (i) the architect undertook the job

himself and (ii) his responsibility was personal. ' The data

indicated immediate differences between public and private

sectors. In the public sector there was a greater tendency for architects to move away from both components of the

model. Career development involved directing others

rather than doing the job. Senior architects also moved

away from full and direct resonsibility for the job.

However, this could occur at any stage of a career. Greater

personal responsibility for a job was concentrated at the

middle and lower ranks. Furthermore, architects felt

their porfessional responsibility was limited by their own

subordinate position in a public bureaucracy. This pattern was not repeated in the private sector to the same extent. Generally, senior architects remained closer to individual

projects and retained a, greater degree of responsibility for the job. The result was not simply a function of organisational size. However, limitations arose from superior subordinate relations. )

Based on the foregoing, Hillier reached a number of significant conclusions. The crucial factor which appeared important for organisational roles was the enclosure of the archi-

`tectural organisation within another form of organisation.

183

Individual career patterns were not only affected by large

size but more importantly by the relative autonomy of the Architectural organisation. This led Hillier to conclude that two entirely different organisational principles

were involved in Architectural practice. In the private

sector the direct personal relationship between superior and subordinate was the chief source of difficulty, conflict

and satisfaction. Organisationally, the hierarchy had a limiting and ambiguous effect on professional responsibility,

since senior and job Architects were jointly responsible for

projects .ý In the public sector the tendency was for

Architectural responsibility to be located at the lower

levels reflecting a move to directive roles in more senior

positions. Therefore, the lower levels experienced less

direction from senior architects with increased responsibility. However, accountability was not professional but administrative,

and occurred through the organisational structure.

Section Summary

Organisational analysis has tended to proceed along two

parallel courses. The macro level where the organisation is the unit of analysis and the micro level where the individual is the unit of analysis. However, there has been

a general lack of research amalgamating both approaches (Moorhead 1981). Structural differences occur across organisational units and according to hierarchical position. This will have an impact on individual work roles (Hall 1977, Rousseau 1978). A number of models have been

considered that may overcome these sharp distinctions (Mintzberg 1973, Moorhead 1981).

Hillier (1979) has shown there are distinctions between the public and private sectors in the structuring of Architectural practice. Private sector practices are predominantly organic or mixed structures whereas public sector practices are arranged in a hierarchical tree structure. The public and private sectors are also distinctive in the approximation of architects to the professional model suggested by Hillier. In the public sector, senior architects are more concerned with managerial functions

whilst middle and lower ranking architects experience greater professional responsibility but with reduced

184

professional and increased administrative accountability. In the private sector, architects of all organisational ranks retain more involvement and professional responsibility for projects. However, demarcation of responsibility for

projects between superior and subordinate is ambiguous and

this has resulted in interpersonal conflict.

The individual working in an organisation receives inputs

not only from immediate colleagues but also organisational influences from outside his immediate work environment. The concept of organisational climate is useful in providing

a link between the organisation and the individual.

Organisational climate is discussed in the following section.

ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE

Organisational climate is an important concept for under-

standing the impact of organisational practices on human

behaviour (Schneider 1975). As a concept it provides a

conceptual linkage between analysis at the organisational

and individual level (Payne and Mansfield 1977). However,

the concept is not without its problems. First, there is a

considerable body of literature and research on-organisational

climate (Blake and Mouton 1964,1969, Davis 1968, Dewhirst

1971, Dieterly and Schneider 1974,. Forehand and Gilmer 1964,

Friedlander and Greenberg 1971, Friedlander and Magulies

1969. -George and Bishop 1971, Golembiewski 1970, Golembiewski

and Carrigan 1970, Golembiewski et al 1971, Guion 1973, Hall

and Lawler 1969, Hand, Richards and Slocum 1973,3ohannesson 1973, Kaczka and Kirk 1968, Lawler, Hall and Oldham 1974, Litwin and Stringer 1968, Likert 1967, Marrow, Bower and Seashore 1967, Meyer 1968, Pritchard and Karasick 1973, Reddin 1970, Schneider 1972,1973, Schneider and Bartlett 1968,1970, Schneider and Hall 1972, Sorcher and Danzig 1969, Taguiri and Litwin 1968).

Second, this body of research and literature on organisational climate, in its different guises, has produced a number of major reviews (Campbell et al 1970, Hellriegel and Slocum 1974, James and Jones 1974, Payne and Pugh 1975, Woodman and

185

King 1978). However, this in turn, rather than assisting in the understanding of the concept has perhaps added to

the confusion. Campbell et al (1970). treat climate as a

catch-all concept. Hellriegel and Slocum (1974) discuss the

literature under headings describing usage as an independent,

intervening and dependent variable. James and Jones (1974)

divided the literature into; multiple measurement-

organisational attribute, perceptual measurement-organisational

attribute and perceptual measurement-individual attribute

approaches. Payne and: Pugh (1975) go for a different

approach again. They divide the literature into relation-

ships between; perceptual measures of climate and

structure, objective measures of structure and perceptual

measures of climate, objective measures of structure and

objective measures of climate and finally, organisational

climate and individual characteristics. Woodman and King

(1978) only highlight the methodological and conceptual

problems. The present study will isolate those important

characteristics, in a potentially useful concept, for

understanding the impact of the organisation on the individual.

Definitions of climate

Hellriegel and Slocum (1974) consider organisational

climate, "... refers to a set of attributes which can be perceived about a particular organisation and/or its subsystems, and that may be induced from the way that the organisation and/or its subsystems deal with their members and environment" (p. 289)

Schneider (1975), unlike Hellriegel and Slocum, considers climate to operate more at the individual level. He defines it in terms of perceptions,

"... Climate perceptions are psychologically meaningful molar descriptions that people can agree characterise a system's practices and procedures. By its practices and procedures a system may create many climates. People perceive climates because the molar perceptions function as frames of reference for the attainment of some congruity between behaviour and the system's practices and procedures. However, if the climate is one which rewards band supports the display of

186

individual differences, people in the same system will not behave similarly. ' Further, because satisfaction is a personal evaluation of a system's practices and procedures, people in the system will tend to agree less on their satisfaction than on their descriptions of the system's climate" (p. 474-5).

Forehand and Gilmer (1964) define organisational climate as a

"... set of characteristics that describe an organisation and that'(a) distinguish the organisation from other organisations, (b) are relatively enduring over time, and (c) influence the behaviour of people in the organisation" (p. 362).

Forehand and Gilmer, therefore, view climate in terms of those stimuli, constraints on freedom in choices of behaviour

and the reward and punishment process that are presented to the individual. Within their framework for organisational climate they consider that organisational size, structure, the complexity of the system, leadership style and organisational goals are variables subsumed under the

concept. As dames and hones (1974) commented,

"... it is difficult to see how their description of organisational climate is other than a rather broad-spectrum approach to those organisational attributes which other authors (Hall, Haas and Johnson 1967; Pugh, Hickson, Hinings and Turner. 1968) have referred to as components of situational variance or structure" (p. 1097).

Campbell et al (1970) defined organisational climate as..

"... a set of attributes specific to a particular organisation that may be induced from the way the organisation deals with its members and its environment. For the individual member within an organisation, climate takes the form of a set of attitudes and expectancies which describe the organisation in terms of both static characteristics (such. as degree of autonomy) and behaviour-outcome and outcome-outcome contingencies" (p. 390).

To Campbell et al (1970) organisational climate was identified as one of four general categories associated with organisational situation. The remaining three were (ä), structural properties, (b) environmental characteristics, (c) formal

role characteristics. Therefore, to Campbell et al, the

187

individual perceives the situation within which the organi-

sation operates and this in turn will effect behaviour.

Payne and Pugh (1975) also adopt an organisational

perspective. To them climate describes the characteristic behavioural process in a social system at one point in time.

The processes are reflections of members' attitudes, beliefs

and values which are part of the construct. Figure 20 sets

out Payne and Pugh's interpretation of the relationship

between organisational structure, context and climate.

It is these differences in interpretation that have led to

a considerable degree of confusion ov. er the concept (Guion

1973, James and Jones 1974). Perceptual measures of climate

have had different associations with objective and subjective

measures of structure (Payne and Pugh 1975). It has been

conceptualised as an organisational attribute or an

individual attribute (James and Jones 1974) and has been

used as a dependent, intervening and independent variable (Hellriegel and Slocum 1974). Fineman (1975) has concentrated

on individual job climate within an organisational context.

However, a number of important points have emerged from the

differing perspectives. Climate research is based on the

assumptions that first, humans through the use of thought

processes attempt to apprehend and create order in. their

environment. Second, order is apprehended or created'in

the environment in order to adapt behaviour -in to the

work, environment (Schneider 1975). Climate is reality based

and is capable of being shared (Schneider 1975, Woodman and King 1978).. However, consensus about climate may be

constrained by individual perceptions (Woodman and King

1978). Perceptual responses to climate are primarily descriptive rather than evaluative and there are potential behavioural consequences (Hellriegel and Slocum 1974, Schneider 1975, Woodman and King 1978). There is a permanence about organisational climates'once they have evolved. Furthermore, they are capable of evolving in short time,

periods and can have significant effects on motivation, performance and job satisfaction. Tentatively, they can

also affect seemingly stable personality traits (Forehand

and Qilmer 1964, Litwin 1968).

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Fineman (1975) considers the work environment acts as a

moderator variable in achievement related behaviour. High

achievement oriented environments facilitate the perfor-

mance of high nAch individuals in comparison to low

achievement oriented environments. This is based on the

assumption that the environment acts as an independent

source of behavioural variance and operates additively

with personality variables.

Findings on climate research

There is a considerable body of ambiguous research but

organisational size has consistently related to

perceptual measures of climate (Payne and Mansfield . 1973,

Payne and Pugh 1975) and objective measures of climate

such as absenteeism, labour turnover and grievances (Payne

and Pugh 1975). Furthermore, hierarchical position has .

been an important source of variance (Hellriegel and Slocum

1974, Mansfield and Payne 1977, Payne and Mansfield 1973,

Payne and Pugh 1975).

Problems with climate

There are a number of methodological problems associated

with climate measures. There is disagreement among

researchers as to whether climate is an indirect'or direct

determinant or purely correlational predictor of behaviour

(Woodman and King 1978). Climate is invariably measured

in terms of perceptions and in this respect at the operational level there has been considerable overlap with perceptual

measures of structure (James and Jones 1974). There is a lack of stability amongst perceptual measures of climate (Payne and Pugh 1975) and there are large variances in

factor structures of measuring instruments making generalisation across organisations difficult (Woodman and King 1978). There has been an over-emphasis on people orientations with response categories measured in terms of nominal scales. As a consequence this raises problems of statistical

analysis (Hellriegel and Slocum 1974), and may account for some

of the low validity and reliability of scales across

organisations (Woodman and King 19787. Furthermore, scales

have usually been developed on middle and lower level

190

managers and generalisability in other organisations and

at differing hierarchical levels is an assumption that should be tested (Hellriegel and Slocum 1974). In general, there-

fore, organisational climate research has suffered from an

over-concern with measurement but little concern for

conceptualisation (James and Jones 1974). This is especially important in two areas. First, a lack of systematic evidence

on the relationship of perceptual measures of climate with

objective measures such as age, sex, tenure and education level (Hellriegel and Slocum 1974). Second, there is con-

siderable debate in the literature as to whether climate and

job satisfaction scales measure the same thing. Hellriegel

and Slocum (1974) consider they are different concepts but

suffer from operational problems. Schneider (1975)

suggests they are conceptually and empirically different

since climate is concerned with perceptions of the external

world whilst job satisfaction is an Internal state. Payne and Pugh (1975) suggest that climate, along with personality and intellectual ability, probably moderate

climate perceptions. The reality of climate research, at the operational level, is probably best summed up by

Woodman and King (1975), when on reviewing the literature,

they concluded that it is still unclear if perceived climate is a causal, a moderator variable or is the same concept

as job satisfaction since research results were contradictory and easily lend themselves to subjective inter-

pretation.

To assist in understanding this problematic area the present study will use Likert's (1967) distinction between causal, intervening and end-result variables. Hezrnotes,

"... The 'causal variables' are independent variables which determine the course of development within an organisation and the results achieved by the organisation. These causal variables include only those independent variables which can be altered or changed by the organisation and its managment. General. business conditions, ' for example, although an independent variable, is not included amongst the causal list. Causal variables include the structure of the organisation and management's policies, decisions, business and leadership strategies, skills and behaviour.

191

The 'intervening variables' reflect the internal state and health of the organisation eg. the loyalties, attitudes, motivations, performance goals, and perceptions of all members and their collective capacity for effective interaction, communication and decision-making.

The 'end-result' variables are'the dependent variables which reflect the achievements of the organisation, such as its productivity, costs, scrap-loss and earnings" (p. 26).

Therefore, in line with Likert (1967) and Payne and Pugh

(1975), the present study will maintain a conceptual distinction between structure and climate variables.

Section Summary

A considerable body of confusing research has accumulated

an organisational climate. However, it is an important

concept for understanding the impact of organisational

practices on human behaviour (Schneider 1975). It provides

a conceptual link between organisational and individual

levels of analysis (Payne and Mansfield 1977). A number

of different perspectives on organisational climate have been considered (Campbell et al 1970, Fineman 1975, Forehand and Gilmer 1964, Hellriegel and Slocum 1974, Payne and Pugh 1975, Schneider 1975). Conceptual and methodological problems have been highlighted (Hellriegel

and Slocum 1974, dames and hones 1974, Payne and Pugh 1975, Woodman and King 1978). To assist in conceptualising organisational climate a distinction will be made between

structure and climate variables (Likert 1967, Payne and Pugh 1975).

192

Chapter Notes

1. The present study uses the Hage and Aiken measure of formalisation. They define formalisation to be the use

of rules in an organisation - Hage-and Aiken (1967: 79).

2. The present study uses the Hage and Aiken measure of

centralisation. They define it to be how power is

distributed among social positions - Hage and Aiken (1967: 77). In their operationalisation of the constructs Hage and Aiken factor analysed Hall's (1963) measures

of bureaucracy.

3. Blau and Scott's (1963) reclassifications are (i) Professionals - those having graduate training and

choosing an outside reference group (ii) Reference

group only - those workers oriented to outside reference

groups but lacking graduate training (iii) Training

only - those workers having graduate training but not

choosing an outside reference group (iv) Bureaucrats - those workers without graduate training and not oriented to outside reference groups.

4. Bartol's (1979) scale of professionalism was a synthesis

of Hall's (1969) and Kerr, von Glinow and Schriesheim's (1977) dimensions. Bartol's dimensions were (i) Autonomy (ii) Collegial maintenance of standards (iii) Ethics - avoidance of self-interest, emotional involvement with clients and the service ideal (iv) Professional commitment - dedication to work and

career aspirations as a professional (v) Professional

identification - use of profession and professionals

as major referent.

5. Rousseau's (1978) variables were (i) fob characteristics - measured by Oldham (1976) (ii) Structure measured in

terms of department size, centralisation, formalisation

and hierarchy (iii) Positional characteristics including

shift, job title, tenure, positional tenure. Respondents

were classified as supervisors or employees from job titles (iv) Attitudes and behaviour were measured in

terms of job satisfaction, physical stress, psychological

stress, innovation, propensity to leave and absenteeism. (v) Individual characteristics measured were sex, age,

need for growth and need for role clarity.

193

CHAPTER 5

THE DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY

INTRODUCTION

Previous chapters have dealt with occupational and

organisational levels of analysis. The present chapter is concerned with the individual level of analysis and

represents the final element in the theoretical framework

for the present study. The chapter focusses on achievement

motivation theory and interpersonal behaviour. Achievement

motivation is considered important because it has implications

for entrepreneurial role behaviour and occupational striving. Two elements that may help to unravel the complex processes

at work within Quantity Surveying. Interpersonal behaviour

is encompassed within the theoretical schema because

professional socialisation and task performance, for the

quantity surveyor, are rooted in social interactions between

client representatives, consultants and colleagues.

A number of terms require clarification prior to the discussion

of theoretical issues.

Motivated behaviour is assumed to be intentional and voluntary

and is goal directed. The individual holds expectancies that

specific behaviours will lead to desired incentives. These incentives will probably have been formed through past learning

experiences. The concept of motivation also implies that the

individual expends energy. This enables the performance of a behaviour relevant to the situation the individual finds

himself/herself in at that particular moment in time.

Motivation is also assumed to be selective or directional and involves persistence, over time, to attain goals in the event of setbacks (Jung 1978: 5).

A motive is a specific cause or reason behind a given behaviöur (Jung 1978: 4).

A need or drive is a theoretical construct to account for the

outcomes or certain objective and subjective occurences. It is an invisible link between a stimulus and the resulting action (Murray 1937). Needs can be classified into two types, the biogenic or physiologically determined needs and learned

needs. The former will often be referred to as primary needs and the latter as secondary needs (Wright et al 1970). The

achievement motive is a learned need.

194

The concepts of motivation, motives and needs are controversial issues in much of the theorising on human behaviour (Hunt 1979, Jung 1978, Wright et al 1970)".

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

Achievement motivation theory is the creation of Atkinson

and McClelland (Miner 1980). The original work'was begun in

the late 1940s and early 1950s with the study of the effects

of hunger and then experimentally induced motivation to achieve

on the content of the Thematic Apperception Test. This

culminated in the publication of 'The Achievement Motive' by

McClelland, Atkinson, Clark and Lowell (1953). Work on the

effects of achievement motivation at TAT was then extended to studies on the needs for affiliation, power, fear, sex and

aggression in addition to the work on hunger and achievement

motivation. This culminated in the publication of 'Motives'

in Fantasy, Action and Society' (Atkinson-Ed-1958).

Major theoretical developments

McClelland views motives as learned and arranged in a hierarchy for influencing behaviour. They vary from individual to individual. During their development people associate positive and negative feelings with events that are happening

to them and around them. Achievement situations may elicit feelings of pleasure for an individual and over time he/she

will be characterised by strong achievement motivation. In this instance it ill only require minimal achievement cues to activate expectations of pleasure and increase the likelihood of achievement striving. The high achievement oriented individual will have this particular motive close to the top of his/her hierarchy of motives (Miner 1980). McClelland's contribution to achievement motivation research is probably best known for his work on n-Ach and economic progress (McClelland 1967) and developmental work on the need for power (McClelland 1970). These works will be discussed further in future sections.

Atkinson extended much of McClelland's work. The former

considered individuals were characterised by a motive to

achieve success and a motive to avoid failure (Atkinson 1965).

195

The motive to achieve success is a function of three factors,

- achievement motivation which is a relatively stable personality trait.

- two variables that reflect the immediate environment

of the individual,

i) the expectation that performance on a task will be followed by success.

ii) the incentive value to the individual of success

at a task.,

The tendency to avoid failure is also a function of a motive,

an expectancy and an incentive. The motive to avoid failure

is conceived to be inhibitory and opposes and dampens the

tendency to undertake achievement oriented tasks. It is

consciously expressed as anxiety and is as important as the

motive to achieve success in over all achievement striving. The individual, when engaging in an achievement oriented

activity, experiences an approach avoidance conflict whibh is dependant on the relative strengths of the opposing motives (Atkinson 1965). Atkinson further extended the conceptualising

of achievement striving to include the importance of future

goals and cummulative achievement. Task performance is often

viewed as a means to an end in itself. Furthermore, Atkinson

postulated that achievement motivation does not occur in a

vacuum; the individual is already motivated and active. It

is the change in motivation that becomes the focal point in

achievement striving (Miner 1980). In the initial development

of the theory both McClelland and Atkinson had concentrated

on tasks that were predominantly laboratory based. The addition of the concept of future goals, by Atkinson, enables achievement motivation theory to come out of the laboratory

situation andhaJe a potential for explaining behaviour in real life situations. Atkinson (1974) considered that motivation influenced the level of performance on a specific task and cummulative achievement in different ways. Figure 21 sets out Atkinson's deliberations on extending achievement motivation theory beyond task 'specific activities. A further elaboration on achievement motivation theory was provided by Weiner (Weiner 1972). Attribution analysis is

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concerned with imputing causality. An attributional analysis

of achievement motivation leads to the following (Weiner 1973),

- high n-Ach individuals are more likely to approach

achievement related activities than low n-Ach individuals because the former attribute success to

themselves.

- high n-Ach individuals will persist longer at tasks,

given failure, than low n-Ach individuals because the

former are mae likely to attribute failure to a lack

of effort rather than a deficiency in ability.

- high n-Ach individuals will choose tasks of intermediate

difficulty with greater frequency than low n-Ach individuals. High n-Ach people prefer this type of task

because it is more likely to provide information about

capabilities than would selection of tasks that are either too easy or too difficult.

Miner (1980) further elaborates on attributional analysis. He

notes the theory deals with the ascription of success or failure

to;

- ability., which is a stable characteristic and internal

to the individual.

- level dfeffort, which is a variable factor and also internal to the individual.

- task difficulty, which is stable and given but is external to the individual.

- luck, which is unstable, variable and external to the

individual. The theory of achievement motivation, as originally. conceptualised by McClelland, was a theory of male motivation, Its application to females has not resulted in the same success. The achievement

goals of females may be more diverse and tend towards excellence in the area of social skills. Fear of success has also been found to be more prevalent in females (Miner 1980).

The importance of the situation

Motivation is determined by an interplay between an individual

and his environment (Stringer 1966). The importance of the

environment for providing achievement oriented cues has

received extensive support-(Atkinson 1957, McClelland 1967,

Miner 1980, Stringer 1966, Weiner 1972,1973). Those' environmental

198

factors found to be important in achievement striving are (Miner 1980, Stringer 1966),

- those emphasising personal responsibility'for task

accomplishment.

- those providing freedom to pursue goals by means of

one's own choosing.

- those providing prompt and unbiased feedback of results

of actions.

- those offering moderately risky situations (50 - 50

risk preferences).

- those where consistent rewards and recognition are

provided for a job well done.

- those requiring a future orientation such as thinking

ahead and planning. The importance of a free choice situation has also been

suggested by Weiner (1970). He noted that given a free choice situation, where an individual is able to select any available alternative, the high n-Ach individual will tend to initiate

achievement oriented actions. Low n-Ach individuals will tend to avoid such activities. Furthermore, high n-Ach individuals

are also likely to -arrange their environment to increase the

probability of success at achievement oriented activities.

Need for achievement and achievement values (v-Ach)

The literature on achievement oriented activity has taken two

distinct paths. Achievement motivation theory, as developed by McClelland and Atkinson, operates at the unconscious level

of personality (McClelland 1967). However, sociologists are more concerned with conscious measures of achievement striving and-this has led to he concept of achievement values (Kahl 1965). Achievement values aieverbalised desires for upward striving. They ham been shown to be conceptually distinct from the personality trait - need for achievement (Pandey and. Tewary 1979, Scanzoni 1967, Rosen 1956). Achievement values haie been found to consist of five different components (Kahl 1965).

- activism or mastery over the environment

- trust

- independence of family

- occupational primacy or accomplishment

- planning for the future

199

Achievement values and need for achievement axe both part of the achievement syndrome but they axe different in correlates and also origin (Rosen 1956). Achievement values are probably

acquired through cultural training of the child when complex

verbal communication is possible. Achievement motivation has

been shown to haue its foundations in the parent-child interactions of early life. These interactions axe likely

to be external and unverbalised (Rosen 1956). Furthermore,

Rosen has suggested that since they are analytically independant and have different origins v-Ach can be acquired independantly of n-Ach although empirically they often occur together. His research investigations, using measures of n-Ach

and v-Ach, supported this contention (Rosen 1956).

Sources of need for achievement

In order to adequately describe the antecedents of achievement

motivation it is necessary to distinguish between the results that have used the n-Ach construct and those that haue used

achievement values.

1. Family influences. Early mastery training promotes high n-Ach provided it does not reflect generalised restrictiveness, authoritarianism

or rejection. The high n-Ach individual is, therefore,

likely to come from a warm, loving and supportive family

environment with an emphasis on early self reliance for

the welfare of the child (McClelland 1967).

There are many background variables, other than child

rearing practices, that have been found to affect

achievement motivation. The results are ambiguous and there is evidence of high order interactive effects. McClelland

has suggested that first born children tend to have high

n-Ach although cross cultural evidence presented by Rosen (1961) makes firm conclusions impossible. In general Rosen (1961) found that there was a curvilinear relationship between family size, social status and achievement motivation as measured by TAT (This held for a homogeneous

white sample but not a heterogeneous ethnic sample). Rosen found high order effects between family size, ordinal position, socio-economic status and achievement motivation.

l

200

However, he suggested that social class is consistently related to need for achievement. Those individuals from

social classes 1,2 and 3 were significantly higher in

achievement orientation than those from classes 4 and 5.

Furthermore, boys from small families tended to have

higher n-Ach than those from larger families. However,

Rosen added a cautionary note. Social class appeared to be

the most influential variable followed by family size and then ordinal position but interactive effects made predictions difficult. In. an earlier study, Rosen (1956), the relation-

ship between socio-economic status and n-Ach was further

supported with middle class boys having higher achievement

motivation than those from the lower strata. Rosen, however,

also investigated the effects of socio-economic status

on v-Ach. A similar relationship was found; boys from

middle class backgrounds tended to have higher v-Ach than

those from the lower strata. Rosen found that each orientation was related to different kinds of behaviour affecting social mobility. Need for achievement was positively

related to academic achievement whilst v-Ach was related to academic aspirations and not achievement motivation

scores.

Turner (1970), taking-up the importance of a middle class background, suggested that any relationship between

achievement motivation and social class was not simply

a function of the latter but more specifically a function

of a middle class entrepreneurial background. 2 Turner

classified father's occupation as entrepreneurial based

on the following four elements,

-a high degree of autonomy or freedom from direct

supervision from others. - authority over at least two levels of subordinates.

- decision making obligations.

- co-ordinating resources, men and materials. Furthermore, Turner also differentiated working class from middle class entrepreneurial backgrounds. The results using TAT, indicated that high n-Ach adolescents came from fathers with entrepreneurial roles. This result was stable regardless of whether boys came from working class or middle

201

class backgrounds.

Falbo (1981) criticised much of the work on achievement orientation and ordinal position for failing to adequately deal with the problem of first and only born children in

the analysis of results. He maintained that previous

research had tended tv ignore either only children or

combine them under a first born category. Due to these

classification problems Falbo used the term birth category. Using a sample of undergraduate students (841 males and 944 females) and a multi+dimensional approach to the

measurement of achievement motivation Falbo discovered

a number of significant birth category effects. These

were found with competitiveness and educational aspirations but not mastery, willingness to work or personal unconcern

about the cost of achievement. Falbo interpreted these

results in terms of the parent sibling process. 3 A word

of caution is necessary concerning Falbo's work. He has

proposed his results in terms of achievement motivation but has essentially used measured of v-Ach. In view of the differences highlighted between n-Ach and v-Ach, it is

possible that Falbo has been investigating conscious

rather than unconscious processes usually associated with

studies that have measured achievement motivation by TAT.

2. Religion. McClelland (1967) has attempted to link n-Ach with the

Protestant Work Ethic. He has suggested those countries that are predominantly Protestant have experienced

greater economic growth than those where the religion was predominantly Roman Catholic. He noted more traditional Catholics4 appeared to have some of the values and attitudes that would be associated with lower n-Ach. However, he added this may not always be the case especially in the USA and Germany where Catholics have moved away from traditional values towards the 'achievement ethic'.

Figure 22 sets out those factors that have been discussed

and their relationship with economic achievement.

202

BACKGROUND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS RELATED TO FACTORS VARIABLES ECONOMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Middle Glas status

Mesomorphic physique

Child reari variables: (a) warmth (b) low fat

dominan (c) high ac

standar

Cultural va

Religious v

The entrepreneurial spirit. Restlessness. Mobility.

Figure 22 Flow chart showing interrelationships among the key variables related to entrepreneurial behaviour. Source: Part adaptation from McClelland (1967)

Entrepreneurial role function

n-Ach in eidual - risk taking Ocols

- individual responsibility

- knowledge of results

- delay of reward

Entrepreneurial status and success

203

Occupational selection, mobility and need for achievement

Occupational selection relates to-he concept of career. The integrating link between achievement motivation theory

and a career is the concept of future orientation (Raynor 1974).

However, future orientation is necessary but not sufficient in occupational selection since the individual must take

account of his starting position in life.

McClelland (1967) noted that liking for an occupation is a

product of achievement motivation, the difficulty or prestige

of the occupation and the individual's social status. He

suggested that middle class boys with high n-Ach will have

a preference for middle ranking occupations that are

moderately difficult In achieve. Business occupations represent

moderate risk choices for such individuals. McClelland reported that among those with high n-Ach in business occupations, there is a high proportion from middle class backgrounds and

a correspondingly low proportion from the upper social strata.

Furthermore, McClelland noted those from lower income groups prefer business occupations because business offers the

greatest opportunities for upward mobility. Conversely, those from higher income groups prefer the professions. Crockett (1962)

supported McClelland's stance. His results indicated that

strength of n-Ach, as measured by TAT, was related to upward mobility among sons of fathers in the two lower social groupings but not among sons of fathers in the two higher

social groupings. In the latter category, strength of the

affiliative motive was strongly related to upward mobility. Crockett concluded the strength of the achievement motive, as distinct from educational level attained, plays an important part in upward mobility. However, in the higher

social prestige category higher education was virtually essential for upward mobility or stability.

Featherman (1972) disagreed with the previous two researchers. He considered that achievement motivation acted as an' intervening variable. Using path analysis techniques he found little evidence to support the relationship between achievement orientation and status attainment. Featherman concluded that

204

social origins were not as important for adult achievement motivation as the more immediate social, situational factors. Of the latter it was education rather than early career attainment which transmitted the effects of social origins to experimentally measured motivational levels.

Characteristics of entrepreneurs

McClelland has been one of the few psychologists to have

undertaken an extensive study of entrepreneurial behaviour.

The foregoing section has highlighted the mechanisms that

operate in occupational selection and mobility. The following

section deals, in greater detail, with those characteristics that have been highlighted by McClelland as important for

high n-Ach entrepreneurs.

Conceptually, McClelland (1967) differentiated between

entrepreneurial status and entrepreneurial role behaviour.

McClelland believed entrepreneurs or . those occupying

entrepreneurial status need not display entrepreneurial behaviour. Furthermore, it is possible for those who occupy

other status to behave in an entrepreneurial manner. McClelland was primarily concerned, therefore, with

entrepreneurial role behaviour as an analytical type and not

with entrepreneurial status. These characteristics are (McClelland 1967),

1. Risk taking.

The entrepreneurial role requires decision making under

uncertainty. McClelland considered uncertainty ranges

along a continuum, from a small amount at one end, which can easily be handled by traditional or specialised knowledge, to complete uncertainty, where there is no precedent or knowledge for deciding on actions and their

outcomes. The business executive falls near the middle on the continuum. He requires some skill and some luck. - In a moderately risky situation outcomes will depend on the businessman's skill. The high n-Ach individual prefers to operate in situations of moderate risk where he can exercise skill.

205

t

2. Energetic and/or novel instrumental activity.

Businessmen are often portrayed as hard workers who are prepared to work long hours in comparison to. lower level

executives. Furthermore, entrepreneurial roles require innovative behaviour. McClelland (1967) suggested that

high n-Ach individuals work harder when it counts for

personnel achievement and when personal effort will make

a difference in the outcome. High n-Ach individuals also have a preference for working in innovative situations.

3. Individual responsibility.

The entrepreneurial role is generally assumed to require

personal responsibility. Achievement satisfaction arises from initiating a successful action rather than from the

public recognition that comes from it.

McClelland concluded,

.... If we are correct in our belief that behaving in an entrepreneurial way is practically an alternative way of saying that a person has high n-Ach then it is true that the individual must retain some individual freedom and responsibility for generating and choosing among courses of action if he is to get any achievement satisfaction, but it is not true that he must therefore work for himself rather than some group enterprise. Individual responsibility for action and working for oneself must not be confused, although they often go together. A man gets achievement satisfaction from having contributed to the success of a group enterprise, so long as it is he who made some of the decisions: contributing to a successful outcome and he therefore has some way of telling how well he has done" (McClelland 1967: 230).

4" Knoiiledge of results of actions.

The entrepreneur will have concrete knowledge of the

correctness of his decisions through profit earned or goods sold. In summarising research evidence. McClelland (1967) noted the high n-Ach individual prefers direct, task feedback and working with experts rather than with friends.

5. Long range planning and organisational abilities.

High n-Ach individuals are more concerned with future

orientations by the very nature of entrepreneurial activity. McClelland (1967) noted that there was some confusion

206

in the literature as to whether the co-ordinating function is part of the entrepreneurial or the managerial

role. Furthermore, there was no direct research evidence to

indicate subjects with high n-Ach have superior organisational

abilities. Figure23 sets out the characteristics of

entrepreneurial behaviour and its possible determinants.

McClelland has always maintained that achievement motivation

theory is applicable to entrepreneurial and not to

professional behaviour. He indicated,

".... While it is true that professionals must at times behave in entrepreneurial ways, they

probably need do so less than a business entrepreneur. That is, by definition, their job requires primarily application of specialised knowledge to problems that fall within their province - whether medical, legal, educational or theological. They should be most satisfied when they are able to solve a problem with the knowledge they have systematically acquired or memorised. The businessman.... is more apt to be involved in new, risky or challenging problem situations in which there are many unknowns and he must improvise new solutions rather than apply existing specialised knowledge. Business and the professions overlap in what they require of a man, but business should require more. of the behaviour found to be characteristic of people high in n-Ach so that average differences in n-Ach levels should not be entirely obliterated" (McClelland 1967: 261).

McClelland reported research evidence, from a small sample (N = 31), indicating that for matched pairs of professionals

and managers, the managers scored signficantly higher in

n-Ach than professionals (p < . 025). Similar but higher

results were also obtained from a group of middle level

managers from diverse organisational types. In terms of n-Ach

and-management, McClelland (1967) found that thorn managers

employed in marketing and sales had significantly higher

n-Ach levels than managers in finance (p -, '-. 02), engineering and personnel (Total N= 78). Furthermore, on reviewing research evidence concerning n-Ach and managerial success, the findings emphasised the theory does not require that high n-Ach will lead to greater success in all types of managerial or sales jobs, under all conditions, in all types of organisations. It is only when the job presents

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POSSIBLE DETERMINANTS

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENTREPRENEURS

1. Entrepreneurial role behaviour

n-Ach, optimism #- moderate risk taking as a

(other value attitudes) function of skill, not chance. Decisiveness.

#- energetic and/or novel instrumental activity.

#- individual responsibility.

Entrepreneurial # -knowledge of results of

status and/or success decisions. Money as a measure of results.

#- anticipation of future possibilities.

- organisational skills

2. Interest in entrepreneurial occupations as a function of their prestige and "riskiness".

* Derivable from the theory of n-Ach

Figure 23 Possible determinants of Entrepreneurial Characteristics Source: McClelland (1967)

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some challenge or risk to which the person can respond that

n-Ach will stimulate success. In other research reviewed by McClelland (1967), he reported that in a matched sample

of middle managers there was not significant differences in

n-Ach between those working in public or private sectors. However, he did find cultural differences. The findings led

McClelland to conclude that there was nothing intrinsic to

public employment which would universally lower n-Ach or tend to select those with lower n-Ach.

Interestingly, Lynn (1969), although developing and using

a questionnaire measure of n-Ach, discovered his results tended to contradict McClelland's stance on professionals. Lynn used a sample of entrepreneurs (N = 40), university

profgssors (N = 28), senior managers (N = 48), lower level

managers (N = 258) and students as a control group. Results

indicated that entrepreneurs differed significantly from

managers in n-Ach (p 5.05). Furthermore, the order of scoring from highest to lowest was entrepreneurs, professors, senior managers and lower managers. Lynn suggested the result for

professors contradicated McClellandts view that academic life

was unattractive to high n-Ach individuals. This was essentially due to the lack of feedback on the results of academic work. Lynn argued, however, that the academic receives feedback via publications and their reception by the

academic fraternity. -The work of Lynn highlights one of the

most significant problems facing n-Ach research, namely, the measurement and operationalisatian of the construct.

Measurement of need for achievement

Measurement of the construct has produced heavy criticism. McClelland has maintained that since the construct operates at the unconscious level it can only be measured by the TAT. However, the TAT has been criticised for low reliability and has shown low correlations with quesionnaire measures of n-Ach (Fineman 1975a, 1977, Miner 1980). In addition, quesionnai2 measures of n-Ach have also shown low inter- correlations and habe indicated a multi-dimensional factor

structure (Mitchell 1961, Ray 1980, South 1974, Weinstein 1969). This has led to he following conclusions: First, factor

209

analysis has clearly shown that several n-Ach measures

are not measuring the same thing and are, therefore, not interchangeable (Weinstein 1969). Second, the achievement

motivation construct is not a unitary construct and to

view it as such would lead to methodological confusion,

conflicting results and conceptual stagnation (Mitchell 1961).

The preceding comments raise important issues for n-Ach

research. First, achievement motivation may be a richer

construct than originally thought or it may suffer from

conceptual ambiguity and operational deficiencies or it

may be so general within social classes that it is unable to differentiate effectively between individuals. It can

only differentiate between classes. Second, the issue of

unconscious versus conscious measurement of the construct is a significant stumbling block. McClelland (1967) has

conceptualised the construct as operating at the unconscious level and maintains that TAT protocols are the only effective means of measurement. The TAT is certainly a projective measuring device but it may be questionable whether it can be labelled an unconscious measuring instrument. Furthermore, the TAT is a fantasy based measure. An individual may show a high need for achievement, in fantasy, but it is debatable if it is always transferred into concrete behaviour. Conscious

measures have already been alluded to in a previous section when v-Ach was discussed. It is possible that conscious measures of n-Ach are, in fact, v-Ach measures in disguise

and produce a totally different set of findings than if TAT

measures were used. This issue is of some importance for the

present study. Fineman's (1975a) questionnaire measure of n-Ach is used as one of the measuring instruments. He has

reviewed a considerable body of research evidence on n-Ach measures (Fineman 1975a, 1977) and has constructed a questionnaire measure that taps an individuals idealised image of his preferred boss and organisation. It can be suggested, therefore, that it is a questionnaire measure that is attempting to tap a projective element within its format. It may well be an improvement over other questionnaire measures of n-Ach.

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Criticisms of achievement motivation theory

Achievement motivation theory is one of a number of theories

that attempt to explain certain types of behaviour. In this

instance the theory can be criticised without specific

reference to the motive need for achievement. Mohr (1982)

has indicated that motivation is not sufficient for

behaviour and that resources are also necessary. He suggested

motivation may be restrained by external or internal

mechanisms. In the latter instance thought processes and beliefs may prevent motivations from being translated into

behaviour. Therefore, he argued, since motivation can exist

without behaviour the two are distinguishable. He continued, ".... There is substantial doubt, however, that the theoretical role that tends to be accorded to motivations can possibly be a legitimate one. In truth, a weakness is connected with motivations as an element of theory, one that will be seen to relate directly to non-constructive instability due to interaction" (p. 71)

From a different perspective he added, ".... The conclusion on the central issue will be that motivations are on very shaky ground indeed as elements of theory in social research. There is, in fact, an even stronger position - namely, that motives may be excluded pre- emptorily and categorically because their use as explanatory precursors of behaviour is tautological. This view is based primarily on the idea that it is behaviour that proves motives, not direct motives themselves" (p. 71)

McClelland (1967), dealing specifically with achievement motivation theory, takes a contrary view. He indicates,

".... actual motivation cannot be considered a safe index of the need to achieve any more than eating can be considered a safe measure of the strength of the hunger drive. In fact actual achievement is controlled by many more forces than eating - desires for social approval, power or knowledge - to say nothing of ability factors, so that it is far less a reliable index of the need to achieve than eating is hunger" (p. 39)

Mohr (1982) continued, at the more specific level, ".... a specified motive may be a cause, but only in the individual case and not in the general, theoretical sense, at least not for the vast majority of behaviours. No specific set of motives is a necessary condition for the performance of a behaviour. Impact parameters

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(such as regression coefficients) relating the motives to the behaviour must be expected, in principle, to vary in magnitude from one application or population or time period to the next, and no lawlike statement can be a true law or theory if, even with perfect measurement, its parameters vary without stable explanation from one context to another. The fact that motives are often used as theoretical precursors, even implicitly, has the significance for research that is emphasised in the present treatise - namely, unmanageable instability. Moreover, the fundamental assumption, the essence of the reason that motivation should generally not be used if durable theory is the object, signifies that the source of the instability

'is again interaction. In ordinary language, generalisation is defeated by the high probability that the impact of any motive on behaviour is indeed infinitely contextual; it depends on the essential array of other motives and environmental conditions that may bear on the same behaviour" (p. 85)

Jung (1978) was critical of achievement motivation, in the

particular, rather than at the more general level of Mohr. Jung criticised achievement motivation theory on a. number of counts. First, the theory recognises that achievement is an intrinsic motive and is defined, in the laboratory

setting, in terms of perceived or expected task difficulty. It fails to take account of real life situations where extrinsic motives will also play a contributory part. Jung concluded there is an artificality about the theory. Second, the theory only deals with individuals who are competing against internalised standards or norms and fails to take account of direct interpersonal competition. The latter type of competition, Jung felt, is a common place activity in all endeavours. Third, the theory is essentially a theory of male achievement striving and may only have limited application to females. Furthermore, the laboratory tasks, from which the theory was developed, were likely to be more suitable to males in American society. To para- phrase Jung, the theory may be culture and sex specific. Miner (1980) is more generous than Jung in suggesting both positive and negative outcomes fion the theory. First the incidence of multiple contributors has tended to pull the theoretical impetus in differing directions. As a consequence, there has been a lack of consistent findings.

S

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He does add that the theory has found support in predicting success in establishing and developing small business and in`extensions into macro economics. However, Miner believes

other factors and motives are involved in the latter. He

notes low levels of the affiliation motive have consistently been found to be precursors of economic growth; power

motivation appears important in older indust alised

countries; furthermore, Miner indicates that McClelland

has found educational level operates independantly of

achievement motivation yet contributes significantly to

economic growth. Miner's second conclusion is that

achievement motivation theory provides useful insights

into the behaviour of certain individuals in the business

world.

Achievement motivation theory,. in its current form, tends

to be viewed not in isolation, but as part of a trichotomy

of needs that are intimately connected. The following

sections will deal, in outline form, with the other two

partners.

The need for power (n-Pow)

Power is defined as ".... the capacity to affect another's behaviour. .... Influence is the effect" (Hunt 1979: 41).

Power motivation is concerned with interpersonal relations. High n-Ach does not equip an individual with the capacity to deal with and effectively manage human relationships (McClelland 1970). McClelland (1970) suggested two types

of power, each having different consequences. The first

he called socialised power and is concerned with the impact

of power for the sake of others. It emphasises the use of power not for self interest but for the sake of-the common good (Miner 1980). Socialised power does not and cannot express itself through win-lose situations but is

characterised by the exercise of subtle influence to

achieve group goals. Those individuals who-are influenced feel they are origins rather than pawns to be manipulated' (McClelland 1970).

Personalised power is concerned with personal dominance

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and is viewed by McClelland as primitive power because

strategies used by the individual were learned early in

life. Long before the individual, through socialisation,

was taught the use of subtle influence tactics (McClelland

1970). Personalised power is concerned with dominance-

submission and people are treated as pawns rather than as

origins of action (McClelland 1970, Miner 1980).

McClelland has postulated there is a hierarchy of growth

in the need for power and the individual must experience

one stage before proceeding to the next. He has suggested four stages in the development of power orientation (Miner 1980),

Stage 1- the power motive involves deriving strength from others.

Stage 2- the source of strength shifts from others to

the self and feelings of power are derived

from oneself. Stage 3- power motivation becomes concerned with

impact on others and includes dominance and

competition with others for mastery. Stage 4- power motivation shifts from essentially

personalised power to socialised power and influencing others for the common good.

McClelland (1970) has suggested a leader has to maintain

a subtle balance between social and personalised power. He must maintain socialised power in order to motivate but exercise personalised power in order to initiate.

Need for power has normally been measured by TAT protocols

or other fantasy based measures (Winter 1970). Those who have high n-Pow, during their formative years, feel a 'sense

of power' rather than inferiority. They, are predominantly

eldest or only sons from the upper middle classes. Early family life, for the high n-Pow individuals, tended to be described as more unified, with parents concerned about their

performance and children more concerned with satisfying their

parents wishes. However, as a cautionary notaWinter added the recalls may, in fact, reflect a lack of power as a child and the individual is attempting to compensate for this during recall.

