stadium storyan icon in europe

© Lauren teague, 2015

prepared for Ba[Hons] interior arcHitecture

printed By nevex, London

front cover: London road, 2012peterBorougH united footBaLL cLuB

pHotograpHer: Joe dent

content page: estadio municipaL de Braga, portugaL

designed By: eduardo souto de moura

pHotograpHer: Luís ferreira aLves

image source: tHe pritzker arcHitecture prize

personaL tHanks to and pauL ring and mum for tHeir proof reading and feedBack. to peter WinterBurn for Bringing me cHocoLate on deadLine morning and especiaLLy to my dad for taking me to my first footBaLL stadium at tHe age of 11 days.

up tHe posH.

stadium storyan icon in europe

content

introduction

ancient History

modern generations

case study: santiago BernaBeu

pLace

case study: WemBLey stadium

tHe future

concLusion

BiBLiograpHy

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48

5

“icon: a person or tHing tHat is uncriticaLLy adored, revered or admired, or is regarded as a symBoL of a particuLar

cuLture or spHere, etc; an idoL”

(cHamBers dictionary)

6

introduction

a stadium is a tiered infrastructure BuiLt for tHe purpose of enaBLing a Large voLume

of spectators to Witness a Live event taking pLace in front of tHem; it Brings togetHer a community of Like-minded

individuaLs in an interactive setting. as an arcHitecturaL typoLogy, ‘tHe stadium’ is often typecast as a venue for sporting events. in reaLity, tHis is unfairLy inconcLusive, as tHe capaBiLities of tHese vast structures extend WideLy Beyond tHis reacH to pLay Host to a variety of sociaL

outcomes, from concerts to conventions.

HoWever, it is undeniaBLy tHe sporting

WorLd in WHicH tHe stadium Has found its most comfortaBLe Home.

arcHitecture professor BenJamin fLoWers

notes tHe aBsence of Written Literature accepting tHe stadium as a fundamentaL icon in arcHitecturaL History. despite tHis, many critics tHink of tHe stadium

as tHe “neW catHedraL”, draWing upon tHe quasi-reLigious quaLities tHat encourage

supporters to revisit tHe same pLace Week after Week. fLoWers descriBes tHe “one seemingLy straigHtforWard purpose [of tHe stadium]: to House tHe pitcH on WHicH tHe game is pLayed and tHe spectators WHo WisH to WatcH”. tHis may Be true in tHe most LiteraL sense. HoWever, He goes on to rationaLise tHat, in reaLity, “tHe

meaning attacHed to a stadium is often

far more compLicated” (fLoWers, no date).

Based on tHis notion, tHe stadium as a mere arcHitecturaL container comes under scrutiny. it is, tHerefore, tHe intention of tHis investigation to

examine tHe pLace of tHe stadium in tHe tWenty-first century and WHetHer

or not its arcHitecturaL merits are

vaLued or even considered By its users. By studying tHe motivation for stadium deveLopment tHrougHout History, it is possiBLe to determine tHe importance of its construction and position as an icon of urBan arcHitecture in europe.

7

ancient History

tHe first knoWn exampLe of ‘tHe stadium’ as a conceptuaL mass, originated in ancient greece, WHere “tHe Word ‘stadium’ or ‘stadion’ referred to [BotH] a measurement of distance [equaL to approximateLy 200m on foot] and tHe pLace WHere tHe race Was HeLd and oBserved By spectators” (anon: no date). at tHis point, tHe understood requirement of ‘tHe stadium’ as an typoLogy Was tHe enaBLing of a congregation to experience a mutuaLLy enJoyaBLe event.