214

Miner (1980) has-criticised McClelland's work on the power

motive on the grounds that the theory may have moved outside its domain. He concluded that as a theory it is not as strongly

grounded as achievement motivation theory. Furthermore, the

criticisms and debate surrounding conscious and unconscious levels of operation for the achievement motive are equally

as pertinent with n-Pow. -

Need for affiliation (n-Aff)

Boyatzis (1973) has suggested a theory of affiliation motivation

after reviewing a considerable body of sometimes confusing literature.

Boyatzis believed a concern with affiliatii itself in two ways: approach or avoidance.

concerned with the establishment of 'love'

whilst the latter is concerned with a fear

being left alone. An individual with high

will;

Dn can manifest The former is

relationships

of rejection and

approach concerns

i) Be relaxed and open in his behaviour with others. ii) Make opportunities to relate to others without

actively pursuing others. iii) Have a genuine interestin others.

Boyatzis noted that an individual with high avoidance concerns will;

i) Seek the approval of others. ii) Increase his/her importance to others by attempting

to care for and help others. iii) Ensure a relationship and a sense of other's being

concerned for him/her by seeking out others to

care for and help him/her.

iv) Evaluate him/herself by comparison with others. v) Build and reinforce a sense of self worth by seeking

to be with others who are perceived as being similar.

In reviewing the literature Boyatzis (1973) concluded the

avoidance concern resembled the concept of need for affiliation. ' Once the need has been satisfied the individual will feel a sense of security. This will allow other motives to emerge or to develop a continuing relationship in an approach manner. Furthermore, avoidance affiliation tends to arouse

215

anxiety in a relationship and make others feel uncomfortable. Boyatlis noted individuals high in n-Aff may have predominantly avoidance concerns whilst those scoring moderately on the construct may have a combination of approach and avoidance. In the approach affiliation mode the attainment of a warm, close relationship will stimulate an individual to continue the relationship. As a consequence interpersonal

sensitivity is increased. Boyatzis contended that it is the approach concern of the affiliative motive that enables individuals to be effective managers. The approach concern of one individual would satisfy the avoidance concerns of another and assist in the latter's development of approach concerns.

There is one drawback with Boyatzist theory, he admitted that a methodology for measuring the new perspective has

not been developed.

Section summary Achievement motivation theory is the creation of Atkinson

and McClelland (McClelland et al 1953, Atkinson (ed) 1958). Individuals learn to associate positive and negative feelings

with events and over time achievement situations arouse feelings of pleasure (Miner 1980).

Atkinson extended McClelland's work. He conceptualised. individuals as having a motive to achieve success and a motive to avoid failure (Atkinson 1965). Each is a function of a motive, an expectancy and an incentive. Both motives are equally important in achievement striving. The individual, in an achievement situation, experiences an approach- avoidance conflict due to t1'e. eopposing nature of the motives. The relative strengths of each of the motives will determine whether the individual will undertake achievement activities. Atkinson further elaborated his work on the achievement motive to include the concept of future goals and cummulative achievement (Atkinson 1974, Miner 1980). The attribution of causality to achievement striving has also been a significant theoretical development. Success or.. ilure can be ascribed to ability, effort, task difficulty and luck (Miner 1980,

A

216

Weiner 1972,1973).

Situational cues are important in determining an individual's

motivation (Atkinson 1957, McClelland 1967, Miner 1980,

Stringer 1966, Weiner 1972,1973). Environmental factors

that are important in achievement striving are the opportunity for personal responsibility, freedom of choice, unbiased feedback of results, moderate risk situations, consistent

retqards and a future orientation.

The investigation of the achievement motivation syndrome has proceeded on two levels, the unconscious and the con-

scious. The unconscious level is associated with need for achievement (n-Ac1 (McClelland and Atkinson's contributions). The conscious level is concerned with ver- balised achievement goals (v-Ach) (Kahl 1965). They are

conceptually distinct and have different correlates and-

origins (Pandey and Tewary 1979, Scanzoni 1967, Rosen 1956).

A number of variables have been shown to be important for the

development of n-Ach. The most important are child rearing practices, religion, family variables such as size, social status, birth order and an entrepreneurial background (Falbo 1981, McClelland 1967, Rosen 1956,1961, Turner 1970).

Need for achievement, operating through a future orientation, has an influence on an individual's career, occupational

selection and mobility (Crockett 1962, McClelland 1967,

Raynor 1974). Middle class boys with high n-Ach have been

empirically shown to have a preference for business occupations. However, Featherman (1972) has questioned the importance of social status as an influence on the relationship between need for achievement and occupational mobility. He believed the more influential variable is education.

Entrepreneurial role behaviour and n-Ach have been empirically investigated (McClelland 1967). High n-Ach individuals

are likely to be found in entrepreneurial roles because they offer a potential for risk taking, innovation, individual

responsibility, feedback and long range planning. McClelland has maintained achievement motivation theory is more applicable to entrepreneurs than professionals. However,

217

Lynn (1969) presented results, at least for university professors, that question this stance.

Need for achievement'hassuffered from cönsiderable measure-

ment problems especially in terms of the reliability of

projective tests, low inter-measure correlations and multi-

dimensional factor structures (Fineman 1975a, 1977, Miner

1980, Mitchell 1966, Ray 1980, South 1974, Weinstein 1969).

These raise serious questions for n-Ach research.

Apart from criticisms attributable to-operationalisation

of the construct the theory has also received considerable

criticism. At a general level the relationship between

motivation and human behaviour may be of little theoretical

uae due to instability through interaction (Mohr 1982).

. Achievement motivation theory has also been criticised

first, for failing to be realistic in terms of the inter-

action between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, adding

credence to Mohr's thesis. Second, it may be culture

and sex specific (Jung 1978). Furthermore, it has lacked a body of consistent findings due to. multiple contributors. It has had some predictive success in small businesses

but has suffered from confounding effects at a macro

economic level (Miner 1980).

McClelland conceptualised need for achievement as one of

a trichotomy of needs, the other two being need for power (McClelland 1967, Miner 1980, Winter 1970) and need for af-

filiation (Boyatzis 1973). Needs for affiliation and power

are interpersonal in nature. Their importance will be

further elaborated in the next section dealing with inter-

personal orientation although, as will become evident during

the discussion, there is considerable conceptual overlap between these needs and certain perspectives on interpersonal

behaviour.

THE INTERPERSONAL DIMENSION OF PERSONALITY

Behaviour that is related overtly, consciously, ethically or symbolically to another human being can be considered interpersonal (Leary 1957). Furthermore, it can be assumed

218

that, ".... the essence of human happiness and despair, success and failure, centres in the manner in which the person consistently sees, symbolises and com- municates with others" (Leary and Coffey 1955: 111).

Interpersonal behaviour can, therefore, be considered one of the most important dimensions of personality since it is crucial to the survival of the human being. For effective survival it is essential the social role and social adjustment of an individual comprise the most important

activity of human endeavour. This fact is important through-

out life since survival will depend on the adequacy of interpersonal relations (Leary 1957).

Interpersonal behaviour

A number of different systems have been developed for in-

vestigating interpersonal behaviour (Argyle 1967,1969,1981, Foa 1961, Soloman 1981). There is a considerable body of evidence to indicate interpersonal behaviour can be described in terms of a circular ordering of traits or circumplex (Conte and Plutchick 1981, Foa 1961, Lorr and McNair 1963, Lyons et al 1980). The present study uses the circumplex for conceptualising-interpersonal behaviour. Furthermore,

within the bounds of a circumplex model there is also growing evidence, from factor analytic studies, that suggests interpersonal behaviour can be summarised under a number of basic empirical dimensions. These have variously been named as Dominance-submission and affiliation-hostility (Foa 1961); Aggressive dominance, Affiliation sociability and Autonomy (Golding and Knudson 1975), Control, Dependance-Affiliation

and Detachment (Lorr and McNair 1963), Autocratic dominance, Affiliation and Inferiority feelings (Briar and Bieri_1963, Truckenmiller and Schaie 1979); Dominance-submissiveness, Friendliness-hostility and Task orientedness-expressivity (Bayles 1970, Soloman 1981). The foregoing dimensions have been established empirically, however, the Interpersonal Personality System (Leary 1957) has established trigonomet- rically two orthoganal dimensions Dominance-submissiveness and Love-hate. In a personal communication with Gynther et al (1962) Leary suggested the interpersonal domain could

219

be analysed with the addition of two further dimensions - responsibility and competitiveness. Figure 24 sets out one example of a circumplex ordering of-interpersonal behaviour dimensions. The following discussion explores in

greater detail the Interpersonal Personality System of Leary since it offers a useful approach for the present

study.

The Interpersonal Personality System

This system was developed by Leary and his colleagues at the Kaiser Foundation for psychiatric illness. The System

attempts to provide (Laforge and Suczek 1955),

-a system for classifying and ordering varieties, of interpersonal behaviour

-a notational system that permits levels of interpersonal

behaviour to be investigated

-a means of systematically relating different levels

of interpersonal behaviour to each other to allow an objective description of personality, organisation and change.

The theoretical background to the System uses the work of Harry Stack Sullivan (Leary 1957). According to Leary, Sullivan views the motivating force behind personality to be the reduction or avoidance of anxiety. Anxiety is conceptualised as an interpersonal phenomenon and involves

a loss in self esteem. The roots lie in a fear of rejection

or debasement of the individual by self or others. Sullivan

considers the human being is rarely free from such inter-

personal tension since his/her actions and thoughts are usually related to his/her estimation by others.

Leary noted, however, that Sullivan provides an approach but not a methodology for investigating interpersonal behaviour.

Baumrind (1960), a psychiatrist, has criticised the Inter-

personal System for making anxiety an integral part of all interpersonal experience. She concluded that it robs the System of explanatory and predictive meaning. In her view normal behaviour is reduced to no more than an appropriate

220

DOMINANT CONTROLLING

HOSTILE- RESISTIVE

SUSPICIOUS, i

ATTENTION- SEEKING

SOCIABLE

WITHHOLDING

AUTONOMOUS DETACHED WITHDRAWN= ASOCIAL

INHIBITED- RESERVED

ABASIVE

PASSIVE- DEPENDANT

ILIATIVE

NURTURANT SUPPORTIVE

ºCOOPERATIVE- AGREEABLE

CONFORMING

DEFERENT- COMPLIANT

Figure 24 An example and synthesis of a number of circumplex models of interpersonal behaviour

Source: Lorr and McNair (1963: 73)

221

form of neurotic behaviour. Furthermore, she criticsed Leary's interpretation of the position of Sullivan. To her Sullivan's position is one of believing, first, the individual pursues the satisfaction of needs such as hunger, thirst, lust and loneliness. Second, Sullivan

considers individuals seek security through enhancing self esteem and power by means of goal attainment and interpersonal power strategies whIch, *if successful,

promote anxiety avoidance. Baumrind (1960) concluded Leary has understated the adaptive goal seeking nature of human endeavour whilst over-emphasising the central motive

of anxiety avoidance.

In sum, the Interpersonal System is a flexible system for

viewing interpersonal behaviour. It was originally de-

veloped in a psychiatric institution Using-the theoretical

insights of H. S. Sullivan. Leary has highlighted the im-

portance of anxiety reduction as a prime motive in inter-

personal relations although this he3received criticism, again from a psychiatric quarter (Baumrind 1960). However, in defence of the System it has been used, with some success, for research purposes on normal, as opposed to

psychiatric patients (Chenault and Seegars 1962, David 1962, Frost 1963, McDonald 1962).

In order to understand the complexity of the System and its approach to an essentially complex s. et of behaviour

patterns, a number of fundamental concepts must be elaborated.

1. The Interpersonal Reflex (IR)

The interpersonal reflex is defined as observable expressive units of face-to-face social behaviour. They

are automatic and usually involuntary responses to interpersonal situations. IR's are often independant

of the content of a human communication and are spontan- eous methods of reacting to each other. IR's are primarily expressed in voice intonations, gesture and bodily posture. They are, therefore, complex products of verbal and non-verbal communication. IR's are not necessarily conscious processes and they are probably

222

the most important single aspect of interpersonal

behaviour. Many individuals do not react with con-

sistently appropriate behaviour and flexibility. In

fact most individuals tend to 'train' others to

react to them within a narrow range of behaviours.

They, in turn, will show a restricted set of favoured

reflexes (Leary 1957).

2. The Interpersonal Role

Leary (1957) indicated that the majority of people

manifest automatic role patterns in response to others.

These roles are probability functions of expressing

certain interpersonal behaviours with significantly

higher frequencies. A role relationship is said to

exist when an individual uses certain interpersonal

mechanisms more than chance and tends to pull certain res-

ponses from the other. The tendancy to employ certain behaviours and pull a correspondingly narrow response from others is mutually reinforcing (Leary 1957).

3. The Principle of Self Determination

The principle concerns the attribution of responsibility for a situation to the self. However, Leary (1957)

noted human beings tend to resist taking responsibility for their situations. Furthermore, he argued individuals

will strive for independance, power, popularity and

affection but less understandable that individuals

will also seek dependance, weakness, distrust and

self-effacing modesty, ie. that they do seek to

defeat themselves. Cultural contexts also require that individuals adopt certain behaviour patterns in

order to survive and as a consequence there is a pressure for individuals to repeat behaviours. The individual

will also prefer to adopt certain behaviours in order to reduce interpersonal anxiety. He/she will, therefore, seek out those social environments where the individual will feel comfortable and anxiety is

reduced. Leary suggested an insoluble dilemma for interpersonal adjustment, namely, stability versus flexibility (Leary 1957).

223

4. The Principle of Reciprocal Interpersonal Relations

In any social interaction individuals will tend to pull reciprocal responses that tend to strengthen the original action. As indicated previously this is a probability

principle. However, with certain personalities, the sym- biotically 'sick', the more maladapted the personality the greater the power to determine the nature of relation-

ship with others (Leary 1957).

5. The Interpersonal Trait

This has been developed to systematise the enduring tend-

encies of personality. The structural elements are considered to be conscious or private tendencies to perceive and respond to certain types of environmental stimulii. The interpersonal trait is, therefore, a description of the manner in which an individual consciously or privately perceives his social world, including himself.

The System uses five depth levels of, personality (Freedman et al 1951, Laforge et al 1954, Laforge and Suczek 1955, Leary 1957).

Level 1- The Level of Public Communication which defines the interpersonal behaviour of individuals

as perceived by others. Level 2- the Conscious level which defines the world of

the individual as perceived by himself. Level 3- Private Symbolisation which defines the abstract

fantasy world of the individual. Level 4- this level includes the interpersonal themes

systematically and compulsively missed from

other levels by the individual. Level 5- the level of moral values and ideals. -Although

the System assigns a level to this area it does not represent a depth level of personality.

Laforge and Suczek (1955) designed an interpersonal check list (ICL) to measure a number of the variables defined by the Interpersonal System. They have noted that although the ICL was specifically designed to fit within a theoretical schema it has research applications that are independant of the theory.

The ICL classification system is made up of 16 interpersonal variables arranged in a circular continuum (Laforge and Suczek 1955).

224

Figure25 sets out the ICL schema and axes.

In research investigating the relationship between needs and behaviour, Gynther et al (1962) undertook a correlational study between the Edwards Personality Preference Schedule (EPPS)

and the ICL. A pilot study indicated the n-Ach dimension

on the EPPS was found to be significantly negatively cor-

related with the managerial-autocratic variable. In the main

study it was found n-Ach (EPPS) was not significantly related to either of the four dimensions COM, DOM, RES or LOV.

Furthermore, those individuals stressing the competitiveness

variable on the ICL would, from the EPPS, be inferred as in-

dividuals having needs to be autonomous, dominant and aggressive. These individuals would not have needs to help others, be

helped by others, be friendly towards others or take the blame

when things go wrong. An individual, where the needs for affiliation and nurturance were high and needs to be autonomous

and aggressive low, would be characterised on the ICL dim-

ension of affiliation or love. These results led Gynther et al to conclude that if the EPPS was related to needs and the ICL to behaviour then these two factors were directly related. However, they noted the relationship could be more complex and, to an extent, relied on assumptions that ICL data was more closely related to behaviour and EPPS data more closely related to needs. However, Lorr and McNair (1963) do lend

support to Gynther et al's description of the individual

with a need for autonomy. The former describe the autonomous individual as one who is detached and uninvolved. Furthermore, they describe his behaviour as wanting neither direction nor control, obligation or responsibility in relation tocthers.

Table20 sets out a breakdown of the ICL and EPPS variables. The link with Environmental Psychology

Mehrabian and Russell (1974) have suggested a useful approach to environmental psychology. The basic concerns were,

1. the direct impact of physical stimuli on human emotions 2. the effect of physical stimuli on a variety of behaviours

such as work performance or social interaction.

225

DOMINANCE

P CERIIAL-AUr CRgTýC ý: «G o

H 0 S I ,. L I+

Y

L

CINC- MASOCHISTIC

SUBMISSIVENESS

Figure 25 The Interpersonal Check List Source: -

Leary (1957: 65)

C'

A F F I L I A T I 0 N

226

Table' 20 Correlations between ICL and EPPS Variables* Source Gynther et al (1962: 449)

EPPS Variables

COM

ICL

DOM

Variables

RES LOV

Achievement 10 10 02 -09 Deference -09 -02 -02 07 Order -07 -07 -12 -03 Exhibitionism 15 22' 20' 01 Autonomy 35" 11 24' 40"

Affiliation 20' 05 18 22 Intraception 07 01 12 13 Succorance 26** 28'' 10 14 Dominance 28''

. 32" 16 -14

Abasement -20' -11 11 24' Nurturance -23' -05 19 27' Change 09 -08 -17 -13 Endurance -12 02 '. 11 18 Heterosexuality 01 06 03 02 Aggression 34. ** 06 -34' -47' (Consistency) 00 02 09 09

For N= 95

p6 . 05 (r =± 20)

p< . 01 (r =+ 26)

# Decimal points omitted

227

Mehrabian and Russell proposed that physical or social stimuli, present in the environment, will directly effect the conditional state of the individual and influence behaviour. They

suggested three emotional response variables, namely, pleasure, arousal and dominance summarise the emotion eliciting potential of environments. They are mediating variables which determine

a variety of approach-avoidance behaviours. Figure26 sets

out their proposed theoretical framework.

The three emotional dimensions are characterised by the following,

1. Pleasure

This is a feeling state. Mehrabian and Russell distinguish it from preference, liking, positive reinforcement or approach avoidance. They noted, however, that although the latter response variables are correlated a distinction

must be maintained since they are also determined by the

arousal quality of an environment.

2. Arousal

This is a feeling state which varies along a continuum ranging from sleep at one extreme to frenzied excitement at the other.

3. Dominance

Dominance-submissiveness is again a feeling state. From

a behavioural perspective dominance is usually measured in terms of postural relaxation. It is independant of the two other dimensions. In any situation an individual's feeling of dominance is based on the extent to which he feels free to act in a variety of ways. The feeling of freedom of action can be restricted in environments that limit the forms of behaviour or can be enhanced by settings that allow a greater variety of behaviours. Mehrabian and Russell further added that in social environments behaviour will be constrained in more formal settings than in informal settings. Feelings of dominance are inversely related to the potency of the environment that is, if physical stimuli are more intense, ordered and more powerful then feelings of dominance will tend to be blocked. However, they added a cautionary note.

228

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The dimension of dominance has received little empirical investigation and any comments were, therefore, only tentative.

In their theoretical discussions Mehrabian and Russell dis-

tinguished between characteristic levels of emotions as-

sociated with an individuals personality - the dimensions were

called trait dominance, arousal and pleasure and momentary feelings that were described in terms of state dominance,

pleasure and arousal.

Mehrabian and Russell (1974) have applied their theory to

interpersonal behaviour. They have couched it in terms of

approach avoidance behaviour and describe it variously as

affiliation, conformity, co-operation, liking, aggression

and hostility. They noted the evidence indicated it is the

reinforcing quality of the other person that is the primary determinant of the degree of affiliative behaviour elicited from an individual (Mehrabian 1971, Mehrabian and Ksionzky

1972). They viewed affiliation as an approach behaviour which is perpetuated by the exchange of positive social cues. Furthermore, other factors that increase the tendency for

affiliative behaviour include the pleasantness of the sur-

roundings and the spatial proximity of individuals. However,

within the experimental framework associated with their

theory Mehrabian and Russell -; were unable to conceptualise

and explain completely the desire to affiliate in terms of the three primary determinants of behaviour. This led them

to conclude that it may be independent of other approach- avoidance behaviours.

Section Summary

Interpersonal behaviour is that which relates overtly, consciously, ethically or symbolically to another human being. It lies at the root of all human endeavour and the adequacy of interpersonal behaviour is vital for human survival and growth (Leary 1957).

A number of different systems have been developed to study interpersonal behaviour (Argyle 1967,1969,1981, Bayles 1970,

Foa 1961, Leary 1957, Solomon 1981) and a. ddnsiderable body

230

of empirical evidence is amassing which shows that interpersonal behaviour can be described as a circular ordering of traits (Conte and Plutchik 1981, Foa 1961, Lorr and McNair 1963,

Lyons et al 1980, Laforge and Suczek 1955, Leary 1957) with

a primary dimension of dominance-submissiveness underlying it (Bayles 1970, Briar and Bieri 1963, Foa 1961, Golding

and Knudson 1975, Gynther et al 1962, Laforge and Suczek

1955, Leary 1957, Truckenmiller and Schaie 1979, Solomon 1981).

The Interpersonal Personality System (Leary 1957) has been

suggested as offering a useful approach for the present study.

The Interpersonal Personality System is a multi-level clas-

sification system for explaining interpersonal behaviour.

Theoretically, it uses theuork of Harry Stack Sullivan and has been translated into empirical investigations with the

development of the interpersonal check list (ICL) (Chenault

and Seegars 1962, David 1962, Frost 1963, Laforge and

Suczek, Leary 1957, McDonald 1962). The ICL is a classification

system of 16 interpersonal`B. riables arranged in a circular

continuum (Laforge and Suczek 1955) and has an intensity

component (Leary and Coffey 1955). The system can be reduced to four major dimensions, namely, dominance-submissiveness, -

affiliation-hostility, responsibility and competetiveness (Laforge and Suczek 1955, Gynther et al 1962).

The concept of environmental psychology has been introduced

(Mehrabian and Russell 1974). It is concerned with the im-

pact of environmental stimuli on behaviour. Three emotional

variables, namely, pleasure, arousal and dominance, act as

mediating variables in approach avoidance behaviour. They

note these three primary dimensions are not sufficient to

explain the interpersonal desire to affiliate. Mehrabian

and Russell have suggested it may beindependant of other approach avoidance behaviours.

The theoretical framework and literary anaylsis of variables to be investigated in the present study is now completed. The major variables are,

- Professionalism

- Organisational structure - Job achievement climate

231

- Need for achievement

- Interpersonal orientation

Chapter 6 will draw together the foregoing within the context of Quantity Surveying to suggest a Paradigm for the research design.

232

Chapter Notes

1. Rosen (1961), on reviewing a number of studies, indicated

the first born child recieves more achievement training,

is more competitive than other siblings, is more adult

oriented, serious and conscientious whilst a second born

is more peer oriented. The only . child is not likely to

receive self reliance training or autonomy training.

These are more frequently found in the ecperience of the oldest child with several siblings.

However, Rosen's data indicated social class was an im-

portant influence on the impact of family size on ordinal

position. In the lower class n-Ach scores for oldest,

youngest and intermediate children all declines as family

size increases. The decline was more marked among the

oldest than intermediate or youngest. In the middle

class the scores for oldest children were higher than those

for intermediate and youngest except in small families

where the score for the youngest was slightly higher.

Rosen concluded that in view of the interaction effects it would be unwise to isolate any one demographic factor

as an explanation of achievement motivation. .

2. Turner (1970), as noted, earlier, considered that father's

occupation was entrepreneurial if it involved at least

the following four elements, i) a high degree of autonomy or freedom from direct

supervision by others ii) authority over at least two levels of subordinates iii) decision making obligations iv) co-ordinating resources, men and/or materials Turner noted that he did not include an innovative component since it was difficult to measure.

Turner also distinguished the following occupational roles. a) White collar status role

- managers . bureaucracies

- owners of a business b) Blue collar status roles

- managers in an industry or factory

- owners of a business

c) Farmers

233

c) Farmers

- managers of a farm

- owners of a farm Non-entrepreneurial occupations were classified as,

- routine white collar employees

- routine blue collar employees

- subsistence farmers

It must be noted that Turner's classification system for

entrepreneurs is restrictive since it ignores the single worker business. He has no authority over subordinates but is still in an entrepreneurial role as a business owner.

3. First born and only children appear to have a special relationship with parents. It is a combination of positive parental attention and high parental expectations that lead first and only borns to set relatively high standards for themselves. Falbo notes this effect was found for

educational aspirations. First and only borns reported a higher level of educational aspiration than last borns. This combined category relationship was not found for any of the foir achievement motivation factors.

Falbo noted first borns scored higher on the competitiveness factor in comparison to last borns. The scores of only children did not differ from the other remaining categories. Falbo concluded it was the presence of siblings that could account for differences in competitiveness. He indicated

sibling rivalry could create a climate of competitiveness within the family.. First borns would be in a more advantageous position than later born children in vieing for

parental attention. However, only born children would lack sibling rivalry and a climate of competitiveness and would, therefore, not be ecpected to differ from other birth order categories.

4. McClelland (1967) does not define the term 'traditional Catholics'. It can be presumed from his reasoning, that they are not individuals who have been exposed to the liberalising influences of American middle class society but are reflected in the early social compositions of Catholic European society shortly after the Protestant Reformation. It would appear that the term is a value judgement on the part of McClelland.

234

CHAPTER 6

A SYNTHESIS AND PARADIGM

INTRODUCTION

The following chapter presents a synthesis of research and literary evidence from previous chapters. It will provide an overall picture of Quantity Surveying within an individual,

organisational and occupational framework.

THE INDIVIDUAL PERSPECTIVE

The individual is conceptualised as a product of hereditary

factors and experience and is goal directed. These influence the

way the organism perceives the world and the expectancies that an individual brings to a situation. Therefore, within the present theoretical framework the individual operates

within an organisational role system to which he/she has

brought experiences of and expectancies about the occupational

melieu which forms part of working life. The organisation, in terms of its structure and climate, is perceived by the individual and mediates the relationship between personality

and behaviour. Need for achievement and interpersonal

behaviour are only two components in the complex interplay between the individual, the organisation and the occupation.

Need for Achievement

The author disagrees with McClelland's (1967) restrictions placed on achievement motivation theory and its relationship to professionals and entrepreneurs. First, the term 'pro-

fessional' is a loose term describing a variety of occupations that vary in their contact with the business world. The

present study has already suggested that the occupations of Accountancy and Quantity Surveying have a close affinity for

corporate capitalism. Second, the investigations of the Monopolies and Mergers Commission (HMSO 1970,1977) have

suggested that in many instances 'the professions' were operating restrictive practices to exert control over the market place. As such, they were as susceptible to the dictates of the business world as any other occupation, including those non-professional occupations involving entrepreneurial activities. Third, McClelland (1967) has admitted that he is

interested in entrepreneurial role behaviour and, provided

A

235

the prerequisites are present, any role can have an entrepreneurial element which will facilitate the emergence of n-Ach. Fourth, McClelland (1967) has suggested that the

prerequisites for achievement striving are personal res-

ponsibility for task accomplishment, freedom of choice in

pursuing goals, unbiased feedback, moderate risks, a future

orientation and innovative behaviour. The author contends that each of these forms part of the professional role,

especially if continued professionalisation is sought. Furthermore, many professionals, especially those closely

allied with corporate capitalism, are becoming more and more involved in the managerial functions of business. This must further add weight to the applicability of achievement

motivation theory to 'professionals'. Finally, the professional role involves measuring performance, against- internalised norms established from training, it is'a-central

life interest and involves individual achievement (Elliot

1972). Each of these is remarkably close to the description

of activities in'which individuals are likely to express a high need for achievement.

In conclusion, the present study considers that achievement

motivation theory is applicable to Quantity Surveying because

individuals are likely to be involved in entrepreneurial

role behaviour. They operate in an occupation that has

strong business overtones and many practitioners are actively

pursuing managerial careers. It can be expected that the

more competitive environment of contracting may attract those individuals who are likely to be more entrepreneurially inclined. The social composition of Quantity Surveying has been suggested to be diverse. This would suggest a wide variance in the strength of the achievement motive among individuals with those. quantity surveyors originating from middle class backgrounds expected to have a higher n-Ach. However, the stated low academic calibre of recruits, in the past, may suggest a more complex relationship between social class and n-Ach.

236

Interpersonal Behaviour and McClelland's Trichotomy of Needs

There is considerable overlap between the conceptualising of McClelland (1967,1970), Boyatzis (1973) and Leary (1957) concerning the origins and effects of interpersonal behaviour. Furthermore, Mehrabian and Russell (1974)

have used the three primary emotional responses of arousal,

pleasure and dominance to partly explain certain aspects

of the desire to affiliate.

A number of conceptual distinctions must be made among the

differing perspectives. i) McClelland (1967,1970) has suggested that a need must

be capable of being distinguished from factual behavioural

outcomes. Need for achievement is not an interpersonally

oriented motive as are n-Pow and n-Aff. n-Pow is sug-

gested to be divided into personalised and socialised

power. The former relates to dominance-submissiveness.

McClelland maintains that the trichotomy of needs must be measuring-by projective tests and operate at the

unconscious level.

ii) Boyatzis (1973) suggests that the desire to affiliate is a combination of approach and avoidance concerns.

iii) Mehrabian and Russell (1974) view the desire to affiliate in terms of an approach-avoidance behaviour that is

partly determined by the three primary emotional deter-

minants of behaviour.

iv) Leary'(1957) and his associates make no redress to drives

or needs in their discussiors of interpersonal behaviour. At the conscious and unconscious levels of personality the interpersonal behaviour patterns of the individual

are determined in terms of self and other. This includes the scoring of TAT protocols as a projective measure of unconscious behaviour. Furthermore, the three levels

of interpersonal behaviour when related together often show a considerable degree of, displacement, ie. unconscious interpersonal behaviour may be different from the individual's conscious perception of his/her own behaviour which in turn is different from inter-

personal behaviour as viewed and experienced by others.

237

Leary also interprets behaviour with reference to dominance-

submission and hostility-affiliation (as do many other interpersonal researchers). This would appear to be

a different notion from that envisaged by McClelland.

The conceptual overlap strikes at the heart of the controversy about the relationship between overt behaviour and covert

motivation. The author prefers to adopt a stance similar to Mohr (1982). The author conceptualises the individual

$; being in an activated state which is a-function of any

number of non-specific interacting stimulii. A situation

may arise which activates a particular motivating complex

and becomes a dominant force impelling the individual towards

action. Like Mohr, the author believes that the motivating

complex is again caused by a number of interacting stimulii

and can be a combination of conscious and unconscious factors.

However, the individual is then faced with a choice situation. He/she can decide to proceed with the motivated behaviour,

perhaps modifying it within the constraints of his/her

personal value system, Alternatively, within the context of the situation facing the individual, he/she may decide to

override the motivational impetus. The author does not accept that all motivational impetuses are automatically transferred into overt behaviour. The individual is part of the environment but at the same time'is capable of being

separate from it through t1e exercise of choice. Therefore, in order to understand any motivated behaviour of individuals it is necessary to have an awareness of overt behaviour and covert potential.

Interpreting the foregoing within the framework provided by Fineman (1975), McClelland (1967) and Weiner (1970) on n-Ach, Leary (1957) and Mehrabian and Russell (1974) the following

picture emerges. The environment is a source of achievement oriented cues that have a potential for eliciting achievement striving. Simultaneously, the environment must have the ability to elicit feelings of dominance in order to allow the individual to experience a free choice situation. When this

occurs the individual is in a position to,

238

i) Choose to perform achievement oriented tasks. ii) Arrange the environment to increase the likelihood of

achieving success. Evidence for the above proposition is supported from two

sources. Gynther et al (1962) have noted that n-Ach (as

measured by the EPPS) was not correlated with Dominance (on the ICL). McClelland (1967) has noted that, over time, the individual experiences feelings of pleasure with achievement striving. Within the context of environmental psychology

pleasure and dominance are viewed as an independent source of emotional responses to the environment.

The foregoing has a number of implications for organisational behaviour. First, in organisational roles that are highly formalised the high achievement oriented individual will have restrictions placed on his freedom of choice. This is likely to reduce achievement striving. Second, as hierarchical

position increases the individual will have a greater potential for martialling. resources to allow greater freedom

of choice and, therefore, arrange the environment to achieve success.

When placed within the context of Quantity Surveying it can be expected that, i) Those in more senior positions will have greater autonomy

which will, sLow increased achievement striving. ii) Those in middle and lower ranking positions will have

less freedom of choice and as a consequence achievement striving will be reduced.

iii) Following on from (ii) those performing technical tasks, which have greater procedural specifications (Standard Methods of Measurement) and are usually performed by the lower ranking surveyors, will experience lower achievement striving.

iv) Thos; quantity surveyors occupying more formalised roles will experience less achievement striving. This would suggest, contrary to McClelland (1967), that thosein Government would face situations of less freedom of action and, over time, the more highly achievement oriented individuals would self-select out of this type of employment.

239

v) Those in higher ranking positions will perceive their

working environments as more achievement oriented since they have been able to arrange their situation to facilitate achievement oriented successes.

Need for Achievement, Interpersonal Behaviour and Professionalism

The relationship between achievement striving and inter-

personal behaviour, within an organisational context, has been discussed in the previous section. The following

section discusses the implications of these variables for

professionalism.

Prior to amalgamation in 1982 the IQS and RICS represented

structural differences in the occupational organisation of Quantity Surveying. Although members of each institute

appear professionalised on Hall's (1969) structural dimension it can be expected there may be differences between members on the attitudinal dimensions of professionalism.

Each institute may have attracted individuals from different

social classes and with different educational aspirations. If this is the case, there will be implications for the distribution of achievement oriented individuals between the institutes. Furthermore, contracting organisations operate in a highly competitive environment and there may be structural differences in terms of interpersonal behaviour

patterns. It is highly likely that preferences for a professional institute may reflect an early career choice for either the contracting or the client side of the industry.

Furthermore, the attitudinal components of professionalism, like the personality factors, are affected by the organisational environment. It can be expected that there will be an association between those professionalism dimensions that are directly affected by the organisation, such as autonomy, and the personality dimensions of need for achievement and interpersonal orientation.

Section Summary

Achievement motivation theory is suitable for the investigation

of a specialised occupation like Quantity Surveying. The

conceptual overlap between McClelland's conceptualisation of

240

interpersonal needs and Leary's conceptualisation of inter-

personal behaviour has been discussed within the context of environmental psychology. The importance of individual

choice, in motivated behaviour, has been highlighted. A

possible solution to the problem between overt and covert behaviour has been suggested. The, environment activates

achievement striving in the individual and at the same time may elicit feelings of dominance. This in turn will

allow the individual to feel free to act and arrange the

environment to facilitate success in achievement oriented tasks. The implications for organisational behaviour have

been discussed in terms of formalisation and hierarchical

position.

Institutional differences in the organisation of Quantity Surveying have been discussed. Structurally, prior to

amalgamation, the RICS and IQS tended to represent members

who worked in different parts of the construction industry

and had different relationships with clients. This may have implications for attitudinal professionalism as an occupational power strategy. Furthermore, the different structural arrangements may also reflect different social compositions of the institutes and, therefore, different educational, motivational and interpersonal behaviour patterns. The ability of the

organisational environment to influence professionalism, motivation and interpersonal behaviour may lead to a complex set of interrelationship between these variables.

THE ORGANISATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Introduction

Individuals work within organisational frameworks that have differing organisational objectives or goals. These will have an influence on the structuring of the occupational task and the manner in which it relates to the overall organisational structure. The three broad areas within which quantity surveyors work are those of,

241

i) Private practice ii) Contracting iii) Government, both Central and Local

Professional organisations are those pursuing professional goals. The previous chapter has cast serious doubts about the occupational status of Quantity Surveying, however, for

consistency with literary evidence, the present section will discuss organisations within the context of professional or

non-professional goal activity.

A number of organisational typologies have been mentioned in

discussing the theoretical framework for the present study. The most useful will be the work of Blau and Scott (1963),

Etzioni (1961,1964) and Scott (1965). Hall's (1969)

typology of work settings will be treated with circumspection

as the conceptualisation has been seriously questioned. This

will also cast considerable doubt on the work of Foreman (1975) who has used the typology, without questionning its validity, in his study of the American Architectural.

profession. Foreman has also accepted, without question, the structural component of Hall's professionalisation model. This may be insufficient for establishing the status of an occupation without specific reference to an historical perspective. Furthermore, the present section will not use the distinctions made by Etzioni (1964) of the differences between full fledged and semi-professional organisations. This distinction rests primarily on the length of training and guarantee of privileged information. The training issue

would confuse the present discussion since Quantity Surveying

requires a five year training period for qualification and its professional base is open to question. Furthermore, the rhetoric of the professional associations claims that the client-practitioner relationship is subject to confidentiality. The latter issue would also add little to the present discussion.

A general organisational schema

1. Private Practice

Private practice organisations could be classified as service organisations since they are providing a

242

Quantity Surveying service to client organisations (Blau and Scott 1963). As organisational size increases lower participants will become increasingly subject to

utilitarian power although normative means of control will also be in evidence (Etzioni 1961). The major organisational goal will be 'professional' and any administrative framework will be subordinate to the professionals (Etzioni 1964). Higher ranking professionals

will be more susceptible to direct client influence since they are fee earning. The lower rankings are less

amenable to direct client pressure. The organisation

would, however, be expected to apply pressure through

utilitarian means and contractual obligations.

2. Contracting

The contracting organisation can be either a Business

concern if privately owned or a Mutual Benefit Association if the company is subject to public shareholdings (Blau

and Scott 1963). Whichever is the case, the contracting organisation pursues goals directed towards profit maximisation (or optimisation) and not professional objectives (Etzioni 1964). The location of quantity surveyors within the organisational framework is difficult, much will depend on organisational size. However, in the main they

will be found in specialist departments, attached to

other functional departments or, depending on promotion, within the ranks of the managing directors and directors.

Quantity surveyors may also lack a specific surveying title but may operate under the guise of contract management. They will be subject to an administrative framework

whose primary objective will be the profit motive (Etzioni 1964). It can also be assumed that utilitarian means of control will be more dominant even though quantity surveyors may be working within functional departments (Etzioni 1961).

3. Central and Local Government

Organisational objectives will be diffuse. Blau and Scott (1963) would describe these organisations within their Commonweal type. Quantity surveyors may be located

within separate functional departments or as a section within a functional department. In this latter case they may be subject to the control of another profession.

243

Whichever is the case, quantity surveyors will be subject to an administrative framework (Etzioni 1964). This may be qualified, however, if promotion'prospects have allowed a quantity surveyor to proceed to an administrative career within Government. It can be assumed that there

will be a complex interplay between normative, utilitarian and contractual means of control.

Organisational structures and work roles

Hall (1977) has suggested that a false heirarchy may exist

with professional workers. Hunt (1972) has suggested that

the emergence of some form of heirarchy is inevitable in the

organisation of human endeavours. The present study will assume that even within private practice and functional departments in the public and private sectors, some form

of hierarchy will exist amongst quantity surveyors. The

present study does not, therefore, accept the myth of peer structuring, without qualification, as exemplified in the

work of Blau and Scott (1963), Etzioni (1964), Godde (1957), Greenwood (1957), Hall (1969), Scott (1966).

1. General Considerations

A number of specific points require emphasis concerning the work settings of quantity surveyors. First, although they may not have the status of true professionals they have acquired, through prolonged training, internalised

skills and are able to perform them with a minimum of supervision. Therefore, quantity surveyors would expect decentralisation on task related matters biit would probably accept centralised decision making on personnel and strategic organisational issues. This would depend heavily on sector of employment and organisational size since the relationship described above would have greater relevance in Government and contracting and perhaps the larger private practices. Furthermore, in private practice the relationship would depend on heirarchical position with those in the-top tier of practices more involved in strategic and personnel matters ('Robbins 1983).

Hilliers' (1979) study of Architectural practice would suggest that those in private practice may experience

244

more fluid structural relationships than those in the public sector. At the present time information on contracting is conjectural.

At the level of the work role it can be expected that there

will be considerable structural differences according to

organisational unit and hierarchical position (Hall 1977). The largest impact will come from sector of employment where, as Hillier noted, role rigidity is considerably more prevalent in the public sector. Furthermore, using-' the work of Hall (1968), Hillier (1979) and the Practice Survey (RIOS 1974) it can be expected that,

i) In the Public Sector

- Senior quantity surveyors will move away from direct

and full responsibility for projects and their

managerial function will increase.

- Responsibility for projects will be displaced down the hierarchy.

- Professional accountability will be removed to the administrative framework.

- The organisational structure will be viewed as obstructive and allow individuals less autonomy.

- Status differences between quantity surveyors and other professions will have a significant effect on individual motivation and attitudes.

ii) In Private Practice

- Senior quantity surveyors will have closer contact with individual projects and maintain more direct

and full responsibility.

- Senior surveyors will have closer contact with clients and undertake a greater proportion of tasks attributable to the 'technologist'.

- Middle and lower level surveyors will perform a mixture of technologist and technician functions. However, the latter group of surveyors will be

predominantly performing technical tasks.

- Organisational size will have a confounding effect on the above.

245

iii) Contracting

- Senior quantity surveyors will be heavily in-

volved in management functions and strategic organisational decisions.

- Middle and lower level surveyors will be involved in a mixture of managerial, technologist and technician functions with the latter group of surveyors involved in more technical tasks.

- Organisational size will have a confounding effect.

2. Specific Considerations

Turner (1979) has indicated that Quantity Surveying practice may be structured along a number of different lines.

No specific structuring relationships can be predicted

at the present time since the choice of parallel, production or complex group arrangements is a question

of specific organisational preferences. However, Turner

has noted that parallel and production group arrangements have consequences for job satisfaction. This will be further elaborated in the section dealing with organisational commitment.

The Contingency Factors

1. The Effects of the Authority Structure

The type of power used within an organisation will depend

on the organisation itself, the people and vary according to hierarchical rank (Etzioni 1964). It can also be

expected to vary according to sector of employment and

organisational size. Quantity surveyors, as mentioned previously, have internalised task norms inculcated during training. Supervision would, therefore, be expected to be minimal. However, as cited earlier, the

author does not agree that professionals are regulated by

peer surveillance whilst bureaucrats are subject'toihe managerial line hierarchy. The structuring of human

activities will always occur and some form of hierarchy

will evolve even among professionals. The present study, therefore, expects that quantity surveyors in the lower

organisational ranks will experience some form of direct

supervision. The issue remains one of degree. The

246

bureaucrat may well experience high positional supervision, the professional will experience it to a lesser extent. Therefore, it can be expected that, - i) Those in the senior ranks of private practice will

experience more normative controls and approximate the peer control situation. Those in the lower

ranks of private practice will experience greater'

utilitarian control and-move further away from the

peer surveillance model. This relationship will be

dependant on organisational size.

ii) In the public sector it`will be expected that quantity

surveyors will be found, in the main, among the middle and

lower ranks of tie organisation. There will be a

corresponding use of utilitarian controls, although as Hall (1969) noted, where professionals are located

in a department the environment may be very similar to private practice. In the public sector, therefore,

the power structure is likely to be complex.

iii) In contracting, those in senior positions will be

subject to utilitarian controls to a greaten extent than normative controls due to the more competitive

environments within which contracting organisations

operate. The lower ranking quantity surveyors will be subject, in the main, to utilitarian control

mechanisms. However, again the presence of functional

departments may well mediate the relationship and a

complex power structure is to be expected.

2. The Effects of the Environment

The construction industry faces a hostile and dynamic

environment (Mintzberg . 1979). As'hiera"rchical

position increases, the contact with and influence of the

external environment becomes more pronounced. However,

sector of employment will mediate the relationship. Those

working in contracting, in general, will experience a more hoattle and dynamic environment than those working in either private practice or Government. Furthermore, those in more senior positions in contracting will

experience the environment to a greater extent than those

247

located near'the operating core (Mintzberg 1979). There-

fore, the effect of the environment on individual role,

position will be complex and depends on hierarchical

position and sector of employment.

3. Technology

The present study, whilst noting the importance of tech-

nology and its influence at the organisational level,

has adopted the premise that its major effect will be felt

at the level of the individual task (Gerwin 1979, Robbins

1983). Tasks performed by quantity surveyors will vary

according to heirarchical position, sector of employment

and organisational size. The last point is especially important for the smaller organisation where it can be

expected that an individual will perform a wider range

of activities than would be the case in the larger or-

ganisation. This has been confirmed by the Practice Study (RICS 1974) which found that specialisation increased

with organisational size and was especially premlent in

the Public sector.

k. Organisational Size

The effects of organisational size, apart from those al-

ready highlighted, will be diffuse. As a variable it

operates at the macro-organisational level with more

certainty than at the role position. However, cognisance

must be taken of this important variable and any possible

effects on role structuring. Hillier (1979) has noted that the effects of size may be subtle. His findings

would suggest that senior quantity surveyors in larger

organisations would be more involved with the strategic ie. client end of the project, regardless of a public/ private split. This would also be expected to hold for

contracting organisatidns. The Practice Study (RIOS 1974)

supports this view for Quantity Surveyors.

248

Organisational Commitment

The literature on organisational commitment poses a number of problems for the present study; there is a noteable lack

of consistency in the findings. This in turn is related to

results produced from studies that artificially dichotomise

the cosmopolitan-local construct and the professional/ bureaucratic orientation whilst using diverse sampling groups. The following discussion will highlight the problem. A

professional orientation (or cosmopolitan orientation) was found to be negatively related to organisational commitment in the following studies - Blau and Scott (1963), Greene (1978), Sorensen and Thomas (1974). Each-study used a sample

of social workers, engineers and certified public accountants,

respectively. Bartol (1979) and Aranya and Ferris (1983)

found a positive relationship between professional orientation

and organisational commitment. These studies used samples

of computer specialists and certified public accountants,

respectively. Two studies found that professional orientation

and organisational commitment were compatible under certain

conditions. Glaser (1963) concluded that a cosmo-local

orientation was a dual orientation of highly motivated in-

dividuals. The distinction between orientations would only

occur if the organisational structure stressed goals that

were incompatible with individual goals. Thornton (1970)

found a similar relationship. He suggested that a professional

orientation and organisational commitment were compatible in a situation where the organisation stressed or reinforced the principles of professionalism. Again, both studies used different samples, Glaser (1963) a sample of scientists and Thornton (1970) a sample of college teachers.

A number of qualifying statements are required on the above. First, Blau and Scott (1963) only produced significant results on the importance of organisational structures as a source of frustration for professionals when they re-classified their data into multiple categories. Second, Sorensen and Thomas (1974) found that professional and bureaucratic orientations were affected by hierarchical position and organisational

socialisation. Third, Bartol (1979) found that collegial

maintenance of standards, one dimension of professionalism,

249

was negatively related to organisational commitment. Fourth, Goldberg (1976) highlighted the importance of contextual factors in the cosmo-local orientation. Furthermore, cosmos were oriented to the professional whilst locals were oriented towar. ds the client. Goldberg used a sample of engineers. Fifth, Gouldner's (1957-58) study highlighted a number of different types of cosmo and local, each having different

consequences for the organisation and each recruited from

different factions and age groups. This fact is seldom dis-

cussed in other work on reference group behaviour.

Therefore, in summarising a body of ambiguous literature the

following points emerge. First, organisational structure and

goals are important in determining reference group behaviour.

It is only when they are compatible with the value system

of the individual will professional and organisational com-

mitment coincide. Second, this compatibility may only occur

with highly motivated individuals at certain points in their

-working life provided the working environment is correct

and they are performing suitable organisational tasks. Third, other types of orientation will be in evidence in an organisation. In the main these will reflect an optimisation between organisation and profession.

Interpreting the foregoing within the framework of Quantity

Surveying, it can be expected that different professional

orientations will have emerged from those working within

private practice, Government and contracting. However, this

will depend on factors such as tenure, organisational task, the nature of the organisational structure, motivation profiles for individuals, the working environment and hierarchical

position.

The final point to be discussed concerning organisational commitment is the presence of parallel, production or complex group arrangements for the structuring of the organisational task. Turner (1979) has already been quoted on the implications for job satisfaction. However, the production line arrangement creates an atmosphere of functional dependence. Morris and Steers (1980) have commented that under these conditions an individual's awareness of his/her contribution totbe organisation is increased. It could be suggested contrary to Turner (1979)

250

that this type of structuring arrangement will increase

organisational commitment. However, the suggestion is only tentative for a specialised group since the work of Morris

and Steers (1980) utilised manual, clerical and administrative functions. Furthermore, within this context organisational commitment may also be enhanced under conditions exhibiting a moderate degree of bureaucracy since it will provide an organisational Gestalt for the practitioner (Engel 1969, Organ and Greene 1981).

Organisational Conflict

Literature surrounding the emergence of professional/ organisational conflict is confusing. This is due partly to diverse sampling frames from different occupational groups, organisational settings and degrees of professionalisation-

specialisation (Kerr, von Glinow and Screisheim 1977).. The

emergence of professional. organisational conflict is not always inevitable (Aranya and Ferris 1983). It may be restricted to those individuals in contact with the remainder of the organisation (Hall 1967). Furthermore, if it does

emerge it will do so in a manner which may be described more in terms of political manouevring for autonomy and intra-

professional resources (Green 1978). However, this latter

point requires that the profession is located within an administrative framework over which it has some degree of influence. The degree of influence is directly proportional to the status of the occupation and its centrality to organisational'functioning (Green 1978, Scott 1966).

The following points emerge when quantity surveying is placed within this context. First, the assumption of the inevitability

of conflict is not made. Second, it is more likely to emerge in the Public sector where the quantity surveyor lacks the status and probably the organisatianal clout to exert any significant degree of control over the organisational setting (RIOS 1974). Third, if conflict does emerge it will be restricted to those in senior Quantity Surveying positions within the organisation since they are likely to have greater contact with the remainder of the organisation.. Conflict will, therefore, be role specific. There may be spill over effects

251

into the working environment that may not be perceived by lower ranks as conflict per se but as an unease with the organisation. Fourth, conflict may be experienced in contracting since the quantity surveyor is subordinate to an organisational framework dedicated to non-professional goals. However, its inevitability is questionned. It is suggested as a possibility

rather than a probability. Fifth, conflict is more likely

to emerge where the organisational goals do not directly

coincide with those of the individual. It is less likely,

therefore, to occur in a private practice setting. However,

the foregoing must be qualified by the statement that some degree of inter-personal conflict will emerge in any organisation. The type of conflict under discussion relates

specifically to that caused by an incompatibility between

organisational functioning as a whole and a group or in-

dividual, not individual/individual conflict.

Organisational Climate

The theoretical discussion highlighted the importance of organisational climate and its impact on the individual. The present study focusses specifically on achievement

oriented climate at the level of-the individual's job. Itý is conceptualised as an organisational attribute perceived at the hierarchical position within the confines of an individual's organisational role. Achievement job climate mediates the relationship between the organisation and individual role behaviour. The literature review highlighted the following important relationships, i) Hierarchical position has been found to be a consistent

source of variance in climate-studies. ii) Organisational size has been found to have a significant

effect on perceptual measures of climate. The present study uses a perceptual measure of climate.

Section Summary

The variablEs of organisational goals, organisational structure, achievement oriented climate, hierarchical position, tenure, functional dependance and sector of employment have been highlighted as important sources of variance in the role behaviour of quantity surveyors. The contextual variables

252

of the authority structure, the environment, organisational

size and the nature of the task are expected to have a set

of complex relationships with the foregoing.

THE OCCUPATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

. The evolution of Quantity Surveying is a blend of en-

vironmental stimulii and inter-occupational rivalry for

status. It owes its existence to architects divesting

themselves of the measuring function and, as such, oc-

cupational development was in the past, independant of the

Surveying professions. Furthermore, consolidation of the

Surveying profession has been far from smooth and has been a

blend of circumstance and political manouevring. To fully

understand the different processes at work each of the models

discussed in Chapter 2 will be applied to Quantity Surveying

in order to reach conclusions at the occupational level.

Application of models

1. The taxonomic perspective and Millerson's (1964) guiding

principles.

Fig 13 has distilled a number of dimensions that can be

applied to Quantity Surveying (see page]37). These des-

cribe Quantity Surveying as a complex occupation, especially in its relationship with others. It is organised and

requires a prolonged period of training -a minimum of

five years - to reach corporate membership of the main

professional institution. Competence is assessed through

multi-staged examinations and it is expected that members of the RIOS (and prior to amalgamation, the IQS)

adhere to a code of professional conduct. Altruistic

service is stressed although this can be interpreted

as rhetoric produced by the professional associations. However, Quantity Surveying is not an application of skills based on a body of. theory. Therefore, from a taxonomic viewpoint, Quantity Surveying possesses six

out of seven characteristics attributed to professions.

Millerson's guiding prindples indicate that Quantity

Surveying is a higher grade, non-manual occupation. However, Millerson noted that organisation and the

253

presence of a code of conduct are not sufficient to

establish professional status. He stressed the importance

of theoretical training for the performance of an intellectual

or practical technique. The professional associations have

taken subjective steps to acquire professional status

although the public at large and school leavers in particular,

are known to be unsure of i-cs function. Clients can be

assumed to have . some understanding of, its function,

although this may depend on the level of client sophistication.

2. Hall's (1969) dual, component model

Using the structural component of Hall's model, i) The creation of a full time occupation is conjectural.

Various sources have suggested it could have oc-

curred as early as the 1750s whereas others have in-

dicated the term quantity surveyor was in common use

as late as the early 1900s. The evidence would sug-

gest the conclusion that between 1800 and 1850 was the most likely period for the emergence of he

Quantity Surveying function. During that period ar-

chitects and architect-surveyors were locked in

their struggle over status and the first public

recognition of Quantity Surveying occurred.

ii) A training school for the Surveying profession was established in 1918 under the auspices of the College

of Estate Management. Affiliation with a university occurred in 1919 with the establishment of a degree in Estate Management at the University of Cambridge

and in the 1970s with the CEMts move the Reading University. However, the establishment of the

college does not relate specifically to Quantity Surveying. In Scotland non-agricultural surveying courses were established in Colleges in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

iii)In England, the formation of the main Surveying institution occurred in 1868. The establishment of principal Quantity Surveying institutes occurred, in England, in 1903 and 1939 and in Scotland in 1881

and 1899.

254

iv) The code of ethics for the Surveying profession was established in the Early 1930s.

On Hall's structural component Quantity Surveying is fully

professionalised. However, a number of points must be

made. The structural component represents Wilensky's (1964)

conceptualisation of professionalisatio. n. He has indicated

it is a sequential process. The above analysis reveals this is far from the case. First, the major events are

not chronological. Second, the analysis has revealed the

diversity of the formative process when taking into account

specialisms within an occupation and any geographical dim-

ension. The present analysis has suggested it is a major

error to consider professionalisation as a chronologically

sequential progression. It has highlighted a significant

weakness in Wilensky's conceptualisation and Hall's (1969)

model. Furthermore, it suggests a strong cultural bias.

The attitudinal component operates at the level of the indiv-

idual. Each of the five attitudinal components has been

referred to at various stages, within the context of Quantity Surveying, namely, the use of the professional

organisation as a major reference (this can be implied from

the existence of the RIOS and IQS), a belief in service to the public (the rhetoric of -altruistic service has already been suggested), a belief in self regulation (this stems from the existence of the RICS and IQS), a sense of calling

" to the field (Taylor 1980 and Coates 1977 have explored the issues of vocation) and finally, autonomy (stemming

from the manouevrings of the professional institutes on a structural level and individual desires at the work level).

3. The political dimension - The proceEs model of Bucher and Strauss (1961) highlights the importance of the political dimension in occupational striving. The model is particularly relevant for Quantity Surveying since it forms a major segment as a Surveying specialism. Furthermore, within Quantity Surveying there is evidence to support the existence of other segments, - namely, from the diversity of practice between those working in the major areas of contracting,

255

private practice, local and Central Government. For Quantity Surveying the sense of mission evolved from the conflict surrounding the emergence of an occupational status hierarchy in the construction industry of the 19th Century. It was not until the resolutions of issues in-

volved in the blurring of roles between architects, quantity surveyors and builders could the quantity surveyor lay claim to a unique mission. This involved

continuous, tactical manouevring by. collectivities. However, the emergence of a Surveying 'profession', under the guise of the RIOS, meant that the number of specialism within an institutional framework had created a diversity

of occupational tasks. Task diversity is also evident within Quantity Surveying. Bennett (1977) and the Mason Report (1982) do not agree on the core constituents of Quantity Surveying. The RIOS and IQS suggest that professional tasks differ for the quantity surveyor working in private practice and contracting (IQS 1980, RIOS 1978). However, there is agreement that the measuring function

underpins the work of the quantity surveyor although the IQS believe the tasks of cost planning, cost control and the preparation of tender documents should fall within the

gambit of the Architectural profession. The RICS, on the other hand, have suggested that riot only do these tasks form an integral part of the Quantity Surveying function but they should also be used to expand the role into other domains..

The importance of the occupational task is related to the

methodology and techniques of an occupation. The measurement function and preparation of tender documentation are not unique to Quantity Surveying. The Monopolies and Mergers Commission (HMSO 1977) have noted that civil, mechanical and electrical engineers also offer these services. Furthermore, the contractual element, within the tendering process, brings the quantity surveyor into

a close proximity with the legal profession. It can be

concluded, therefore, that many of the techniques used by quantity surveyors are not unique to the occupation. The existence of task diversity also has implications for the relationship with clients. The relationship between

256

clients and private practice, government and contractors quantity surveyors is fundamentally different. The private practice and government quantity surveyor act in an ad-

visory capacity on behalf of the client. The contractors

quantity surveyor is separated by a gulf caused by the

tendering procedure itself. It is only with the emergence

of alternative tendering arrangements, such as management

contracting and design and build, has the contractor had

theopportunity to become a member of the client's design

team. As a consequence, it can be assumed that those

working in contracting will have a fundamentally different

view of clients than quantity surveyors working in other

organisational settings.

The remaining three components of Bucher and Strauss's

model, colleagueship, unity of interest and public

relations will be dealt with together. The case has been

argued that segments exist not only within the Surveying

profession but also within Quantity Surveying. The myth of colleagueship and mutual interests is evident in the Surveying profession. First, dissention within the RICS has broken out on several occasions. It has directly

resulted in the formation of the QSA and IQS. The existence

of other professional institutes to zepresent the interests

of quantity surveyors is also a witness to this. Second,

the IQS and RICS have admitted they have had differing

objectives. The former to foster the development of Quantity Surveying and the latter tö unify the Surveying

profession. Third, on several occasions the RIOS has

attempted to establish a two tier profession and graduate entry. This has been resisted by the membership. Fourth, the IQS were blocked from amalgamation in 1976 by the

emergence of pressure groups to oppose the move. Fifth, the RIOS is the dominant professional institute and as such it claims to speak with a unified " voice forthe Surveying profession and Quantity Surveying in particular. However, non-corporate members are not barred from practice. This dilemma is evident with graduates who may be able but unwilling to join because they feel the institution does not represent their views and aspirations. Lastly,

257

two main power groups have emerged within the RICS

after the amalgamation with the IQS. These are the quantity surveyors and the general practice surveyors. As such it

can be expected that power struggles behind the unified front will be more probable in the future.

To summarise, the process model of Bucher and Strauss

(1961) proposed that the occupation of Quantity Surveying

has a diversity of interests, tasks and techniques. It

offers services which are not unique to themselves al-, though officials in the IQS and RICS agree that the meas-

uring function underpins-the work of the quantity surveyor.

k. Models of occupatiöna l-authority, power and control.

Haga's (1975) cruciality mystique model when applied to

Quantity Surveying has as its starting point the fact

that significant others for the occupation are, in the

main, complex organisational systems. The le`zl of

sophistication will play an important part in the extent to which the client organisation will (i) be advised by

in-house professionals(ii) be advised by an externally

appointed architect and (iii) approach and appoint an

external quantity surveyor. In cases (i) and (ii) the

quantity surveyor is in a position of low cruciality and

mystique whereas in case (iii) he is in a position of high cruciality and low mystique since invariably the

client organisation will be advised by an architect who knows of the duties performed by the quantity surveyor. The model does not apply to those quantity surveyors

working in contracting: For them, it is the organisational framework which provided the service to the client not the

occupational function per se. The main criticism that'can be levelled at Haga's (1975) model, and this has become in its application to the specific, is that it only relates to private practice and is unable to encompass functional variations in other types of organisational setting. On balance, therefore, Quantity Surveying can be located in, at best, the high cruciality/low mystique

or, at worst, the low cruciality/larmystique sectors of the matrix (p. 128). As a consequence, depending on, the

258

organisational framework prevailing, Quantity Surveying

does not have complete occupational authority and sub-

sequent power over the client.

This fact is also supported by Gordon and Ross's (1962)

model which can operate at the occupational and the in-

dividual levels. Using the arguments mentioned above

the model suggests that, in many instances,. the client

may be in a position to supply and perform a service

superior to that of the practitioner in private practice

if he so chooses and in-house staff are available. NEDO

(1983) has indicated that in successfully run projects

the client organisation has been prepared to input mana-

gerial expertise. Furthermore, full authority and res-

ponsibility for performing the service may not pass to

the private practice surveyor since the client may be

in a position to have equal if not superior knowledge

(The pre-requisites for professional status).

It can be argued than in-house advisors may well determine,

in part, the manner in which client needs will be catered for. Gordon and Ross also indicate that the professional is duty bound to continue acquiring knowledge in order

that the client can have all possible alternatives pre-

sented. Documentary evidence, cited previously, noted that the Quantity-Surveying specialism is not committed to research or teaching and, although supporting CPD

in principle, the membership have considered any aspect

of compulsory learning as a poor reflection on their

integrity. On balance, therefore, the members of the occupation may be willing to conduct self-learning,

within the bounds of organisational practices, but they

are not concerned jth the generation and teaching of knowledge. Further alternatives may well remain un- discovered (the continuing characteristics of professional

status).

Finally, Gordon and Ross discuss the implications of

performance evaluation. From a client perspective, the evaluation of performance will depend again on the

level of sophistication. Evaluation strategies may,

259

therefore, vary for the naive and sophisticated client. Furthermore, clients may only approach the construction industry once or even on an intermittent basis. The

sophisticated client is likely to have a programme of construction, reconstruction or maintenance and will be in a position uo critically appraise the performance of professionals. The naive client is likely to be a one-off

or intermittent client and will be in a weaker position to assess performance over time. Therefore, the latter is likely to approach other client bodies with more experience to gain an impression of the performance of professionals. Whichever the approach adopted, the client is in a position to have some degree of choice over the type of Quantity Surveying organisation that will be

approached (the evaluative characterist, ics of professional status). "

At the individual level Gordon and Ross, in their more elaborate model, provide a framework for viewing the different power positions within the organisatm©nal role structure. They isolate three roles within which the

professional can be found, namely, the artisan-master, protege-patron and professional roles. Each has different implications for the individual.

The neo-Weberlan perspective indicates Quantity Surveying is attempting to use the closure principle to control market forces. However, a number of points must be stressed in order to place this in the correct context. First, Quantity Surveying is unable to operate a complete closure principle because graduates, technicians and the unqualified are able to practice and'are hired by organisations to perform normal Quantity= Surveying functions without being a member of the professional associations. Second, subject to the foregoing statement, the professional associations have used the structural components of professionalisation to differentiate the qualified from the unqualified. The attitudinal component of professionalism has been used with considerable frequency in the rhetoric of the professional associations. Furthermore, in an empirical investi-

gation of quantity surveyors attitudes, Coates (1977)

260

found that members joined a professional association to

gain client confidence.

The Marxist model Lakes as its starting point the fact the Quantity Surveying is a profession. This is, at the present time, conjectural. However, when placed

within a broader social framework Quantity Surveying is

an occupation which provides a service to organisations that are producing, hoarding and directing the flow of

capital. Furthermore, in terms of the social structure,

qualified quantity surveyors are classified as Social

Class 2 within the over-all social hierarchy and are, there-

fore, within the middle class wage earners of society. However, documentary evidence, presented earlier, in-

dicates that in terms of recruitment the occupation is

not attracting the more academically qualified individuals.

This would suggest a number of possible alternatives in

terms of the social distribution of recruits. First,

recruits of a poorer academic standard were unabletn

obtain sufficient academic qualifications at school be-

cause of either lack of ability or. lack of. opportunity. Second, they choose to leave school early to become wage

earners. Third, they were individuals who had chosen Quantity Surveying as a second or lower option occupation due to an inability to meet the standards required of the

more prestigeous. occupations. Fourth, these individuals

are late developers and their academic ability has sur- faced once they are within the occupational framework of

society. This position has received some support from

data collected by Coates (1977). Points 1 and 2 could

suggest that, in broad classificatory terms, recruits

may be from the lower social structure of society. Coates (1977) in his data classified recruits into those from

manual, intellectual and medial backgrounds and found this had an association with time taken to qualify. Point 3

could suggest that individuals may be from the higher

social strata but have failed to enter the more socially

prestigeous occupations and have opted for 'second best'.

The fourth point may be difficult to justify on social

grounds and is explainable more in terms of, perhaps,

261

personality. However, within a Marxist perspective, this

would suggest t, hat Quantity Surveying, although on the

surface supportive of the capitalist class structure, has the possibility, within its social compositioß of

offering opportunities for a degree of social mobility that may otherwise be denied those from the lower strata

of society.

In summary, the models of occupational authority, power

and control indicate that the level of client sophistication

and the presence of an architect to advise the more

naive clients has important implications for the structuring

of the authority relationship between the client and the

Quantity Surveying practitioner. This will have a

subsequent effect on the degree of power that can be

exercised in either direction.

5. Johnson's (1972) model of occupational control.

This model, unlike that of Haga (1975), ' acknowledges

that professionalism is only one form of occupational control. However, its one major weakness is its highly theoretical conceptualisation. Its usefulness lies in its abilityio provide a broad framework within which to

analyse the alternative forms of occupational control in

Quantity Surveying. Table 21 sets out findings from literary evidence on characteristics possessed by Quantity Surveying. Documentary evidence on Quantity Surveying '

has been supplemented by evidence from the Architectural

professional which operates witl a very similar organisational framework.

The information presented in the Table, when compared

with descriptions of each of the three forms of occupational control, strongly supports the conclusion that Quantity Surveying operates under a system of patronage, rather than under a system of professionalism. However, a number of issues still remain to be resolved. First, in the smaller practices, especially the one-man or two-

man firms, it is-highly likely that individual customers will be encountered. Second, there is a continuum and diversity of client. sizes and types. It is highly likely,

262

TABLE 2L The Essential Characteristics of Quantity Surveying in Private Practice

CLIENTS Clients are organisational complexes and not individuals. They are diverse, vary in size from small family businesses to large corporate bodies, both in the public and private sectors. They become economically more powerful than surveying practices as client size increases.

They will be advised by architects . in. the majority of eases. The larger corporate bodies will usually have their own in-house staff of Quantity Surveying and Architectural staff. THEREFORE client bodies will be in a"position to

define their own needs before meeting private practice quantity surveyors.

PRACTICE Larger practices are usually appointed direct by corporate bodies. They also tend to receive the highest proportion of large contracts. The smaller practices tend to be involved in non- mainstream Quantity Surveying activities and have workload problems. Workloads will probably come either from repeat commissions or by referral. Senior quantity surveyors are more involved with clients than junior surveyors. Practice is practical and based on experience with little theoretical foundation. Occupational structuring has moved towards distinctions between professionals and technicians. THEREFORE client bodies are in a relative position

of power in comparison to those in occupational practice.

EDUCATION, There is a preference, in the occupation, for part- TRAINING & time routes to qualification and for those with RESEARCH technical qualifications or who have passed through

the full gambit of institutional examinations. Employers are, however, reluctant to grant day release facilities. Articled pupilage has been favoured in the past but this has declined in popularity. The emphasis for training is heavily biased towards 'on the job' training with supplementary education by correspondence course. The development of full time education and research has been slow. The occupation has been criticised for not being education conscious, lacking a commitment to research and teaching.

Empirical evidence (Coates 1977) indicates involvement in local branch activities of the RICS is low.

THEREFORE the occupation is strongly founded in practice and experience. Organisational demands from the practice setting restrict the educational level of the occupation, with an emphasis on practical techniques rather than the generation of knowledge. Furthermore, involvement in occupation wide activities tends to be minimal.

263

as with the Architectural profession, that practices will specialise in building types, albeit involuntarily.

Third, there is again classification problems with those

quantity surveyors working within contracting organisations. Fourth, those quantity surveyors working within Government

and private sector client organisations represent the

'house-men' referred to by Johnson. Fifth, Johnson notes that the occupational elites are from similar social

groupings as -those working within the elite of the

corporate patron. At the present time this cannot be

verified. Sixth, the extent to which the partners of the larger practices are managing partners with an allegiance to the organisation rather than the profession cannot be verified at present. Seventh, with reference to the

issue of the professional status of Quantity Surveying,

Johnson refers to a profession as a form of occupational

control. It can be concluded that Quantity Surveying is using those characteristics associated with 'professions' to control the collectivity. The resolution of structural uncertainty and the power distribution favours a client controlled occupation and an ideology more suitable to

corporate patronage.

In summary, Quantity Surveying appears to fall closer to Johnson's typology of corporate patronage rather than

cQlleagueship.

Other Perspectives

1. The Professional Role

The measurement function has been seen to underpin the Quantity Surveying function, (see page 76). Measurement

is prescribed by the Standard Methods of Measurement

and the degree of discretion available to the quantity surveyor is low (Higgins and Jessop 1965). Furthermore,

standardised procedures for measurement have made this

particular aspect of the occupational role ammenable to

computerisation. Measurement has been described as mechanical and routine. Cost planning and cost control have been described as tasks of high discretion and,

264

therefore, suitable for a claim to professional status (Higgins and Jessop 1965). However, these techniques did not evolve until the post-World War 2 era.

Elliot (1972) has provided a model (p. 90 ) for understanding the difference between a professional and non-professional role. When placing the measurement function within this framework the following pidure

emerges,

i) Knowledge is technical. ii) Tasks are routine. iii) Decisions are programmed by Standard Methods of

Measurement.

iv) The ends to meet client needs have been decided,

usually by the architect. v) The occupational group has some, but perhaps, limited

collective identity.

vi) The occupation may be a central life interest but this is open to question.

vii) The occupation has, in previous analyses, been sug-

.- gested to provide' opportunities for class'advancement. viii) Education has been limited, in the past, to pro-

fessional or technical examinations. The early 1960's saw a change to limited full time higher

education. ix) The role tends to be specific and related to the

production of Bills of Quantities.

From this analysis it can be concluded the measurement function is non-professional and could be placed on a par with a technically-based craft skill.

2. Professionalism and Professionalisation

Quantity Surveying has been stated to operate under a system of corporate patronage. Evidence to support this

statement can also be suggested from a number of other writers. Thompson (1968) has assumed that professionalism was the only ideology that the Surveying profession could adopt as it evolved into a more cohesive specialist activity. The following quotation is suggestive of his

stance. However, within it lies the seeds of corporate

patronage, although perhaps not specifically identified

265

by him,

.... Professionalism was in the air in the late eighteenth century. ... The growth in the volume and regularity of the demand for services, which encouraged and necessitated specialisation. The gradual change in the character of the demand, which made the customers for the services more anonymous - either public companies and corporations or the somewhat faceless but affluent trading middle classes - thus beginning to sap the dominance of aristocratic patronage, and impelling the professional men towards independence" (p. 64).

Furthermore, historically the Quantity Surveying specialism

evolved from within the confines of the Architectural

profession. Hillier (1979), in his extensive investigation

of the current situation facing the Architectural profession, specifically uses the term 'patronage' to refer to clients to the profession. Architecture also has

appeared to have evolved from aristocratic patronage into corporate patronage. The close ties between-the

two occupations would support a conclusion of similar

client relationships.

Quantity Surveying provides a service to the corporate business world. Like Architecture, it. has become a client

controlled occupation. Furthermore, the author contends that this service is essentially one aimed at improving

the economic performance and fortunes of the client

organisation. Quantity Surveying, therefore, is in-

extricably linked with the fortunes of the-market place

and as such provides a business function to a corporate

society. It provides a service very similar to that of the accountant. The link with and to the fortunes of

corporate organisations must have a considerable in-

fluence on the structure of the occupation.

Using Halls (1969) structural component, Quantity Surveying appears to be fully profe'ssionalised. However,

with reference documentary evidence, cited earlier, this statement needs qualification. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (1933) have concluded that where a technique

becomes specialised the rise of a profession is inevitable.

Harries-Jenkins (1970), on-the other hand, has suggested that specialisation often becomes equated with profession-

alisation. This implies that although perhaps connected

266

they may be essentially different aspects of the division

of labour. Long periods of training may be required for

competence in the skilful practice of a technique.

Furthermore, competence may well be tested in the applic-

ation of the technique. However, if Harries-Jenkins

is correct then similar characteristics may be-found

when comparing those occupations that are professionalised

and those that are specialised.

Harries-Jenkins (1970) concluded the educational processes

among occupations are so complex as to make any statements about the extent of professionalisation extremely difficult. He has suggested that at the extremities a-. '

high level of professionalisatiön is associated with those occupations having exclusive graduate entry. - Quantity Surveying falls closer to Harries-Jenkins second proposition that a low level of professionalisation is

associated with occupations having non-graduate entry (or a multi-portal system of entry in the terminology

of Carr-Saunders and Wi. lson" 1933 ).

The issues of recruitment and status are closely allied- to the educational processes within professionalisation (Carr-Saunders and Wilson 1933). Documentary and empirical evidence has already suggested that Quantity Surveying lacks the esteem of other professions and has recruited individuals of a lower academic standard than was de-

sirable. By implication this would suggest that the

more academically able recruits do not consider it has the prestige of the higher status occupations. It

would be unlikely, using the work of Portwood-and Fielding (1981), to attract the more academically qualified from the middle to upper strata of society and, as a consequence, not have access to elite power groupings within the

social structure.

In summary, further evidence has been offered to support the conclusion that Quantity Surveying is operating under a system of corporate patronage. This has come from the

occupations close ties with the Architectural profession. It has also been suggested that Quantity Surveying provides a business function to corporate organisat ices in a manner very similar to Accountancy.

267

3. The Knowledge and Power Base

The knowledge base of a profession provides it with a

source of power even if it is unstable. The crucial

point is that it rests on expertise in an area of un-

certainty (Blau and Scott 1963, Elliot 1972). It has

been argued that Quantity Surveyors earn their 'bread and butter' from the production of Bills of Quantities and

settlement of Final Accounts. * These rest on routinised

, 'Standard Methods of Measurement'. Documentary evidence has been reported, from RICS and IQS sources, that indicates

the Quantity Surveying role may be expanding into other

areas.

It would appear that quantity surveyors are following

a very similar path to Montagna's (1968) CPA's who

expanded into new areas of uncertainty by undertaking financial management and project control. The Quantity

surveyors working in contracting are already heavily involved in the area of management. However, unlike the CPA! s some of the aforementioned areas are practitioner led whilst others are institutionally led. Practitioners,

within Quantity Surveying, are expanding into areas of

project management and the economic management of

projects. Institutionally led expansion covers areas nor-

mally associated with the work of other professions such

as the Mechanical, Electrical and Civil Engineers,

Archicture and to a limited extent Town Planners.

The RIOS and IQS have admitted there is an inadequately

defined academic and scientific base for the Quantity

Surveying discipline. The function of measurement rests

predominantly on a knowledge of Building Technology and the ability to transfer information from a two dimensional drawing into a document which can be priced. To the RICS this would form the major part of the technician function. The technologist (or professional), would practice in

cost planning, cost control and in the interpretation of the law of contract as applied to the construction industry (although this rests on the knowledge base of tie legal profession). Corporate membership of the

268

professional associations is not a pre-requisite for application of these techniques in the practice setting. Furthermore, unlike Higgins and Jessop (1965) the author questions whether cost planning and cost control rest on a body of theory. These techniques require a data bank

of pricing information that is a blend of occupation wide and organisation specific information. The quantity surveyor, as Higgins and Jessop correctly concluded, does-. have to exercise discretion when advising client and architect alike when using these techniques. However,

manipulation of pricing data in order to use a technique does not constitute a body of abstract principles.

The author would contend that cost planning and cost control are no more than sophisticated extensions of the

measuring function and, like a craft skill, they require the use of discretion in their application. This is in line with the thinking of Harries-Jenkins (1970)

who noted that the practice of a skill can be independant

of a body of theory. In this instance h. e indicated that

practitioners are craftsmen rather than professionals. Harries-Jenkins concluded that the closer the link between theory and skill the greater the prufessionalisation.

In summary, the measurement function has become proceduralised. This started as early as 1775 in Scotland but an agreed Standard Method of Measurement did not fully

occur until 1922 (Thompson 1968). If Montagna (1968)

is correct, then from 1922 onwards the power base of Quantity Surveying was gradually being eroded. It is

quite possible that the occupation was held in high esteem before this date but codification has gradually denigrated the measurement function to technician status at the present time. Montagna has suggested that once codification has occurred a new impetus will be required for professionalisation. This may well explain attempts at role expansion by practitioners and institutions alike.

269

Conclusions on Quantity Surveying at the Occupational Level

Quantity Surveying is a higher grade, non-manual, complex occupation. It is fully professionali'sed on Hall's (1969)

structural component of professionalisation and expresses the attitudinal components of professionalism. However, it operates under a system of corporate patronage that may not be fully developed yet. As an occupation, it lacks

structural power in society and does not have the prestige

and status of other occupations.

Much of the work is proceduralised and capable of being

undertaken by suitably trained technicians. The measurement function is on the level of a craft skill. The 'technologist'

draws on knowledge bases from other occupations and professions. The main techniques used by the technologist,

namely, cost planning and cost control, have no unique theor-

etical underpinning. They can be practiced independent

of any body of theory. It is an occupation which provides an'essentially business service to corporate capitalism and offers considerable opportunity for occupational mobility for those from the lower social strata. The occupation is currently passing through a transitional stage as it attempts to move into new areas of uncertainty and increase its diminishing power base.

270

THE PARADIGM

The exploratory nature of the present study prevents firm- hypotheses from being stated due to high order interactive

effects and a lack of theoretical background in certain areas. The paradigm for the present study will be stated in a series of propositions that will be encompassed

within a diagrammatic representation. (Figure 27 ).

Family influences

For qualified quantity surveyors; Proposition 1 Social class differences exist in the strength

of n-Ach. Proposition 2 Social class differences exisu in the inter-

personal orientation of individuals. Proposition 3 Educational attainment varies according to

social class differences. Proposition 4 The strength of need for achievement varies,

according to birth order. Proposition 5 The interpersonal orientation of individuals

differs according to birth order. Proposition 6 There: is an association between n-Ach and

educational attainment.

Occupational structuring - Membership of RICS versus IQS

For qualified quantity surveyors; Proposition 7 Institutional differences exist in the need

for achievement. Proposition 8 Institutional differences exist in the inter-

personal orientation of individuals.

Proposition 9 Different social classes have been attracted to different institutions.

Proposition 10 Members of each institution exhibit differences in professionalism.

Sector of employment - Private practice, Government and Contracting

For qualified quantity surveyors; Proposition 11 The strength of n-Ach varies according to

sector of employment Proposition 12 The interpersonal orientation of individuals

varies according to sector of employment. Proposition 13 The degree of professionalism varies according

to sector of employment. 271

Proposition 14 The structuring of role positions varies with sector of employment.

Proposition 15 The nature of the task performed by individuals

varies with sector of employment.

Hierarchical position

For qualified quantity surveyors; Proposition 16 The strength of need for achievement varies

according to hierachical position. Proposition 17 The interpersonal orientation of individuals

varies according to hierarchical position. Proposition 18 The degree of professionalism varies according

to organisational rank. Proposition 19 There is an association between the structuring

of role positions and hierarchical rank. Proposition 20 The perceptions of achievement climate varies

according to organisational rank. Proposition 21 The nature of task activity varies with hier-

archical rank. Structural effects

For qualified quantity surveyors; Proposition 22 The degree of professionalism exhibited by

individuals varies according to the structuring of role positions.

Proposition 23 The achievement climate perceived by the individual is affected by the structuring of role positions.

Proposition 24 The strength of need for achievement is affected by the degree of structuring on role positions.

Proposition 25 The interpersonal orientation of individuals is affected by organisational role structuring.

The effect of task

For qualified quantity surveyors; Proposition 26 The nature of the task has an effect on the

degree of professionalism exhibited by the individual.

Proposition 27 Need for achievement is affected by the type

of task undertaken by an individual.

272

Proposition 28 The nature of the task affects the inter-

personal orientation of an individual.

The effects of achievement climate

For qualified quantity surveyors; Proposition 29 The degree of professionalism exhibited by

individuals is affected by the achievement

climate perceived in a role position. Proposition 30 There is an association between strength of

n-Ach and achievement climate perceived in

a role position. Proposition 31 The interpersonal orientation of an individual

is affected by the achievement climate per-

ceived in a role position.

Organisational size

Proposition 32 For qualified quantity surveyors task diversity is affected by. organisational size.

273

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CHAPTER 7

METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

The research design used in the present study was: - i) To survey a random sample of qualified quantity

surveyors from a known population currently prac- tising in the United Kingdom (1981/82).

ii) To use structured and scaled standardised questionnaires to extract information on major variables isolated in the research paradigm (Chapter 6). '

iii) To analyse questionnaire responses and verify or reject the propositions put forward in the research paradigm.

THE SAMPLE

There are approximately 18,000 qualified quantity surveyors registered with the RIOS (and IQS pre 1982). NEDO (1978)

reports approximately 14,000 practicing in the UK. The

sampling frame consisted of a random sample of qualified quantity surveyors employed in the United Kingdom (total N= 1000). A simple 1 in 10 count was made from the 1980-81 yearbook of the RIOS and IQS. Technically, the sampling frame was produced without replacement and as such does not represent a true random sample. Blalock (1979) referred to this type of sampling as 'systematic sampling'. In accordance with his suggestion the first name was selected with reference to a set of random numbers. Modifications were made to the sampling frame where,

i) Members were employed outside the United Kingdom.

ii) Members were not registered as part of the Quantity Surveying division of the RIOS (this problem did not arise with the IQS).

iii) Where joint membership of the IQS and RIOS occurred and names were duplicated.

In each case the name was ignored and the simple count re- established. These procedures may have introduced a small but unimportant bias into the sampling frame.

To allow for an adequate usable sample for statistical analysis (approximately 300), the sampling frame had been inflated by a factor of 3. This was to take account of pilot study evidence suggesting an expected response ratio in the order of 35%.

275

DATA COLLECTION

The choice of approach

A review of the alternative data gathering techniques

available revealed that the questionnaire survey was the

most appropriate method for the following reasons (Smith 1975),

i) Survey methods were likely to be the only method of

retrieving information about the past histories of individuals especially if the data is sensitive or considered private to an individual.

ii) The questionnaire survey is a good technique for the

exploration of attitudes, values, beliefs and motives. Furthermore, generalisability is one of the strongest points of the survey method.

iii)'Data collection by survey is efficient as it can be

structured in order to obtain specific information from

a wide population. iv) The data is standardised in that respondents are as-

sumed to react to the same stimulii. v) As a form of data collection in social research,,. survey

methods are comparitively cheap. They also allow the

respondent to answer questions at his own convenience. vi) Because of its exploratory nature, the present study

required a large sample size to allow the complexities of Quantity Surveying to be explored.

The possibility of supplementary interviews was considered but rejected for the following reasons,

i) Access to the total sample of qualified quantity surveyors was available. The weight of numbers would have excluded the possibility of interview.

ii) The complexity of the profession, in terms of organisational work settings, would have made any generalisable validation, by interview, impossible.

Kerlinger (1973) has heavily criticised survey research as a method of data collection because of poor response rates, the general nature of questions and the inability, on the part of the research, to verify information provided.

276

In order to overcome these deficiencies, the following procedures were adopted (Berdie 1973, Dillman and Frey 1974,

Etzel and Walker 1974, Futrell and Lamb'1981, Kanuk and Berenson 1975, Sinclair 1975).

1. Pilot Surveys

The procedure suggested by Sinclair (1975) was utilised for piloting.

i) Preliminary questionnaires and covering letter were

given to academic colleagues for comment. They

were qualified quantity surveyors who had experience

of the types of organisations under study. ii) The revised questionnaire was distributed to post-

graduate quantity surveyors who were undergoing

mid-career training on a Master course (N = 20).

iii) The final questionnaire was piloted on a small

sample of respondents currently practicing as quantity surveyors (N = 60).

The cycle= for piloting was repeated until ambiguities

were removed from question wording. A reliability and factor analysis of standardised questionnaires was also

undertaken to determine their acceptability.

2. The main survey

The following procedures were used to distribute the final

questionnaire and covering letter to respondents, i) The covering letter was mimeographed on Heriot Watt

University departmental headed note paper and signed by the head of department. A copy of the letter is to be found in Appendix 2.

ii) The questionnaire was enclosed in a coloured, bound

and titled booklet with the university crest and departmental title clearly printed on the front cover. A copy of the document is to be found in Appendix 3

iii) A stamped, addressed envelope was included with the

questionnaire. iv) Two follow up proceudres were used; a postcard re-

minder and a second questionnaire. Research evidence

277

is inconclusive on the exact nature of follow up procedures. Kanuk and Berenson (1975) considered

. the types of follow up proceudres used are a trade

off between cost and increased response rate. Etzel

and Walker (1974) concluded that a follow up letter

without a duplicate questionnaire produced a maxi-

mum response rate. Futrell and Lamb (1981) concluded this was insufficient and indicated that at least

one follow up with questionnaires was required. The present study utilised a postcard reminder fol-

lowed by a second mailing of duplicate questionnaire

and covering letter. Pilot studies had indicated

that with one postcard reminder a response rate of

approximately 35% could be expected. Copies of the

postcard follow up can be found in Appendix 2.

v) In accordance with research evidence, follow up procedures were instigated after a cut off point of 17 days from initial mailing (Williams and Wechsler 1970).

vi) Respondents were promised feedback of results.

Based on research evidence, the following procedures were

not instigated (Kanuk and Berenson 1975),

i) No advanced contact was made. The cost of preliminary contact was offset against extending follow up

procedures. ii) There was no clear cut advantage for using personalised

signatures as opposed to mimeographed copies. iii) There was no clear cut advantage for a guarantee

of anonymity although confidentiality was guaranteed. iv) No deadline date for questionnaire returns was set.

The questionnaire was a lengthy document and respondents were offered the convenience of their own time to complete their answers.

The issue of questionnaire length was of some concern. Research evidence indicated no correlation between questionnaire length and lack of response (Berdie 1973, Kanuk and Berenson

1975). However, respondent fatigue could have proved

278

problematic. The pilot study had indicated respondents often had to search for information and a number had

commented on the length of the document in terms of response time. The covering letter indicated that the

questionnaire had been structured in discreet sections to allow respondents to vary the amount of time spent in

answering the document.

Questionnaire design and structure (see Figure 28)

A number of issues were considered important for question-

naire design.

i) The format of the document and the sensitivity of questions ii) The structuring of questions

iii) The scaling of items used iv) Cross validation of data.

Each of these issues will be discussed in turn.

1. The format of the document and the sensitivity of questions

The document was essentially designed in two parts. The first section dealt with personal history and career development. The second section' contained standardised questionnaires (Aiken and Hage 1967, Fineman 1975 a and b, Hall 1968,1969, Laforge and Suczek 1955, Snizek 1972). The first section was structured with 'tame' questions such as date of birth, sex, nationality and early school career as 'lead-in' questions. The more sensitive issues

such as; father's occupation, marital status and income,

appeared in the middle portion of"the personal history

questionnaire, sandwiched between less contentious questions.

The standardised questionnaires were randomised in their order of appearance to negate researcher bias.

2. The structuring of questions.

Sinclair (1975) concluded that the first decision to be

made in the design of a questionnaire is the issue of open or closed questions. For the present study this

concerned, in the main, the personal and occupational history section. Pilot studies had indicated the problems associated with closed questions because of sample hetero-

geneity. The final document, required the respondent to

279

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280

answer open questions. A coding frame was subsequently

used once the total number of analysable questionnaires had been obtained.

3. The scaling of items

In general the standardised=questions were to be answered

on either a six or seven point scale, Likert type scales

or by placing a simple tick against the item that applied.