Broadcast activities typicaLLy ranged from poLiticaL deBate to tHeatricaL performance, WitH tHe main purpose simpLy Being to provide a pLatform for tHe generaL puBLic to engage a croWd (frank & steets: 2010). in tHe Beginning, tHe stadium Was a compLeteLy open track WitH a start and finisH Line 192m apart WitH a WidtH of 32m, Leaving tHe audience outcast around tHe perimeter.

tHe arcHaeoLogicaL remains of tHe oLympia

Hippodrome [greece] date Back to 776Bc and Hosted tHe originaL oLympic games untiL tHey Were

it Was tHougHt to Have HeLd 40 000 spectators on tHe surrounding sLopes WHicH overLooked tHe simpLe track.

figure 18

conJectured pLan of tHe oLympia Hippodrome, sHoWing tHe participant entrance [Left].

figure 2 9

groWtH of tHe BuiLt environment, WitH minimaL additionaL excavation disrupting tHe site. tHe neW, Wider u-sHaped encLosure Became knoWn as ‘tHe Hippodrome’ and aLLoWed an open structure at one end for tHe entry of Horses and cHariots WHicH, By tHis time, Had Become an engaging spectator sport. oBservers Were strategicaLLy positioned aLong tHe Longest sides of tHe track, WHere tHey Were considered to Be ‘out of tHe Way’.

during tHe suBsequent reign of tHe roman empire, tHe focus of tHe stadium Was directed furtHer toWards satisfying tHe needs of tHe spectator, providing tHem WitH entertainment of an often BrutaL nature. tHougHt to Have Begun tHe roots of ‘fan cuLture’, supporters Began to cHoose sides WHen competitors Were forced against eacH otHer in tHe arena.

tHis caused a different sort of atmospHere to tHat previousLy experienced WitHin greek stadia. in essence, tWo maJor typoLogies Were utiLised during tHis period: tHe circus (a deveLopment of tHe greek Hippodrome) and tHe ampHitHeatre. tHe circus maximus [rome, itaLy] indicates an earLy exampLe of tHe use separate of exterior and interior spaciaL concepts WitHin tHe stadium experience.

tHis cHanged as sport Became more popuLar. tHe panatHenaic stadium

[atHens, greece] dates Back to 330Bc and Was deveLoped from tHe topograpHy of tHe vaLLey eitHer side of tHe

iLisos river, “cut out of tHe HiLLside so tHat Banks of seats WitH good sigHt Lines couLd Be formed naturaLLy” (JoHn et aL: 2007, p.3). tHis foLLoWed tHe

generic greek styLe of encouraging tHe use of tHe Landscape as a tooL for tHe

artistic iLLustration of tHe panatHenaic stadium, sHoWing tHe groWing sLopes of tHe spectator steps in conJunction WitH tHe surrounding site.

figure 310

site sketcH indicating tHe Location and scaLe of tHe coLosseum and circus maximus venues in rome.

figure 4 11

foLLoWing tHe demise of tHe roman empire, Western society moved into an oBsession WitH cHristianity, suBsequentLy sHifting tHe focus of arcHitects to tHe cHurcH. it is accepted tHat tHe construction of stadia Was aBandoned for tHe next fifteen centuries and so “tHe stadium as a BuiLding category Lapsed into oBLivion” (sHeard: 2005, pg.103). tHis is not to say, HoWever, tHat competitive sporting events no Longer took pLace. residents of modern cities took it upon tHemseLves

to HoLd LocaL events in tHe streets, WitH tHe Boundaries BetWeen participants and spectators negLected to tHe point of indifference. sHuLke (frank & steets: 2010, pp.56-73) argues tHat sport as a pHysicaL act “does not need speciaL spaces” (p.57). in otHer Words, tHe desire of a puBLic audience to spectate a sporting event does not reLy on tHe existence of a purpose-BuiLt BuiLding and often took pLace in spaces BuiLt for otHer uses, sucH as toWn squares.

sporting cuLture deveLoped after tHe industriaL revoLution and sports (sucH as footBaLL, cricket and rugBy footBaLL) Were codified to nationaLLy recognised competitive games, WitH set ruLes. tHis increased tHe interest in spectating for pLeasure. tHe suBsequent deveLopment of tHe stadium to faciLitate sucH activities Became necessary aLongside tHe movement of sport from an aLL-incLusive Leisure activity to tHat of a competitive, professionaL nature.