However, Finemants (1975a) Work Preference Questionnaire

has a forced choice format. The forced choice format

is designed to control item desirability, response set

and social desirability (Kerlinger 1973, Nunnally 1978).

It makes the assumption that items are equally matched in terms of frequency of response and preference. However,

forced choice items fail to take account of the varying degree of applicability for a respondent. Pilot study

work indicated that respondents objected to the forced

choice format. In order to overcome this problem the

Yes/No choice of the original questionnaire was extended to discriminate across a six point scale. On analysing the data question responses were reclassified into

dichotomies by grouping item responses 1 to 3 as Yes

and 4 to 6 as No. Subsequent analysis of reliabilities,

using both types of response, revealed no contamination

effects (Male 1984, p. 299).

4. Cross validation of data

A number of questions in the document were-included es-

sentially as variations on a theme. In essence they are

redundant but have the advantage of providing a check

on respondents answers. Questions tapping the educational

processes, career progression and questions related to

organisational structuring are examples of the foregoing (Q's 4,6 to 12,21,22,26,29,30).

Choice of standardised questionnaire

Standardised questionnaires were used to measure major variables, in preference to developing measures specifically for the study, primarily because the author lacked the

expertise to undertake such a task.

281

Standardised questionnaires were used to measure,

- centralisation and formalisation of-organisational

structure.

- interpersonal orientation.

- achievement oriented climate.

- need for achievement.

- professionalism. The choice of questionnaire depended on two main criteria.

These were, i)The exploratory nature of the study necessitated using

questionnaires that were short, to the point and easily

adjusted to the dictates of the Quantity Surveying pro-

fession. Qualified quantity surveyors have heavy

workloads and their co-operation was paramount for

the success of the study. Therefore, questions had

to appear relevant to every day practice and require the minimum amount of encroachment on work schedules (Fineman 1975a, b).

ii)Wherever possible questionnaires were selected that

had been used widely in the sociological and managerial literature. This facilitated grounding the present

study in a well-documented theoretical framework.

Each of the questionnaires used in the document will be

discussed below.

1. Centralisation and formalisation (Questionnaire, pps 7 and 8)

These two components of organisational structure were

measured using those instruments developed and used in

research studies by Aiken and Hage (1966), Hage (1965)

and Hage and Aiken (1967). These instruments were, in

turn, adapted from Hall's bureaucratisation scale (Hall

1962-63,1968,1969,1977). As such, the Aiken and Hage

measuring instruments have, in various guises, contributed to a considerable body of research and theory on organis-

ational functioning. The scales used were those presented by Miller (1977). Miller (1977) presented no information

on reliabilities. Dewar et al (1980) undertook reliability

282

analyses of Aiken and Hage's scales at the time the

final document was being constructed. Dewar et al's

results, on reliability, suggested the scales performed

within the limits suggested by Nunnally (1978). How-

ever, they criticised the adequacy of scale conte: nts. The author was unaware, at the time, of any suitable alternatives.

2. Interpersonal orientation.

The Interpersonal Check List (ICL) was developed by Laforge

and Suczek (1955) to measure a number of the variables defined by Leary's (1957) Interpersonal Personality

System. Laforge and Suczek have noted that the ICL can be used as a research tool without specific reference to the underlying theory. The instrument was chosen, therefore, for its development from a body of theory on interpersonal behaviour but at the same time having the

flexibility to be used without the constraints that a

systemmatic theory can impose on measuring instruments.

The ICL also has the advantage of being simple and quick to administer.

The ICL classification system is made up of 16 interpersonal

variables arranged on a circular continuum (see p. Z26).

Those variables adjacent to each other on the perimeter

are positively correlated, and negatively correlated with those on the opposite side. There is an intensity

dimension built into the system with those variables

closer to the circumference of the circle considered

more deviant (Laforge and Suczek 1955, Leary and Coffey

1955). Scores on the traits can be summarised'in terms

of two major dimensions, namely, dominance-submissiveness

on the vertical axis and affiliation-hostility on the

horizontal axis (Laforge and Suczek 1955). The ICL can be more fully analysed with the inclusion of two other dimensions, competitiveness and responsibility (Leary

reported in Gynther et al 1962). The present study utilises the four dimensions in the analysis of results since the the literature survey indicates interpersonal competitiveness and responsibility have important implications for

283

the-varying organisational settings within which quantity surveyors work. Furthermore, the dimensionsof dominance

and affiliation specifically encompass important dim-

ensions highlighted within the theoretical framework

provided by Boyatzis (1973), Mehrabian and Russell (1974),

McClelland (1967,1970) for the analysis of interpersonal behaviour and n-Ach.

The ICL has received considerable investigation concerning its factor structure. Table52 in Appendixl sets out the

results on the number of factors extracted in various studies. They represent studies using the ICL to tap

interpersonal behaviour at Level 2 in the theoretical

schema ie. The Conscious level or the individual's awareness of his/her own interpersonal world. The present

study also taps interpersonal behaviour at Level 2.

Further support for the usefulness of the ICL in the

study of quantity surveyors comes from Armstrong (1958)

and Laforge and Suczek (1955). Armstrong concluded that

regardless of the population used (in his study 'normal'

and alcoholics N= 50 respectively) and regardless of the ratings used (ie. self, mother, father etc), the ICL showed highly significant internal consistency. Table5l in Appendixl sets out Armstrong's findings using Kuder Richardson estimates of reliability. However, a word of caution is necessary. Armstrong has summated items across the total test and not for each of the

octants making up the test. He has made the assumption that the total test measures the same 'thing' ie. is homogeneous. The existence of octants, in some cases positively and negatively correlated, would suggest that the assumption may be questionnable. Armstrong does however, use this fact to argue homogeneity. The current research whilst being aware of. Armstrong's findings, has been designed to measure octant reliabilities. Laforge and Suczek (1955) in their development of the test have noted that the ICL has a test-retest reliability

284

averaging 0.78 with a range of 0.73 to 0.83. They

suggest that the ICL has, therefore, sufficient stability- to be useful in personality research.

3" Achievement oriented climate and need for achievement (Questionnaire pps 12-17)

These two scales will be dealt with together since Fineman (1975a, 1975b) has designed both questionnaires.

a)Need for achievement (Questionnaire pps 15-17)

The Work Preference Questionnaire is a newly designed

questionnaire to overcome many of the deficiencies

that Fineman had highlighted in the measurement of

need for achievement (Fineman 1975a). In the main, these concerned low inter-correlations between n-Ach

measures, the conscious versus unconscious measurement debate and the lack of a suitable questionnaire

measure that was specifically designed for and validated

on. a managerial population. The WPQ was chosen for

the present study for the following reasons,

i) It was constructed, tested and validated on British

managerial population. ii) The instrument has an internal consistency of

0.68 using the KR20 formula. Nunnally (1978)

suggested that reliabilities of 0.50 to 0.70 are satisfactory for the early stages of research or. - using a newly. hypothesised construct. For basic

research he suggested levels of 0.80. The WPQ

was therefore, judged to be satisfactory. iii) The construct validity of the WPQ has been-estab-

lished by Fineman (1975a). He reports a correlation of 0.42 (p

. 01) with Ghiselli's (1971) Self Description Inventory, which contains a measure of n-Ach. Furthermore, the WPQ correlates 0.21 (p . 05)

with TAT measures of n-Ach. The WPQ appears to

overcome the lack of inter-correlation amongst n-Ach measures.

iv) The WPQ has-specifically been designed to control for social desirability and faking responses.

285

v) Fineman reports test-retest correlations of 0.58 (P ;:! S . 05) and 0.55 (p 4 . 01) over. a one year period.

vi) The WPQ has shown no association with age. or, in- telligence.

vii) The item pool taps the following areas, Individual responsibility Risk-taking

Achievement satisfaction Task activity Task variety n-Ach and n-Aff Competitiveness Incentive value of Researching the environment

free time

These nine areas are all considered relevant to the

work of the quantity surveyor in his various or-

ganisational roles.

b)The achievement climate (Questionnaire pps 12-13)

The theoretical discussion in Chapter 5 highlighted the

importance of the immediate situation facing the in-

dividual if the achievement motive is to be activated.

In conjunction with the development of the WPQ, Fineman (1975b) developed the Job Climate Questionnaire which is a measure of managerial job climate. The instrument

was chosen for the following reasons,

i) It was constructed, tested and validated on a British managerial population.

ii) It relates specifically to the achievement climate of an organisation and not to the nebulous construct

of organisational climate. The present study wished to restrict environmental effects to achievement motivation cues. Fineman's (1975b) JCL instrument is the only one presently available that taps

this construct at the level of the individual role position.

iii) The alpha coefficient of internal consistency is 0.88 which, using Nunnally's (1978) criterion of a minimum of 0.5 to 0.7, is more than adequate.

iv) Fineman reported the concurrent validity of the JCL, using the Business Organisation Climate Index (Payne and Phesey 1971), as first, management concern for employee involvement (r = 0.79, p 4-01)

286

reflecting with the degree of feedback and com-

munication provided by management. Second,

open mindedness r=0.61, p . 01, reflecting the

permitted degree of individualism in the organis-

ation and third, job challenge (r = 0.60, p. . 01),

reflecting the degree of achievement recognition

and challenge in the job. Fineman also reported

a negative correlation with degree of bureaucracy

as measured by Hall's (1962-63) measure of the

construct; (r = 0.39, p4 . 01). Furthermore, achieve-

ment job climate varied according to hierarchical

level (p . 05). These are important in entre-

preneurial role behaviour and more especially provide

a link between the application of achievement

motivation theory to 'professional' role behaviour.

v) Fineman (1975b) reported that the correlation between the WPQ and JCL was non-significant (r = . 07)

vi) The JCL, like the WPQ, has high face validity and is, therefore, not likely to antagonise respondents because they consider questions to be trivial or

unrealistic.

Q. Professionalism (Questionnaire pps 18-19)

Hall-(1968,1969) and Schriesheim (1978) are probably the only two researchers to haveproduced non-occupational

specific professionalism scales. Hall has used his own

scale in several research studies (Hall 1968,1969)

However, it has been criticised by a number of researchers Schack and Hepler (1979) criticise the scale for confounding items describing self and others. Schreisheim (1978) has

criticised it for confounding perceptions, behaviours,

occupational characteristics and organisational characteristics. She argued that many items have not been derived from

a conceptual definition. However, Hall's (1968,1969)

scale of professionalism (with modifications) was used for the present study for the following reasons,

i) Schreisheim (1978) had produced the only viable alternative scale. However; it has 65 items and would have considerably lengthened an already long

287

questionnaire. The scale had been developed on a heterogeneous sample of engineers. The scale, at the time, had not been validated on any other sample

and the concurrent validity had not been established

with reference to other scales of professionalism. The reliabilities of Schriesheim's subscales are

good. However, within the context of of the present

study Schriesheim's professionalism scale would have required extensive pre-validation prior to the

commencement of data collection.

ii) Snizek"(1972) has undertaken extensive modifications to Hall's (1968,1969) professionalism scale. Hall,

when originally developing his scale, had operation-

alised the five theoretical dimensions with a fifty

item questionnaire. The five dimensions tapped by

the instrument are: -

1. Belief in the Professional Association as a

major source of reference. 2. A Belief in Service to the Public. 3. A Belief in Self (peer) Regulation..

4. A Sense of Calling to the Field.

5. A Belief in Personal Autonomy in Decision Making.

The relevance of each of these dimensions to Quantity

Surveying has been established in Chapter 6. Snizek

undertook a factor and reliability analysis. of the

original data set as well as a further validation

study. Results from both studies suggested the

shorter version of the original scale, produced by Snizek's reanalysis, offered a closer empirical fit to the theoretical dimensions. A subsequent

reliability analysis of the shortened version indicated that the reliability of the scale had not suffered from extensive modification. Table 22 sets out the comparison in reliabilities between the shortened and original scales. The present study uses Snizek's

modifications.

288

Table22 Reliability Coefficients. Hall's Professionalism Scale Source: Snizek (1972: 112)

Hall Data Snizek data 10 5 10 5

Dimensions items items items items

Prof. organisation

Public Service

Self Regulation

Vocation

Autonomy

All Dimensions

* Decimal points omitted

674 686 620 621

676 742, 656 640

694 731 596 699

711 703 455 583

776 760 730 738

860 843 799 783

289

DATA ANALYSIS

The following section deals with the choice of statistical procedures adopted for data analysis together with choices for statistical packages and data manipulation.

The choice of statistical procedures and statistical package

The two primary statistical techniques to be used for data

analysis wer. e,

i) One way analysis of variance

This was chosen for its simplicity in comparing independent multiple nominal level groups on an ordinal or interval level dependent variable. The method seeks to establish independence among the nominal level groups.

ii) Correlation analysis

This was chosen to highlight the degree of association between variables measured on either ordinal or interval levels of analysis. Multiple regression, as an ex- tension of correlation analysis, was considered but

rejected for the following reasons, a) Hall's professionalism scale, measuring the dependant

variable, operates at an ordinal level of measurement (Hall 1968). Multiple regression requires that the dependant variable, be at least interval leve'. This assumption could not be made.

b) In the light of the debate detailed in the section headed 'Parametric versus non-parametric models' notwithstanding the foregoing comment, many of the assumptions underlying multiple regression would have been violated.

iii) Factor analysis

Factor analysis of standardised questionnaires allowed the underlying dimensionality to be explored. The exploration of the factor structure facilitated the extent to which empirical findings correspond to the hypothesised questionnaire structure, determined by the designer. Principal component factor analysis with iterations and varimax rotation was used (Nie et al 1975). Factoring was terminated in accordance with

290

Kaiser's criterion that eigen values remain greater or equal to one (Nie et al 1975, Nunnally 1978). The

assumption of normality is not required for factor

analysis (Harman 1976). In the case of the ICL,

factor structures were not determined on the basis of items but by octants due to the violation of the

rule suggested by Nunnally (1978). He 'suggested that

there should be a minimum of five cases per item in

order not to take advantage of chance. Factor reduction

of the total item universe was not undertaken for two

reasons,

a) The violation of Nunnally's suggestion. b) Respondents answered a standardised questionnaire

in total and not a set of items generated from an hypothetical factor structure. Their response to

a standardised test may be different than that

produced by an amalgam of different items from

a number of tests.

iv) Reliability analysis

Reliability analysis determines the internal consistency of standardised tests and allows their reproducability, across samples, to be established. Coefficient alpha is the normal reliability test used in this form of

analysis and essentially estimates the extent of measurement error present in a test.

The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Nie et al 1975) was used in data analysis for the following reasons,

i) It is a well tried and tested statistical package.. ii) It is flexible in data manipulation.

iii) The statistical tests to be used in the analysis were all provided in the package.

iv) The package is updated to take account of new develop-

ments in statistical analysis.

The following section deals with the choice between parametric or non-parametric statistical models.

Parametric versus non-parametric models

Two important and interrelated issues are involved in the

choice between parametric or non-parametric statistical tests.

291

The first concerns the level of measurement and the second, the assumptions underlying the statistical model used.

1. The level of measurement

Kerlinger (1977) has argued that strictly speaking psychological variables can only classified as ordinal level

variables since they are concerned with the ranking of individuals on an attribute. However, he argued that

on pragmatic grounds an interval level of measurement

would be acceptable and allow more powerful statistical techniques to become available. Siegel (1956) was less

liberal. He believed that behavioural measurement could

and should only be classified as ordinal. In this current

research judgement was reserved until a preliminary

analysis of the assumptions underlying the parametric model had been made.

2. The assumptions underlying the parametric model

The two main assumptions that can easily be tested in the parametric model are those of normality and homo-

scedacity. An assumption of interval level measurement. was initially made. The following tests were then undertaken to establish the validity of the two assumptions,

i) The Kolmogorov-Smirnov one sample test was used to test organisational and psychological variables against a theoretical normal distribution. The

assumption of normality was rejected for the total

sample. ii) A preliminary one way ANOVA was undertaken on the

same variables. In accordance with Ehrenberg (1975)

a test for homogeneity of variance revealed that

this assumption, for the populations under study, was rejected. Therefore, in line with Kirk (1968), the assumptions underlying the F test, used in ANOVA,

were being violated. The presence of unequal groups suggested that the sensitivity of the F test was also in doubt.

x iii) Frequency distributions of all major variables were plotted. Results indicated that in certain instances,

especially the centralisation measure, skewed distributions were present.

292

Based on the foregoing preliminary data analysis many of the assumptions underlying the parametric model were being violated. Major continuous variables were designated

as ordinal and non-parametric techniques were used.

Classification of variables

The following variables were classified as, Nominal, sector of employment, membership of professional

institutions

Ordinal, all continuous variables, social class, organisational size, management level, task variables and internal

complexity.

Management Level

The varying organisational sizes, degrees of responsibility and task activity affecting the roles of quantity surveyors necessitated the establishment of a yardstick to allow valid comparisons to be made between management levels. Segregation, by managerial level, was achieved as a function

of income, raw hierarchical position (obtained from an organisational diagram (Q. 26, p. 5) and approximate values of projects that an individual was responsible for per annum. The following formula was used to determine an adjusted hierarchical level,

2 xIncome+Proiect Value+Raw Hierarchical Level Management Score Weighting (=k') x100

where, Income was scored as those earning below £8000 score =1 those earning £8001-£14000 score =2 those earning above £14000 score =3

Project value was scored on a scale of 1 to 6 (see Table 29, p. 307 for distributions).

Raw Hierarchical level was scored on a scale of 1 to 5 (see Appendix 4 for bands).

Managerial level was then allocated according to the following,

Managerial score below 20-0 classified as lower management Managerial score 200-300 classified as middle management Managerial score above 300 classified as top management

293

Task Variables

Based on evidence produced by the Practice Study (RIOS 1974) respondents were questionned on their office responsibilities (Question 25 p. 5). Five task variables were created to describe the type of job undertaken by the individual. These were; task variety -a measure of the total task undertaken, Professional tasks - those designated as having a "professional" status, managerial tasks, those having a predominantly co-ordinating or financial base for

organisational functioning, Technical task - those designated

as having only a technical function and entrepreneurial tasks - those involving the individual in direct contact with the

external environment and important for company survival. The four sub-task activities were also expressed as a percentage

of task variety to indicate the proportions of each type of task undertaken by an individual in his normal working life

Appendix5 sets out those task activities composing Professional,

managerial, technical and entrepreneurial roles.

Chapter Summary

The methodology for the present study has been discussed.

The data collection was undertaken using questionnaire

survey techniques. The sample was qualified quantity

surveyors from the RICS and IQS (N = 1000). Data analysis

proceeded using Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance

and Spearman rank-order correlation analysis. Preliminary

investigations of the factor structure and reliability of

standard tests was undertaken.

The following chapter presents the results of the analysis.

294

CHAPTER 8

RESULTS

INTRODUCTION

The following chapter is divided into ä number of distinct

sections. The structure is as follows,

Section 1 - The sampling frame

Section 2 - The factor analysis of scales Section 3 - The reliability analysis of scales Section 4 -Ag eneral description of the total sample Section 5 - The exploration of the paradigm Section 6 - An evaluation of other findings

THE SAMPLING FRAME

The total sampling frame consisted of qualified quantity

surveyors drawn from the RICS and IQS (N = 1000). A res-

ponse rate of 55% was obtained with a usable response

of 45%. At the time of sampling (1981/82) the RIOS and IQS had not amalgamated. The analysis of results deals

with this situation in two ways. First, an assump'ion was made that respondents were not members of a unified body and second, that amalgamation had taken place and that the sampling frame consisted of Chartered Quantity Surveyors, all members of the RICS.

THE FACTOR ANALYSIS OF SCALES

The following section deals with the factor analysis of standardised questionnaires used in the survey. A fuller

statistical analysis of each of the scales is provided in Appendix 8.

1. Aiken and Hage's (1967) Formalisation scale.

Three factors were extracted with eigen values greater than one. This does not conform to the hypothesised

scale structure suggested by Aiken and Hage. Factor 1 (Job Description or Procedures) accounted for 62.1%

of the variance. Factor 2 (labelled by the author, "Discretion/Autonomy") accounted for 20.9% of the

variance and Factor 3 (labelled by the author, "Close-

ness of Supervision") accounted for 17% of the variance.

295

2. Fineman's Job Climate (1975b) Questionnaire

Five factors were extracted with eigen values greater than one. Factor 1 (concerned wita progress or promotion in the organisation) accounted for 73.1% of the variance. Factor 2 (concerned with responsibility and autonomy)

accounted for 11% of the variance. Factor 3(concerned

with organisational dynamics) accounted for 6.5% of the variance. Factor 4 (concerned with job challenge)

accounted for 5.2% of the variance. Factor 5 was dif-

ficult to label. It reflected future orientation, training

and feedback. Factor 5 accounted for 4.3% of the variance. Fineman reported that the JCL, in a test of concurrent

validity, reflected management concern for employee involvement, open-mindedness and job challenge. The

factor structure appears more complex than this.

3. Fineman's (1975a) scale of need for achievement

Nine factors were extracted with eigen values greater than one. Table 23 sets out the analysis of the scale. The factor analysis supports Finemants hypothesised

scale structure of nine sub-variables.

4. Snizek's (1972) modifications to Hall's professionalism scale

Six factors were extracted with eigen values greater than one. In general, the factor structure reflects those suggested by Snizek. The only revision tnat

requires mention in this instance is the dimension

"Professional Organisation or Association as Major

Reference". In the current study this dimension has

been split between two factors. Factor 1 (autonomy)

accounted for 39.1% of the variance; Factor 2 (Public

Service) accounted for 18.5% of the variance; Factor 3 (Sense of Vocation) accounted for 15.5% of the variance; Factor 4 (Peer Regulation) accounted for 13.3% of the

variance; Factors 5 and 6 (Professional Association as Reference) accounted for 8.3% and 5.3% of the variance respectively.

296

Table 23 Factor analysis of Finemants (1975) n-Ach scale' using data from the current research study Source: Male 1984

Factor Label % variance

1 Task activity/primacy 28.6

2 Interpersonal relations 16.9

3 Individual Responsibility 16.0


5 Achievement satisfaction/ 8 7 incentives .


7 Risk taking 5.0

8 n-Ach/n-Aff & achievement 4.6 satisfaction

9 Achievement satisfaction 4.0

297

5. The Interpersonal Check List (Laforge and Suczek 1955)

Two factors were extracted with eigen values greater than one. Factor 1 (reflecting the'affiliative

tendencies of'interpersonal behaviour) accounted for

77.1% of the variance. Factor 2 (reflecting the dominance,

competitive, exploitive side of interpersonal behaviour)

accounted for 22.9% of the variance.

SCALE RELIABILITY ANALYSIS

The results of the reliability analyses are given in Tables

24 and 25. Fineman's (1975b) JCL, Laforge and Suczek (1955)

ICL and Hall's (1968,1969) Professionalism scale performed

within the limits for co-efficient alpha of 0.5 to 0.7,

as suggested by Nunnally (1978). However, there aie two

exceptions. First, the Formalisation Scale of Aiken and Hage (1967) performed better as separate sub-scales than one over-all scale. Furthermore, the measures of Centralisation, Formalisation (Aiken and Hage 1967) and Professionalism (Hall 1968,1969) were within the limits

established by other studies. Second, Fineman's (1975a)

WPQ measure of n-Ach although performing within the limits

suggested by Nunnally, had a reliability co-efficient in

both the main and pilot study that was less than that deter-

mined by Fineman (1975a).

It can be concluded that the standardised tests performed

satisfactorily in the present study with some reservation

about the reliability of the WPQ.

A GENERAL PROFILE OF THE SAMPLE

In accordance with the principle of unitary status the

sample was classified as Chartered Quantity Surveyors in toto. The characteristics of the sample are discussed under the following headings,

- demographic variables

- employment characteristics

298

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SCALE CO-EFFICIENT ALPHA

N=434

Interpersonal Behaviour (ICL)-

Managerial - Autocratic 0.74

Responsible - Over-generous 0". 70 Co-operative - Over-conventional 0.73

Docile - Dependent 0.65 Modest - Self-Effacing 0.63 Sceptical - Distrustful 0.71 . Blunt - Aggressive 0.70

Competitive - Exploitive 0.71

300

Demographic characteristics

1. Sex.

The sample is 99.1% male and 0.9% female. Sex was ignored in statistical analysis.

2. Nationality.

Ninety-nine point eight percent of the sample is

British; 0.2% held dual nationality*, - Nationality

is ignored in statistical analysis.

3. Age.

The age distribution of the sample is indicated in

Table 26. The modal age is 31-35 years old with an

average age of 39.6'years.

4. Marital status.

The majority of the sample is married (82%, N = 449);

10% are classified as single and 8% classified as divorced, remarried or separated.

5. Birth order.

The distribution of the sample by birth order is in-

dicated in Figure 29. Approximately 51% of the sample

are only or first born children.

6. Social Class.

The sample was classified according to social class (Table 27). Father's occupation was classified ac-

cording to the OPCS (1980) categories. An element of

subjective interpretation was involved in certain res-

ponses as respondents did not provide a full occupational description. However, where possible OPCS guidelines

were followed (see Appendix 10 ). The results indicate

that quantity surveyors come from the total social spectrum. Two dominant groups emerge. These are Social Class

2, the intermediate category and Social Class 3M, the

skilled manual occupations. The modal group is Social

Class 2.

301

Täble 26 Distribution of total sample by Age

Category Absolute Freq.

Relative Freq. %

Adjusted Freq. %

LE 25 5 1.1 1.1

26-30 85 18.9 19.0

31-35 102 22.7 22.8

36-40 76 16.9 17.0 41-45 55 12.2 12.3

46-50 42 9.4 9.4 51-55 54 12.0 12.1 56-60 20 4.5 4.5 61 Plus 8 1.8 1.8

Missing 2 0.4 Missing

TOTAL 449 100.0 100.0

Mode 31-35 years (33 years)

Mean 39.64 years: Standard Deviation 9.94

Median 37.28 years

302

Only child (55,13%)

First born (167,3870)

147,3470)

Third born (46,117)

Fourth born (14,3%)

ifth born (3,41%)

Sixth born (3, < 1%)

Seventh born (1, < 170)

0 40 80 N= 436 Mode First born

120 160 200

Figure 29 Distribution of total sample by birth order

303

Table 27 Distribution of sample by Father's Social Class

Category Absolute Freq.

Relative Freq. %

Adjusted Freq. %

Class 5 Unskilled 14 3.1 3.4 Class 4 Semi Skilled 29 6.5 7.1 Class 3M Skilled Manual 117 26.1 28.8 Class 3N Skilled Non Manual 58 - -_12.9. 14.3 Class 2 Intermediate 144 32.1 35.5 Class 1 Professional 36 8.0 8.9

Deceased 8 1.8 2.0


TOTAL 449 100.0 100.0

304,

7. Education.

The educational attainment of the sample is indicated in Figure 30. Thirty four percent are qualified to 0 Level standard only and 30% to A Level standard

only. Furthermore, 19% of the sample had attended

public/private schools. The sample is, therefore,

predominantly state educated.

Employment characteristics

This section deals specifically with the present employment

situation of the quantity surveyor.,

1. Current employment.

Table 28 sets out the current sector of employment for the sample. Three main groups emerge; 41% are employed in Private Practice, 23% in Central and Local

Government and 30% in Contracting. The modal group is Private Practice.

Statistical analyses use these three main occupational categories (designated 'Sector of Employment").

2. Geographical location of employment.

Figure 31 sets out the geographical distribution of respondents. The modal group are employed in the South East ie. outside the Greater London area. Definitions

of geographical location are indicated in Appendix9

3. Size of employing organisation.

Figure 32 illustrates the size of employing organisation. The sample is predominantly employed in very small or small organisations, 63% employ fewer than 250 people.

4. Project responsibility.

Respondents were requested to indicate the approximate value of work they are responsible for in any one year. Table 29 indicates the response. The modal group is

responsible for approximately £2-5 million (1981/82 prices).

5. Organisational level.

Respondents were coded according to two distinct classes. The first approach was initially by job title and position

305

N= 431

Mode 0 levels only

Figure 30 Distribution of total sample by highest qualification obtained

306

0 40 80 120 160 200

Table 28 Distribution of sample by Current Employment

Category Absolute Relative Adjusted Freq. Freq. % Freq. %

Private Practice 184 41.0 41.3

Central Local Govt..:. 103 22.9 23.1

Education 15 3.3 3.4

Contracting 132 29.4 29.7

Commercial 11 2.4 2.5


449 100.0 100.0

Table 29 Distribution of Sample by Project Responsibility in £M


LT 0.9M 50

1-1.9M 77 2-5M 138 6-10M 55 11-30M 42

30M+ 15

Missing 72

449

11.1 13.3 17.1 20.4

30.7 36.6 12.2 14.6

9.4 11.1 3.3 4.0

16.0 Missing

100.0 100.0

Mode £2-5M

307

London (65,15%)

South East England (92,20%)

gast Anglia (4,1%)

Northern England (18,4%)

North West England (62,14%)

Midlands (73,16%)

South West England (19,4%)

Yorkshire & Humberside (33,770)

Scotland (63,14%)

Wales (15,370)

Northern Ireland (5,1%)

0 20 40 60 80 100

N= 449 Mode South East England

Figure 31 Distribution of total sample by geographical location

308

Table 30 Distribution of sample by adjusted Management Level


Lower 98 21.8 fo 22.4

Middle 228 50.8 {t3 52.1

Top 112 24.9 "-ý 25.6

roQ'ý


449 100.0 ` 100.0`\ >

Mode Middle Management

;,..

309

Very small, Less than 5 people (41,127x)

Small, 6- 249 people ( 213,61%)

Medium, 250 - 2000 people (33,107x)

Large, 2000+ people (60,17%)

0 100 200 300 400 500 N= 347

Mode Small

Figure 32 Distribution of total sample by size of employing organisation

Non management (3,170)

Lower management (79,18%)

Middle management (165,37%)

Upper management (68,15%)

Top management (128,29%)

0 40 80 120 160 200 N= 443

Mode Middle management

Figure 33 Distribution of total sample by non adjusted management level

310

in the hierarchy as indicated on an organisational diagram. Distributions by unadjusted organisational level are indicated in Figure 33. In the second approach the sample was readjusted in the light of income, project responsibility and unadjusted organisational level. The distribution by adjusted organisational level is indicated in Table 30. Statistical analyses

proceeded using adjusted hierarchical levels throughout.

THE TYPICAL QUANTITY SURVEYOR

Taking the sample as a whole, and using modal categories, the typical quantity surveyor is male, approximately 31 to 35 years old and married. He is. a first born child

and is likely to come from either Social Class 2 (inter-

mediate occupations, more common) or a Social Class 3 (skilled manual) background. He will have been state

educated to 0 Level standard (having five or six 0 Levels).

He works in private practice in an organisation located

somewhere in the South East of England. The organisation has a size range in the order of 6-250 people. The typical quantity surveyor occupies a middle management position in charge of between £2-5 million of work per annum at 1981/1982 prices.

A fuller description by sector of employment will be found in Appendix 6.

311

THE EXPLORATION OF THE PARADIGM

The following results are presented in'the order of

stated propositions (see Chapter 6).. Spearman rank-order

coefficients have been computed and are presented in

Tables 31 and 32. A value of p 4.05 was pre-set as the

required degree of statistical significance. Correlational.

diagrams will be presented in the text where high order

interactive effects are considered to be operating. SPSS

non-parametric correlation, Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA and

cross-tabulation sub-programmes were used to compute

results.

Family influences (N = 216, Table 31, p. 313)

Propositions 1,2,3,4 and 5 were not supported. Proposition 6 There is an association between n-Ach and

educational attainment.

n-Ach x educational attainment r= . 13.

p <. 05

Figure 34 illustrates findings on family influences.

The next section deals with institutionalised occupational

structuring, this represents the position prior to amal-

gamation of the IQS and RIGS. The sample is treated,

therefore, as if individuals are members of the RICS,

IQS or hold joint membership of both institutions.

312

Table 31 Spearman Rank-order correlation coefficients between major variables-

r

r 0

r K

I

r

O w .O r F

N

N

J m J N N N I

LON N in N N O -. N 1

N "0 - 0 0 0 1

Go Co 416 N N1 N O N

N

N t4 cc m N J O O n N

I

Al "n V1 "D M N .+ O O O O

N O - I

f4 WN O O N N O J 1'1 O N N

cc Ol go C4 a' N O - 1'1 - n N 0 N ~ I 1

M p "O N 40 N p" V1 1ý1 N n N 0 .+ .4 0 .+ 0

1 1 1 1

O N O O O O 0

O O O O - 1 1

P7 11 al N In P1 O" r N "O N J .+ N .+ O O

N N n O

w 1 'IN 1I co m 41 1n co .+ T "H O O T H N 0 N I N O - - O - O .ý

1 1 I 1 J P'1 0 J 4 N J 0 J ý 8I N h N ""1 a N N - O 0 O O 0 0 . 0 . -

1 1

N "D O N O 00 . "ý ýO "n "O .ý N vl "n i1 1 I - - O O 0 O O 0 - N

0 1 1 1 1

N 1 1 00 J .ý N O P1 O "O J N N a0 N N I N N O O .+ O N 0 O 0

"O O O a1 1'7 tý J O O O a0 O - - O - - O O - a O .ý O - N J - Q

. n N O

r1 0.1 V1 "O f"1 N 1% - 0' O. N N J "O O 0 O N O - N V1 ý. 4 . .T V1 O ! 11 N .7

J "O N .O 1 1 N N N

O. N - fn "O J J O" aO - - O a0 - - 1 I

OI O O - .4 - O e"1 - O O O - a O N - O 1 ; 1 1 O O a O

" N N J O" N CO N O" tD V1 EO CO V1 u1 0, - N1 N N ý - N O - O .. ý O w O O O - O O O O "r - O

1 1 1 1 I 1 I 1

" - - N O O m N O .+ O N .1 O 2 "p n O .. N N J 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

O 17" N fY V1 O" N N 0 0 V 1n N S J J C', J 0 0 0 .. o 0 ö 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -" o

1 1 1 t 1 P1 V1 P7 O J P1 w. l 00 O" N N N N 00 "O N N O' a 1ý tD

N - - .. .r O a O O O 0O O O J - O O O O "^ý - O N

1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1

fý1 Y1 O" Iq N T 1ý V1 PS - N N N 1ý N p 1ý t'V O fý1 1ý N Ib J J

.+ 0 "O . 0 PI 0 '+ "+ O N N 0 N 10 4 0 .+ I'1 0 N N 0 1"1 I 1 1 1 1 1

a, P"7 0 e0 Co N C" P "0 00 .0 10 N 0 0 a T I Co a "O O" ao O - F,

- a O O O O .ý O - O .+ O - .+ 411 O - O O O O .+ O N 1 1 1 t 1

N J N N 05 N N P7 N J1 co J J N co N PI J 40 cy, f1 �1 ""1 J N N

N '+ N O ""+ O ý+ O O O "+ ý+ 0 O O N O ý+ O O O O O O N I 1 1 1 1 1 1

N J .T 0 - Al 10 "a c4 in N N N .O N PS co .r a0 N 'O "O 0 "O 0 .+ N .ý N N O P ý4 O N O O "+ O N O O - J N - O - 0 N - O "7

1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

A N PS J N "D 1ý CO P O - N P'1 J Vý N °'1 ^ý H . "ý . "1

"O v'1 ý1

CO an

O. wý

O N

.+ N

N At J Vý "O 1ý t10 N N N fV N N N

wr a

L C O e0 ä v a C

ä Ö Y

M 40 Y E d 4 a.

w -4 W W u

y U C

g C

~ 4 r T 0 y

O N ý

Y W OI > - 71 Y W Go

7 Cr

a , 0 0 0

- W

-.

.+

-

U

d 'r

a

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O Y

y8 0

ä 0 IS O 7 'ý d C > a

a r U W C s U L y W

Y - A u C 6 I . 1 7

m 7 . Ci 0

" C O

ü äi u

a C a C < a A D. 11

E U 04

I+ 0 W a a - 0 -

d W W ~

6 C 0 Co Y

A

4 4 W Y

Y N W

W 10 .

C .5 ' l d

a a

O G 01 .w Y y W W a Y W I l 3 a 'A 00 u u y C W C E W d C u d C ~ W

G C a r w C d U

W W 6 W W 0 O . U . `"

U C

u 1.8 - a

E Y O N

'p Y M C W W W T

d T

a y _ d Y L U - W Y C d > W a

y u '+

W >

a a 01

U .A

v 0

00 b

Y M

d U a C 0 Y 41 a W W e0 C . al 0 W

E " " Y 7 t+ u 4 .. O. S W ý ä t

p 0 v E W E a 1 a+ O + U 0 C 41 ü

e0 40 Z fý Z m 0 W O p C <

0 4

0/ U C+ Z

b O

4 e0 "O 0 W 1. W 04 C 4 ix < . < < 0 t"+ 0. S l-+ to S

OOO

Vý Vf V!

Q. ca

^A q

313

Table 32 Spearman Rank-order correlation coeffients of major organisational variables.

N n s 0 " tý

NN J ^ N

N 1

N .p 10 N O N 1

N 1ý N y O O O N

J N

N 1

1'1 1

r O 1

C4 C2% Iw 1 O O 1ý N N 1 1 1

O T J N J N N

N N O 1

J 1

/- C

N N r P1 r I

1ý1 1

N O

0 N N N O O r r

1 N N

1

ý. -I J N O

- O N

- O

" so r N

-+ - -

- O O O

- O

^ N r

1 1'1

m7 O

n O

O O

C d O

O r

so O

/"/ O

r+ O

P1 N

N t-1

M p

N N

N -

N r

N N

M r

r /'1 N

N O

M N O

J O

Vn O

PI O

sO r

J O

PI O

1n O

N O O

m Jn O

N O

1 1

ý 9 N -

O N

O P1

J N

'O J

4 0s N

J O

IA O

N r

N N

r PI

V

J N

10 0

I

t0 O

N r

T -

/n N

OI O

N N

O N

r "

N O

0 r

1

J O

J O

1 1^ r

N N

O N

- O

N O

N - O

A 1-t

Cp O

N O

N O

N O

r r

ps O

O

. r. N

1 SO O r 1

O O O r -.

1 1 .

fin O

0 O

O O C O

1

N O

1

J O

1

C O

1

C N 1

19 J 1-5 r O 14 r

30 N r go

r N C4 oO

.r ý 0 -

O C

is O O 1

O O 1

N - O 1

O O C O r ý

N O

N O C O C O

O .+

a O `p

O N N

"C J

O N

1

N O

I

N O

I

OI

1

CO O

I

SO N r

1

y

1

C Oj

ý Q7 O

O N

N

I 1

1ý p

p N

.$ 1

N r

'O <O

N e+

N r N

T N

O 1

n O

J O

1

N O

1

1ý O

J O

n O

/ O

1

N O .r

1

a O

1

O O

N O

1

n O

y 1

r O T

N 1

Os N

1

N J

1

r N

co O

N O

O O

sO O

Y1 O

N O

1

P1 r

ED O

N O

y O N

1

1ý O

» N O

1

N r

1

1 O

J

~ N J

N r

ýO n

J n

N O

1'1 r

r i O O

O N

fý O

N O

ýO O

N N

N N

.y N

10 -

sO O

M -

N O

1

O .r 1

O r

J

J O

N O

N O

0% O

05 O

is N

MI O

ýO r

1"1 N

O Sn

N N N

O -

J N

N IA

Iý n

a J

N Sn

N M

fV N

J J

N vý

71 ý+ 1 f

n a0 O

Sn IA

a0 O sO O

y Os IA

J r

O r

'O r O

Iw IA

a0 .+

J O

O sC r

r O

a0 O r

O O

N O

O r

r

.. 1 O C O O

1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I

N

w SO

J O

O

OI N

N IA

- r

O

N

CO O

a0

P1 O

CO O

1

IA O

Oý

1

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J O

1

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J r

vl -

n r

N O

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r N

1"1 N

sO

O, .1

ew O

N O

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N

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1ý O

J1 Y

O .p

MI

40 J

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N r

P1

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N

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1

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V1 N

N

w0 N

r

- r

r N n J vý 'O n a0 T O r r

44 r .

Jn r

te. r

r 05 O N

.r N

N N

f" N N N

sO N

N N

a0 N

C

u

a 9

C

C a

C 0

0 C

u

M

C ä 40

r

a 1

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o Z

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ap

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fi

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N

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q

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lu

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a

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Q O O 4 'C

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u C B

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d

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r q >

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ö

1.

1$ >

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a Y

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y

q q

W

3.

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7

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=

Y q

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r

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n

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O.

i

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C °. Y

a

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3 50

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000

VF wv aaa

'O N V1 Q h -4 *N N

NAAA 2YYY

314

*

Affiliation

Competitiveness

Responsibility.

n. S.

n. s.

Birth Order

n. s.

Figure 34 Relationships between. family Influences and edticatlötf-atid personai-ity-dimensions

n. s. n-Ach #r=

. 13(p4 . 05) n. s. Educational

Attainment

n. s. Dominance

315

Occupational structuring - the RICS versus the IQS

Proposition 7 Institutional differences exist in the

need for achievement.

Table 33 indicates a relationship between

occupational structuring and strength of 2

n-Ach (X = 6.35, p 4.05).

Proposition 8 was not supported.

Proposition 9 Different social classes have been attracted to different institutions.

Table 34 indicates a significant relation-

ship between membership of professional as-

sociation and social class (x2 = 18.85,

p (. 05 and X2= 16.56, p <. 01 depending on the existence of joint association membership). Three of the cell frequencies are below 5, therefore, some degree of caution is necessary in the interpretation of results.

Proposition 10 Members of each institution exhibit differences in professionalism.

Table 35 indicates for the separate dimensions

of professionalism:

significant relationships between Professional

association as a source of reference ()C2 = 7.15,

p 4.05), belief in self regulation (x2 = 5.72, p 5.06) and autonomy (x2 = 7.37, p4 . 05)

with occupational structuring.

Figure 35 illustrates findings on occupational structuring. The following section deals with th

situation facing individuals. The

within three sectors of employment, Government Service and Contracting.

amalgamation situation.

e current occupational sample is explored

namely, Private Practice, Those reflect a post-

316

Table 33 Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA . Dimensions of personality by professional association

VARIABLE RICS IQS RICS & IQS 2 SIG,

NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT 214.28 183.62 207.33 6.33 p, <. 05 (N=159) (N=178) (Na61)

DOMINANCE 207.51 193.77 214.30 1.96 n. s. (N-161) (N=179) (N-64)

AFFILIATION 206.41 201.57 198.45 0.26 n. s. (N=161) (N=180) (N=64)

RESPONSIBILITY 214.25 193.22 198.91 2.84 n. s. (N=161) (N=179) (N=64)

COMPETITIVENESS 202.12 198.09 215.79 1.09 n. s. (N=161) (N=179) (N=64)

Table 34 Distribution of sample by social class and professional association

PROF: SOCIAL CLASS QUAL:

5 4 " 3M 3N 2 1 TOTALS

+RICS 2 8 31 24 57 17 139 <1% 2% 8% 6% 15% 5% 37%

+IQS 10 17 63 21 53 12 176 3% 5% 17% 6% 14% 3% 47%

RIOS & IQS 1 l%

4 1%

15 4%

8 2%

25 7%

5 1%

58 16%

TOTALS 13 29 109 53 135 34 373 4% 8% 29% 14% 36% 9% 100%

(2 - 18.85 p4.05

+ /ý 2- 16.56 r4 . 01 with ARICS and AIQS members only

317

Table 35 Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA. Dimensions of professionalism by professional association.

VARIABLE RICS IQS RICS & IQS SIG

"O/A PROFESSIONALISM 203.50 197.88 229.07 3.34 n. s. (N=163) (N=182) (N=64)

PUBLIC SERVICE 193.73 218.18 207.79 2.83 n. s. (N=166) (N=185) (N=64)

PROFESSIONAL ASSOC. 211.55' 193.92 239.48 7.15 p, <. 05 (N=166) (N=185) (N=64)

SELF REGULATION 223.89 193.43 208.91 5.72 p, <. 06

(N=166) (N=185) (N=64)

VOCATION 194.00 215.52 206.14 2.87 n. a. (N=163) (N=183) (N=64)

AUTONOMY 213.05 192.18 237.16 7.37 p4.05 (N=166) (N=184) (N=64)

I

-Dominance Affiliation

n. s. Competitiveness

Responsibility

vs RIOS n. s. Public Service

Professionalism Professional ° 4Association

Sig. Self Regulation

n. s. Vocation

Sig. Autonomy

Sig. Social Class

Figure 3S Relationships between occupational structuring and major dimensions of personality and professionalism

'ßi8

Sector of employment - Private Practice, Government and

Contracting


Proposition 12 The interpersonal orientation of individuals

varies according to sector of employment.

Table 36 indicates significant relationships between sector of employment and the following interpersonal dimensions;

Affiliation-hostility x2 = 20.25, p, <. 001 Responsibility 2= 14.32, p, <. 001 Competitiveness x=8.68, p, < . 01 2

Proposition 13 The degree of professionalism varies according to sector of employment.

Table 37 indicates the dimensions of Professional Association (x2 = 10.49 p <. Ol) and autonomy

2 (x = 33.60, p. <,. 001) vary according to sector of employment.

Proposition 14 The structuring of role positions varies according to sector of employment..

The major structural dimensions of centralisation (hierarchy of authority and participation in decision making) and formalisation on role positions vary significantly by sector of employment (all? (2 are significant p, < . 001, Table 38).

Proposition 15 The nature of the task performed by individuals

varies with sector of employment.

Table 39 indicates that all task variables except technical tasks differ by sector of employment (p e,. 001).

Figure 36 illustrates findings on relationships by sector of employment.

The following section analyses the sample by hierarchical level.

319

Table 36 Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA. Dimensions of personality by sector of employment

a

VARIABLE PRACTICE GOVERNMENT CONTRACTING x2 SIG

NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT 204.69 196.14 197.99 0.43 'n. s. (N=177) (N=98) (N=125)

DOMINANCE 203.16 202.08 205.12 0.04 n. s. (N=179) (N=101) (N=126)

AFFILIATION 225.86 212.86 165.67 20.25 p,. 00 (N=180) (N-101) (N=126)

RESPONSIBILITY 221.89 "210.97 171.39 14.32 p.. 00 (N=179) (N=101) (N=126)

COMPETITIVENESS 189.87 196.14 228.76 8.68 p c. 01 (N=179) (N=101) (N=126)

Table 37 Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA. Dimensions of professionalism by sector of employment

VARIABLE PPRIVATE RACTICE GOVERNMENT CONTRACTING X2 SIG

0/A. PROFESSIONALISM 221.17 195.39 193.22 5.25 n. s. (N=180) (N=102) (N=129)

PUBLIC SERVICE 220.48 195.46 203.48 3.28 n. s. (N=184) (N=103) '(N=130)

PROFESSIONAL ASSOC. 217.88 228.78 180.76 10.99 p <. O1 (N-184) (N=103) (N=130)

SELF REGULATION 215.14 218.61 192.69 3.56 n. s. (N=184) (N=103) (N=130)

VOCATION 211.72 214.93 192.51 2.66 n. s. (N=181) (N=102) (N-129)

AUTONOMY 232.12 149.70 221.83 33.60 p, 4001 (N=183) (N=103) (N-130)

320 S

Table 38 Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA. Dimensions of organisational structure and job climate by sector of employment

VARIABLE PRACTICE GOVERNMENT CONTRACTING X -SIG

HIERARCHY OF 186.94 234.49 180.00 15.77 p, <. O01 AUTHORITY (N=162) (N=102) (N=129)

PARTICIPATION IN 230.30 167.20 195.24 19.95 p4.001 DECISION MAKING (N=172) (N=103) (N=130)

FORMALISATION 254.40 151.78 179.09 58.17 p<. 001 (N=175) (N=103) (N=130)

JOB CLIMATE 223.02 122.82 228.32 60.67 ps. 001 (N=166) (N=102) (N=129)

yýr __ . _.. __ ý ..

Table 39 Task variable by sector of employment

VARIABLE PRACTICE GOVERNMENT -CONTRACTING x'2 SIG

TASK VARIETY 254.28 210.03 144.94 63.32 p,. 001 (N=183) (N=103) (N=131)

% PROFESSIONAL 246.59 247.77 126.00 110.17 pE. OO1 TASK (N=183) (N=103) (N=131)

% MANAGERIAL 187.61 194.41 250.36 30.14 p, 4.001 TASK (N=183) (N=103) (N=131)

% TECHNICAL 208.60 201.25 215.65 1.15 n. a. TASK (N-183) (N=103) (N=131)

% ENTREPRE- 240.30 140.49 219.15 61.48 p4.001 NEURIAL TASK (N=183) (N=103) (N=131)

}

321

Ii

n. s. . Dominance

Sig. Affiliation INTERPERSONAL

Sig. Competitiveness

, Sig. Responsibility

Sig.

PROFESSIONALISM n. s.

n. s.

Sig.

SECTOR OF EMPLOYMENT

Si¬.

Sig.

Sig.

Public Service-

'Professional Association Self Regulation

Vocation

Autonomy

Hierarchy of Authority Participation in

1Decision Making Formalisation

Sig. _Achievement

job climate

1

Si Task diversity

TASK Si . Professional tasks

Sig. Managerial tasks

n. s. Technical tasks

Sig. Entrepreneurial

Figure 36 Relationships-between sector. of employment and role, personality and professionalism variables

322

Hierarchical level (N = 256, Table 32, p. 314)


Proposition 17 The interpersonal orientation of individuals

varies according to hierarchical position.

Hierarchical level, x Dominance r= . 22, p 4.001

Hierarchical level x- Responsibility r= . 20,

pß. 001

Proposition 18 The degree of professionalism varies according to organisational rank.

The statistical effect of hierarchical position on dimensions of professionalism are as follows:

Hierarchical

r= . 15,

Hierarchical

r= . 16,

Hierarchical

Hierarchical

level x Professional Association p <. Ol

level x Self regulation pS . 01

level x Vocation r= . 21, p, <. 001

level x Autonomy r= . 26, p4 . 001

Proposition 19 There is an association between the structuring of role positions and hierarchical rank.

The statistical effect of hierarchical position on overall structuring of role positions is

as follows;

Hierarchical level x participation in decision making r= . 57, p <. 001

Further elaboration on the effects of formalisation will be dealt with in a future section.

Proposition 20 The perception of achievement climate varies according to hierarchical rank.

Hierarchical level x Achievement climate

r=. 29, p4.001 Proposition 21 The nature of task activity varies with

hierarchical rank.

Hierarchical level x task variety r= . 20,

p 4.001

323

Hierarchical level x% of role as professional tasks r= . 29, p <. 001

Hierarchical level x% of role as technical tasks r =. -. 41, p <. 001

Hierarchical level x% of role as entrepreneurial tasks r= . 35, p< . 001

Figure 37 illustrates findings on relationships with hierarchical

position.

The following section explores relationships with the degree

of structuring on role positions.

324

n. s. n-Ach

r=. 22 Dominance

n. s. Affiliation INTERPERSONAL

n. s. -Competitiveness

r=. 20 Responsibility

r=. 15

n. s.

SIONALISM r=. 16

r=. 21

r=. 26

professional ssociation

_ Public Service

Self Regulation

Vocation

_ Autonomy

H. S. Formalisation

ROLE STRUCTURING n. s. ierarchy of Authority

HIERARCHICAL r=. Participation in LEVEL Decision Making

r=. 29 Achievement job climate

r=. 20 Task diversity

r=. 29 Professional task

TASK n. s. Managerial task

r=-. 41 Technical task

r=. 35 Entrepreneurial task

N= 256 r>,. 12, p<. 05 r). 15, pb . 01 r>,. 20, P4 . 001

Figure 37 Relationships between hierarchical level and major variables of role, personality and professionalism

325

Structural Relationships (N = 216, Table 31, p. 313)

The relationships of structural effects on role positions

are presented below. Further elaborations on the effects

of structure will be presented in a future section.

Proposition 22 The degree of professionalism exhibited by

individuals varies according to structuring

of role positions.

Hierarchy of authority x overall professionalism r=-. 18, p1.01

Participation in decision making x overall professionalism r= . 41, p 4-001

Formalisation x overall professionalism r=-. 14, p4 . 05

Proposition 23 The achievement climate perceived by the individual is affected by the structuring of role positions.

Hierarchy of authority x Achievement Climate

r=-. 34, p4 . 001

Participation in decision making x Achievement Climate r= . 52, p4 . 001

Proposition 24 The strength of n-Ach is affected by the degree

of structuring on role positions.

Hierarchy of authority x n-Ach r=-. 19, p 1.01

Participation in decision making x n-Ach r= . 15, p4.05

Proposition 25 The interpersonal orientation of individuals is affected by organisational role structuring.

Hierarchy of authority x Affiliation

r= . 13, p <. 05

Hierarchy of authority x Competitiveness

r=-. 16, p 4.05

Participation in decision making x Dominance

r= . 29, p <. 001

326

Participation in decision making x Com- petitiveness r= . 16, p 44.05

Participation in decision making x Res-

ponsibility r, = . 23, P, <. 001

Formalisation x Dominance r=-. 16, p4 . 05

Formalisation x Responsibility r=-. 13, p .. 05

Figure 38 illustrates the findings on the relationships of structure on role position.

The following section explores relationships with task

variables.

327

r=-. 18 Over all professionalism

r=-. 34-Achievement job climate

r=-. 19 n-Ach

HIERARCHY O r=-. 11 Dominance AUTHORITY

F

r= 1 Affiliation

INTERPERSONAL r=-. 16. Competitiveness

n. s. Responsibility

r=. 41 Over all professionalism

r=. 52 Achievement job climate

r=. 15 n-Ach

PARTICIPATION r=. 29 Dominance IN DECISION MAKING n. s. Affiliation

INTERPERSONAL

r=. 16 Competitiveness


r=-. 14 Over all professionalism

n. s. Achievement job climate

r=. 03 n-Ach

FORMALISATION r=-. 16 Dominance

n. s. Affiliation INTERPERSONAL

n. s. Competitiveness

r=-. 13 Responsibility N= 216 r)ý. 13, p E . 05 rý;. 17, p L . 01 r). 21, p 4.001

Figure 38 Relationships between structuring on role positions and major variables of personality and professionalism

328

Task relationships (N = 216, Table 31, 'p. 313)

Proposition 26 The nature of the task has an effect on the degree of professionalism exhibited by

individuals.

Task relationships are explored on overall

professionalism.

Task variety x overall professionalism r= . 17, p< . O1

% of role as professional tasks x overall

professionalism r= . 18, p 4.01

% of role as technical' tasks x overall

professionalism r=-. 19, p <. Ol

of role as entrepreneurial tasks x overall professionalism r= . 15, p 4.05

Proposition 27 Need for achievement is affected by the type

of task undertaken by an individual.

of role as technical tasks x n-Ach r=-. 18, p5 . 001

Proposition 28 The nature of the task affects the inter-

personal orientation of an individual.

The following results represent statistically significant correlations between task dimensions

and interpersonal dimensions.

% of role as professional tasks x Dominance

r= . 14, p< . O1

% of role as professional tasks x Responsibility r= . 18, p. . 001

% of role as technical tasks x Dominance

r=-. 22, p< . 001

% of role as technical tasks x Competitiveness

r=-. 13, p . 05

% of role as technical tasks x Responsibility

r=-. 14, p 4.05

I

329

Relationships with task variables will be further elaborated in a future section. Figure 39 illustrates findings on the relationships with task variables. -

The next section explores the relationships of achievement climate on dimensions of personality and overall professionalism.

330


TASK DIVERSITY I n. s. n-Ach

n. s. Interpersonal


NAL TASKS n. s. n-Ach

Interpersonal r=. 14 Dominance


n. s. Over all professionalism

TASKS MANAGERIAL TASKS n. s. n-Ach

n. s. Interpersonal

- r=-. 19 Over all professionalism

TECHNICAL TASKS r=-. 18 n-Ach

Interpersonal r=-. 22 Dominance

r=-. 13 Competitiveness

r=-. 14 Responsibility


ENTREPRENEURIAL TASKS n. s. n-Ach

n. s. Interpersonal

N=216 r>j. 13, p < . 05 ra. 17, p 4 . 01 ra. 21, p<. 001

Figure 39 'Relationships between task variables, personali-tv- dimensiöns.. änd-professionalism

331

Relationship of achievement climate (N = 216, Table 31, p313 )

Proposition 29 The degree of professionalism exhibited by

individuals is affected by the achievement

climate perceived in a role position.

Achievement climate x overall professionalism r= . 43, p, <. 001

Proposition 30 There is an association between strength of

n-Ach and achievement climate perceived in

a role position.

Achievement climate x n-Ach r= . 12,

p<. 05

Proposition 31 The interpersonal orientation of an individual

is affected by the achievement climate

perceived in a role position.

Achievement climate 'x Dominance

r= . 32, p, < . 001

Achievement climate x Competitiveness

r= . 20, p, < ý . 01

Achievement climate x Responsibility

r= . 23, p (. 001

Relationships with achievement climate will be further

elaborated in a future section. Figure 40 illustrates

findings on relationships with achievement climate.

The final section in the exploration of the research paradigm presents results in the relationship of organisational

size with task variables.

332


r=. 12 n-Ach

ACHIEVEMENT r=. 32 Dominance

CLIMATE n. s. Affiliation

INTERPERSONAL

_ r=. 20 Competitiveness


N=216 raý. 13, p . . 05 r.. 17, p 4 . 01 r?. 21, p 4 . 001

Figure 40 Relationship between achievement climate and major variables of personality and professionalism

333

Organisational size (N = 216, Table 31, p. 313)

Proposition 32 Task diversity is affected by organisational size.

Organisational size x task diversity

r=-. 23, p< . 001

Organisational size x% of role as entrepreneurial task r=-. 26, p,, 1.001

Figure 41 illustrates relationships between organisational

size and task variables.

The exploration of the research paradigm is now complete. The next major section deals with results that have not

specifically been suggested within the constraints of the

theoretical discussions and paradigm.,

r=-. 23 Task diversity

ORGANISATIONAL SIZE

r==. 26 Entrepreneurial tasks

N=216 r. -* . 13 ,pC, . 05 rý. 17, p 4 . 01 r3.21, p 5.. 001

Figure 41 Relationships between, organisational size and task variables

334

OTHER FINDINGS

Social. Class

Table 40 indicates the distribution of the sample by

highest qualification obtained whilst Figures 42 to 44

illustrate the relationship between social class and major

educational variables. They reflect results presented in Tables 41 and 42. Figure 42 describes relationships dealing with highest qualification obtained. It does

not reflect gradations between numbers of "011 and "A"

levels obtained. Figures 43 and 44, however, specifically deal with those individuals who are qualified to ""0" and "A" level standard only and takes into account gradations in these qualifications.

Table 43 indicates no relationship between social class and sector of employment.

Table 40 Distribution of sample by Social Class by highest qualification obtained

HIGHEST SOCIAL CLASS QUALIFICATION

5 4 3M 3N 2 1 TOTALS

0 1 3 0 3 3 9 No QUALS . 1% 414 ßt1% t 1% 2%

3 9 33 22 47 8 122 0 LEVELS 41$ 3% 9% 6% 13% 2% 34%

3 13 25 13 45 13 112 A LEVELS 4,1% 4% 7% 4% 12% 4% 31%

1 1 4 1. 3 1 11 ONC OND c 14 1% 1% . 61% -41% 4 1% 3%

3 3 26 10 9 2 53 HNC HND t 1% 41% 7% 3% 3% < 1% 15%

1 1 9 3 9 2 25 DIPLOMA 1% 41% 3% -e 1% 3% t 1% 7%

2 0 6 2 16 5 31 DEGREE cl% 2% 4% 1% 8%

13 28 106 51 132 33 363 TOTALS 4% 8% 29% 14% 36% 9% 100%

335

r=. 41

r=-. 25

N=216 n, 13, p x. 05 rý,. 17, p, . 01 r>. 21, pc. 001

Figure 42 The relationships between social class, education and need for achievement for total sample (Table 31 p. 313)

336

r=. 18

Social Class

r=-. 19

N=108'

r>,. 18, p< . 05

No: yrs atI School

No: 0 levels

Age

Ir=. 18 Hierarchical Level

No : sirs to Qualify

n-Ach

Figure 43 Relationships between educational variables; n-Ach, managerial level and social class for those with 0 levels only (Table 41, p. 338)

r. -. 16

1No: yrs at school r=.. 21

Social No: A levels, 71

Class

Age In-Ach

r=. 22 r=. 54

Hierarchical Level

No: yrs to Qualify

N=105 r, *>. 20, p _ . 05

Figure 44 Relationships as indicated in Figure 43 with social class for those withA levels only (Table 42 p. 338)

337

Table 41 Spearman Rank-order correlation co-efficients, major educational variables, 0 level only group.

1 2 3 4567

No: yrs. iin secondary school l

No: yrs to qualify .2 07

No: 0 levels 3 01 -19

Age 4 01 -01 13

Social Class 5 18 -03 . 17 04

Need for achievement 6 05 -01 09 10 -05

Adjst. Management level 7 -09 03 -15 18 -15 16

N= 108

rlo . 18, p< . 05

Table 42 Spearman' Rank-order correlation co-efficients, major educational variables- A level only group.

1 2 3 4567

No: yrs. in secondary school :. 1

No: yrs. to qualify 2 -16

No: A levels 3 -04 -16

Age 4 -05 10 -08,

Social Class 5 21 -09 -12 14

Need for achievement 6 -10 -12 -03 -03 03

Adjst. Management level 7 -04 -21 12 54 22 03

N= 105 r . 20, p< -05

338

Table 43 Distribution of sample by Social Class and sector of employment"

SECTOR OF SOCIAL CLASS

EMPLOYMENT 5 4 3M 3N 2 1 TOTALS

PRIVATE 5 9 39 24 62 22 161 PRACTICE 1% 2% 10% 6% 17% " 6% 42%

3 6 34 12 32' 4 91 GOVERNMENT , e1%- 2% 9% 3% 9% 1% 24%

5 14 36 17 43 8 123 CONTRACTING 1% 4% 10% 5% 12% 2% 34%

13 29 109 53 137 34 375 TOTALS 2% 8% 29% 14%

. 38% 9% 100%

X2 - 14.15 n. s.

Occupational Structuring - RICS versus IQS

Tables 44 and 45 indicate the type of school attended and highest qualification obtained by professional association. A number of the cells in Table 43 have frequencies below 5 and x2 results should be treated with caution.

Table 44 Type of school attended by prbressional association

PROF: TYPE OF SCHOOL

QUAL: STATE PUBLIC/PRIVATE TOTALS

RIOS 122 40 162 31% 10% 41%

148 26 174 IQS 38% 6% 44%

RICS & IQS 50 9 59 13% 2% 15%

TOTALS 320 75 395

81% 19% 100%

? C2 - 5.81 p, . 05

339 1

Table 45 Distribution of sample by highest-qualification and professional association

HIGHEST QUALIFICATION

NO QUALS

0 LEVELS

A LEVELS

ONC OND

HNC HND DIP DEG TOTALS

RIOS 4 65 56 2 4 12 16 159 1% 16% 14% 41% <1% 3% 4% 39%

IQs 5 51 46 9 52 7 14 184 1% 13% 11% 2% 13% 2% 3% 45%

RIGS & IQS 1 20 22 1 2 9 7 62 1$ 5% 5% le 1% 24 2% 16%

10 136 124 12 58 28 37 405 TOTALS 2$ 34% 30% 3% 15% 7% 9% 100%

X2 66.95 p 4.001

Sector of Employment - Private Practice, Government. Contractin

Table 46 presents highest qualifications obtained by

section of employment. A number of cell frequencies are below 5 and2(2 results should be treated with caution.

Table 47 presents the in. ternal structuring of practice settings by sector of employment. A functional structure represents professional settings that are divided according to pre and post contract services. A number of cell frequencies are below 5 and? C2 results should be treated

with caution. Organisational size appears to have a confounding effect.

340

Table 46 Distribution of sample by highest qualification and sector of employment --

SECTOR OF HIGHEST QUALIFICATION

EMPLOYMENT NO 0 A ONC HNC QUALS LEVELS LEVELS OND HND DIP DEG TOTALS

PRIVATE 5 71 54 1 9 14 21 175 PRACTICE 1% 18% 13%

_cl% 2% 4% 5% 43%

2 37 26 6 15 6 8 100 GOVERNMENT 11% 9% 6% 2% 4% 2% 2% 25%

3 28 44 5 34 8 8 130 CONTRACTING

. 41% 7% 11% 1% 8% 2% 2% 32%

TOTAL 10 136 124 12 58 28 37 405 1% 34% 30% 3% 16% 8% 9% 100%

%= 43.24 p-. 001

Table 47 Distribution of total sample by sector of employment and structuring of practice setting

INTERNAL ORGANISATIONAL SECTOR OF EMPLOYMENT . COMPLEXITY PRIVATE

PRACTICE GOVERNMENT' CONTRACTING TOTALS

NO TEAM STRUCTURE 61 1 7 69

19% 1% 2% 21%

TEAM STRUCTURE 35 2 20 57 11% 1% 6% 17%

FUNCTIONAL TEAM 14 0 5 19 STRUCTURE 4% 2% 6%

SECTION STRUCTURE 6 12 50 68

2% 4% 16% 22%

FUNCTIONAL SECTION 8 74 24 106 STRUCTURE 3% 23% 8% 34%

TOTALS 124 89 100 319 39% 27% 34% 100%

((2 251.74 p 5.001)

341

Hierarchical level

Tables 48 and 49 present highest qualifications obtained by raw hierarchical level and adjusted hierarchical level.

A number of cell frequencies are below 5 and X2 results

should be treated with caution.

Figure45 illustrates a number of findings by adjusted hierarchical level and age.

Table 48 Distribution of sample by raw hierarchical " level and highest qualification obtained

HIGHEST RAW HIERARCHICAL LEVEL QUALIFICATION TOP BOTTOM

1 2 3 4 TOTALS

NO QUALS 6 2%

ý1% 2`<1% 0 10 3%

0 LEVELS 5814% 18 5%

4912% 11 3%

136 34%

A LEVELS 31 20 49 23 123 8% 5% 12% 6% 30%

ONC OND 3 1%

4 1%

4 1%

l 1%

12 3%

HNC HND 12 11 20 15 58 3% 3% 5% 4% 14%

DIPLOMA 5 1%

5 1%

8 2%

10 3%

28 7%

DEGREE 2 41%

4 1%

15 4%

16 4%

37 9%

TOTALS 117 64 147 76 404 29 16% 36% 19% 100%

x2=56.78 p,. OO1

342

Table 49 Distribution of sample by adjusted hierarchical level and highest qualification obtained

ADJUSTED HIERARCHICAL LEVEL HIGHEST QUALIFICATION LOWER MID DLE TOP TOTAL

NO QUALS 0 5 1%

5 1%

10 2%

0 LEVELS 11 79 44 134 3% 20% 11% 34%

A LEVELS 30 62 27 119 8% 16% 7% 30%

ONC OND 2 1%

7 2%

3 < 1%

12 3%

HNC HND 21 22 15 58 5% 6% 4% 15%

DIPLOMA 13 3%

10 3%

4 1%

27 7%

-DEGREE 14

4% 20

5%. 2

_, 6 1% 36

9% TOTALS 91 205 100 396

23% 52% 25% 100%

? (2 - 48.62 pS . 001

343

T

HIERARCHICAL

PERSONALITY

r"-. 21 No: yrs secondary schooling r. -. 4

Highest qualification obt'd. r. -. 5

r- 00

r- 00

Social Class

n-Ach

r- 00

r. 00

r.. 23 Dominance r-. 20

r- 0 Affiliation r-. 18

r- 00 Competitiveness r. 00

r". 25 Responsibility r". 33

r-. 33 Tenure r". 61

r-. 12 Job changes r.. 45

r-. 4 Yrs. in present r.. 46 organisation

r- 00 Hierarchy of =". 11 uthority

ROLE STRUCTURING r. "59 Participation in r.. 49 Decision Making

r. 0 Formalisation r--. 10

r-. 29 Achievement job climate r.. 15

r- 9A A-. - . 11 nrnf... 4nnn1ism r-. 33

=r'.

19

. vaaa

Qualifications Attendence at Seminars r-. 14

r.. 29 Task diversity r-. 14

r-. 29 Professional tasks r". 37

TASK r. -. 04 Managerial tasks r"-. 13 Table

r. -. 41 Technical tasks r. -. 38 N-256

r-. 15 Professional Association r-. 25 PROFESSION

r" 00 Public Service r-. 03

r-. 16 Self Regulation r-. 14

r.. 21 Vocation r". 40 Table

N"256 r' Autonomy r.. 20

r)"12, p4. OS r). 15, p4.01

__ ,on,,,.. nn rý. 20, p.. 001

All other r lr-. 35 rntrcpreneurtat CasKS r". ýý ýJ N-216 rb. l3, ps . 05 r . 17, pg . 01 r> . 21, p( . 001

Figure 45 Relationships between minor variables, hicrnrchical level and age

344

Professionalism

Figure 46 illustrates the relationship among personality dimensions and overall professionalism,. Figure 47 sets out the relationships between the separate dimensions of professionalism.

Figure 48 illustrates the relationship between reported

professional behaviour as measured by attendance at

seminars and overall professionalism.

Figures 49 and 50 illustrate the influences of structuring

of role and task variables on dimensions of professionalism.

r-. 67

Affiliation

r-. 18

r=. 28

r". 33

Over all Professionalis

r-. 44

r=-. 20

r=. 17 Dominance

. 30 r=. 80

- Competitiveness

r-. 20

r-. 24

Age

r-. 33

n-Ach

-. 23 r--. 13

Responsibility

r-. 15

N-216

r . 13, p4 . 05 r" . 17, ps . 01 r . 21, p< . 001

Figure 46 The relationship between personality dimensions, over all professionalism and age (Table 31, p. 313)

345

n. s. Professional Association r.. 25

I

n-Ach

n. s.

Dominance Fr-

-. 19

Ir". 19

Affiliatio

n. s.

n. s.

n. s.

I r-. 16

Public Service

Self Regulation

Vocation

Autonomy

n. s.

r-. 14

r=. 40

r°-2n

n. s. Professional Association r-. 2

r-. 12 Public Service n. s.

r-. 28 Self Regulation r". 14

r-. 15 Vocation r=. 40

r-. 8 Autonomy r=. 20

n. s. Professional Association r-. 25 .

n. s. Public Service n"s"

n. s. Self Regulation r=. 14

r-. 13 Vocation r-. 4C

n. s. Professional Association ß. T5

Re

N-256

ra. 12, pG. 05 rý. 15, p( . 01 r, > . 20, pA . 001

n. s. Public Service n. s.

itiveness r-. 15 Self Regulation r-. 14

n. s. Vocation r". 40

. s. r". 37 Autonomy

n. s. Professional Association r-. 25

.. 27 r-. 15 Public Service n. s1

sibility r-. 19 Self Regulation r-. 14

r.. 23 Vocation r-. 40

n. s. Autonomy r-. 20

Figure 47 The relationship between personality dimensions, age and dimensions of professionalism (Table 32, p. 34)

346

No: of professional Qualifications

r=. 18

Age r=. 33 over all professionalism

r=. 23 r=. 30

r=. 52

No: years tol // r=. 26 Qualify

r=-. 12

Attendence atI Seminars

r=. 19 /-

N=216

r3.13, p<. 05 r . 17, p<. 01 r3 . 21, p4 . 001

Hierarchical Level

Figure 48 Relationships between attendence at professional seminars, extent of professional qualification, age, hierarchical level and over all professionalism (Table 31, p. 313)

347

n. s. Professional Association

n. s. Public Service

HIERARCHY OF r=-. 16 Self Regulation AUTHORITY

n. s. Vocation

r=-. 38_ Autonomy

r=. 2S Professional Association


TICIPATION IN r=. 24 Self Regulation ISION MAKING

r=. 32 Vocation

Autonomy

n. s. Professional Association


Job n. s. _Self

Regulation Codification

r=. 22 Vocation

r=-. 27 Autonomy

r=-. 17 rofessional ssociation

r=-. 15 Public Service

FORMALISATION Specificity of n. s. Self Regulation Job Description

r=-. 35 Vocation

n. s. Autonomy

n. s. _Professional Association

n. s. Public Srevice

R�t Q n" s" Self Regulation

N=256 w---ý n. s. Vocation r. >.. 12, p < . 05 ra . 15, p, & . O1 r=. 31 Autonomy r3 . 20, p <, . 001

Figure 49-'Relationships between degree of structuring on role positions and dimensions of professionalism (Table 32, p. 314)

348

rý Professional Association


Task Diversity n. s. Self Regulation

TASKS

n. s.

n. s.

r-. 22

ns

Professional Tasks n. s.

r-. 16

n. s.

r--. 15

n. s.

Managerial n

n. s.

r-. 13

Technical Tasks

n. s.

n. s.

n. s.

r"-. 23

r--. 18

r.. 13

n. s.

Entrepreneurial Tasks n. s.

Vocation

Autonomy

'rofessional Association

'ublic Service

elf Regulation

location

kutonomy

'rofessional Association

? ublic Service

elf Regulation

/ocatLon

utonomy

? rofessional Association

? ublic Service

elf Regulation

location

autonomy

Professional Association

Public Service

Self Regulation

n. s. Vocation

r-. 22 Autonomy

N"256 T;. 12, p4 . 05 r ):

209p 15, pe. . 01

r'? e. . 001

Figure 50 Relationships between tasks variables and dimensions of professionalism (Table 32, p. '314 )

349

Role structuring and task variables

Figure 51 illustrates the relationship between role structuring and task variables.

n. s.

n. s.

HIERARCHY OF n. s. AUTHORITY

n. s.

n. s.

Task Diversity

Professional' Tasks

Managerial Tasks

Technical Tasks

Entrepreneurial Tasks

r_32 Task Diversity

r=. 24 -Professional

Tasks

PARTICIPATION r=. 14 Managerial Tasks IN DECISION MAKING r=-. 46 Technical Tasks

r=. 56_ Entrepreneurial Tasks

n. s. Task Diversity

n. s. Professional Tasks

FORMALISATIONH r=-. 21 Managerial Tasks

n. s. Technical Tasks

N=216 r=. 14 Entrepreneurial Tasks

r3.13, p4 . 05 r>. 17 , p.. 01 r. y. 21, ps . 001

I

Figure 51 Relationships between degree of structuring on role positions and task variables (Table 31, p. 313)

Route to Qualification

Figure 52 presents the differing routes quantity surveyors have taken to reach corporate membership of their professional associations.

350

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Chapter Summary

The chapter on results has established the characteristics of the total sample together with relationships among the

major variables proposed in the research paradigm. The

following chapter will analyse and discuss the relationships that have been established. The discussion will also synthesise

results from the present study together with literary evidence to indicate the nature of professionalism in Quantity

Surveying.

352

CHAPTER 9

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The following section summarises and interpretes the

statistically significant relationships from the Results

chapter (Chapter 8). Findings are presented within the sections

used to explore the research paradigm. Subsequently, the

results will be synthesised within the theoretical framework

provided by the Individual, Organisational and Occupational

perspectives.

Family influences

There is a relationship between need for achievement, as

measured by Fineman's(1975a) WPQ, and the level of educational

attainment (Figure 34, p. 315).

Quantity surveyors from the higher social classes have spent longer at school than those from the lower social groupings. However, the educational standing of the sample is low, 64%

(the majority) were educated to 0 and A level standards only. A minority of 16% have degrees or diplomas. Furthermore, the

older members of the occupation have spent less time at school and have less qualifications than younger recruits (Figure 42)

p. 336).

Quantity surveyors from the higher social classes have taken

less time to qualify than those from the lower classes (Figure 31, p. 313 ). This is in agreement with Coates(1977)

who found that those quantity surveyors from backgrounds

where the father's occupation was classified as manual took

longer to qualify as corporate members than those whose backgrounds were intellectual or medial.

Occupational structuring- the IQS versus the RICS

Need for achievement discriminates between members of, the,,

two institutes(Table 33, p. 317 ). The relationship is, however,

in the reverse direction than-; was'expected. The rank order, from highest to lowest, is RICS members, dual membership and IQS members. Crockett(1962) and McClelland(1967) have

noted that choice of occupation and perceived prestige of that

occupation are related to n-Ach. The present results may suggest a relationship between perceived prestige of the RICS

353 s

or IQS and n-Ach.

Social class differentiates between members of the two

organisations (Table 34 , p. 317 ). Quantity surveyors from

the higher social classes were more in evidence in the RICS

than the IQS. Furthermore, social origins may have had

some influence over the type of educational processes

undertaken by individuals. There was a greater proportion

of individuals who have attended public/private schools in the

RICS than the IQS. This is consistent with an interpretation

of different perceptions of prestige attached to each institute.

Different dimensions of attitudinal professionalism discriminate between members of the two institutes(Table35 , p. 318 ). The rank order, from highest to lowest, -for each of the statistically significant dimensions is;

i) Belief in Professional Association- Dual membership, RICS, IQS.

ii) Belief in Self Regulation- RICS, Dual membership, IQS. iii) Belief in Professional Autonomy- Dual membership,

RICS,. IQS.

These dimensions reflect aspects of occupational power.

Sector of employment- Private Practice, Government, Contracting

Dimensions of interpersonal orientation discriminate between

individuals working in Private Practice, Government Service

and Contracting. The following dimensions, rank ordered from

highest to lowest, are statistically significant (Table36

p. 320 );

i) Affiliation- Private Practice, Government Service,

Contracting.

ii) Responsibility- Private Practice, Government Service, Contracting.

iii) Competitiveness- Contracting, Government Service, Private Practice.

The present findings when interpreted within the context of similar variables operating at the level of occupational structuring between the RICS and IQS indicates the importance

of the organisational environment and situation currently facing the individual in determining the extent and nature

354

, Y.

of interpersonal orientations. Interpersonal dimensions have

failed to discriminate between members of the RICS or IQS,

institutes that have been allied to different sides of the

construction industry. The findings on affiliation and

competitiveness, for contracting,. can be interpreted as

reflecting the more competitive environments facing those

individuals working in this side of the industry. Organisational

environments in contracting may increase interpersonal

competitiveness and decrease"affiliative tendencies. The

findings on responsibility cannot be explained without

reference to a possible confounding relationship with age. The rank order of decreasing average ages, between sectors, is Government Service, Private-Practice and Contracting.

Dimensions of attitudinal professionalism differentiate

between sectors of employment (Table 37 , p. 320 ). The rank

orderings, from highest to lowest� for statistically

significant dimensions are; i) Belief in Professional Association- Government Service, `

Private Practice, Contracting. -' ii) Belief in Professional Autonomy- Private Practice,

Contracting, Government Service.

Major dimensions of reported role structuring differ significantly

according to sector of employment (Table38 , p. 321 ). These

are; rank ordered from highest to lowest;.

i) Hierarchy of authority- Government Service, Private

Practice, Contracting.

ii) Participation in decision making- Private Practice,

Contracting, Government Service.

iii) Formalisation- Private Practice, Contracting, Government

Service.

The results for Government Service are in the predicted direction except for formalisation. The present study'is unable to explain the higher incidence of reported formalisation in Private Practice.

Those individuals working in Contracting report higher Achievement climates whilst those in Government Service

report the lowest. Furthermore, task variables also differ

355

significantly according to sector of employment(Table36 , p. 320 ). Statistically significant results have been obtained for the following task dimensions, ranked ordered from

highest to lowest; -- i) Task diversity- Private Practice, Government Service, "

Contracting.

ii) Managerial tasks- Contracting, Government, Private

Practice.

iii) Entrepreneurial tasks- Private Practice, Contracting, Government.

These are in the expected direction except for entrepreneurial tasks. The higher scoring of individuals in Private Practice

on this dimension may highlight a weakness in McClelland's

(1967) argument that 'professionals' are not involved in

entrepreneurial role behaviour to the same extent as businessmen. -This does, however, require the assumption that

reported entrepreneurial task activity is related to

entrepreneurial role behaviour. The present study may indicate

that the work setting is forcing 'professionals' to undertake entrepreneurial role behaviour that is likely to elicit achievement striving.

There is a higher reported incidence of technical qualifications in Contracting compared to ahigher incidence of degrees. and diplomas in Private Practice(Table 45 p. 340).

Hierarchical level

There is a positive statistical relationship between the interpersonal dimensions of dominance and responsibility and hierarchical level (Figure 37, p. 325 ). These relationships are explainable partly in terms of the age variable since each is positively related with age. - There is a positive statistical relationship between-, the

professionalism dimensions of Professional Association, Self Regulation, Vocation and Autonomy (Figure, 37 p. 325 ). Age may have a mediating relationship.

Respondents report that Participation in decision making increases with organisational rank, as does achievement job

climate (Figure 37', p. 325 ).

356

A number of statistically significant relationships emerge

with task variables(Figure 37 , p. 325). Respondents report that task diversity and performance of professional and

entrepreneurial tasks increase with organsiational rank. Furthermore, there is a reported higher incidence of technical

tasks performed in the lower levels of the hierarchy. These

relationships are in accordance with theoretical expectations.

Degree of structuring on role positions

A number of statistically significant relationships have been found with structuring of role positions and professionalism. (Figure 38, p"328). There is a negative statistical relationship between Hierarchy of authority, Formalisation and over all

professionalism. However, over all professionalism is

positively correlated with Participation in decision making. These statistical relationships may be interpreted within the context of the ability to exercise freedom of action and independant judgement. Participation in decision making is likely to increase the opportunities for independant judgement

whilst the structuring variables of Hierarchy of authority and Formalisation decrease opportunities.

Achievement job climate is correlated negatively with Hierarchy

of authority and correlated positively with Participation in

decision making(Figure38 , p. 328 ). These may be interpreted

as a function of organisational rank and sector of employment.

Need for achievement is correlated'negatively with Hierarchy

of authority and correlated positively with Participation in decision making(Figure38 , p. 328 ). These statistical

relationships can be interpreted within the context of the

ability to exercise fredom of action, personal responsibility

and a potential for innovation. The lack of a statistical

relationship between n-Ach and Formalisation was unexpected. Confounding variables may be present.

The reported degree of structuring on role positions has direct implications for interpersonal behaviour(Figure38 , p. 328 ). The following statistical relationships have been found;

i) Hierarchy of authority has a negative statistical relationship with dominance and affiliation.

357

ii) Participation in decision making has a positive

statistical relationship with dominance, competitiveness

and responsibility. iii) Formalisation has a negative statistical relationship

with dominance and responsibility. These realtionships may be interpreted within the context

of sector of employment, age and organisational rank.

Task variables

The following statistical relationships have been found with

over all professionalism and task variables(Figure39 , p. 331 ).

i) A positive statistical relationship with-task diversity.

ii) A positive statistical relationship with professional task activity.

iii) A negative statistical relationship with technical

task activity.

iv) A positive statistical relationship with entrepreneurial task activity.

The reported relationships may-be confounded by age,

organisational rank-and sector of employment.

The reported performance of technical task activity, by

respondents, has been found to have a negative statistical

relationship with n-Ach(Figure 39, p. 331). Contrary to

expectation, the task variables of diversity, managerial,

professional and entrepreneurial task activity do not have

a significant relationship with n-Ach. This is surprising,

especially in terms of task diversity and entrepreneurial task

activity since they are expected to be at the heart of

entrepreneurial role behaviour. The issue is further complicated by the fact that achievement job climate has a positive,

statistically significant, relationship with reported

entrepreneurial task activity. This is in accordance with theoretical expectations.

The following task variables have statistically significant relationships with interpersonal dimensions(Figure39 , p. 331).

i) Professional tasks have a positive statistical

relationship with dominance and responsibility.

358

ii) Technical tasks have a negative statistical relationship

with dominance, competitiveness and responsibility. Age may have a confounding relationship with the foregoing.

However, the relationships with professional tasks may be

interpreted as indicating increased freedom of action and

a sense of responsibility since the interpersonal dimensions

of dominance and responsibility have a positive statistical

relationship with hierarchical rank. The relationships with technical task activity may be interpreted as indicating

the consequenes of heavy proceduralisation of technical tasks

performed at the lower levels of the hierarchy. Technical

täsks_involve the measurement function and Standard. Methods

of Measurement. The opportunity to exercise freedom of choice, independant judgement and a sense of personal responsibility is, - therefore, considerably reduced. The statistical

relationship with competitiveness is difficult to explain

within the context of the present analysis.

Achievement job climate

Achievement job climate has a positive statistical relationship with over all professionalism(Figure 40, p. 333 ). Age and hierarchical level may, however, have confounding relationships

with these variables. Furthermore, achievement job climate is

correlated positively with n-Ach. This is in accordance with theoretical expectations.

Achievement job climate has positive statistical relationships

with dominance, competitiveness and responsibility(Figure 40,

p. 333). These are in accordance with theoretical expectations. However, contrary to expectations from the literature review there is a lack of statistical relationship with affiliation.

Organisational size

Organisational size has been found to have the following

statistical relationships;, i) A negative relationship with task diversity.

ii) A positive relationship with the number of hours spent at professional seminars (r=. 20, p<. 001).

iii) A negative relationship with Participation in decision

making and Formalisation(r=-, 22, r=-. 24 respectively, p< . 001, Table 32 p. 314 ).

359

OTHER FINDINGS

Professionalism

Attitudinal professionalism has a complex statistical relationship with personality dimensions and the confounding variable of age (Figure 46, p. 345 ). Professionalism appears to involve

an element of interpersonal competition. As Table32 , p. 314

indicates this appears to operate through two dimensions.

First, the dimension of Self Regulation (r=. 15, p 4.01) and Autonomy(r=. 37, p S . 001). The former has a negligible

correlation with age whilst the latter has a significant

correlation with this variable(r=. 20, p.. 001). The relationship

with competitiveness may indicate that individuals require

a degree of interpersonal competition in order to muster and

utilise resources through the professional. associations and

commence or uphold status in relation to other occupations and the public at large. An element of interpersonal competition

would create the occupational -. atmosphere' essential for a closing of ranks to foster self protection and enhance the impetus for professional and occupational autonomy.

Need for achievement has a postive statistical relationship with professionalism. As Table 32 (p. 314) indicates this

operates through the professionalism dimension of Autonomy.

In part, this would suggest the importance of the organisational

setting. The Autonomy dimension is strongly related to a,

number of organisational variables including hierarchical

rank, sector of employment and structuring of role positions.

A number of significant relationships have emerged between

structuring of role positions, task variables and dimensions

of professionalism. Any meaningful relationships are confounded by correlations with hierarchical position and age. However,

the importance of the organisational setting and role position, within the organisation, has been established for-influencing

attitudinal professionalism.

360

Tasks

The research study has found a number of statistically significant relationships between structuring of role

positions and task variables(Figure5l , p. 350 ). The most important findings to emerge are the positive correlations between Participation in decision making and responses on task diversity, professional and managerial tasks. A stronger

statistical relationship has been found between entrepreneurial task activity and Participation, in decision making. Participation in decision making is not statistically related to the technical

aspects of Quantity Surveying.

The statistical relationship between reported Formalisation

and managerial and entrepreneurial task activity is a

confounded relationship. In comparing Tables 31 and 32(pps3L3 to 314 ) there is a lack of consistency between correlation

co-efficients.

Need for achievement

Need for achievement has a negative statistical relationship with affiliation and correlates positively with dominance

and competitiveness. Need for achievement is not statistically related to responsibility. A'numbe`r'of points are worthy

of consideration. First, the negative relationship with

affiliation is consistent with theoretical deliberations.

Second, the positive relationship with interpersonal competion

cannot be explained on the basis of theory. Need for achievement

relates to competing against internalised standards of excellence

and is supposed to have no interpersonal competitive element. Jung(1978) has raised this inadequacy in achievement motivation theory. Third, the positive statistical relationship with dominance was not expected from theory. The literature review suggested that n-Ach and dominance, although occuring together, were independant. Furthermore, both variables are significantly correlated with achievement climate. The, present study within the constraints of the analysis, is unable to unravel the complexity of this relationship. Fourth, the lack of statistical relationship with responsibility cannot be explained. A sense of responsibility is fundamental to McClelland's(1967)

361

model of achievement motivation. Lastly, Gynther et al(1962) discovered no statistical relationship between n-Ach(as measured by the EPPS) and any of the interpersonal dimensions

of personality measured by the ICL. The present study would disagree with their results. Furthermore, Gynther et al have assumed that the independence of the n-Ach and interpersonal

variables lends support to the fact that the former is

specifically restricted to human drives whilst the latter

is restricted to human behaviour. The present evidence would,

suggest this assumption is questionnable. However, the

confounding variable of achievement job climate may be

affecting this statistical relationship.

A SYNTHESIS AND RE-APPRAISAL

Introduction

The final section brings together the diverse findings from

each of the sections used to explore the paradigm, together

with other findings from the study and the literature

survey, to provide a picture of professionalism in Quantity Surveying within the original, framework of the Individual, Organisational and Occupational levels of analyses.