12

modern generations

in tHe Wake of tHis neW era, tHe construction on tHe cHamp de mars [paris, france] in 1790 is regarded as tHe first purpose-BuiLt muLtifunctionaL modern stadium. tHis escaLated tHe desire, once again, to BuiLd arenas for use By tHe masses. aLtHougH it Was not constructed as a sporting arena (more so as a poLiticaL Base for mass use), tHis HistoricaL precedent sHoWs tHe first revivaL of tHe stadium as a puBLic BuiLding. its centraL Location WitHin tHe city sHoWed its importance as an arcHitecturaL venue.

13

conJectured pLan of tHe oLympia Hippodrome, sHoWing tHe participant entrance [Left].

figure 5

“BetWeen 1889 and 1910, fifty-eigHt footBaLL League cLuBs moved into tHe stadiums tHat most of tHem continue to use today”

(BaLe: 1995, pg.221).

as tHe puBLic demand for sport as a mass spectating activity Began its revivaL, tHe nineteentH century saW tHe groWtH of tHe stadium as it is knoWn and accepted today. tHe Boundary BetWeen ‘tHose WHo pLayed and tHose WHo WatcHed’ Became more distinguisHed and it Was reaLised tHat payment to professionaL sports pLayers couLd Be generated By cHarging spectators an entrance fee for tHe entertainment. tHis, in turn, forced tHe need for tHe dedicated sports ground as a defined encLosure.

in addition to tHe evoLving of construction materiaLs and metHods, tHe industriaL revoLution aLso BrougHt aBout tHe groWtH

of tHe modern european city and tHe expansion of transport, WHicH meant tHat tHe puBLic Was more aBLe to traveL cross-country. even at tHis time, sports stadia Were Becoming of nationaL interest, WitH “footBaLL ground[s] often [Being] tHe onLy pLace in toWn outsiders WouLd visit” (BaLe: 1995, pg.222). it Was inevitaBLe tHat tHe stadium WouLd continue to deveLop as tHe needs of tHe spectator cHanged. WitH tHis, sHeard puts forWard a five-stage deveLopment pLan for tHe suBsequent ‘generations of stadia’, as an oBservation of tHe Way in WHicH outside factors Have contriButed to tHe advancement of tHe stadium as its oWn BuiLding type.

14

first generation

in order to accommodate tHe groWing numBer of sports spectators, tHe first in tHe earLy stages of stadium deveLopment introduced tHe grandstand; tHis Was usuaLLy pLaced at tHe finisHing Line of sporting activity (primariLy atHLetics), aLLoWing vieWers to gain an immediate resuLt to any given race. LittLe consideration Was made toWards puBLic comfort or amenities. open terraces Became a standard feature of sports grounds, WitH “grandstands fasHioned from Brick, iron and timBer [and] corrugated iron sHeets providing overHead protection from tHe eLements” (sHeard et aL: 2005, pg.103).

queens park rangers [qpr] fc’s Loftus road ground dates Back to 1904, aLtHougH tHe

footBaLL cLuB Weren’t to move in untiL septemBer 1917.

figure 6

tHe image sHoWs tHe traditionaL open terracing

surrounding tHree sides of tHe pitcH, as WeLL as tHe cover BrougHt to tHe site from qpr’sprevious ground at royaL park (aerofiLms: 2010, pg.137).

HoWever, WHiLe tHe simpLicity of tHe open-air ground “WitH no arcHitecturaL vaLue” (WorLdstadiums.com, no date) Was Being utiLised across great Britain, arcHitects in europe Were aLready Beginning to imagine tHe potentiaL of tHe stadium as an infLuentiaL BuiLding category.

tHe municipaL stadium [fLorence, itaLy] Was designed By engineering entHusiast pierre Luigi nervi. WHiLe tHe tHematic concept of tHe stadium is very simiLar to tHat of tHe BritisH grandstand, tHe detaiL and construction invoLved Was of a mucH HigHer scaLe. tHis Began to pave tHe Way for a more aestHeticaLLy interesting Way of Looking at tHe stadium environment.