The individual perspective

The present analysis would indicate that the demographic

characteristics of individuals that have entered Quantity

Surveying are diverse. They have come from differing social backgrounds, however, two main groups emerge. Approximately 43% are from Social Class 3 (skilled manual and non-manual occupations) and a further 36% from Social Class 2 (Intermediate

occupations). Furthermore, they have undertaken different

educational processes and different routes to qualification. A number of compensatory mechanisms appear to be operating on individual differences to give an apparent look of homogeneity on certain of the major variables. 1. Social class differences are not emerging in terms of

educational achievement. ' Quantity surveyors, across the social spectrum, appear to have attained similar academic standards even though those from the higher

362

social classes have remained at school longer to

reach this standard. 2. The sample is predominantely state educated with only

19% having attended public/private schools. 3. Qualified quantity surveyors are, in general, not

educated to university educational standards prior

to corporate membership of professional associations

although this is becoming more common with new

recruits. 4. The demographic variables of social class and birth

order have failed to differentiate between individuals

on interpersonal dimensions and need for achievement. However, no distinction was made in birth order to

differentiate between the sex of siblings. This could

account for the lack of any statistical relationship. Furthermore, quantity surveyors are, on average, high

need achievers and exhibit a wide range of achievement

motivation. Table 50 presents average scores on Fineman's(1975a) WPQ across a number of samples, quantity surveyors rank fourth.

5. Social class differences emerge in terms of time taken

to qualify. Social class has no discriminating power in terms of educational attainment but quantity

surveyors from the higher social classes remained. at

school longer. Those from the lower social classes

probably-entered' the work force earlier. The research

evidence from the present study suggests it is more a

question of temporal sequence rather than ability.

However, the conclusion is only tentative since the

educational processes within Quantity Surveying are

complex. 6. The routes taken to qualify as corporate members of the

institutes are diverse. They differ in terms of academic requirements, time involvement and demands on ability.

The foregoing indicates that the environmental influences

present in the organisational and occupational milieu are potential sources of variance that are able to equalise the diversity amongst individuals.

363

Table 50 Comparison of WPQ data from Fineman and present study Source: Male (1984)

N MEAN RANGE S. D.

Middle managers in NHS 21 12.7 5-19 N. A. 23 12.7 7-20 N. A. 24 11.56 4-17 N. A. 23 10.3 4-18 N. A.

Managers in High St. 74 11.4 6-20 N. A. shops

Applicants for graduate 226 14.3 N. A. 3.0 training scheme-

engineering

Middle and senior 336 14.0 4.23 3.43 managers in large

confectionary and food manufacturer

Plant managers 89 11.04 N. A. 4.05

Managers on post 350 15.0 N. A. 3.24 experience courses

QUANTITY SURVEYORS* 429 13.91 2-23 3.41

* Quantity surveyors rank fourth in the above Table.

364

The organisational perspective

Major linkages have been established between sector of

employment and organisational variables of task, hierarchical

level, organisational size and achievement climate. The

relationships are complex and it is beyond the scope of the

present study to unravel the diverse relationships that

exist. However, as Figure 53 indicates, the implications of these variables on professionalism are important. Evidence from the present study suggests that sector of employment and organisational size are jointly related to the degree

of structuring on organisational roles and the diversity and types of tasks undertaken by individuals. Role structuring

and task variables are, in turn, either directly or indirectly,

through the achievement climate reported and perceived by

individuals, - related to the degree of professionalism

exhibited by individuals. A number of points have emerged from the analysis. i) It is wrong to consider professionalism as--a single

dimension. The present study reinforces the work of Bartol(1979), Hall(1968,1969) and Schriesheim(1978) in highlighting the multi-dimensional nature of the

construct. Differing dimensions have been found to

vary according to sector of employment and hierarchical

rank. Furthermore, in the present study age has been

found to consistently relate to over all professionalism

and each of the separate dimensions except Belief in

Service to the Public. This latter dimension has been

found to have no discriminating ability in terms of

sector of employment, hierarchical rank or age. ii) The importance of the separate dimensions is further

highlighted in the case of those employed in Government Service. These individuals are employed in highly

structured work settings, they report less involvement in the direct affairs of the organisation and are restricted by direct supervision. The result has been

reported perceptions of low achievement climate in Government organisations. The consequence, in terms

of attitudinal professionalism has been a reported

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increased use of the professional association as a

major source of reference in comparison to other

sectors of employment. This explanation is, however,

confouded by an increase in the average age of those

employed in Government( an average of 41.6 years in

Government Service as compared to 40.2 years in Private

Practice and 36.4 years in Contracting). Professional

Association as a Source of Reference is highly

correlated with age (r=. 25, p,: 5.001). In contrast

with an increase in the foregoing dimension, those in

Government Service scored less on the attitudinal dimension of Professional Autonomy.

iii) Attendence at professional seminars for CPD) is directly

related to the degree of professionalism-reported by

individuals. It is also directly related to hierarchical

level. Attitudinal professionalism, therefore, has a direct statistical relationship with reported occupational behaviour.

iv) The relationship of personality dimensions to professionalism is complex within an organisational setting. The interpersonal dimensions of dominance, competitiveness and responsibility, although having positive statistical

relationships with professionalism cannot, at the

present time, be considered to be representative of reported

interpersonal behaviour patterns associated with the

construct. They are highly correlated with age,

achievement climate and role variables. The dimension

of need for achievement has no direct statistical

relationship with over all professionalism although it has a positive correrlation with Professional

Autonomy. Confounding variables are, therefore, highly

possible.

v) Attitudinal professionalism is stronly and positively correlated with task, role structuring and high

achievement climates related to senior managerial levels. Those tasks consistently reported by respondents to be

undertaken by senior management, namely; divesity,

professional and entrepreneurial task activity are

367

statistically related to Professional Association as a Source of Major Reference and Professional Autonomy.

Furthermore, the dimension of Belief in Vocation is

positively related to professional task activity. An increase in technical tasks is, however, related to a low Belief in Professional Association as a Source of Major Reference and Sense of Vocation (Table 32, p. 314) Technical tasks are invariably

undertaken by lower management and younger surveyors. Viewed from another direction the dimensions of Professional Association, Autonomy amd Self Regulation

are power dimensions within professionalism.. They

may increase a sense of vocation for senior managers

who are involved in the prestigious tasks of the

occupation. A high incidence of technical tasks, the

more mundane aspects of Quantity Surveying, may decrease

a sense of vocation and desire to be involved with occupational activities outside organisational life.

The individual and organisational aspects of the-framework ii have been explored. A number of important issues from each of these areas will be further discussed in explorations at the occupational level.

The occupational perspective

Two issues-are important for the present discussion. First,

the effects of occupational structuring, pre-amalgamation

of the RICS and IQS. Second, the consequences for the post-

amalgamation RICS.

Pre- amalgamation occupational structuring

Figure54 summarises the major relationships established in the present study.

The professional associations of the RICS and IQS were effectively recruiting indviduals from two different aspects of the social structure. The R. ICS attracted a higher

proportion of individuals from Social Class 1 (Professional

and Managerial) and Social Class 2 (Intermediate occupations)- 53% - compared; -to the IQS'which attracted 37% from these

groups. Furthermore, at the lower end of the social scale

368

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0 the RICS attracted 7% from Social Classes 4 and 5 (unskilled

and semi skilled) whilst the IQS attracted 15% for the same groupings. In terms of the type of school attended the RICS

attracted 25% of those who had been either to public or

private school whilst the IQS had attracted 15% (this ignores

those individuals who have joint membership of the institutes in both cases).

Those in the upper and middle classes, who have probably gone through 'privileged' educational establishments, were being

attracted more to the RICS than the IQS. However, 'the RICS have admitted, and the present study has reinforced their

contention, that the educational standing of the occupation is low. Furthermore, as Edge(1975) and Coates(1977) have

both intimated, the awareness of recruits and the general public about the functions of Quantity Surveying is limited. The foregoing presents a paradox for Quantity Surveying. On

the one hand, the RICS was attracting those from the upper social strata who are usually considered the more priviliged in society and yet, on the other hand, the IQS was predominantely attracting those from the lower social strata. This indicates a considerable diversity in the possible perceptions of prestige of recruits to each institute. Furthermore, in terms

of agitation for-status the RICS, as the dominant institution,. has always taken the lead in acquiring occupational status. In the previous section, dealing with the organisational perspective, a number of important issues emerged from the

separate analyses of the dimensions of professionalism. The

dimensions of Belief in Professional Association, Self Regulation

and Professional Autonomy are associated with occupational

power.

In terms of sector of employment, the dimensions of Professional

Association and Professional Autonomy were ranked highest by

Private Practice and Government, two sectors usually allied with the RICS. These dimensions were ranked least by Contracting,

usually allied with the IQS. Furthermore, when considering the ranking of these two dimensions and the dimension of Self Regulation the following picture emerges. First, members of

370

the IQS ranked least on all three dimensions. Second, the

RICS, ranked highest on Self Regulation. Third, the three

power dimensions of professionalism increase with-. organisational rank and age. Fourth, on Hall's(1969) structural component of professionalisation Quantity Surveying is fully

professionalised.

Interpreting the preceeding within a neo-Weberian perspective (Chapters 3 and 6) the senior members of Quantity Surveying,

" mainly through the RICS, are actively seeking to raise the

status of the occupation through the use of the occupational

strategies of professionalisation and professionalism. For

the latter strategy they are using the dimensions of Belief

in Professional Association, Belief in Self Regulation and Belief in Professional Autonomy to achieve this end. Furthermore,

through their contact with occupational practice a sense of

vocation is engendered because they are involved in the more

prestigious tasks of the occupation. The attitudinal dimension

of Belief in Service to the Public has-failed to differentiate between age groups, hierarchical level, sector of employment and occupational structure. This would suggest that although useful in the rhetoric of journals it has little import for

occupational striving except as a justification for the exercise

of power. The use of occupational power is achieved through the

professional associations. It involves the use of tactics and

political manoueverings. This has been explored within Quantity Surveying by the application of the process model

of Bucher and Strauss(1961). Their model has indicated that

the RICS has used tactics and strategies to carve out a

supposedly unique mission for Quantity Surveying within the

area of building construction. However, the exploration of the, literature has revealed that the techniques used are not unique to the occupation with the possible exception of cost planning and cost control. It could be argued, however, that these have emerged from the deficiencies of the Architectural

profession rather than as a unique contribution from Quantity Surveying. The RICS, through its officials, has consistently used a number of tactics to achieve the unity of the

371

Surveying profession. The exercise of power, however, has

not been restricted to those in authority within the RICS

and IQS. Power groups arising from Within the ranks of the

membership of both institutues have sought to resist and oppose

actions instigated by officials. This was especially prevalent

over the contentious issue of amalgamation.

Cost planning, cost control and contractual and tendering

procedures have been suggested, by some authors, to be

Quantity Surveying's best claim to professional status. The

present study would argue that 'the first two have no theoretical

underpinning and could-only be viewed as sophisticated

extensions of the measuring function. In the practice setting they are, no doubt, applied with skill. However, as Harries-

Jenkins(1970) pointed out, in the case of Quantity Surveying

the linkage between theory and application of techniques is

small. Therefore, a low level of professionalisation is

indicated. Furthermore, occupational power, as discussed in

the literature survey, rests on the knowledge base of an occupation. Within the present context the-evidence indicates that the power base of Quantity Surveying rests on the

application of highly practical techniques that at one end of the spectrum are on a par with craft skills-and at the

other end of the spectrum, with cost planning and cost control,

are no more than sophisticated extensions of the craft based

skills. The contractual aspects of Quantity Surveying's power base are derived'and supplanted from that of the legal profession.

Occupational power as a function of uncertainty

The power structure of Quantity Surveying has been partially

explored within the previous paragraphs. This will be further

elaborated with reference to the power models of Haga(1975), Gordon and Ross(1962) and Johnson(1972).

Quantity Surveying has been analysed using the model suggested by Haga(1975). This model proposed that Quantity Surveying lacks the essential ingredients, at the present time, of mystique and the ability to intimidate to reach full professional status. The model suggested by Gordon and Ross(1962) indicated

372

41

that the occupation lacked some of the pre-requisite,

continuing and evaluative characteristics that are essential for professional status. Findings from the model also add further support to those from Haga's model concerning the

relative distribution of power and occupational authority in the client-practitioner relationship. In the exploration

of occupational power, using Johnson's(1972) typology, the

evidence indicated strongly that Quantity Surveying was

operating under a sytem of corporate patronage. Further

support for this conclusion stems from the data in the

present'study. Johnson has suggested that those in the

occupation who are heavily involved with corporate patrons have similar social characteristics to those in the patron organisation, on the assumption that the corporate elite are from the higher social'strata. The present study has

revealed that those in the RICS, the institution primarily servicing the client side of the industry, tend towards

recruitment from the upper social strata. This is particularly evident from the data of those who are qualified to A level

standard, where there was a strong relationship between social class and managerial level. Furthermore, this group are strongly represented in the middle and upper management levels

where reported professional and entrepreneurial tasks (which

include client contact) are involved.

For Quantity Surveying, therefore, the power relationship between client and practitioner is biased in favour of the

client. However, it has been argued this may depend on the

level of corporate sophistication. Furthermore, this suggests that'uncertainty reduction occurs in the direction of the

client' organisation. Viewed from a different perspective the level of awareness of the occupation is primarily restricted to those in direct contact with the occupational function

since, in essence, the service performed is to a selected significant other. The occupation is unable to accrue wider social bases of power that the more visible professions of theology, law and medicine are able to muster. In the

sentiments of Portwood and Fielding(1981) Quantity Surveying is unable to accumulate the entrapments of professional

373

privilege associated with the traditional professions. This

will include the ability to recruit the more academically

able from the higher social classes, who through the privileges

of education and rank, have greater access to the power

structures of society.

On the one hand Quantity Surveying appears fully professionalised

on Hall's(1969) structural component and, on the other hand,

Figure 53 (p. 35'1 ) indicates and reinforces the conclusion of Carr-Saunders and Wilson(1933) that Surveying, in general,

and Quantity Surveying, in particular, have a multi-portal

system of entry suggestive of a low level of professionalisation. THE CONCLUSION THAT HAS EMERGED FROM THIS STUDY IS THAT

QUANTITY SURVEYING IS A HIGHLY SPECIALISED, SKILLED

OCCUPATION, THAT IS USING THE CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH PROFESSION TO CONTROL ITS MEMBERSHIP. FURTHERMORE,

BECAUSE THE OCCUPATION IS SERVICING AND USING THE SKILLS-

THAT ARE ONLY PERTINENT TO THE CORPORATE BUSINESS WORLD IT

LACKS THE STATUS AND PRESTIGE OF OTHER OCCUPATIONS THAT ARE

ABLE TO ATTRACT THE HIGHER CALIBRE RECRUIT.

Research evidence from the present study, when interpreted

within a Marxist framework, also indicates that Quantity

Surveying is providing, on the one hand, a service to the

corporate capitalist structure of society and, on the other hand, by recruiting across the social spectrum it offers

the opportunity for considerable social mobility, especially

for those recruits from the lower social classes. The linkage

between Quantity Surveying and the capitalist business

functions in society also receives support from another area:,, - The research results have consistently failed to indicate any differ. ences among sector of-employment and managerial level

with respect to need for achievement. Furthermore, it has

already been stated that, on average, quantity surveyors are high need achievers. Interpreting this within the framework

provided by McClelland(1967), the results indicate that the

tasks reported-to_be undertaken by quantity surveyors,

especially at more senior levels, within Private Practice and Conracting, essentially involve entrepreneurial role behaviour.

374

Quantity Surveying can, therefore be argued to have all the characteristics of a skilled business occupation similar to that of Accountancy. The quantity surveyor does not advise

clients on business opportunities and financial management, in general, but does so within the specific and narrow

confines of client construction projects.

The foregoing discussion has concentrated on issues that were

apparent prior to amalgamation with the IQS. However, a number of the issues raised will have important implications for

the post-amalgamation RICS.

Post-amalgamation RICS_and occupational structuring

The RICS will face a number of potentially difficult problems that the present study has explored. First, -the social composition of the institution will have changed from a majority who were in the upper social strata of society to one where the balance has shifted to the lower social strata. It is evident, from the analysis of the social composition of the RICS and IQS, that differing degrees of social prestige may have been-attached to each institute. The RICS can probably rest on its lorals for a number of years with the-status that it has attained in the past. However, for it to maintain some form of social prestige, in order to attract those from

the upper social groupings and improve its position under a system of corporate patronage, it may have to adopt radical

recruiting and educational policies. The RICS has been

reluctant to do so up to the present.

Second, the institution now has to deal, as never before, with a greater-diversity of practice requirements. The-analysis

of results, according to member institute, has revealed the requirements of the contracting side of the industry for

technical qualifications. The trend in private practice is for degrees and diplomas. Furthermore, the requirements of the

practice setting dictate, -almost universally, the preferred part-time route to qualification with little emphasis on research. THE LITERATURE EVIDENCE IS CLEAR. IF QUANTITY SURVEYING, THROUGH THE RICS, WANTS TO RAISE ITS OCCUPATIONAL

375

STANDING THE EMPHASIS MUST MOVE FROM PART-TIME ROUTES .

FOR QUALIFICATION AND A MULTI-PORTAL SYSTEM OF ENTRY TO A UNI-PORTAL SYSTEM OF ENTRY, AT DEGREE LEVEL, OBTAINED THROUGH FULL-TIME EDUCATION.

Third, the lack of interest in research, by the membership in general, also impedes status attainment. The analysis

presented in the present study has revealed three important

points that have a direct consequence on the research dimension of the occupation; i) The graduate members of the RICS are those who perceive

the importance of research for the occupation. Coates(1977) data details this explicitly (see Table9 , p. 68 ). However, they are at the lower levels of the managerial hierarchy and tend to be involved, to a lesser extent, in Association affairs. Assuming current attitudes to research remain, it will be some time before these members are in a position of authority, within practice or the RICS, to have any direct impact on policies in this area. The research dimension of the occupation is likely to remain stagnant for some time.

, to come.

ii) The occupation places too much emphasis on the., importance of practice. This is partly the result of being a client controlled occupation. However, officials in the RICS face a dilemma. If they wish to improve the occupational lot in the milieu then the occupation must be partly research and partly practice led. The literature survey has established a strong link between

theory, research, practice and occupational status. However, those qualified surveyors who are interested in research may be unwilling to leave the more lucrative

practice setting to undertake research, assuming that

organisations are willing to allow this to happen. Furthermore, the graduate, who is more likely to be in

a position to attract research funding from Research Councils, is not enticed into the research sphere when the institution does little to give research into the theoretical aspects of the occupation the accord which it is due. The research dimension, for the graduate, is even less attractive when views expressed by a

376

proportion of the membership are considered. They are

not prepared to give those, working in research the

status of 'Chartered Surveyor'.

iii) With the exception of tendering and contractual

procedures, the practical nature of the techniques used

may never be supported by a theory for the simple

reason that under a system of corporate patronage the techniques do not need a thoery in order to be

applied(Johnson 1972).

The analysis of results has confirmed the picture that was

emerging from the theoretical discussions in the earlier

chapters of the thesis. Quantity Surveying is going through

a transition that is similar to that which evolved, in the

early 1800s, during the formative years of the occupation. The transition then revolved around the dissociation between

architects, architect-surveyors and contractors. At the

present time, for Quantity Surveying, it is the dissociation

between the 'technologist' and the 'technician'. The ideology

stressed by corporate patronage is one of-superior competence. For Quantity Surveying, this. would entail extending the inroads

already made into areas of financial and project management. The techniques of cost planning, cost control and contractual

and tendering procedures are ideal for providing such a

service. The climate within the construction industry is

right for Quantity Surveying to capitalise on its position.

Recently, the Architectural profession has been badly maligned

on aesthetic grounds and for its inability to fulfil their

requirements of project leaders. The engineering professions

are likely to resist most strongly the managerial impetus

of Quantity Surveying since they consider many of the tasks

performed by quantity surveyors fall within their domain

(see Chapter 2).

Managing this period of. transition would the RICS; i) Fostered an ideology, consistent wi

controlled by corporate patronage. a move away from emphasis on equal in an ideology of professionalism,

be facilitated if

th an occupation This requires an

competence, inherent

to an ideology

377

stressing superior competence. r ii) Maintains, and successfully clarified the distinction

between the technologist and the technician. To

achieve this organisations must also adapt and employ the graduate surveyor in a'technologist role rather than as a highly qualified substitute technician.

iii) Moved away from a system of multi-portal entry and part-time routes to qualification to a uni-portal system based on a university or polytechnic degree. Additionally, the degree should be read full-time.

iv) Accepted that the techniques of cost planning and cost control may have no theoretical underpinning and as such they may form part of the potential range of tools that can be used by quantity surveyors acting as project and financial managers in construction.

v) Established the theoretical impetus for the occupation in the area of management applied to the construction industry. A discipline of management in construction does not exist at the present time, its boundaries diffuse into other areas of management.

vi) Allowed the educational institutions the freedom to design courses consistent with the functions of the technologist. In practice this would require that the RICS maintain its control over the occupation through the TPC only. However, the issues of full-time education and graduate entry are at the heart of the dilemma facing the RICS. As Figure 9 (p. 75 ) illustrated

poignantly the graduate, at the present time, has no incentive to join and participate in the affairs of the Association. In the market place, especially highlighted

in the dealings with the EEC, the status of the Chartered Surveyor is recognised as first degree status. For the

graduate, the title may offer no more, in terms of prestige, than a degree. However,. should the qualification offered by the RICS be perceived as having additional status the graduate may be more willing to enter.

As Carr-Saunders and Wilson(1933) and Portwood and Fielding(1981) have noted, the attainment of professional privilege is a long

378

and arduous struggle but once attained offers considerable benefits for an occupat16n. The present analysis would

suggest that Quantity Surveying still has a long way to go.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

The current chapter has presented an analysis of results in

terms of the major areas explored in the research paradigm. These were subsequently interpreted within the theoretical framework provided by individual, organisational and

occupational levels of analysis. The discussion has highlighted

the complex interplay between the individual, the organisation

and the occupation. As the research design is complex the folllowing chapter will summarise the major conclusions.

379

CHAPTER 10

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Introduction

The following sections set out conclusions from results

and literature evidence within the theoretical framework

of the Individual, Organisational and Occupational

perspectives.

The individual. perspective

1. The demographic characteristics of quantity surveyors are diverse in terms of social class and education.

2. Social class has been shown to'relate consistently to time spent at school and time taken to qualify. However, there is no difference in the academic standards attained between social groupings even though the higher social classes remain at school longer. These results have been interpreted as Indicative of temporal sequence-rather than ability. The picture is more complex if the sample is divided. into 0 and A level grades.

3. Individuals in Quantity Surveying are high need achievers.

The organisational perspective

1. Organisational role variables of task, degree of structuring, and achievement climate vary consistently according to sector of employment and hierarchical

level. Organisational size has a confounding effect.

2. The variance present in organisational roles confounds

statistical relationships with n-Ach to produce an appearance of homogeneity by sector and organisational

rank.

3. Role variables, acting directly or indirectly, through

achievement climate, affect the degree of professionalism exhibited by individuals. The results indicate that the construct Attitudinal Professionalism is multi-

not uni-dimensional.

4. There is a relationship between Attitudinal Profession-

alism and reported occupational behaviour expressed as CPD.

380

5. Age and hierarchical level appear to affect Attitudinal Professionalism. The power dimensions of

professionalism, namely, Professional Association as Major Reference, Self Regulation and Autonomy, are all

positively related with the variables of age and hierarchical rank. The attitudinal dimension of Vocation is more strongly related to age than

organisational rank. The attitudinal dimension of Belief in Public Service has no discriminating

ability in terms of age, hierarchical rank. or sector of employment. --

The occupational perspective

Pre_amalgam2t12t

1. Pre-1983'the professional associations of the RICS

and IQS recruited members from two different groupings. The RICS has recruited from the higher social strata (Social 'Classes 1,2 and 3 nöh--manual '- 71%) whilst the IQS has recruited from the lower social groupings (Social Classes 3 skilled manual, 4 and 5-51%).

Furthermore, a greater percentage of RICS members

attended public schools than did members of the IQS.

The RICS has, therefore, attracted more privileged

members of society. Recruits to each institution

reflect those demographic differences in their

perceptions of Institution prestige.

2. The power dimensions of Attitudinal Professionalism

and the apparent full professionalisation of Quantity

Surveying have been linked with the occupational

striving of the RICS to increase the status of , the

occupation. However, the attitudinal dimension of Belief in Service to the Public has failed to differentiate between major occupational categories. It has been concluded that this is a useful tactic to Justify the exercise of control over recruiting.

381

3. In drawing the findings together it can be concluded that Quantity Surveying:

i) Is a client controlled occupation operating under

a system of corporate patronage.

ii) Requires a prolonged-period of training to

acquire essentially technical knowledge, to

practice a highly practical set of techniques,

using the characteristics of "pro. fessions" to

test practitioner competence.

Cannot operate a complete closure principle because of lack of status, privilege and power

although it is using the ideology of professionalism to, serve these ends.

iv) Lacks the critical components of a unique body

of theory, intimidation cruciality and mystique to make it a true profession, and, therefore,

can-only be described as, -- v) A specialised occupation'providing a skilled

business service'within'the division of labour

in society.

Post-amalgamation-consequences ---- ---- -- --- --- ----- A number of the issues raised in the present study will have implications for the unified RICS. These relate specifi-

cally to three areas. First, the changing social

composition of the RICS` may have serious consequences for

its continuing prestige. Demographic differences have

been highlighted with reference to perceptions of Institutional prestige. Second, if the RICS wants to

move Quantity Surveying from a. skilled business occupation to a profession is should attempt'to influence, to a greater extent than it has done so in the past, the practice setting in order to prevent the wastage of graduates. If it is desirous of, in the long term, achieving graduate

entry then the tasks undertaken by such individuals should

reflect training the potential technologist and not a highly qualified technician. The development of a full

382

system of corporate patronage can only be achieved when

there is an effective distinction between the work of the

technologist and the work of the technician. Third, -the differing requirements of the sectors 'of employment, for,

quantity surveyors, will place considerable burdens on

the educational processes of the institution. The

socialising experiences of individuals has been

diverse. Furthermore, with the contracting side of the industry moving under the wing of the RICS, 'a sense

of uniformity of outlook may be difficult to maintain.

Quantity Surveying has a prolonged and arduous struggle

ahead to obtain and reap the rewards of professional

privilege. However, the potential lies dormant within the occupation.

RECOMMENDATIONS'FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The present study has sought to establish a general framework for exploring one occupation from an historical,

individual, organisational and occupational perspective. Future research could contribute substantially in the

following areas:

I) The complexities "of the demographic variabl. e. s of

social class and education within Quantity Surveying.

ii) The complexities of the organisational perspective in the occupation with specific reference to role

positions.

Once these complexities were unravelled comparative

studies of Architecture and Quantity Surveying would be-

feasible as they have the same routes and similar

aspirations to be leaders of the building team.

A further comparative study of Quantity Surveying and Accountancy would be extremely useful as they perform similar functions to the corporate business, world.

383

In a theoretical sense, future research should explore the

effects of the organisation on. achievement motivation and interpersonal behaviour. The present study has

highlighted the complexity of role variables on each of, these domains.

Finally, future research should expand on the work commenced by Johnson (1972) into the differing consequences of occupational power for the structuring of an-occupation. The present study has contributed to the discussion in this area.

384

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APPENDIX 1

Data on Interpersonal Check List

Table 51 Kuder Richardson estimates of reliability Source: Armstrong (1958: 394)

Check List Rating rtt Significance

Normals (N=50)

Self Rating 953 01 Mother Rating 967 01

Father Rating 969 01

Wife Rating 966 01 Ideal Wife Rating 958 01

Ideal Self Rating 953 01

Alcoholics (N=50)

Self Rating 958 01 Mother Rating 967 01 Father Rating 976 01 Wife Rating 972 01- Ideal Wife Rating 960 01 Ideal Self Rating 966 01

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APPENDIX 2

Covering Letter 'and Follow-Up Postcard

R'ý

Department of Building

Heriot-Watt University Chambers Street, Edinburgh EH1 1 HX Telephone 031-225 8432

Head of Department Professor VB Torrance, MSc, PhD, FCIOB, FBIM

Dear Sir,

your ref

our ref VBT/FJ

date As Postmark

An Organisational Analysis of the Quantity Surveying Profession

The Quantity Surveying profession is assuming an ever increasing role in the construction process. Unfortunately, it does suffer from a lack of systematic research into professional and organisational requirements when compared with the other established professions, such as Architecture.

The enclosed questionnaire forms part of a major study, to be undertaken by this Department, of the Quantity Surveying profession. It is concerned with assessing professional, organisational and attitudinal variables. As a professional person, with considerable experience in the profession, your views would be of great value in the study.

The questionnaire is to be treated in the strictest confidence. For the purposes of the study we are interested in trends not names. The value of the study will be considerably increased if you could answer the statements and questions as frankly as possible. The information derived from the questionnaire is of prime importance and could, in part, determine how the Department is to provide feedback to the profession and the Construction Industry in the future.

We are very aware of the pressures and time constraints placed on professionals in Quantity Surveying but hope that a little of your time spent on the questionnaire will assist us in the research. The questionnaire. in places, may appear repetitive. This is solely a function of the scaling techniques used. The questionnaire may also appear of considerable length. Every attempt has been made to keep the length to a minimum so that the least amount of time and effort will be required for completion. Therefore, it has been broken down into sections to enable you to answer it at your own pace or as time permits.

A stamped, addressed envelope is enclosed for questionnaire returns. We would be grateful if the questionnaire could be returned at your earliest convenience as this will facilitate quick and easy processing. A brief synopsis of the study will be available on request.

Yours faithfully,

Professor V. B. Torrance, Head of Department of Building.

ENCL

APPENDIX 3

Questionnaire

_tt$ r fý HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

AN ORGANISATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE

QUANTITY SURVEYING PROFESSION

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING IN STRICT CONFIDENCE

Leave Blank

COL

1-7

The following questions are concerned with your professional history. A number of different types of answers are required. Some require circling numbers in boxes or Yes/No questions. Others require answers to be inserted in boxes or spaces provided.

Please use BLOCK CAPITALS where possible to ease legibility.

1. SEX Male 1n8

Female 2 2. DATE OF BIRTH

Da Month Year © C1 9-14

3. NATIONALITY U. K. 1

E] 15

Non-U. K. 2 4. SECONDARY EDUCATION

a)Type of school attended(eg. State, Public, P rivate) 11 I10-17

b)How many '0' levels or equivalent do you have? Nr ý18-19

c)How many 'A' levels, SCE highers or equivalent do you have? Nr Q

20 d)Please state the number of years you have spent

in full time secondary education. Nr 21-22

e)Age on leaving school? Yrs

M23-24

5, GENERAL EMPLOYMENT INFORMATION

a)Age on entering full time employment if different from 4e above? Yrs 25-26

b)Have you been an Articled trainee? Yes/No 27 FURTHER EDUCATION

Please note; Part time study is defined here as day release, evening classes, correspondence courses-and private study whilst in full time employment. Full time study is defined here as attendance at college, University etc. (including sandwich courses) whilst not in full time employment.

6. PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

a)Please state your Institutional qualifications (eg. ARICS, FIQS)

128-30

b)Please state your route to professional qualification (eg. All IQS exams or perhaps ONCiHNC-.. Degree-. 'Full exemption 131-32

RI CS exams+TPC)

c)Please state the number of years, from embarking on your QS career, to reach full corporate membership of your main QS Institution

Yrs 33134

1.

Leave Blank

COL

If you have ONC/OND, HNC/HND Q?

If you have a degree or diploma --a-- Q8

If you have sat RIOS/IQS exams ---ß- Q9

7. TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS ONLY

a)Please state your technical qualifications (eg. City&Gullds, ONC, HND etc. )

b)Please state the number of years spent in;

Part time study for technical qualifications Yrs

Full time study for technical qualifications Yrs

If you have a degree or diploma -a. "Q8 If you have sat RICS/IQS exams-- -Q9

8. UNDERGRADUATE DEGREE OR DIPLOMA HOLDERS ONLY

a)Please state your undergraduate degree or diploma


9.

Part time study for degree or diploma Yrs

Full time study for degree or diploma Yrs

c)Did your undergraduate degree or diploma give you full exemption from RIOS/IQS written exams?

Yes/No

d)Do you have a postgraduate degree obtained before you reached corporate membership as a QS?

Yes/No

If NO-- -Q9 If YES, please state the type of qualification (eg. M. Sc. . Diploma)

Please state the number of years spent in;

Part time study for postgraduate degree Yrs

Full time study for postgraduate degree Yrs

e) Md your postgraduate degree give you full exemption from RICS/IQS written exams? Yes/No

Please go to Q9

RIOS/IQS WRITTEN EXAMS

a)Have you obtained corporate membership of the above Institutes Iby means of you having membership of another Institute?

Yes/No

If YES, were you granted full or partial exemption from written exams?


Part time study on RIOS/IQS exams Yrs

Full time study on RIOS/IQS exams Yrs

35-38

39-40

41-42

43-44

LU 45-46

47-48

49

fJ 50

51-52

53-54

55-56

57

058 Q

59

ý60-61

0]62-63

2.

Z RIOS/IQS WRITTEN EXAMS(CONTD)

c)Have youu sat an RICS/IQS Test of Professional Competence?

Yes/No

1If NO--ß-Q10

If YES, how many years has it taken to pass the TPC, after exemption from or completion of RIOS/IQS exams?

Yis

POST QUALIFYING EDUCATION

10. DEGREES, DIPLOMAS ETC.

a)Have you undertaken any further academic study since qualifying? Yes/No

If NO-b-=Qll

If YES, please state the nature of your qualification (eg. M. Sc. Diploma)


Part time study for the qualification Yrs

Full time study for the qualification Yrs

11. PROFESSIONAL SEMINARS, COURSES ETC.

a)Do you attend professional refresher courses, seminars, conferences etc? Yes/No

If NO-ýQ12

If YES, please state the approximate number of hours per year.

H rs

CAREER STRUCTURE

12. . CAREER SPAN

a)Please indicate the number of years spent in;

Full time employment in your QS career irs

Full time employment outwith your QS career Yrs

Any time not accounted for above Yrs

13. PRESENT EMPLOYMENT

ä)Please state your present employment(eg. Education, C. Govt, Private Practice, contracting)

b)iiow long have you been employed in your present organisation? Yrs

14. NUMBER OF CHANGES IN FULL TIME EMPLOYMENT TO DATE(excluding sandwich training)

0123456789 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18+

15. AREAS COVERED IN CAREER, IN ORL1 R OF TIME(eg. Private Practice to Contracting to Local Govt etc)

Leave, Blank

COL

1-7

El 8

ý9-10

El 11

112-13

14-15

16-17

10 18

119-20

J21-22

23-24

25-26'

127-28

29-30

Iý31-32

133- 34

3.

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COL j

16. PRESENT INCOME a)Please state your present income to the nearest

one hundred pounds(exclusive of benefits) £

b)Please state the total value of any benefits you receive per year (eg, Firm's ear credit cards etc) £

17. OVERSEAS EMPLOYMENT

Have you worked as a QS overseas Yes/No

If NO-1-Q18

If YES, please state the type, and approximate value of contracts where possible.

FAMILY INFORMATION

18. FATHER'S OCCUPATION DURING SCHOOL YEARS

19. BIRTH ORDER(eg. First born, only child, etc)

20. MARITAL STATUS

Single i

Married 2

Widowed 3

Widowed -Remarried 4

YOUR PRESENT ORGANISATION

Divorced 4

Divorced -Remarried 5

Separated 6

The following questions are to assist in understanding how your organisation is administered on a day to day basis.

21. PLEASE INDICATE YOUR PRESENT POSITION IN THE OFFICE(eg. Chief Executive, Partner, Assistant, Lecturer)

.. How long have you been employed in your present position?

Y rs

22. NUMBER OF STAFF DIRECTLY UNDER YOUR CONTROL(eg. QS staff, back up staff)

Nr

23. APPROXIMATE VALUE OF WORK DIRECTLY UNDER YOUR CONTROL IN ANY ONE YEAR(eg. Contracts as job QS)

£ 24. ORGANISATIONAL AND PROJECT PROBLEMS

a)Do you discuss organisational problems with colleagues Frequently 1 Occasionally 2 Never 3 Not applicable 4

b)Do you discuss project problems with colleagues Frequently 1 Occasionally 2 Never 3 Not applicable 4

4.

35 39

40-44

El 45

46-47

48-49

50-51

EJ 52 -

53-54

55-56

EII 57-58

59-60

61

El 62

I Leave Blank

COL

25. OFFICE RESPONSIBILITIES Please place a TICK against any of the following items that describe the type of work you are involved in.

Preparation of -feasibility studies -approximate estimates -cost plans

Preliminary advice to clients -on tender documentation

-on general cost information

Preparation of tender -Building Works documentation for -Civil Engineering Work

-M &E Work

Preparation and settlement of -Building Work Final Accounts for -Civil Engineering Work

-M &E Work

Work in Progress -Contract negotiations -Valuations -Financial. Appraisal -Cash flow forecasting

General -Gaining new work -Office administration -Tender evaluation

Other(please specify) -

26. ORGANISATIONAL DIAGRAM Please draw a schematic diagram of your organisational structure in terms of office management. Please indicate your own position and the number of people at each level.

63-64

65-80

/

I

5.

11131 23. NUMBER OF QUALIFIED QS STAFF EMPLOYED(incltiding partners)

IN YOUR OFFICE OR DEPARTMENT. Nr

28. NUMBER OF UNQUALIFIED QS STAFF EMPLOYED(including trainees) IN YOUR OFFICE OR DEPARTMENT

Nr

22. OFFICE MANAGEMENT

ä)Is your organisation structured;

With set teams and formal levels of authority 1

Some team flexibility but still with a definite

authority structure 2

Ad hoc teams created to suit varying workloads 3 b)Are the QS staff subordinate to another profession

(eg. attached to an Architect's or Engineers Dept)

Yes/No

30. WIDER ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT

Please indicate, by schematic diagram, if your organisation fits into a wider organisation structure(eg. Head Office, Govt. Ministry, Branch Office)

31. TOTAL NUMBER OF STAFF IN YOUR U. K. ORGANISATION(ie. those employee also in a wider organisational context throughout Great Britain eg. Govt. Ministry, Regional Health Authority, Head Office)

6.

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The following questions are statements that may or may not be true for your job in your department or office. Please indicate for each item, the extent to which it applies. More More

True False Definately Than Than Definately

True False True False

1. I feel that I am my own boss in most matters.

2. A person can make his own decisions without checking with anybody else.

3. How things are done are left pretty much up to the person doing the work.

4. People are allowed to do almost as they please.

5. Most people make their own rules on the job.

6. There is no rules or office manual.

7. There is a complete written job description for my job.

8. Whatever situation arises, we have procedures to follow in dealing with it.

9. Going through the proper channels is constantly stressed.

10. People feel as though they are constantly being watched to see that they obey all the rules.

ll. The organisation keeps a written record of everyone's performance.

12. The employees are constantly checked on for rule violations.

13. We are to follow strict operating procedures at all times.

14. Everyone has a specific job to do.

15. Whenever we have a problem we are supposed to go to the same person for an answer.

033-47

11

0

'El

8.

The following items are concerned with the way you interact with your colleagues, superiors or clients etc. They are therefore describing how you view YOURSELF in your work situation. The items consist of single words or phrases which may or may not describe YOURSELF at work.

Please read each word or phrase and then mark with a TICK, against the item concerned, those statements that apply to you.

IF AN ITEM DOES NOT DESCRIBE YOU THEN PLEASE DO NOT PLACE A TICK AGAINST IT

LEAVE BLANK LEAVE BLANK COLS COLS

48-75 AT WORK -75 4 1-7 8-34

. r-ý fi Will believe anyone

Good leader

Kind and reassuring

Agree with everone

Spineless

Dependent

Dominating

Timid

Very anxious to be approved of

Apologetic

Act important

Usually give in

Sarcastic

Appreciative

Trusting and eager to please

Easily, led

Make a good impression

Clinging

Touchy and easily t hurt

Think only of self

Expect everyone to admire self

Self respecting

Modest

Often unfriendly

Easily fooled

Try to be too successful Cold and unfeeling

. Slow to forgive a wrong

Self punishing

Bitter

Want everyone's love

Enjoy taking care of others

Spoil people with kindness

Will confide in anyone 1,

Too willing to give to others

Want everyone to like self

Affectionate and understanding

Friendly all the time

Warm

Forgive anything

Too easily influenced by friends

Give freely of self

Friendly

Helpful

Like everybody

Try to comfort everyone

Too lenient with others

Encouraging others

Over sympathetic

Over protective of others

Tender and soft hearted

Fond of everyone

Generous to a fault

Sociable and neighbourly

Big hearted and unselfish

9.

LEAVE BLANK COLS 35-70

MYSELF AT WORK

Dictatorial

Self seeking

Frequently angry

Impatient with others mistakes

Businesslike

Sceptical

Complaining

Can be frank and honest

Forceful

Able to give orders

Frequently disappointed

Able to criticise self

Able to doubt others

Obey willingly

Often gloomy

Cruel and Unkind

Independent

Passive and unaggressive

Straightforward and direct

Can be indifferent to others

Often helped by others

Let others make decisions

Hard hearted

Can be strict if necessary

Like responsibility Critical of others

Boastful

Want to be led

Self reliant and assertive

Meek

Rebel against everything

Grateful

Bossy

Often admired

Well thought of

Considerate

IIII11 151

LEAVE BLANK COLS

1-7 8-44

Resent being bossed

Egotistical and conceited

Resentful

Self confident

Firm but just

Always pleasant and agreeable

Selfish

Jealous

Accept advice readily

Somewhat snobbish

Hardly ever talk back

Shrewd and calculating

Always giving advice

Proud and self satisfied

Outspoken

Co-operative

Manages others

Irritable

Able to take care of self

Very respectful to authority

Admire and imitate others

Always ashamed of self

Like to be taken care of

Distrust everybody

Can complain if necessary

Stern but fair

Stubborn

Hard headed if necessary

Like to compete with others

Hard to impress

Lack self confidence

Respected by others

Shy

Can be obedient

Easily embarrassed

Eager to get along with others Love everyone

10.

ýý

JOB CLIMATE QUESTIONNAIRE

The following questions are pairs of descriptions with which you can describe the way you see the immediate environment, or climate, in which you work. The descriptions refer to the various aspects of your job situation such as independence, the degree of formality, how much responsibility exists and so on.

Look at each pair of descriptions and decide firstly, which of the two descriptions is in general more indicative of your own view of your job situation. Secondly, decide the extent to which this description applies - then'place a TICK on the scale provided. If neither description is applicable place a tick in the centre point of the scale.

Example 1

Statement A Statement B

This example indicates that your preference is strongly orientated towards Statement A.

Example 2


This example indicates that your preference is moderately orientated towards Statement B.

Example 3

Statement Ar____ Statement B

This example indicates that your preference is for neither description.

PLEASE DO NOT LEAVE OUT ANY QUESTIONS

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The purpose of the following questions is to look at some of the views you have towards your IDEAL ORGANISATION and IDEAL BOSS. Please do not describe your current job situation: think of the type of organisation-and boss you would ideally prefer for your personal satisfaction regardless of whether or not they would be the best choice for you at your particular stage of career.

You will find the questionnaire has rather an unusual format. On the following pages you are given pairs of descriptions. Please read each pair of statements and then mark with a TICK, on the scale provided - the statement you find CLOSEST to your own preference.

Example 1

Statement A_�___ Statement B

This example indicates, on balance your preference would be orientated towards A than B. The choice may sometimes be rather tricky - like chooosing between the lesser of two 'evils' or the better of two 'goods'. Nevertheless, you will find that a choice is possible - one will just tip the balance for you.

Example 2


This example indicates that your preference is strongly orientated towards Statement B.

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PLEASE DO NOT LEAVE OUT ANY QUESTIONS

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The following questiona are an attempt to measure your attitudes and behaviour towards the Quantity purveying profession. There are five possible responses to each item. This allows you to express the degree of agreement/ disagreement with the item. The five responses are: -

SA Strongly Agree A Agree ? Neutral opinion D' Disagree

SD Strongly disagree

Please circle your response to each item. Please answer all -questions.

I

1. I systematically read the professional SA A ? D SD

journals. 2. Other professions are more vital to SA A ? D SD

society than Quantity Surveying.

3. I make my own decisions in regard SA A ? D SD to what is done in my work.

4. I regularly attend professional SA A ? D SD meetings at the local level.

5. Most people would stay in Quantity SA A ? D SD Surveying even if their incomes were reduced.

6. My own decisions are subject to SA A ? D SD review.

7. There is not much opportunity to SA A ? D SD to judge how another person does his work.

8. I am my own boss in almost every work SA A ? D SD related situation.

9. If ever an occupation is indispensible SA A ? D SD it is Quantity Surveying.

10. My colleagues know how well we all do SA A ? D SD in our work.

11. There are very few people in Quantity SA A ? D SD Surveying who do not believe in their work.

12. Most. of my decisions are reviewed by SA A ? D SD other people.

13. I think Quantity Surveying, more than any SA A ? D SD other, is essential to society.

14. My fellow professionals have a pretty SA A ? D SD good idea about each other's competence.

15. People in Quantity Surveying have a SA A ? D SD 'calling' for their work.

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16. The importance of Quantity Surveying is sometimes over stressed.

17. The dedication of people in the profession is most gratifying.

18. I do not have much opportunity to exercise my own judgement.

19. A problem with Quantity Surveying is that no one knows what his colleagues are doing.

20. I believe the professional organisations should be supported.

21. Some other occupations are more important to society than Quantity Surveying.

22. It is encouraging to see the high level of idealism that is being maintained in the profession.

23. The professional organisations do little for members.

24. We really have no way of judging each others competence.

25. Although I would like to, I do not read the professional journals too often.

Do you want a brief synopsis of the study?

Would you be available for a short interview if selected?

Would you be available for a retest of this questionnaire at some time in the future?

SA A ? D SD

SA A ? D SD

SA A ? D SD

SA A ? D SD

SA A ? D SD

SA A ? D SD

SA A ? D SD

SA A ? D SD

SA A ? D SD

SA A ? D SD

Yes/No

Yes/No

Yes/No

PLEASE MAKE ANY COMMENTS ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE OVERLEAF

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EI 39-48

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APPENDIX 4

Description of Unadjusted Management Levels

ORGANISATIONAL LEVELS (unadjusted)

Top Managing Directors, Directors, Partners, Principals

Upper

Junior Partners, Associates, Area Managers,

Departmental heads

Middle

Sub-department heads (principal quantity surveyors) Senior Surveyors, Group Leaders

Lower

Quantity surveyor

Non-Management Assistant level

APPENDIX 5

Task Variables- Item Descriptions

MAJOR TASK ACTIVITIES

Entrepreneurial

Gaining new work Tender submissions Obtaining export orders Estimating (if done-by head of firm or Contractual claims (if done by head of Letting properties Buying sites/properties Sales/Marketing

Tax Advice

Professional

Preparation of

- Feasibility studies

- Approximate estimates

- Cost Plans

- Cost Analyses

Advice on

- tender documentation

- general cost information

head of department) firm)

Contract negotiations Legal work and litigation

Advice preparation and settlement of claims Arbitration

Advice on contract tendering methods Tender evaluation Teaching

Research and development

Advice to consultants Specialist advice to contractors Advice on contract insurance Appointing consultants Valuation for insurance purposes Development Land tax work

Managerial

Financial appraisal Cash flow forecasting

General office administration Contracts management Project management Strategic planning Supervision of consultants Management accounts Contract administration Financial management Programming staff resources General financial control Improvements to cost control services Profit and Loss accounts Technical library Loan applications Cost and financial accounts Buying (in contracting) Cost control Project presentation Budget preparation Bonus auditing Calculating historic building grants

Technical

Preparation of

- tender documents

- final accounts

- valuations Specification writing Fluctuations Estimating (if done by lower levels)

Checking final accounts Bonus targets and payments Production of drawings Computer programming Measurement of variations and valuations Measurement for sub-contractors payments

APPENDIX 6

Description of Sample by Sector of Employment

DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE BY SECTOR OF EMPLOYMENT

The following paragraphs detail the typical quantity surveyor in each of the major sectors of employment. Descriptions are based on modal figures from Tables 55 to 63

Private Practice

The typical quantity surveyor, in--private practice is aged between 31 and 35 years old. He works in a middle management position and will be responsible for £2 - £5 million of work per annum.. He will earn approximately £10,000 per annum and will have a Social Class 2 background. He will have been educated in a state school to ""0"" Level standard only.

Government

The typical quantity surveyor in Government is aged between 36 and 40 years old. He works in a middle management position and will be responsible for £2 - £5 million of work per annum. He will earn approximately £11,000 per annum and will have a skilled Social Class 3 background. He will have been educated in a state school to "0" Level standard only.

Contracting

The typical quantity surveyor in contracting is aged between 31 and 35 years old. He will work in a. middle management level and will be responsible for £2 - £5 million of work per annum. He will earn approximately £10,000 per annum and will have a Social Class 2 background. He will have been

educated in a state school to "A" Level standard unly.

Table 55 Distribution of sample by age and sector of employment

PRIVATE TOTAL

CATEGORY PRACTICE (N=183)

GOVT (N=102) '

CONTRACTING (N=132)

SAMPLE (N=447)

LE 25 1 1 2 1

26-30 17 14 26 19

31-35 22 16 32 23

36-40 17 20 15 17

41-45 14 15 9 12

46-50 13 10 7 9

51-55 10 19 -- 5 12

56-60 5 4 2 5

61 PLUS 2 3 2 2

Boxed figures indicate modal group for each category.

Table 56 Distribution of sample by adjusted management level and sector of employment.

PRIVATE TOTAL CATEGORY- PRACTICE GOVT CONTRACTING SAMPLE

(N= 77) (N=101) (N= 31) (N= 38) 1 1 4

LOWER 16 29 28 22

MIDDLE 44 59 54 52

TOP 40 12 18 26


Table 57 Distribution of project values* per annum by sector of employment

PRIVATE TOTAL PRACTICE GOVT CONTRACTING SAMPLE (N=156) (N=75) (N°123) (N=377)

PROJECT VALUES %p

L. T. 0.9M 10 20 14 13

1-1.9M 21 16 24 20

2-5M 38 32 39 37

6-10M 12 23 11 15

11-30M 14 9 8 11

30M+ 5 - 4 4

Boxed figures indicate modal group. 1981/82 prices.

Table 58 Distribution of sample by income and sector

, of employment

PRIVATE TOTAL PRACTICE GOVT CONTRACTING SAMPLE (N=156) (N=96) (N=121) (N=400)

MODE 10000 11000 10000 10000

MEDIAN 10023 10999 9575 10300

MEAN 13713 11510 10548 12169

MINIMUM 5000 7800 3600 3600

MAXIMUM 100000 22000 28000 100000

*1981/82

0

w om N p-r4 OM

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0 As r-1

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0 w o rd

0 0 Cd 0

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4-2 rý ma . r1e A ni

aý uý a)

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cc ea eQ eQ e¢ eQ %D CD

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Table60 Distribution of sample by father's social class and sector of employment

PRIVATE TOTAL

CATEGORY PRACTICE GOVT CONTRACTING SAMPLE (N=165) (N=93) (N=124) (N=406)

CLASS 5 UNSKILLED 3 3 4 3

CLASS 4 SEMI- 6 7 11 7 SKILLED

CLASS 3M SKILLED 24 37 29 29 MANUAL

CLASS 3N SKILLED 15 13 14 14 NON-MANUAL

CLASS 2 INTERMEDIATE 3$ 34 35 36

CLASS 1PROFESSIONAL 13 4 7 9

DECEASED' 2 2 1 2


Table 61. _Distribution

of-sample by age and adjusted management level

LOWER MIDDLE -TOP TOTAL MGMT MGMT MGMT MGMT

CATEGORY (N=98) (N=227) (N=111) (N=447)

LE 25 5 - - 1

26-30 45 16 4 19

31-35 22 26 16 A 16 23

36-40 12 20 16 17

41-45 6 13 15 12

46-50 3 7 21 9

51-55 3 12 18 12

56-60 3 4 6 5

61 PLUS - 1 4 2


Table 62 Distribution of sample by income and adjusted management level

TOTAL LOWER MIDDLE TOP SAMPLE (N=96) (N=218) (N=86) (N=400)

MODE 7000 10000 15000 10000

MEDIAN 7900. 10125 16033 10300

MEAN 8264, 10652 20372 12169

MINIMUM 3600 6400 9000 3600

MAXIMUM 12500 22000 100000 100000

Table63 Distribution of sample by social class and adjusted mangement level

TOTAL CATEGORY LOWER MIDDLE TOP SAMPLE

(N=9O) (N=208) (N=l00) (N=406)

CLASS 5 UNSKILLED 2343

CLASS 4 SEMI 10 687 SKILLED

CLASS 3M SKIILED 37 26 29 29 MANUAL

CLASS 3N SKILLED 10 NON-MANUAL 17 14 14

CLASS 2 INTERMEDIATE 33 37 33 3 CLASS 1 PROFESSIONAL 8 9 10 9

DECEASED - 3 2 2


APPENDIX 7

Correlation Matrix Scale Items

Item Classifications

HAUTH Hierarchy of Authority

APARTIC Participation in decision making FORMAL Formalisation

JCL Achievement job climate NACH Need for achievement PROFES Professionalism

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4 99C7C314 0.63(1 0.0E. 6 01.061" "0.0119 0.0823 0.0144 0. C'ZS 0.026+ G. Cc 90 -P. 151I 99070515 c. 14i1" ". 14.1,. 0.1491. 4.9138 0.2'. 53"" 4.1233 0.1172 -0.1259 0.22570. 0.04656 99C7E516 0.1467" 0.1235 6.0681 0. )S4S 4.0965 0.1264. 0.0524, 0.0364 0.0739 0.0774 fRcrtsir 4.1473. " 0.1695" ON ). )690 0.3972 6.1505. 11 . 1530 -0.9566 0.1991"" 0.5796 "9c70319 4.19.4.. 0.27! 3"" ). 2631"" ). 3101"" 0.2.023"" 0.2257.. 0.3016. " 0.0179 0.1167 0.0572 99(70509 0.1132 0.3551" '. 1436" 5.1533" 0.1542" 0.5646 0.106'. 1.3541 6.1i59e 0.1273 7901! 520 J. G6lN ^. ^. 634 . 1.07 11 -0. )333 0.3628 -0.2235 -3.0260 0.9444 0.1953.. 0.0296 79C7E520 0.1060 C. 1C13 0.3956 0.1281 0.3639 0.0757 0.1141 -0.1220 1.0438

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"C. 4209 -0.1005 0.1119 0.0950 -0.0910 0.310?

00C0E39 L.. 251 -0.0146 j. 1541 0.7357 -0.0769 -0.0420 "0.6333 "0.9054 "01.0771 -0.3596 0010E910 J. 0666 :. "`069 -0"0705 006 to ""C. 0600 0.3100 0.0151 "0.0134 -0.0123 "0.0649 FFCFCS1l C. Lli2

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" 00C0E31? 0"C731 -^. 0410 ""0. u636 "1.0412 -0.0669 -4.0661 0.0141 -0.0614 -0.0463 0.0222 09C1E518 0.0110 3.4EZv -'J. 1234 4.1494' (. 3462 -0.3119 3.2220"" 0.91! 7 "0.0054 0.0279 99(0(51,3.0119 -:. c Liz '3.4171 9.1045 2.0024 -0.3062 0.0416 -0.7679 0.0163 "0.3130 00C0E520 0.1233 -1.01167 3.035E 0.0261 -0.0602 -0.0237 0.1013 -0.0106 0.0549 0.0174 FFCFCSZI "C. C136 "A. CS73 "3.06)3 0. "SA2 "+. 3169 -1.2 39.7116 9900[522 2.0169 "C. 1233 -0.0648 3.0805 -0.0453 -0.0546 0.0166 0.0566 -0.0213 0.0841 F9C0E323 0.0706 0.0634 -0.0324 5.1335 "C. 0702 4.0562 0.1649" 0.0409 0.0199 0.0291 FFCFE126 2.0411 "?. C317 ). 0641 7.0474 "C. 35131 0.7295 0.0191 0.0633 0.031? 0.0470 PRCFCS25 " 0.1150 C. C425 0.0580 0.5236 -0.0172 0.0191 0.069? "0.0767 0.0969 0.7394

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" 311910. LE "tl "" " SLG1If. LE . 001 (99.0000 15 PRINTED If A COEf0ICEENt CANNOT BE COMPUTED)

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SF12 BATCH 6TSTEº Ot/11/64 PACE 21

FILE 0$TUCT1 CCREºTICN DATE " 51/10/863

""""""""""""PE4RS06C0RRELATt0NC0EfftCItN T$""""""""""""

' RACHA NACH! 3ICH6 NACHT 6ACHG NACH9 NACH IO MACH11 NACN12 NACH13

6 . LCLI0 0.0629 0.1160 -3.09013 5.1936"" 1.0576- -0.9156 '0.1169 -0.7736 - "0.0614- 0.0144 JCL11 0.0530 7.0111 -. 0997 0.1615" 0.0413 0.7336 1.0109 "0.0925 0.0733 0.3010 -4C112 0.1126 3.1577" -0.0643" 0.2365"" 0.3531 0.0262 0.2316.1. -5.1692 6.0705 0.0420

0 JCL13 0. V00 2.115? -2.0617 0.741 0.0213 0.3593 0.0173 0.0156 -0.0236 0.017v JC114 3.1113 -C. 0003 -0.0026 0.1235 -0.0236 -0.0166 0.0939 "0.0570 0.0690 -0.0253 . CL13 U. G3s1 0.1023 "0.0025 9.1692"" (. 0721 0.06! 0 0.0606 -0.7135 -0.0333 0.05A6

0 JCLII "C"5ZE0 1.0336 ")"113S 9.1496". C. ut66 0.3331 0.0673 "0.0501 -0.0136 0.0101

. CL17 0.6176 C. CSO9 -0.6011 0.0416 -3.0402 "4.0311 0.0146' -0.0919 0.0767 0.3724 4C116 0.1134 2.0209 -v. 10A! 0.0907 -C. 2370 0.3391 0.0395 " -0.0306 -0.009? '0.0193 aCL19 -0.0319 0.1037 -d. 1426" 0.1503" -0.0230 0.1220 0.1113 0.0130 -0.059? -0.0020 JC120 0. )7(2 03.0991 -3.1113 0.1430" "0.3375 0.9191 v. 6661 -0.3635 4.0062 "5. '191 0C021 C. 3504 C.! 49L -).: 561 7.2573"" C. 0140 0.0341 0.0646 -0.0046 0.0145 0.0221

C022 0.1479 ^. C453 -"3.0207 0.1214 0.1391" -4.3310 0. C56I -0.0140 "0.0623 0.1: 76 JCLZS C. IIIC 3.1379" 0. C114 0.1374" 0.3027 9.3762 0.1509" "0.39.4 -Q. u076 0.0445

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ýAºCPI 0.21: ^. "" ! "1935"" 4. C117 1.00.4 0.0272 0.0131 "0.0929 0.1361 0.0213 0.3473 64(1.6 0.11; 9 "94403 0.0397 0"'212 1.0000 -4.0526 0.0260 0.0616 0.04.61 0.1666"

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ººCº13 1..: +)6 C. 0225 -0.0016 (1.0473 0.1666" 0.3045 "0.0190 0.0388 -0.0157,1.0100 60C616 9.16: 7" -"). 0: 49 -j. 0423 9.1076 0.1439" "5"37n3 0.1666 0.0271 9.14310 0.1404. 0º11.15

,. t". 44 7.0716 Y. 4l94 0.0350 0.0435 5.1719"" 0.16626 0.0622 0.0864 0.0096 60C1.16 0.3 It? 3.0303 0.1469. -5.7336 0.4103 0.3233 0.0533 0.023? 0.0663 9.7906 61(1.11 .: 519 "3.3904 ). 1221 -1.3432 '3.0176 0.1276 3.0709 -0.3(56 6.1269 -0.1530 6ACº13 0.0404. "1"C751 . 0.0762 -41.0164 0.10330" -0.0376 0.0251 "0.0662 -0.0054 0.2496 61(1.19 33 44 -0,067? -0.0541 4.1779 0.1359" 0.931! -0.047? 0.3915 0.00.3 0.1u99 6º11.2'3 ;. 0615 -5.495? 3.7996 -5.0453 C. 0140 -0.0321 "0.0062 0.0155 0.1326 -0.0165

1 6JCº21 00.45. " ? "/363 -)"G? 33 019113" " 0.3494 '"714? -1.1272 0.2099"" "U"0661 0.07.17 6ºCh22 L. 1S14" 0.1026 2.0159 .. 13)7 ?. 1931"" 4.4191 0.1063 0""679 0.3514" 0.0661

" 60(1.23 0.00(7 G. C530 0.1130 -0.0401 " -0.0373 0.0604 0.0770 '0.0299 3.1203 7.3403 6061.24 "3.1ANI" 3.2.. 56"" .. 0907" 0.5169"" . -C. 0236 "0.317? 0.4672 0.9941 0.0194 0.1059 9909051 0.1746"" 0.6225 0.0432 0.0543 "0.0145 -0.0191 0.0700 -0.0179 0.0164 0.0134

'" Slow. LE . t1 "" ". 51G03f. LE . 001 019.0000 13 PR0NTCD If 4 COEf0ICIENT CANNOT BE COMPUTED)

SFSS BATCH ITS1C 6 Cl/ti/e4 PAGE 24

FILE 03lu(91 CCRE611C' Dire " 91/14/e41

3"' ""'""""" '"""`""""'""PLAR30AC0RHELAII0NCOCFIICICNT

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J(l11 0.1475" 0.0143 0.0325 -00615 C. 04. it -9,7119 "0.1429 0.0200 0.06'. e "0.02,15 JCLIZ ". 1526" 6.03116 "j. 4fIl 0.5393 "0.9963 3.3271 "C. CA52 0.3329 -0.0037 ".. (79'

4CL13 0.6134 0.0116 .

0.0269 0.0311 0.0240 0.0126 0.0040 0.0153 0.0092 0.0326

. CLI6 3.0530 0. x161 4.0631 -0.4135 0.0612 5.0221 -0.1009 -0.7296 0.0424 `C. 0209

JCIIS x. 233366 3.3)94 0.0321 -0.0366 0.0465 0.04e1 -0.0666 0.1220 0. C640 -0.0821

. 0116 0.1942"" :. C2^3 -3.0419 -0. 'I/70 C. veS7 0.0342 "3.1195 0.1016 0.1029 "r. 3est. - JC197 v. t315 "O. Clty -4. CZ19 -0.0314 -9.0423 "n"3456 "). G1A2 0.31As 0.0011 0.1321

J0116 (I. 3220 "x. 0719 -0,0437 "0.0172 0.0162 -0.0236 -v. 450? 0.0135 -0.0645 -0.3 Are

JCL19 "6, ý121 -u..: EE1 "). 16"07 '). 11759 0.4331 "4.1t91 `0.1246 0.5361 0.0236 7.0694

J(L2C G. or it "C. 0850 -0.0141 -0.0246 0.0274 '9.0776 -0.0206 0.0630 0.1232 0.3360

"CLZL C. 16t5" "7.15! 4 "0.3179 "0.0415 0.0611 A. 0964 "O. 1002 3.3571 0.0653 '. 06'S

00 22 .. 16360 3. '5"a "3.4? tl "9.7519 G. YS4t 0.1961 -0. Ctrs 0.1245 0.0664 "11.0070

. 01.23 0.1170 0.0E63 -0.6212 0.11548 0.3623 4.0607 "0.0146 0.3694 0.0144 v. 0157

J(1.24 0.6041 -9.113: 0.0563 -). 1103 C. 0199 0.7273 0.0149 0.5666 0.0520 "7.3956 4011.25 0.1473" -C. 0062 -0.0219 0.0081 -0.0013 0.0971 -0.0315 0.0916 0.0129 "0.095" 60(1.1 7.0619 3.1525" v. 4504 0,1809 (. 0166 .

4.0614 0.0200 "0.7677 0.0975 0"3466

6602 0.0010 -1.0415 0.0475 0.9606 "0.0196 -0,1116 "0.0144 "0.3339" -0.1813 0.0621

16(1.3 3. v443 0.3: 63 4. ane2 "11,9765 C. 1469 0.321! -1.1041 -0.0455 0.0144 "O. 3r19

60014 C. 16(7" 3.11344 o.. 367 0.0519 0.1454" 0.3344 0.0631 "0.0614 0.15340 0.0467

660115 -0.6046 3.3/16 0.0300 0.3904 "0.0701 "00614 3.4961 0.3363 0.40.16 0.9530

60(1.6 "0.0423 7. (114 3.1444" 0.1221 -0.0762 `0.0541 "9.0998

"0.3433 4.0158 4.1136

66(97 0.1076 0.11350 -0.0036 -0.0432 "C. 0164 0.1079 "0.0450 " 0.0710 0.1307 -0.0401

6601.6 0.1439" C. '435 1.01: 3 0. ^174 1.1933"- 9.13119" Y. 6140 0.0494 0.193? 0" -0.0373 61099 -.. 4703 1.1119"" 3.0230 11.1256 -0.0376

0.0311 -0.0321 0.0147 -0.0191 0.0604

660,10 C. C6E6 0.1662" 9.3533 3. ^719 0.4251 4.01'77 -0.6062 "0.1272 0.0661 0.0774

80(911 L. 0271 4. q. 022 3.237 -1.0016 "C. i962 3.0915 0.0155 0.2390"0 0.0679 0.0099

60(1.12 0.1431" 0.0686 0.0663 0.1239 -0,0074 0.0063 0.1320 "0.3b61 0.11174" 0.1201

6/(913 0.1404" C. 'v96 v. 119/6 "11.0530 0.0496 0.1049 "9.0165 0.0717 0.0961 0.0463

6ACºl4 1.93(0 -0.0262 0.0808 -0.0480 0.0885 0.3158 0.0862 0.0930 0,1638"0 -0.0672 66(9t5 -6.0262 140"v -1.0237 0.2116"" 0.1540 9.97('6 O. C601 0.0952 '0.1)277 "0: 0176

60(616 0.0818 -0. CZ37 1. C047 0.0535 0.0042 "0.0300 0.0241 0.0364 0.0! 39 -0.0206 66017 "3.0410 0.2116"" J. 035 1.0079 "1.1213 -4.7661 0.0713 -0.0133 "0.0671 0.0679

6a(º16 0.0905 2.0! 548 J. C 42 -0.1213 1.00uO 0.16711"" 0.1472" 0.0235 0,3005". ' -0.0028 860619 0,0/16

. 3.0706 '3.433"3 "00661 0.11170. " 1.004 0.0916 0,2196"" 0.0925 0.0274

60(129 0.6912 7.06.01 "). 6241 0.5313 6.1472" 5.391a 1.0403 "0.0382 0.1256 "0.0579 80(621 14.0930 0.0912 0.3364 -0.0130 0.0335 0.2196". "0.0362 11.0300 0.0198 -0.0262 66(1.22 0.1116"" -1. "277 ' "i. 3539 "). 5-671 0.30005"" 0.3925 3.1256 0.0196 1.0000 ' 0.0139

ºACº23 '2.0772 "0.6176 -0.0203 0.0679 -0.3024 0.0274 -0.0579 "0.0282 0.0139 1.0000

660626 0.14(6" -0.1436. t4453 -0.1015 0.3392 0.1171 "0.0030 0.9119 0.4773 0.0002 1001131 4.0612 -0"3610 -3.061t -0.3079 "0.0339 0.0251 0.0633 0.0131 0.0022 0.0609

"" $IGNtf. 1. E . (3 "" " SIG617. LE . 001 (99.0000 1$ PRINTED If A COEFFICIENT CANNOT 6E COMPUTED)

spat CATCH STSTEº 01/13/64 FACE 23 FILE OSTUCTI . (CRE/TIch DATE " Ot/110/64)

". """""'""PEARS0NC0R4ELAT10NS """"" ...... .

4ACN14 NACh1S NACHl6 4ACHIF AACN18 NACH19 NACH2O NECN21 NACH22 NACH23 N16361 -0.1626 -0.3(61 -. 3.038! -0.0395 `0.3531 -0.111E -0.0666 -13.3464 "0.0525 0.1663 606162 -C... 517 -7.4960 "0.409? -3.3059 "0.0339 -0.1322 -0.0565 -0.1239 -0.0274 -0.0277 416163 "(J. 0214 -3.0163 -4.127T 0.419 -0.0213 -0.3731 -0.0514.. ! 0.0283 "0.0650 0.3362 614764 005! 6 "7.01191 "349 17 - 9.0113 "0.0625 -4.30 re ). 0092 0.0511 "0.40720 0.0619 N61.11.3 -0.0410 -0,0171 " -3.0230 0.0128 -0.0466 '0,1057 0"), 1! 75 -0.0067 -0.0576 0. '171 A9001201 0.1841"" ""3.3339 -0.039? "1,7952 0.1221 0.5416 -3.0939 "0.3333 0.0196 "0.01`86 IF000IC2 0.187! """ -0.3323 "3.0431 -0446s.. 0,1183 0.016! "0.1032 "0.0142 0.0164 -0.0201 09611103 0.1927"" "0.039x -0.0367 :. 0163 0.1339 0,0762 "0.3611 W. 0504 0.0335 "0.0116 0709TIC6 ^, 18: 4"" ";. 0204 1.. 11? -9.0721 C. 1., 30 0.3992 "0.0436 -0.0067 0.0236 -0.0030 1(6161.1 "0.1472" -0.04112 0.0030 1.9532 "0.0542 -0.0146 -0.0033 -0 . 1673 0.0334 1.3624 FCAPALZ 13.0735 "0.046? 0.4690 -0.7319 11.3365 "0.1352 -0.0469 -0.2994 0.1541 '0.0183 113 -0,6332 "0.2417"" -0.0333 -0.1657" 0.0126 -0.0340 "0,1196 -0.1296 0.0092 -0.0349 1[69024 "4.4316 3.1299 3,0470 -11.11165" 0.0101 -0.0021 -0.1111 -4.0619 0.05118 0.0143 F(FºALS "C. 471 -9.1301" 7.4246 "0.1000 -0.0361 -0.0646 '0.1542" -00735 0.0754 0.0S87 ºC9P*L6 tl �163 I -u. v163 -110910 "1.0446 -0,0366 '0.9! 93 -0. "373 0.0529 9,3686 FCOPAL6 '. 4121 C. C067 1.121.6 3.5t14 0.0172 7.3926 0.0169 0.0422 0.013? 0.0646 L "C. CS12

"" 0.1442" -0.0211 0.13630 0.0522 0.635 0.0746 0.0692 -0.0424 0.3763 7(6661.9 0.1311 9.2365"" ). 0? 31 4.13011 1.0332 0.3556 0.0468 0.0450 "0.0351 "0.0213 100AL1 0 0.0354 0.0613 3.4959 "00519 0,0671 0.3609 -0.0366 0.9956 -0.0360 0.3374 0(666111 0.0722 3.0739 0.6540 1, "7391 (. "1494 0,35! 1 0.1136 -0,0347 "0.0501 ^. 0393 000661142 (. 3544 0.4566 4.0091 -0.3367 4.0431 0.0399 -0.0149 0,0629 0.0266 0.0006 00666113 "4,0221 0.21210" 0.3294 C, 14ae" -(. 4117 0.7671 "4,0072 0.0543 0.4012 -0.7193 FCAPAL14 -. I, C1: 9 40 126 "0. ä43S 74450 "0.3463 '0.9178 0.0129 0,0314 "0.0192 '0.0461 FC0PAL15 0.0522 0.0497 0.1069 -0.0258 -0.0163 0.0563 '0,0063 0.0127 0.00/? -0,4494

0(39C6E9 '6.0533 -'3. tZl1

-0.1214 0.0050 -0.0478 -0.0091 -0,0016 0.0161 -4.4516 `0.0536 CCCPCIJV "3.0.. 3,0573 -0.4743 0.7235 ":. 0793 "^. 1176 "0,0183 0.2195 tCCCEP M ,u 773 "4,9942 ":, 6011 -0.39111 -1.111I -9.0222 : "0.4339 0.3076 ""). 0616 10,0090 -0.0307 "0.0501 6(E3E77 "0.6763 -0.1012 -3.0169 0.3191 -4,0940 "0.03"] "x. 3614 00175 "0 4918 -0,: 134 )NEF0Tb1 0.3201 ". 1196 "9. '165 0.0462 9.7612 0.4624 1: t? M . x935 "0.01'6 121100 0.3119 0.0343 -0.0096 -0.13694 0.0244 0,0197 "0.6091 1616t 0.0722 -0,0410 C01-0C0 3.13! 3 1,1113 9.0111 "). 506 (. "1277 1.1611 0.3379 0,10! 6 C. 39e1 -0.3140 401.1 " J. 12)4 "044611 '3.3134 "4.119 d 0.4n81 0.0497 "0.1255 0.1072 "0.0246 0.0081 J0L2 0.09(1 "I, C118 -0.1.497 0, "0417 -6.0146 -5.01"7 0.0141 0. +679 0.0631 11.255.4 J01.3 0.0939 -34597 0.04: 7 -0.7316 2.0423 0.3373 '3.1216 0.5126 "0.0203 00.1175 J(16 0.0262 "C. 0195 -0,0273 "0.0737 "0,0012 0,0144 -0.0313 0.1621" -(,. c 372 0.3349 JCL! ; 0.15E9" 0,0316 0.0461 -3.7262 "0.0187 0.7595 9.1032 0.11739 C. Cti20 O. Ou77 JE1.6 7.4513 '0.0242 0.0619 0,0419 O. Ot69 0.0949 0.0147 0.3099 0.0207 0.0166 41.7 3.1132 -0.4221 779 10, J35 0.0979 0,11361" -7.6245 0,1599 0.0176 00.0.9! 301. / 0,. 3409 -C. 1 1.12 0.1729 4. '156 0.02)7 "9,3611 "3. v450 0.0066 0.0266 -0.1001 JC1.9 0.07! 1 6.6153 0.0339 00444 0.1716 4.0546 "0.31e0 0.3232 0.0376 "0.0167

6" SIGNIF. "C Cl "" ' SIGNIF. LE . 00t ( . YP00 IS ººINICO IF 4 COEFFICIENT CANNOT BC COMºUIE0)

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FILE OSTU CTI CCRCß TICA DATE " ? 1/10174) "

"" "r E% RS 06C0 R9CL6 1I0NC 0EffICtCN13 """"" """""" "

1 MACH 16 NACN11 NACH t6 N4CHl7 NACN18 MACH Is N6CH2O NACN21 NACN 22 NAC N23 "

//17[32 0.6637 "^. GZS6 ', "0571 ? "?: 83 "J"5347 ,

"0"n2"C M"Clt2 t 4

0.0605 37? 6 0

0. OP66 04.76 0

8"Snt3 -0.0296

" " PIC7E53 0.11l1" C.! 699 -1.0047 -3.9.48

7 6 0.1011

0835 "0 0.16970

2815 "Q 5 ü. C

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-0.1492" .

-0.0753 0.1252 F017E34 "0.03[9 . "0.0099 -0"C249

4 9 - 0.0 8

9467 9 .

1.0254 "

9.3544 -0.0011 "0.0494 0.4446 0.7912 " "

i/C7155 (. 0243 72 0 0

".. t: 2. C466 C

5 3.0 1052' -0

. -00249 -0.0116 0.0122 0.0131 0.0662 -0.0560 0.0280

i0(7E58 P0C7E57

. 6 "). 1617"

. "3. C-44

. J. 0 1t! -0"11594 -(. 1114 2.9013 -0.1307 -0.0391

505 0.4341

6001 0 0.8140

0776 -0 0 10(7E56 0.13U. 4 a. t648 'V. i431 "7""'762 0.0319

9 ^ 0.1370"

0276 "^ -0.0201

(169 "0 " 0.1

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(. 0297 .

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" 01C7E5 9 "1.03: 6 -C. 1365"' 0.3321 1/

"}. )417 )545 )

6 "C. 7 (. 7543

. -^"5611

. "S. C632 -0.9534 "3"V^! 8 1.1481

00(7(315 00(7(511

3.1217 "0 373!

-3. « 10 "1.078/

.. 0.03 0.0169

. 00626 (. 0115 -0.0260 ' -0.0509 0. "101 0.6576 0.1135

Ob8 " "{ý "

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7.16! 6" 'f . CS2t "ý"G67a "4.? b93 "0. '1oeo -1.0006 "0 3211

9"', 916 0046 "0

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"4.026" 0.0166

6 '3. 0.0064 `

11C71513 0.1445 0. GG47 "

-0.0122 26S7

0.0561 4.9623

. 0.0301 "C. V645

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" i/CF[S14 70(7[515

C"0333 C"USi7

351 4 -" 'ß.: 't96

i. -Y. 41'62 0.130,44 ""). 0'1'.! "9.1097 "3.313'. 0.04.10 "0.1716""

8 4 0.0840

7142 0 f/1/E516 0.042'. -3.0.22 0.0224 00557

4 "1"3461

0130 - -0.0339

0371 -"3 0"0731

"0.0626 0.0360 0.0232

e U. ' "0.0777 ' .

7. "316 0 " ºFC1ESIr -9). t. It2 "4.! 216 "1.651'

0635 3 3.136

7522 -0 1. 0.0455

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0.1 /7" 1312 7

"1.0115 603 -0

. "'. 0.1!

. ä"033f" -9.0734 -0.7336 -0.0112 0.3513 -1.0371 14.1223

0593 106rE521

. C"62C9

. O"0: 27 -). (; 0017 )"0736 "0.1274 "0.0791 "

-0.0122 02 -"

"0.0961 0 3827

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0. 1 4.3614

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"9.3394 1. 12

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-0.3710 .

"1.. C7ä6 0.0609 IfcFESZs "0"{112 "J. cltk "5": 18t

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"6.0212 0.0462 "V. 6180 -0.3511 1.1248 0.3033 40 ", f/C7E523

00 5 0.0310

4 " -C. C444

497 ". 7 ' .

1.6419 1.708 "0.0772 0.3237 "0. C380 "0.3158 0.676? 0.2605 (7[ 24

70(7[523 0.1.3 1 0.0553

" : -(. 0416 -0.0194 0.0686 -0.0631 0.0535 0.1085 -0.0041 -0.0711 0.3141

L[ "10 "" " SIERIF 1 (99.0000 IS rRINTEO If A COEFFI CIENT CANNO T OE CUNºUTEO) " SIONtf" LC C3 .

40

0 EFES 88TCH ETS19 ' 41111/86 FACE 26

ºILC O'SiucT1 (CREST*C6 OATC " 51/0/64) 0

" 0E4R S06C 0RNELA 1I0A C0E fº I CI ENT 6"`""" "" "" "

NACN14 FRCfEst FIGFES2 ºROrE13 ºR07(04 eROrtss FROFES6 1R0ºE57 0ROFEss 0ROFE39

" ºe11h1 -6.1223 "1.1010 -0.6464 "3.2218"" 0.3174 0.3161 -0.1196 10.0523 "0.2T59"" -0.1313 109011.2" "4.3773 -0.6972 "0.1061 "9.2758"" 0.0109 -1.0J99 "1.181600 "0.1726 "0.2661"6 "0.29'7 6*L1h3 "4.6Slt "C. C233 -v. 116.2 0.27t6"" 0.071? "0.0138 -0.16580 10.0828 -0.22r2"" "6.3233

" 1'64,1166 "C"0426 -0.061 -3.1263 "0.3316"" C. 4161 "0.39? 6 "0.1769"" -0.13130 "0.311600 "1"1198 ººtiM1 : "0557 "9.0691 "V. 1159 "0.32660 "0.0311 -0.0775 "0.3937"" "0.1148 -0.3539"" -0.1031 87803511 . 13$Z. 0.1328 00.1152 0.3426"0 (. 1822"" 0.20^6"" 0.1374" 0.3072"" 0.3712"" 7.0636

" I/40TICS -, -1249 4.1$65"6 0.11+9 3.264400 0.1779"" 4.249? 0" 0.0916 0.334900 4.3321"" 0.0901 º/APTICJ 3". 1078 0.1994"" 0.0+17 0.31540" 0.1750"" 0.2581"" 4.6332 0.33170" 0.36220" 0.0016 } 009071C4 0.1213 '"1772"" 3.3029 0.3335"" 0.214604 5.2196"" 3.0939 0.20180" 0.5946"0 R"009( t,

" (t I0A1.1 "C"13C4 "0.1606 -0.0936 -0.5214"" "0.0919 "0.0374 -0.3337-- "0.195'. "0 -0.6143. " "0.0837 51 6,812 "1. )217 -)"1157 -: "1173 )"3160"" -C. 1261 0.0642 "0.2576"" 0.9119 -0.3579"" ""5.0719 " 1(0,813 :. O447 "s. CZ34 ! "0256 -9.3969 "4.0499 0.13820 -0.0913 0.1575" -0.1068 0.0721

0 169001.4, (. 03(9 0"C166 ). 0349 -4.1222 "C. 0292 9.3423 "3 . 6643 0.1432" -0.1018 0.3485 iC1MAl. 3 4.33I3 9"^, 311 '. 0636 -0.13560 0.0268 "9.1030 "0. C336 0.1473" 0.0900 0.0796 1f608L6 0. C037 1.1977 1.1152 -0.1979"" -0.0038 0.0662 -0.1213 0.0811 -0.1712"" 8"'. '1! 6

a 1180A1.7 6.4536 -0.1347" -7., 762 9.3595 0.0236 1. )916 0.0366 0.3321 0.0616 "4.0302 169011.8 C"C176 1.1863 -0.189960 "0.0078 "C. 0605 -0.0193 0.0221 -0.064? "0.0010 "0.0774 " 7107! 7! "Y"4213 -9.1K47 -'1.1! 11 1.1151 "C. 377^ -0.0361 0.1201 -9.0690 0.1019 -0.9629

0 ICfº6L10 9.09t4 9.1194 0.0594 1.1921"" "4.0376 -9.1021 0.2193"6 0.1141 0.2946"0 0.0203 F(frttlt 0.1511" -0.1439" -0.0591 0.0255 0.0272 1W. "1I7 0.6709 0.1137 0.0247 "0.3361 ' 1160A112 9.1217 3.01321. -ß"51i. 9.26690" "V. 0516 -9.0169 3.20920" 0.2132 0.266240 "1.0188

" 1(70*1.13 0.0396 -C. C911 -0.1011 0.1058 0.0030 -0.0199 0.0603 0.0063 0.0949 "0.0340 1(004116 . 0.4 J44, "7.0749 "v. 1333 -4.1319 -0.4316 "9.0562 "0.1347 -0.0379 "0.0243 "0.1332" /1008111 6"66t1 O. 0009 -V"t"6iT 0.14,160 -C. 0100 -0.0891 0.1021 0.0643 0.1261 -0.0869

" 016ACTo 0.0816 5.. 9a 0.1163 0.7100"" 0.0475 0.4897 0.1116 0.1319" 0.28250" 0.0885 0E1/06CV 0.0316 0.6413 "3"5567 0"^262 8.0958 4.0749 0.0091 "0. "475 0.0770 0.0832 0 CCEP00014 C. 43CJ -4.0t50 0.0136 "0.3567 "0.0298 "0.0182 0.0171 "0.0546 "4.0132 0.3198 OC(CEP "1.4 1 1o "0. ^610 0.005! -0.1639" "0.3441 0.0217 -0.0993 -0.0364 "6.0736 0.0162 ºCCIEFF "6"100! "C. 1733 -0.0758 "0.1632" -0.0101 -0.0426 -0.1075 -0.1165 "0.1323 0.0042 0 391FOIST "1.3927 "S. C413 -0.11"! 9. '^163 "0.0810 "0.06! 7 -7.3931 M. 1S71" "1.0199 -9.5091

" t0.18(0 O"C030 0.137! 0.6301 2"2121"6 ""3026 "8.3110 0.1057 0.0051 0.1766"" 0: 0223 CCº/EX 0.0110 0.0133 1.0153 0.2337"" "C. '111Z 0.09{9 0.1411 -0.0208 0.2232"" 0.3146 0

d(1l :. 1171 9.6527 0.151)" 0.474100 9.0682 0.0738 3.2476"" 0.0994 11.5234"6 0.0172 " JCL2 4.0411 0.1429" 0.0106 0.1773"" 0.0703 0.3822 0.1746"0 0.0659 0.2381"" "0.0787

1113 0.1114 0.7341 "). 1962"" 0.274740 3.0638 0.0793 0.1632" 0.1567 0.4108"" 0.1058 0

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" $101 BATCH SYSTEº "-"I 01/11/84 PAGE 34

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-0.2063 -0.1070 0.0308 -3.6372 -1.0611 0.0354 -0.7867 -0.0149 -0.3062 640010 0.0151 3.0241 . 1.011 -3.4943 0.0272 0.3036 9.0156 0.5764 0.222600 0.0416 040011 -0.0134 "0.3602 3.0903 -0.3044 -0.0196 0.1185 -0.0462 "0.0614 0.0157 -0.0679 610912 "6.3123'" "0.0431 4.. 182 "9. )712 0.7110 "O . 350! 550017 "0. )163 "0.005/ 0.0162 30t333 0.06219 3.3313 ). 41324 0.0322 1.0299 0.0663 0.0242 0.0222 0.0273 -0.0130 614316 0.0227 "7"! '131 0.1466" 0.0443 -0.0033 0.11027 0.0424 "0.0142 0.1477" 4.0082 61(3l7 "C. 5410 -0.0107 3.0524 5.054? -0.0351 -0.3696 -0.0622 . 0.0216 "0.0136 -0.0680 6843.16 0.0314 "0. C189 "0.0676 -0.0122 0.0451 -0.3712 9.0224 -0.0510 0.0635 "0.0016 610317 3.354! 0.0626 -8.0493 4.3561 0.0423 0+1364" 0.6557 0.0066 -0.0522 7.3334

w. 680314 0.6262 c. CG75 "3.0000 "0. "301 ", -0.0645 "0.0846 -0.0401 "0.0130 0.0153 -0.0734 6003.19 3.0631 -3. f260 "4. COv6 "7. ^211 "0.0639 "0.309? "0. "! 19 -0.3370 0.1039 -0.0336 30(320 ""x. 0432 -0.4339 3.0)18 "). ^346 -C. 0039 -0.0534 0.0531 -0.0626 -0.0231 -0.0812

A 6/(321 4.3254 0.0401 'i. 019 5.1577 "0.0366 0.4416 0.0360 0.3232 0.0561 0.0510 600322 &. 00! 3 0.0376 -0.0264 0.0166 -0.0637 -0.1716"" 0.0664 0.0717 -0.0156 -0.0575 60(3. (3 4. C441 0.0153 -"1.0406 0.0006 0.0462 0. +64C O. C142 0.0316 2.0728 0.1283

" 61(326 3+56 5 3.0(11 4.013 00322 0.0290 01.03"L - 0.7577 0.0116 0.1210 0.1065 /3(7(31 0.5661 0.1120" 0.0139 0.1829"" C. u438 0.1547" 0.0969 0.2263"" 0.0763 0.0930

" "" SIGNET. Lt . 91 "" - SiGIIF. LE . 001 (99.0000 IS PRINTED IF A COEFFICIENT CANNOT bE CONºYTEO)

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SPSS SATIN 3757(9 01/11164 PAGE 31

FILE 5111(71 CCRE*FI0N 04TE " 01/10/86)

""""" """" "º EAR S0NC0 RRELA T10N C0EfFI CIEN T"S """""" """

PROF E510 PMCFCSII PRCFC33: PlOFESIS PROFES14 Pk0ºE1ts PROFES16 PROºESI7 IROFE31, Pk0ft519 "

99C7E32 9.0119 0.2: 94+" 3.; 954 0.4912"" C. 059n 0.323366 3.314000 0.162800 0.15630 10.0058 99C7E33 0. C901 0.0105 0.3443"" 0.14730 "C. 0309 0.0624 0.0105 0.0506 0.3537. " 0.0432 " P927E34 C. CI13 0. º990 «1.34: ) 0.2! 67"" 0.0495 0.23460" 0.0994 0.244560 0.0547 0.1171 9901(55 "1"G7;? 5.3442"6 0.1065 0.0975 0.1367" 0.33520. 0.0656 0.2412"" 0.1552" 0.2155"" FFCFCS6 "u. 30*3 0..; 794 0.3134"" "0l"5 : "7517 0.1119 0.0123 0.5512 0.2mia"" 0.0274 40 997.7E57 0.33: 0. ' 145F1 0.1959"" "3.0" 9ý 0.249900 9.0967 3.1744 0.5719 0.13620 0.2025.0 fFCFE35 0.1CC3 0.1600 0.40")9"" 0.1150 "0.0212 0.1134 0": 261 X1.1697 0.4492". 3.3033 9ICFLIS 0. "7iM 9 0.2243"" "J.: i^f :. 2945"" ;. 39.4 0.1419" 001672" 0.2116"" 0.0461 D. 0400 7 " 99C7E310 2.0010 0.067; 0.0715 0.1261 0.3267"" 0.1316 0.1169 0.0791 0.1492" 0.3244.. 8808[311 #;. C9? 3.! t3u 0.: 544 5.1756"" 0.1: 37 0?. 4169". 3.2532"" 0.3512"" 0.1024"0 J. tt4l PF(FE112 ' C.: 74S ¢.!! 4a 1. L^7) ?. ^til 0.000.9 0.0795 0.1196 "0.0172 0.1140. " 0.0507 " 9907(515 0.1221 0.1158"" 3.117 103+0. C"11577 9.3556"" 3.2944+" 0.1604. 0"0r63 0.0151 90(7(514 2.3217"" 3.1317 0.3469 9.5511 t. 441-1 0.2296"" 3.099(w 0.3793 ß. 1336 0.2274"" FFLFES95 0.1116 0.4169"" 0. ¢795 0.3556"" 0.2088"" 1.3000 0.2201"" 0.4343"" J"tlul"" 2.2160""] C FPEFCS16 0.1119 0.2532""" 0.1196 0. °944.. ß. (96C 7.22^1"" 1.6OJ0 0.2062"0 0.1135 ^. 1310 S 0810121/ 0.6761 C. JSl2"" "0.0172 0.1604. O. OlsO 0.4063.. 0.2080"" 1.0003 0.1243 0.203409 90(7(315 t. 14S2" 5.16'4"" 5.314"'"" 0.? 065 0.1336 9.1711"" 9.1155 0.1243 1. V'64 ). 2636"" ! 9(1(319 4.3264"0 7. l 61 0.55.7 0.3151 0.2274+6 0.? 196"" 0.1010 0.2034.. 0.2636.. 1.0000

41 FFCºCS20 0.01: 1 0.1366" 0.0348 9.1444. 5.1464" Q. 1612"" 4.10: 10 0.3046". "1163 0.2669"" P1C7E321 3.0417 5.1744 "3. ": ̂ . 72 1) . 4418"" 1.0366 0.27! 5"" 0.257! "" 0.1927"" 6.1! 45 0.0919 98(71322 0.1130 0.2159"" u. C016 0.2546. " 0.1258 8.2616". 0.2413". 0.4345". 0.1351" 5.1614.