16

constructed 1930-32, tHe fLorence municipaL stadium appears to Be aHead of tHe times against tHe typicaL grandstand (as seen at Loftus road) WitH its sWeeping cantiLevered roof structure and HigHLy eLevated terracing LeveLs.

figure 7

tHe aLfred mcaLpine stadium inspired a HigHer LeveL of stadium construction to take to tHe forefront of arcHitecturaL design. tHe unusuaL sHape and enHanced faciLities BrougHt tHe HuddersfieLd stadium into tHe spotLigHt.

tHe generation of commerciaL stadia BrougHt opportunities to incorporate mercHandising, food courts and recreationaL areas WitHout tHe encLosed environment to provide a puBLic arena for more tHan Just a once-a-Week sport venue.

figure 8

second generation

WHiLe tHe ‘teLevision age’ of tHe 1950s is tHougHt to Have saved sports Like cricket, it aLso seemingLy caused a decLine in attendances at stadia Hosting otHer sports. suddenLy, tHe aestHetic

appearance of tHe stadium Was Being taken into consideration, as it WouLd noW Be seen By more peopLe tHan Just tHose WHo aLready attended regardLess. in addition, tHe provision of artificiaL [fLood]LigHting Became a normaL expectation, aLLoWing nigHt matcHes to Be sHoWn on screen.

tHis second generation Became knoWn as ‘tHe equipped statdium’, due to tHe enHancement of comfort and tHe overaLL experience for visitors. many existing stadia Were upgraded WitH additionaL faciLites and Became more marveLLous internaLLy, despite stiLL Being fairLy anonymous from tHe outside.

tHird generation

prior to tHe 1990s, catastropHic events Were Becoming a reguLar occurrence at sports stadia in tHe uk. croWd disorder and HooLiganism Was Becoming uncontroLLaBLe. tHe 1985 fire at vaLLey parade [Bradford fc] spread across tHe Wooden terraces WitHin minutes, cLaiming tHe Lives of 56 fans. in apriL 1989, 96 LiverpooL supporters Were kiLLed at HiLLsBorougH stadium [sHeffieLd Wednesday fc] WHen overcroWding in tHe terraces resuLted in Hundreds of fans Being crusHed.

investigations Were performed to isoLate tHe proBLems in stadium safety and tHe findings Were suBsequentLy reLeased in tHe tayLor report. aLtHougH aimed primariLy at stadia in tHe uk, it Wasn’t Long Before tHe concern for spectator safety reacHed tHe rest of europe and grounds everyWHere Were incorporating fuLL seating and more accessiBiLity tHrougHout.

in 1995, tHe aLfred mcaLpine stadium (Home to HuddersfieLd toWn footBaLL cLuB and rugBy League cLuB) Became tHe first stadium to receive tHe prestigious ‘riBa BuiLding of tHe year’ (tHe stirLing prize since 1996) aWard. cHosen By riBa president oWen Luder, He stated tHat “a decade ago, it WouLd not Be possiBLe to find a footBaLL stadium tHat Warranted asecond gLance, Let aLone one tHat Had Won an exceLLence in design aWard” (Luder: 1995).

tHe stadium Was one of tHe first to Be BuiLt after tHe Writing of tHe tayLor report and fuLLy emBraced tHe neW LegisLation WitHin its design, ratHer tHan seeing it as an oBstacLe. suddenLy, stadia Were Being tHougHt of as ‘serious arcHitecture’ in great Britain and sometHing to Be proud of on tHe urBan Landscape of tHe city.

19

fourtH generation

sHeard degrades tHe fourtH generation stadium as a “direct resuLt of tHe demands of sateLLite tv” (2005, pg.115) more-so tHan ever, tHis sHoWs HoW tHe stadium is aBLe to provide an outWards representation of tHe city to a Wider audience. under scrutiny to Be more tHan a Live spectator experience, tHe stadium came Was reLied upon to sHoWcase tHe most positive attriButes of a consumer-friendLy space.

it is at tHis point tHat tHe concept of tHe fLexiBLe stadium came to LigHt - tHe aBiLity to convert tHe main fieLd of pLay into a concert venue or convention centre.

aLL of tHis Happened as part of a Wider commerciaL desire to sHoW tHe arcHitecture as more tHan Just a stereotypicaL conrete container, unsympatHetic to tHe needs of its occupants. marketing opportunities extended past tHe mercHandise staLL to tHe corporate environment of sponsorsHip and advertising.

more tHan ever Before, tHe stadium seemed to ignore its arcHitecturaL potentiaL and expLoited tHe financiaL Benefits of sHoWing off neW tecHnoLogies [sucH as retractaBLe roofs and removaBLe seats] to maximise tHe usefuL Life of tHe venue.

fiftH generation

tHe fiftH generation stadium is tHe destination of tHe tWenty-first century. tHis is a stadium WHicH must upHoLd tHe reputation of its occupant and Location. a stadium WHicH cannot Just BLend in.

at tHis point, aLmost anytHing seems possiBLe By Way of arcHitecturaL construction and a stadium’s design is Limited onLy By tHe imagination of tHe arcHitect. JoHn BaLe descriBes spectator sports as “centraL features of modern urBan society” (BaLe: 1993, pg.9) and, as sucH, tHe desire for neW faciLities generates tHe need for neW arcHitecture.

20

“tHe presence of tHe stadium as an iLLuminated Body tHat can cHange its appearance and is situated in an open Landscape, tHe

procession-Like arrivaL of fans and tHe crater-Like interior”

(Herzong + de meuron on tHe aLLianz arena)

WitH seemingLy LittLe sympatHy to its immediate surroundings, tHe aLLianz arena, designed By Herzog + de meuron, makes its presence knoWn tHrougH its BrigHtLy Lit etfe exterior and is knoWn more as a Beacon of tHe area tHan for its quaLity as a sports faciLity. tHis isn’t to say tHat tHe arena Lacks in quaLity But its iconic nature reLies upon its pHysicaL aestHetic. tHe deBate is WHetHer Looking impressive is a soLid enougH Basis for determining tHe quaLity of a stadium. ergo, tHe exterior vs interior argument sHouLd Be considered as mucH as tHe contextuaL environment in WHicH tHe venue resides.

21

tHe aLLianz arena [municH] iLLuminated in one of many optionaL coLours. vieWaBLe from any eLevation and compLeteLy unoBstructed.

figure 9

case study: eL stadio santiago BernaBeu

reaL madrid cf [footBaLL cLuB; madrid, spain] Was formed in 1902, at WHicH point tHey pLayed tHeir matcHes on a pLot of Land WHicH tHey rented from its oWner. fans gatHered around tHe pLaying fieLds to WatcH tHe games and a nearBy BuiLding Was used for storage and pLayer faciLities.

as tHe popuLarity of tHe cLuB greW, tHe need for a neW ground Was accommodated By a move to o’donneLL, WHere tWo grandstands (to House 6 000 fans) and a fencing surround Were BuiLt to separate tHe atHLetes from tHe spectators around tHe fuLL perimeter of tHe pLaying surface. tHis Was tHe cLuB’s first encLosed ground, as part of a generation tHat saW cLuBs move aWay from pLaying on expanses of grass in tHe middLe of noWHere.

in 1923, tHe o’donneLL Land Was soLd and reaL madrid Were forced to find a neW pLace to pLay. tHe footBaLL cLuB moved BriefLy into tHe veLodrome at ciudad LineaL Before empLoying an arcHitect to BuiLd tHeir oWn stadium (tHe oLd cHarmartin) WitH a capacity for 15 000 fans, WHere tHey stayed for tHe next 23 years.

aLtHougH part of tHe increase in puBLic interest WouLd Have Been created By tHe success of tHe team, tHe deveLopment of tHe ground ties in WitH tHe grandstand cuLture of tHe earLy 1900s and tHe terraces BuiLt at tHe oLd cHarmartin ecHo tHe traditionaL ground WitH tHree open sides and one main stand WitH a pitcHed roof.

22 23

tHe estrada Lot. open Land used for competing.

figure 10

tHe team’s first dedicated pitcH at o’donneLL. segregation introduced BetWeen supporters and atHLetes.generation 1.

figure 11

tHe stadium’s capacity Was enLarged to

25 000 in 1939, after tHe damage caused By tHe spanisH civiL War made a restoration proJect a necessity. for tHe first time, tHe terraces surrounding 360o of tHe pLaying fieLd and Had more space to move around and enJoy WatcHing tHe sport WitHout feeLing compromised By tHe environment.