" Flit FE323 0.49te 5.1276 4.1140 a. n67º a. )Ste 5.3833 0.1614" 0.2243. " 0.1163 0.0440 FFCFES; 4 0.3t/5"" 0"5714 3.0332 0.0805 0.4065"" 9.0698 0.1158 0.0697 0.1033 0.1192". 90(7(325 6"x. 65; 0.1125 3.0511 0.7473 5.9974 0.3641 "3.1.346 0.1219 0.0056 0.3E60

" O " SIO5I7. . It LE "" " 3306IF. LE . 00E (99.0000 IS 993N1E0 If 6 COCFºIC IENT CANNOT 6E COMPUTE D)

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6911 941(4 5731E9 01/1 1/64 PAGE 32

FILE 5ETU C11 CCREI TION DATE " U1101441 f "1

P. E A! S0NC0 RREL6 T30NC0Efft CIENIS

" ! 9071520 PRCFE323 9007(322 93070323 . 9907(524 9907E325

MAt. TMI 5 o 01 1 0.0390 0.0062 "0.5613 "0.0418 "4.1034 , ºAITMa t : , . 0.0231 0.0066 "0. t000 "0.1120 "0.0762

461143 0.0127 "01.9124 0.0538 "9.0829 "0.1115 "0.056? ººYTk4 "3. C114 "3.0763 U. 0457 "0.0848 "0.1069 41.7215 RtL1PS 0.1094 "O. C700 - -0.0231 "0.0857 "0.1018 "0.0859 AF*FTIC1 0.0993 3.: 414 0.3453 0.1945"" 0.0036 0.1: 25 AIDPTIC2 0.12(8 0.0621 0.1197 0.1959"" 0.1101 0.1058 "PAF1IC3 0.1416" 3.1611 1.4939 0.2153"" 0.1264 0.1694. 404111(4 3.1373" 3. C367 O. C696 4.2991"" 0.1055 0.15990 1 FE9º4L1 "0.0096 "0.0131 "0. C611 "9.1272 "C. o391 "4.3110 /CFºAL2 0.6119 -0., 1119 "0.0747 " -0.5119 0.0373 -4.0536 ICFº6L3 0.0719 "0.0134 0.0069 -0.0469 0.0600 "4. D576

" 818961.4 C. 03i6 1.056$ .. 1.735 0.1446 0.0576 0.3346 8(0965.3 5.0572 0«1536 3.1051 0.0632 0.0694 0.0655 818941.6 1.3472 54565 0.1113 1.1272 0.1175 9.1156 8189411 "0.00! 2 "0.1; 19 "). 1065 "90236 "0.3135 "0.3196 7(09418 "0.0467 "0.1317 "0.2083"" -0.0549 "0.0706 "0.0246 1C6º6 l9 ;. 07! 2 -0.1121 "0.1748"" "9 .? 772 "0.1040 13.3274 FCRºALl0 "0.0451 0.0/39 "0.0259 0.01693 0.0263 0.0511 906945.11 "1. (574 "0.0049 "0.1259 "0.4635 "4.0799 "0.0276 9E99A5.12 "0... 592 0.0E74 "0.6516 9.0153 "0.0745 "0.0318

" ICFº4L13 "0.00(2 "0. C327 ")"1991"" "0.1373 0.0842 9.0017 81891116 0.0714 "0.1545" "). 2772"" ). 1535" 3.1218 -0.0136 909nllS "0.3142 "0.7670 "0.1167 -0.0212 "0.0694 0.0663

" 44*/010 "9.: 198 0.0547 1.6581 "00597 0.1180 "9.7467 1ß906E4 "0.4246 C. CG/2 0.3031 5.0391 0.0451 0.3074 CC010005 "1.0313 "0.0111 x. 6112 1.11223 "G. 1916 "5.31! 1

" 11110? 0.6313 "3. Cl25 3.3607 0.5441 0.0263 "0.2657 º. CCIEºF "0.1044 "C. C481 "3.0533 "0.0292 0.0326 "0.5417 35E80151 "0.0236 0.0225 "4.1199" "0.1609" 4.0137 "0.3314

" EL1600 "0.0662 C. CS66 "0.0602 "0.1465" 0.0061 "0.3386 ' ECºIES "0. u119 0. CS45 "1.1152 "o. e6^1 6.364! 0. D2R6 4CL1 0.1. SEI 7.1091 0.13562 8.7792 ":. 0241 ILOIn!

". iCLZ 0.1043 0.0598 0.0658 -3.1019"" . 4.12S! 4.3891 6

1CL3 0. (, 4[4 O. C433 :. 1579" . 9.1713"" 0.0647 N. 12.3 0C14 0.12E6 1.0845 0.0863 0.0435 0.0169 0.3297

" OCL! "0.0648 '0.0449 0.0309 0. ^664 0.3312 (1.1452" 6 . 3(16 u. C331 3.5977 0.1455. 0.0993 " "3.0362 0.0129 : C17 "0.04.11 9.5562 0.102? 0.1126" 0.0107 0.0621

" 0(16 2.12! 4 "0.0619 0.1115 7.3113 0.0226 ""9.0696 * ... E . 0L9 "0.0135 0.0547 3.064.0 0.1112 0.0453 C. 001 4

" "" 550517. LE . 01 "" " 311 617. LE . OJE

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psi BATCH 005109 Ot/tt/86 PAGE 33

FILE QI TUCTI (CRE ATION CATE " 31/11/543 0

""""" ". ""- "- P[ AR S0bC0RRCLA TI0N 000 IF fIC ICNT 6""""""""""""

PR0FES20 PNCFE521 PROFES12 PROFES23 PROFES24 PROFESZ5

JCLIC -4. C Cie 0.1326" 0.1044 0.1518" 0.0033 0.01#33 40 . CL11 C. 1.615 4. te52 -0. -4159 7.1397" C. 0007 -0. A571 JCLIZ :. 1Sil" 1. {759 3.027 0. '_: 6t"" C. ) 326'" 10549 . CLIJ "G. 02C7 O. Ci9/ . 3. l200 0.14: 7"" O. 03uO "0.31 I JCL14 0.0748 0.0143 :. 1451" 3.1e61' 1.0827" !. )422 +01.05 0". 66(2 C. C921 0.1642 0.1914"6 0.0541 0.0913

" . CL16 0. C"S34 0.0212 . '259 "3.1232 0.391) ). 04F9 JCLII (. 0611 3"09169 0.1511" 0.1215 0.1319 0.1909a" J01.18 0.0196 0.1356 0.2'"22"- 0.156 "" C. 0264 1. "577 . 101.19 C.. 610 3. aC0 0 0.1319" 0.1312 0. )416 A"1411 J0120 0.0634 0.1053 0.11")3 0.1.78 0.0810 0.853 JC1.21 G. +7 I1 0.0406 ß. t567 0.? "143"" 0.1487 0.2325

0 aCL22 -:. 73l C"l201 0.0293 0.0544 0.0065 03 2 "0123 0.9608 ". ^. 639 0 . 1499 1.15? 4" 0.1147 '. 420 ; JCL24 "C. G235 . Cl37 0. t44a" 0, l/a9"" 0.0900 9.0594 . CL25 -0.0: t0 0.1141 0.0765 0.1618" 0.0438 0.0612 61(61 G. C444 " "3.1220 -0.1314 l.! 6t0 0.0146 0.7030 06C42 0.11530" 1.0436 0.0924 0.1073 0.033? 0.0801 86CMf 0.1258 ). 0121 0.15)7 1.1v29 -C. 0199 0.1611 16(1"4 0.1223 "0. C 13 6 0.4149 0. )758 0.0411 0.1190 6'085 "0.0147 -C. C373 -). 0233 A. A634 -0.0317 0.0425

0 6ACPS 1.0150 -C.! b? i "0.0643 -00524 0.0442 145AC 61(67 0.0261 C. 0502 0.0803 0.1305 0.0414 0.0236 88(48 "0.06(2 -0. e169 -0.4453 "3.9732 -0.0731 "0.3172 66(1.9 -C. 4237 0.0: 74 "0.0544 "0.9562 ""0.0297 0.0193 680-10 0.1013 "0.0! 556 0.0166 4.1649" 0.1191 00691 86C1111 0. C11.6 "04663 1.6366 3.3009 3.0633 -3.1C1%0 66(0.12 0.0509 -0.1514" -0.0213 0.0199 0.0311 0.0909 66(1.13 0.617'. -0. C178 3.0x41 1J"'I0A1 0.0410 0.1094 86(414 0.0208 -0.0291 -3.0342 0.0310 -0.0341 4.0593 RetPIS 0.012F -0.0354 -0.0314 -0. "444 "C. 3197 "5. f"416 66(416 "6.0017 -9.003 -0.3184 5.3314 0.0619 0.0194 8.6(3.37 0.0836 6.0376 . 3.: 559 I. IC59 0.0111 9.4676

" 1,1(1.16 "L. 12? 4 -0.0583 -O. f977 "9"^212 "0.3172 -0.3631 16(119 -0.0799 "G. G257 -0.0394 0.1)462 0.029? 0.3535 86(420 -0.0112 -0.1212 -J"3c74 -0. "19 ? -0.4300 1.1101 66(321 -5.09t7 O. C12! 7 -0.0710 "0.5383 -0.0158 -0.004? 6A(PZZ "C. 1055 0. "036 -. )"9734 0.0248 6. (767 -0 A7i1 61(423 0.0593 0.4414" 0.0809 0.0033 0.3805 0.976?

a 6 (ºZ4 0.0161 -C. C329 3.0540 0. "8t2 0.0340) 0.0525 PfCºES1 0.29124" 0.3692"" 0.14274 0.268400 0.13770 0.6421""

" SIG11IF . LE c1 "" 510 8If. LE . 00 1 (99.0000 IS PRIMED IF 4 COEFFICIENT C4N801 BE COMPUTED) is

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ME $A7c" STSTEº " 11/11/84 PAGE 34

FILE OSTU CTI CCREITICN WE " OL/l0/14)

..... .. " PE4RS 0MC0 RREL8T I0NC OEFFICI £815

PROF[SZC PRCFES21 PROFES22 PR0FESZJ PR070104 PR0FE325

0 PPCFESZ 0.1145 3.4696"" '. 25/7. " 0.1303 0.0377 0.0372 º6CFES3 0.1076 3. C674. 3.0295 0.1719 5.0182 0.3729 PPCFES4 0.3018"" 0.1595" 0.1683" 0.3039"" 0.1191 0.3276""

` PNCFESS 0.2155"0 0.1274 0.1717"" 4.14676 0.1535" 0.337.9 ºFCFES6 "o. 0535 9.13049 0.0631 0.0204 -0.0523 -0.0201 118C0157 V. I. 473 -0.1330 "3.0047 0.1372" 0.3717. " 4,3736 f9(1E58 0.0308 0. '32u 3.01,62 30635 -0.0339 0.0701 99(1159 0.0664 0.17/6"" 0.1328 -0.0002 0.0055 -4.0094 PPCFES10 (. 13 13? 0.042? 4.1133 0.7968 0.3170"+ 9.9650 FFCFESII 0.1366" 0.6744 0.2159"" 0.1276 0.0514 " 0.0125

- P9C1E512 0.0340 0.0472 0.3,76 3.1140 0.0352 0.! 0? 1 PP(1t511 0.14440 5.44160" 9.25436" 3.0677 0.0885 0.0475

46 118C7E514 0.1404" 0.0338 0.1258 0.03"8 0.4065"" 0.1974 P867E535 0.18926" 0.233500 ). 2616"" 3.3833 0.0690 0.! 843 P907E316 0.3600 0.2575"" 0.2410"" 0.1418" 0.1150 -0.0346

40 PIGFES17 0.3966"" 3.1927"" J. 4345"" 0.2243"" 1.3697 0.1019 'FCF[S18 3.1103 0.10.1 5 0.1351" 0.1153 0.1033 0.3858 PfCF0119 9.2419.0 . 0.0919 0.1114" 13.9444 0.3192"" ß. 084C

"" 111(1(320 1.03C0 0.0643 1.242206 0.11610" 0.178300 0.1362" 111C70821 0.0613 1.0000 0.1858"" 0.1265 0.0333 0.1203 PRCFES22 0.2422"" 0.1638"" 1.100.1 0.29430" 9.1055 0.0221

" 89(70823 0.3111"" 0.1265 0.29430" 1.0000 0.2271"" 0. Z094". 119(1(414 (. 1763"" 0.0333 3.1055 0.2271"" 1.0060 0.1806""

, ff(F[S25 0.1312" 0.1233 0.0221 0.2094"0 6.1866"" 1.0000

" 310117. LE c1 "" - 53674 17. LE . 001 (99.0000 is PRIN1[D IF A LOEFFICIENT 0868.01 BE COMPUTED)

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APPENDIX 8

Factor Analysis of Scales

Aiken and Hage's (1967) measures of Centralisation and Formalisation

A factor analysis of the Formalisation scale was undertaken

only. Miller (1977) presents five sub-scales comprising the overall Formalisation scale. These were:

- Job Codification

- Rule observation

- the presence of a Rule Manual

- the presence of a rob Description

- Specificity of Job Description

The factor analysis revealed that three factors accounted for the variance. Factor 1 was labelled Organisational

Procedures. Factor 2 was labelled Discretion/Autonomy and Factor 3 Closeness of Supervision. Using factor loadings

greater than 0.3 the results indicated that items Formal

2,6 and 12 were impure items since they loaded significantly

on more than one factor. Dewar et al (1980) undertook a

reliability and validity analysis of the Formalisation

scale. They labelled Job codification-Job Autonomy, and Rule Observation-Surveillance. They are in agreement with the present analysis. The present study and that of Dewar

et al has indicated the Formalisation scale of Aiken and Hage (1967) requires considerable revision in terms of its operationalisation.

Furthermore, a correlation analysis of the Centralisation

and Formalisation scales-indicated significant inter-item-

correlations between Hierarchy of Authority and those in

the sub-scales of Formalisation. This suggests they are tapping similar item contents (see Appendix 7).

"

iris 9*11, M ifil1. M CS01$166 PACE 6 (i

FILE OSt30Yi (CREATION GATE " 01113/161 .

' FACTOR MATRIX USING PRINCI PAL FACIUR With ITERATIONS

O O. FACTOR 1 PACTUR 2 FACTOR 3 . " 1099A1.1 -0.26426 0.33106 -0.34951 "1 1099A1.2 "0. Jo926 0.4,205 -0.16002 ' 104-1L3 -0.54111 0.33290 0.17339

FCRr4l6 -9.61433 0.10218 0.32951 1019A1.5 -0.53969 0.27600 0.41415

' rOPrAl6 -). 5: 5t6 0.02600 1.19456 1019A1.7 0.44931 3.34046 5.11343 " FCRMAL3 0.61900 0.35707 "0.210633

' RCA PA L9 0.63565 0.29) 62 "0.07443 FCFNALL6 0.53379 -0.1Sta15. 0.51515 " FCAMALII 0.35122 0.21531 0.11402

' 1019ALI2 0.47268 c. 04444 0.61522 ºDAPA613 0.64523

. 0.31061 0.053s9 "

rCR! "ALl6 0.43256 0.347.1 -0.05622 4 t

" TORMALIS 0.39713 0.06054 0.16004

" i { l

1j "

YAP1 9LE COMMUNALITY FACTOR CIGENVALUE rtt or 9AR CUP PCT " FORMALS 0.32962 1 3.90932 62.1 62.1 7O

F0i4AL2 0.39745 2 1.31607 20.9 53.0 "

P009A1.3 . 0.66! 37 3 1.06429 17.0 100.0

rclr. AL6 0.63750 r0FMALS 0.59430

O rCR! AL6 0.31127 r0FMAL7

'0.33030 "ý FORMAL" 0.55566 i jjj ICRY*L9

. 0.46904 [ " rOFNALIO . 0.56967 " j

roRPALIl '0.13239 F 1CARALI2 0.4'622 f

" FORMALB 10.15509 " FCRPAL14 0.31110 '

" /4.498115 0.19379 -

" " PSS lATCM SYSTEM 03l&S1$4 PACE S (1

PILE 05TJOY1 (CREATION GATE " 01/13104)

1a VARINAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX

" "

FACTOR 1 FACTOR 2 FACTOR 3

O 1099A1.1 0.05674 0.12611 -0.35767 S 1099A1.2 0.04732 0.38244 -0.49095 1099A1.3 -0.09242 0.62963 -0.25133

O FORMALE -0.16113 0.76966 -0.15177 1019A1.5 -0.19453 0.74561 -0.03180 ºORMAL6 -0.33911 0.41553 -0.09063 " FORMAL? 0.56021 -0.014.15 0.12703 S FORMALS 0.66032 f "0.29635 -0.06574 "" /0Vr. 01.9 0.52232 s -0.31216 0.11539

" 70F9A1.10 0.20774 ' -0.03179 0.69295 . 109901.11 0.40245 -0.02261 0.14209 7099A1.12 0.31042 "0.04850 0.55453

" 1097A1.13 0.71445 -0.15034 0.14250 1097A1.14 0.54209 "0.10105 -0.01201 10F9A1.15 0.32510 -0.09416 0.28149

" TRAASFORNATIOM MATRIX

" S FACTOR I rACTJR 2 FACTOR 3

O FACTOR 1 0.69292 -0.59115 0.61281 FACTOR 2 0.72016 0.53956 "0.45617 1401CR 3 0.03511 0.59952 0.79959

" S

" S

"

O S

" . "

. f'r

Fineman's (1975b) Job Climate Questionnaire'

A factor analysis was undertaken on the above scale. Five

factors were extracted. Factor 1 was concerned with progress

or promotion in the organisation; Factor 2 was concerned with

responsibility and autonomy; Factor 3 was concerned with or-

ganisational dynamics; Factor 4 was concerned with job

challenge and Factor 5 was difficult to label exactly, however, it reflected future orientation, training and job

feedback. The factor structure reflected those dimensions

that would be expected, from Achievement motivation theory

to activate need for achievement.

However, the factor structure was complex, with a number of items being designated as impure since they loaded significantly

on a number of factors. These were items JCL 2,7,10,12,

15,19,20,21,25. Organisational environments are, in

themselves, complex. It should, therefore, be expected there must be some empirical overlap. The questionnaire

appears to be satisfactory from theoretical and pragmatic

perspectives.

Fineman's (1975a) need for achievement questionnaire - the WPQ

A factor analysis of the scale was undertaken and the hypo-

thesised factor structure of the scale was supported, nine sub-variables were extracted. All items were pure. Factor 1

was labelled task activity or task importance, Factor-2 was labelled interpersonal relations, Factor 3,4 and6 labelled individual responsibility, Factor 5 was labelled incentives (the scale labelled suggested by Fineman indicated achievement satisfaction), Factor 7 was labelled risk taking, Factor 8

was difficult to label and Factor 9 was concerned with achievement satisfaction. Taken over-all the factor structure is not as clear cut as that suggested by Fineman. A number of items loaded on factors that, in general, did not reflect the factor composition. Furthermore, a reliability analysis was performed on the scale. Reliability coefficients of

. 62 (pilot study) and . 59 (main study) were obtained. These

0

r

differed, to some extent, from the . 68 reported by Fineman. The foregoing would suggest that the scale requires some

modification.

.p

0

i

V

" SRSS OATCN STSftR 03/16/66 RAGE 11

FILE OSTUOTI (CREATION CAFE 01/ 13104) "

VARIMAX ROTATED FACICA MATRIX

0 ' FACTOR I FACTOR 2 FACTOR 3 FACTOR 4 FACTOR S

a JCLI 0.05863 0.72144 0.21226 0.01005 0.11260 JCLZ 0.20962 0.30646 0.04117 0.07441 0.086? JCL3 0.40617 0.48062 0.29233 0.13/e7 0. lse66 JCL4 0.06991 0.37072 -O. 0l5t9 0.01j! 63 0.24549 JCLS 0.109e6 0.31176 0.06717 0.10367 0.10e61 JCL6 `0.04952 0.11065 0.05901 0.00910 0.63641

" JCL? 0.1l7r 0.10716 0.45t06 0.36292 -0.06040 JCLR 0.08746 0.10742 0.632: 0 C. 040C9 -0.021/7 JCL 9 0.15296 0.51900 0.16017 0.11191 0.04318

O J02.10 0.291e7 0.46966 0.22352 0.39354 0.17999 J02.11 0.70117 0.11053 0.20296 0.17002 -C. 00309 J02.12 0.39453 0.27266 0.26091 0.61#972 0.02934

0 JCL is 0.32464 0.20055 0.04324 0.11047 0.31031 JCL 14 0.3346% 0.24529 0.20014 5.06312 0.11410 JCL 15 0.47116 0.42517 0.12603 0.22001 0.15746

0 JCL 16 0.61439 0.16743 0.21729 0.10299 -0.01160 JCL I1 0.21901 0.01116 0.: 2318 0.11154 0.32371 JCL18 0.172-)2 0.03990 0.63456 0.11230 0.19416

" JCL 19 0.27643 0.15350 0.60072 0.01727 0.33573 Jet. 20 0.49163 0.24300 0.41207 0.11992 0.02731 JCL 21 9.58249 0.25370 0.34558 0.25604 0.19416

" JCL22 0.19$46 0.42924 0.06733 (. 14636 0.00997

. 40.23 0.26634 0.23191 0.15536 0.56120 0.16072 JCL24 0.25410 0.14017 0.56274 0.14360 0.15716

. JCL23 0.33234 0.23351 0.49955 0.48775 0.13161

"

TRA1SFORNATI OR MATRIX

FACTOR 1 FACTOR 2 FACTOR 3 'FACTOR 6 FACTOR S

FACTOR 1 0.57046 0.51179 0.47529 0.37377 0.21689 FACTOR 2 -0.19362 0.77805 -0.56969 -0.12210 0.13271

. FACTOR 3 -0.611eß 0.1630) 0.59971 -0.10668 0.34611 FACTOR 4 0.27505 -0.26710 -0.19184 -0.29912 0.85156 FACTOR 5 -0.33155 -0.1666) -0.22599 0.66071 0.30065

"

SºSS SATCN STSIEM 0SI18/114 PACE t0

" FILE OSTU Oll ICREATIOM OAT( " 01 /13/14)

VARTASLE COMNUIIALITT FA CTOR. , ".

EIGEMVALUE PCT OF VAR CUR PCT " 401.1 0.78176 1 7.46793 73.1 73.1 JCL2

JCLJ 0.17702 2 1.12149" 11.0 640 .

" 0.32368 3 0.66004 6. S 90 .3 401.4 0.21171 4 0.52079 3.2 95.7 401.5 0.10109 S , 0.44243 4.3 100.0 " JCL6 0.20872

JCLF 0.37334 JCL6 0.42094

" JCL9 0.33291 JCL10 0.54064 JCLIl 0.59115 -

" JCL t2 0.61303 JCL13 0.25601 JCL14 0: 26222

" 4CL15 0.69142 JCL16 0.49546 JCLIf 0.23234

" JCL18 I8 0.2)080 JCL 0.37357 JCL20 0150367 t

" JCL21 0.62642 JCL22 0.26728 JCL23 0.43062

" JCL24 0.44684 Ju. 25 0.6F342

"

"

"

"

"

"

i "

0 SP55 'LATCH STSTCR 05719/64 PACE it

FILE OSTUOTI CCREATION WE " 017151041 C

YAPINAX POfATEO FACTOP HATPIX .O

0 FACTOR I FACTO! 2 FACTOR 3 FACTOR 4 ! ACTOR S FACTOR 6 FACTOR 7 FACTOR 0 FACTCP 9

" NACWI o. t55l5 0.01223 *0.36140 -0.07070 -0.02560 0.10211 0.09016 0.1]426 "C. C3139

AACHZ 0.00519 -0.05706 -0.01264 -0.06111 0.61209 0.04940 C. C1210 -C. CC! II C. 144C4

MACHS 0.64516 -0. Od065 0.06651 "0.012C0 "0.04957 "0.0! ]71 "Q. Cl0ll 0.11(21 0.1110? 0 MACHf 0.15291 0. t5ezp 0.14le6 -0.03129 0.2! 007 0.41416 "C. 0495e 0.04463 4 . Cf42!

NACMS 0.24322 -0.110.4 0.0d166 0.06017 0.21409 "0.06365 0.05610 0.01667 0.41272

6AC116 -0.01654 0.00159 0.15665 "0.049/5 0.03996 -0.05490 0.46302 0.000(3 0.03400 O 4*CH7 0.19295 0.0329.1 0.0,! 4! 0.06856 0.06119 0.1to 413 -0. C2422 0.01432 (. 00612

14A6140 0.00711 0.13571 0.06465 0.03619 "O. C4455 0.11412 0.01291 0.41329 0.03391

kAC119 -0.00454 0.02375 0.30e5l 0.10540 0.02914 -0.15009 0.05130 `0.00412 0.00622 0 4A61410 0.06325 0.04930 0.14297 -Q. 0ble0 0.08(60 0.12414 0.10054 "c. ccis? 0.41107

4AC1411 0.04011 -0.02909 0.05457 0.34512 -0.16759 "0.0566! 0.04549 0.01991 6.0407!

014C1412 0.06151 0.09409 0.26023 -0.092! 4 0.04315 0.295! 2 0.14! 91 0.01492 C. Ct134 Q 440141! 0.09579 0.04015 -0.05013 0.08119 0.06465 0.00450 0.09456 0.10759 "0.001/0

M CH14 0.05667 0.07340 "0.14056 0.10lä1 -0.07904 0.41463 0.06056 0.10041 C. CZ146

82 CNIi -0.01450 " 0.06969 0.51291 0.09940 "0. C5775 -0.00200 "O. C6)17 -C. 04l0/ 0.19344 0 AACH16 0.00290 -0.01021 "0.02542 0.04239 0.04019 0.03951 0.2v6t2 1.19104 0.04140

4400417 -0.06626 "0.11979 0.30965 -0.02543 0.00704 0.05990 0.12561 "0.03210 0.06242 AACHIS -0.01514 0.72757 `0.03641 0.02170 0.02545 0.00692 "0.07990 0.11042 "C. Cl1ff

Q 6ACH19 0.13043 0.23221 0.09152 0.21257 -0.04107 0.04241 "C. C4423 0.19151 -0.09167 6A61420 05664 -0 0.25950 0.04410 -0.00204 -0.10009 0.16105 0.19709 "0.10091 "C. C1297

%40421 . 0.02926 0.00741 "0.000Ut 0.62665 0.04290 0.045/6 0.04! 30 0.01147 -0.1132!

l Q NACHt2 0.11099 0.39533 "0.03067 -0.01615 `0.12732 0.20464 0.12136 0.21194 1C C. Ca

8AC1423 -0.00405 0.01022 0.14103 -0.05910 0.16394 -0.01934 0.12062 C. 00e97 0.2125*

4AC1424 0.67254 0.09641 "0.09690 0.15696 0.01715 0.04613 C. 07250 0.02299 C. C4e4C O

"

r i t

I TRANSFOPNATSON MATRIX

a

FACTOR I FACTOR 2 FACTOR 3 FACTOR 4 FACTOR S FACTOR 6 FOCTOR 7 FACTOR 6 FACTOR 9

" FACTOR 1 0.79620 0.26086 0.20127 0.11490 0.13123 0.2967E 0.12987 0.27336 0.26213

FACTOR 2 -0.04199 -9.46956 0.48476 -0.32007 0.39702 -0.06926 0.27394 -0.21261 0.3*723

FACTOR 3 -0.52656 0.56632 0.34127 -0.08136 0.03018 0: 33310 0.13661 0.22010 0.16666 " FACTOR 4 -0.06176 -0.15179 0.58061 0.63444 -0.61016 -0.25629 0.03491 0.01322 -C. C1976

FACTOR 5 -0.21533 0.00790 -0.16892 0.57692 0.69781 -0.06676 -0.19035 0.12646 C. 2CC4l-

FACTOR 6 -0.068c7 -0.41984 -0.37033 0.25064 -4.0541P 3 0.29977 0.69985 0.15431 -0.10103 " FACTO! 7 0.09717 0.29658 -0.15954 -0.06966 0.09666 -0.79266 1.45636 . 1: 213 C. C7136

FACTOR a 0.16116 0.25260 0.10273 0.15620 0.29160 0.06368 0.22053 -0.66329 -0.! 6032

0 FACTOR 9 0.03376 -0.22273 0.26310 -0.19768 0.27161 -0.08677 -0. C7282 0.3*801 -C. 6: 62C

1 SPS3 BATCH STSTEN GSIISIAA FACE li

FILE OSTUOTI (CFEATION OATS " 01113/143

VAPIA9LC COMMUNALITY FACTOR EIUENVALUE PCT. Or_ MA .

CUP PCT

kACY1 0.19ere I 2.03717 20.6 21.6 NACw2 0.41027 2 1.20311 16.9 f!. ý ryýCNi 0.69190 3 . 1. "o. v "".. .,

" NfCNf 0.35! 37 f r 06, 0.75063 10.5 72.0 6ACHS 0.31234 5 0.55306 7.6 r9.7 N6CH6 0.26591 i 0.67036 MACN7 0.65144 7 0.35199 3.0 91.4 4 MACHO 26648 6 0.32990 ". 6 96.0

" 6A0N9 0:

1325 5 0.26590 f. 0 10C. 0 IACN10 0.27443 1. ACM11 0.10455

" MACMl2 0.306(6 N4CH13 0.12943 NACHIf 0.26161

" NACM(S 0. J2303 NACN16 0.10637 16ACH17 0.20292

0 Cl to AACHI9 0.19929 6ACH20 0.15! 69

" MACH21 0.41597 NACN22 0.29623 NACH23 . 0.07145 NACNZf 0.5004(

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

a

Snizek's (1972) modifications to Hall's (1968,1969)

professionalism scale

A factor analysis of the scale was undertaken and six factors

were extracted. Factors 1 to 5 were labelled in accordance

with those suggested by Hall and Snizek. Factor 6 was an

additional factor extracted in the present study only. The factor names are,

Factor 1 Belief in Professional Autonomy

Factor 2 Belief in Public Service

Factor 3 Belief in Vocation

Factor 4 Belief in Seli Regulation

Factor 5 Belief in Professional Association as a Source

of Major Reference

Factor 6 refers to reference group orientation and a sense

of idealism

On closer inspection Factors 5 and 6 are tapping two distinct

aspects of reference group activity. Factor 5 is specifically tapping systematic reading of the professional journals and

attending professional meetings at the local level. It is tapping aspects of Continued Professional Education or CPD. Factor 6 is specifically dealing with the professional as-

sociation as reference group. Items 20 and 23 are dealing

with the professional association as a source of reference. Item 22 is dealing with a sense of idealism. It could be

suggested, therefore, that the professional associations are important as a source of reference in maintaining a sense

of idealism ie. group identity.

The present analysis would indicate two important points

concerning professionalism. First, reference group activity

may differ depending on the group sampled. Hall and Snizek's

data when factor analysed produced only five dimensions. The

present study may indicate that, for quantity surveyors, there is a distinction between maintaining current knowledge through

reading articles and the use of the professional association as a potential source of knowledge. Second, the study suggests that professionalism is a highly complex phenomenon that differs from group to group. The analysis has revealed that

/

in general, the structure of the modified scale is supported. However, there are divergences in the factor structure of reference group orientation and item 15 is impure since it

significantly loads on two factors.

I

&Y

&'

t e

4

I

" tfIIt BATCH UTS1Eº

ºtlE O3TUCTI CCRESTICk CATE " t2/23,43) "

"

41/49144 PAGE 5

wpm IAGL6 rIMMUNALliT FACTOR EICENºALUE ºCT Of VAR CUM ºCT " 99t1t31 0.73136 1 308275 39.1 39.1 ºFCFES2 0.51960 2 1.84273 18.3 57.6 ºFCFE33 0.14232 1.53552 15.3 73.1 " r6CFE54 0.32/31 f 1.3259F 13.3 86.4 IFCFESS 0.232*e 3 0.82473 e. 3 94.7 ri[fti 0.21! 37 6 0.52694 3.3 100.0 " ºFCºC37 0.262I9

PFCºCso 0.649! 4 ºFCfCS9 0.20112

" ºFtrtslo C. z714e ºFCrtslt 0.63194 ºFCFC312 0.35961

" ºFCFESI3 0.! 3421 99CFElt6 0.35795 99(7(61.5 0.43320

" ºFCFESI6 0.15790 rFCFt117 0.46! 76 F crests 0.35719

" ºFC1E319 0.26093 FFEFE323 0.31659 FFEFES21 0.41676

" ºFCr(SU 0.34262 ºRCrE323 0.4: 167 99C91524 0.! 1663

" ºFCFES2S 0.! 4650

"

"

5º15 61TCN SYSTEP 01/09/04 FACE i

FILE OSTUCTI (CREATION OAT! " 12/23/63)

VARIRA7 N0T*TEC IACTC R MTNIX 1 '

O F4CT09 1 3ICTOR 2 FACTOR 3 FACTOR f FACTOR 3 F4CTOR 6

991/951 9.14253 0.10169 0.1263/ 0.03573 0.82025 0.66931 ºFCFE52 0.05324 0.69903 0.14337 0.00r10 -0.01124 0.03591 ºFCFCS3 0.70951 0.00345 "1.05473 "0.03037 0.15566 0.06349

O 99(9(64 0.00969 0.14829 0.21237 0.05445 0.61648 0.29634 ºFCFES5 0.01179 0.07430 0.42136 0.16834 0.06039 0.10946 ºFCFES6 0.44123 0.09359 9.13045 0.92106 -0.08961 " 0.04591

O PFCFES7 C. C9254 . "0.01093 "0.00103 0.50960 0.01704 0.12352 ºFCFES" "2.79122 0.00908 0.01094 "0.03994 0.11669 "0.01598 99C7t39 0.05134 0.37333 0. t9975 0.03314 0.03213 -0.13332

O ºFCFES13 0482,35 0.96157 0.04320 0.51666 0.04942 5.00827 ºFC? ESII 3.06799 5.15373 0.60103 0.08061 0.04667 "0.03698 FFCFES12 0.56628 "0.01196 -0.00999 0.08321 "0.03997 0.06440

O ºFOFCSI3 0.036! 1 0.71015 0.13226 0.01954 0.09265 . 0.03165

ºFCFE314 0.01135 0.05924 0.16760 0.55613 0.03365 "0.12186 9 X9(513 8.06218 0.32965 1.55222 0.11261 0.07536 0.01366

O 99(7E516 0.06007 0.35454 0.19401 0.15350 . 0.00206 5.06593 FFCFESI7 0.00338 0.18202 0.62106 0.02554, 0.11454 0.19569 ºFCFESI6 0.52253 0.03766 0.16526 0.21633 0.03671 0.01050

O FFCFESl9 0.01124 -0.00619 0.24751 0.41545 0.00981. 0.09660 ' .t ºFCFE120 5.12113 0.05113 0.33210 0.10125 0.23761 0.37418" 99171521 49.01259 0.62538 0.07327 -0.00440 0.09181 0.10669

" 99C9E522 "0.01734 0.25745 0.40956 0.06291 0.0064) 0.33246 PFCFES23 0.06332 9.03473 0.10619 0.11445 0.16660 0.62047 91(9(924 "0.02656 0.05994 0.00776 0.69992 0.10609 0.10467

O 9917[525 0.04416 0.01135 9.02067 0.13033 0.72634 0.03814

I. TFAhSFORN4TIC1 MR)

Q FACTOR I FACTOR 2 FACTOR 3 FACTOR 4 FACTOR 5 FACTOR 6

0 FACTOR 1 0.26232 0.51774 9.35901 0.35067 0.36017 0.28813 FACTOR 2 0.93415 -0.25523 "9.23102 0.0361? 0.01203 "0.08713

O FACTOR 3 "0.19118 "0.50004 "0.09646 0.65e24 0.37524 0.17561 FACTOR 4 0.1.2375 0.10040 0.16022 0.56716 "0.74693 "0.25265 7011CR S "0.05231 0.55399 "0.69567 0.31245 0.22042 "0.24339

O FACTOR 6 0.02279 0.09674 "0.33154 1.01253 "0.34966 0.66918

t0

ý.

t

S ý'

&E

ý,

Laforge and Suczek's Interpersonal Check List

A factor analysis of the scale was undertaken and two factors

extracted. Factor 1 reflected the octants responsible - over-generous, cooperative - over-conventional, docile - dependant and modest - self-effacing. These reflect the

affiliative activities or interpersonal relations. Factor 1, therefore, is concerned with Affiliation.

Factor 2 reflects octants managerial - autocratic, sceptical - distrustful, blunt - aggressive and competitive - exploitive activities. It is reflecting dominant forms of interpersonal behaviour and is concerned with Dominance.

The present results confirm that the ICL reflects two major empirical dimensions of Dominance and Affiliation.

ww IV w 10,

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IJ Mn. + On" ED n. + Nw. r ? w. r M n.. l Nn. 4 Nw .. P r 1.7 T? O O? " O" ?O 0.1 0 j? O a? O 01.7 0 J? O 2 O %O MO 0Mi mMO 1. M0 PM0 MMO MMO O, MO 4.0 0. ?. r " O "P " . 0? " {A-T " ?? " N1" M? " Na 1" rr N "V " "O "O "O "G " Co " rj v) W 0 II N 11 O 11 O 11 O II O 11 rf 11 O II 0. " vy v0. v0. v0. O. v0. v0. v0. \

w N W

O On" M w- Co w .r rn .r Nw ^r Nn .r .4n -1 V1 n ." y I- OJ" P? O . 1? O ti vO MtO ?? O OJO a? O < m UM " Ki mO . NM O 97 -% C7 19) MO 10 M (2 ? N)O NM V 1�1 4 OJ " .f? " ?? " MJ " N? " N? " 0J" %Q J" r _ "I "O "0 "O "O "0 "O "0 t . to 0 II O 11 O II 0 11 0 11 O 11 O 11

W. v0. V0. V0. Vn. Vn. N. 0 0. va va Z

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2 2 º0 U N rl

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Vk O W 1'^ x U W O u cd .J U U

_ oc {i cm T of w U w

S

/

C0®0O0000000000000 O

0 IF U 14TCr lTSlCl

lilt MUM (CNEITICh OATS + OLilO/64)

0`04104 MATRIX USING PRINCIPAL FACTOR WITH ITERATIONS

f6CTC6 1 f4CTCR 2

P961UT0" 0.661: 6 0.29356 SESPCGEN 0.73664 -O. 3G356 CCEPOCUN 0.76216 -0.36CCO CECCEP 0.611*S -0.36142

N PCEIEff 0.31301 -0.36772 S1t1CLSf 0.49915 C. 19f21

0 tl)IGG 9.66770 0.59743 COPIER 0.6)744 0.61041

.O

otýtoýý" Pact 4

S t1fIAOU CCINLIOLItT /ACTON EIGEMVALUE PCT of VAN CUM PCT

fAat1 0.14919 1 3.4ee00 17.1 77.1 dh 0 EofO 0.13119 2 1.035a 22.9 100.0

'CCCFCCON 0.42213 LCtCEP C. 11201

" ºCCSEFF 0.4!! 63 SººCCST 0.26567 ILiIEO 0.7IC6t

" CCºFEX C. E: flf

1/E3 IATCR S93t4º

fILC OSluC11 (CAUTION WE " 01110/lI)

VANINAX ROTITEC FACTCR MATRIX

FACTOR 3" FACTOR Z

" ºIºAOTC 0.279uC 0.66642 A4er46E9041t0f4ffocd4ne FEIF00(N 0.7]! 32 0.29996 Re5rb4s4zz- av6tctN6tew CCCFL CCr(j 3.7iII3 3.2Jlf) c0-oiEFMr! "OUK Cv#1M4 CCtiF 0.732: 1 0.21317 oncx. E-oe, eA'orn r ºCCSEFF 0.61649 0.11966 "cossr- saLP EPP4CV SMEPCIJT 4.22! t6 0.40! 91 sjsrncA. - bjsnwsrºui.

" ELIA60 0.13x76 0.11313 SM'4T" AeWASS. 'd CCºRLX 0.2CI 1 0.761! 6 Coeu'6Ti7r�! " L~Pblf

1F163FOR04i16N NITRE

" FACTOR 1 FACTCR L

F6C1oR I 0.71110 0.7: ". 96

'FºCIOR 2 -0.19016 o. 7t3E3

"Is.

"

"

o:

"

"a

sý "

0

01/II. 164 PAGE s

APPENDIX 9

Description of Geographical Regions

41

t

,�

GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS

LONDON

Greater London Council Area

SOUTH. EAST

Bedfordshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Hampshire, Isle of Wight,

Oxfordshire

EAST ANGLIA

Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, Suffolk

NORTH

Cleveland, Cumbria, Durham, Northumberland, Tyne and Wear

NORTH WEST

Cheshire, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, Merseyside

MIDLANDS

Derbyshire, Hereford and Worcester, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, Salop, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, West Midlands

SOUTH WEST

Avon, Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Gloucestershire, Somerset, Wiltshire

YORKSHIRE AND HUMBERSIDE

Humberside, North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire

SCOTLAND

WALES

NORTHERN IRELAND

r

Source: Quantity and Building Surveyors. Survey of Salaries and Rewards in the U. K. Building Business Unit. May 1980

APPENDIX 10

OPCS 1980 Guidelines

Social Class Guidelines (OPCS 1980 Guidelines)

Social class classifications for the sample were arrived at in the following manner: - 1. Father's occupational title was given a three digit

occupational code. Example: quantity surveyor, occupational code 083.

2. With reference to Appendix G (OPCS 1980) the occupational code was classidied into employment status relationships, ie. Self-employed, Managers, Foremen or Employees. Example: occupational code 083 reclassified as employment

status 031.2.

3. With reference to Appendix B. 1 (OPCS 1980) the employment

status is reclassified into Social Class.

Example: employment status 031.2 reclassified as Social Class 2(Intermediate occupations).

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