WHen tHe stadium’s capacity Was stiLL not enougH to cope WitH tHe spectator demand, tHe stadium Went tHrougH a second pHase of construction. noW equipped WitH tHe Latest in modern amenities, tHe ground Was stiLL Lacking a roof structure and seating. tHis is WHat sets tHe european stadia apart from tHose BuiLt in tHe uk at tHe time.

coinciding WitH tHe 1982 WorLd cup, rennovations Were made, incLuding tHe construction of a roof and instaLLation of seats in HaLf of tHe stadium. tHis sHoWs HoW important it Was for reaL madrid to Have tHeir arena sHoWn off to its fuLL potentiaL for tHe sake of tHe teLevision Broadcast and spectators of competing countries.

By tHe 1990s, tHe stadium Was required to Become an aLL-seater [mirroring tHe tayLor report reLeased in tHe uk]. so as not to reduce tHe capactiy By over 60%, a fuLL redeveLopment program Was estaBLisHed and corporate faciLities came to tHe BernaBeu. in addition, tHe four toWers in tHe corners of tHe stadium Were BuiLt at tHis time.

gradas deL nuevo cHamartin en oBras.generation 2.

encuentro en eL santiago BernaBeu.generation 3.

figure 12 figure 1324 25

panoramic vieW of tHe santiago BernaBeu in its current form [2014].generation 4.

figure 14 27

28

construction sequence of tHe neW BernaBeu, indicating tHe discreet nature in WHicH tHe existing site in conceaLed.

figure 15 29

tHe neW BernaBeu. generation 5.

figure 16

feW externaL cHanges Have Been made tHe tHe BernaBeu since tHis stage. tHe interior, HoWever, teLLs a different story. despite tHe demand for matcH tickets in tHe 90 000 seater stadium, a monumentaL portion of tHe ground’s spaciaL aLLoWance is given over to tHe tourism accrued. an extensive museum depicts tHe cLuB’s History and acHeivements, tHe stadium tour opens up tHe pLayer cHanging rooms and tHe pitcHside itseLf to puBLic invasion and tHe mercHandise store extends over tHree fLoors.

tHis sHoWs HoW stereotypicaLLy important tHe consumer-friendLy, fLexiBLe stadium Has Become in modern society. tHe main sporting event is aLmost on a par of importance WitH tHe activities tHat can take pLace off tHe fieLd.

tHe Latest design for rennovation to tHe existing BuiLding consists of an enveLoping skin Wrapped around tHe fuLL site. WitH images proJected onto tHe sHiny surface, tHis venue is making a conscious effort to entice tHe passers-By WitH sHarp grapHics and noveL ideas. standing out against its modest surroundings, tHe BernaBeu is a cLassic exampLe of an iconic deveLopment; standing proud WitH no excuses as WeLL as fuLfiLLing its functionaL needs.

criticaLLy, tHe four corner toWers WiLL Be retained and unaffected By tHe neW cLadding, WHicH not onLy makes construction cHeaper and more simpLe, But aLso HoLds onto some of tHe stadium’s previous identity ratHer tHan ignoring tHe HistoricaL vaLue of WHat aLready exists.

pLace

it is not tHe arcHitecture of tHe stadium aLone tHat draWs tHe masses to it. tHe HistoricaL vaLue and emotionaL connotation of any BuiLt environment is enougH to Warrant an attacHment to a pLace. american geograpHer yi-fu tuan expLores tHe genius Loci of pLace and its connection WitH Human society – He caLLs tHis ‘topopHiLia’; to experience tHe “ties tHat unite Humans and tHeir materiaL surroundings, especiaLLy [tHose] tHat comBine emotion and pLace” (BaLe & moen: 1995, pg.26).

mirroring Back to tHe originaL use of tHe stadium as a communaL meeting space,

“tHe stadium as a sacred pLace,tHe stadium as a scenic space,

tHe stadium as Home,tHe stadium as a tourist pLace,

pLace, pride and LocaL patriotism”

(WiLLiams & Wagg: 1992).

JoHn BaLe reconstructs tuan’s argument in presentation of His oWn five-point tHeory of ‘sporting spaces and emotionaL attacHment’. focusing on tHe ‘sense of pLace’ for tHe spectator, He pursues:

30

tHe primary function of tHe [sports] stadium as an arcHitecturaL space is to faciLitate tHe participation and spectating of a event. as an iconic mass on tHe urBan Landscape, its presence makes itseLf knoWn for miLes around. HoWever, it is upon cLose proximity WitH tHe environment tHat tHe greatest of experiences present tHemseLves. goLdBerger cLaims tHat “interior space WiLL aLmost aLWays provoke a greater emotionaL response tHan tHe outside of a BuiLding does” (2009, pg.111).

tHis is not a neW reveLation. even WHen referring to tHe HistoricaL stadia of tHe greek and roman empires, frank & steets descriBe “tHe WorLd inside tHese stadia and tHat outside [as] tWo compLeteLy different atmospHeres” (2010, pg.50).

many reguLar stadium users comment on tHe aBiLity to ‘Leave reaL Life BeHind tHem’, as tHe onLy tHing tHat matters at tHat moment in time is WHat is Happening on tHe pLaying surface in front of tHem.

despite goLdBerger’s suggestion tHat “tHe neW is often Hard to accept”, descriBing it as seemingLy “ugLy, coarse [and] onLy seLdom seen as BeautifuL” (2009, pg.48), it is not unusuaL for stadium

arcHitecture to Be adapted and reneWed.

in some circumstances, repLacement stadia are BuiLt at a neW Location (often

outside of tHe city it unites, due to Lack of infrastructure). HoWever, tHe most reguLar visitors to sucH venues often puBLicise tHeir oWn opinions on stadium aLteration.

tHe HistoricaL meaning of tHe stadium

to tHe spectator couLd Be said to HoLd more importance tHan tHat of its

arcHitecturaL vaLue and, suBsequentLy,tHe prospect of a neWLy BuiLt environment

is often Less attractive tHan tHat of tHe redeveLopment of tHe traditionaL ‘Home’. tHis Brings forWard tHe questioning of priority - tHe idea tHat tHe pLace name and tHe rituaL of attending tHis pLace HoLds more importance tHat tHe pLace itseLf.

equaLLy, an outsider to tHe city appreciates tHe iconograpHy of stadia - tourists visiting BarceLona WiLL find tHat tHe nou camp stadium is Just as mucH a part of tHeir guided tour as gaudi’s catHedraL [La sagrada de famiLia], as it Has Become part of tHe cuLturaL Landscape.

31

case study: WemBLey stadium

WemBLey stadium [London, uk] is indisputaBLy one of tHe most famous stadia in tHe WorLd. despite its most renoWned use as a footBaLL and entertainment (concert) venue, WemBLey Has Hosted sixteen different sporting events tHrougHout its History, from greyHound racing and Hockey to WrestLing and BaseBaLL (tonsett & Brand: 2007). originaLLy constructed in 1924 as part of tHe city’s reHaBiLitation proJect, tHe stadium Was seen for some time as inadequate to tHe comforts of tHe spectator and Has, tHerfore, undergone various deveLopments in its History.

32

tHe first version of WemBLey stadium sHoWs its muLtifunctionaL use WitH tHe running track circLing tHe perimeter of tHe pLaying fieLd.

figure 17 33

tHrougHout tHe deveLopment of tHe internaL environment, tHe tWo toWers [Left] are a prominent fixture in tHe stadium’s identity.

figure 18

By tHe earLy 1990s it Became inevitaBLe tHat tHe WHoLe stadium WouLd need to Be entireLy repLaced: WemBLey stadium Was Being sHoWn up By otHer more modern venues and constant expansions of tHe ground [most noticeaBLy tHe cHange from standing to seated terracing] Had Left tHe BuiLding oLd and tired. cHanges in LegisLation post-tayLor report aLso meant tHat furtHer expansion Was needed to accommodate Lack of overaLL space at tHe site.

foster & partners, LoBB and Hok arcHitects] tHat tHe grade ii Listed structures WouLd Be saved. HoWever, WitH tHe permission of engLisH Heritage, it Was uLtimateLy agreed tHat tHe overWHeLming size of tHe neW stadium WouLd overpoWer tHe toWers, WHicH WouLd Be an “unnecessariLy inHiBiting factor” in tHe design of tHe neW construction (foster & ingLis: 2012, pg.31). its repLacement, tHe WemBLey arcH, Was descriBed in earLy sketcH draWings

as ‘tHe neW symBoL of WemBLey’. tHis sHoWs HoW criticaL it Was, even in tHe earLy design process, to recognise tHe significance of tHis sporting venue and its iconic impact on tHe city of London. tHe neW stadium WouLd provide comfort and spectator faciLities on a LeveL tHat couLd never Have Been matcHed By its previous counterpart. more cruciaLLy, it WouLd sustain its emotionaL vaLue and nostaLgic importance.

it stands to reason tHat oLder generations of spectator initiaLLy faiLed to emBrace tHe ‘knock it doWn and start again’ mentaLity of tHe WemBLey stadium reBuiLd - tHe famous tWin toWers Were LaBeLLed as “quintessentiaL [to tHe] experience of going to WemBLey [and Had] Become part of footBaLLing foLkLore across tHe gLoBe” (neWs: 2003). it Was initiaLLy tHe intention of tHe arcHitects invoLved WitH tHe proJect [a compiLation of persons from

34

tHe tWo toWers of WemBLey, prior to demoLition.

figure 19

design iLLustrations By norman foster Likening tHe neW WemBLey arcH to sucH icons as tHe eiffeL toWer in its cuLturaL significance.

figure 20 35

tHe ‘neW WemBLey’ stadium is prominent from miLes around WitH tHe iconic arcH sHoWing off its Location around tHe cLock.

figure 21

“groWing up, it’s WHere you WatcHed your Heroes pLay;WatcHing cup finaLs tHinking ‘one day tHat WiLL Be me’.

WemBLey is not Just a stadium - it’s tHe stadium”(adam BartLett: 2015)

professionaL goaLkeeper adam BartLett descriBes pLaying at WemBLey as “a sense of acHievement” at tHe end of a successfuL season - “you need to earn tHe cHance to pLay under tHe arcH” (2015). tHe emotionaL connotation of tHe venue is so strong tHat it is LikeLy to Be present regardLess of tHe pHysicaL aestHetic. tHis is evident tHrougH tHe stadium’s HistoricaL precedence.

if tHe stadium itseLf Looked entireLy different, it WouLd HoLd no Less importance to its audience. someHoW, tHe ineffaBLe and

39

WemBLey stadium interior vieW.

figure 22

famed ‘WemBLey experience’ outLives tHe arcHitecturaL vaLue and, WHiLe tHe design of tHe neW stadium may Be a feat in constructionaL tecHnoLogy, it goes potentiaLLy unnoticed By tHe masses.

despite its cHange in appearance, tHe association attacHed to visiting WemBLey stadium, WHetHer as a spectator or participant, seems not to Have aLtered. in tHis instance, tHe ‘sense of pLace’ extends past tHe concept of ‘Home’ and Becomes a more poWerfuL emotion draWn out By tHe promise of success.

tHe future

WHiLe many stadia Live Long and Happy Lives, serving tHe community as a stapLe icon on tHe urBan Landscape, otHers faLL into disuse and diLapidation. tHis occurs continuaLLy WitH stadia constructed for one-off events, sucH as tHe oLympic games.

in tHe modern WorLd, it is no Longer acceptaBLe for a stadium to Be BuiLt, used and tHen aBandoned. nine cities put in a Bid to Host tHe 2012 oLympic games, WitH London uLtimateLy Winning tHe

oLympic venues Was tHat of sustainaBiLity – tHe prospect tHat eacH Work of arcHitecture WouLd Have an equaLLy usefuL Life after tHe cLosing of tHe games. tHe pHiLosopHy of tHe London oLympic venues resemBLed tHat of temporary arcHitecturaL structures and couLd prove a key movement in tHe future of tHe stadium. ideaLLy, tHis WouLd reduce tHe numBer of venues Left aBandoned and Wasted after tHe games, despite tHe promises made and tHe suBstantiaL amounts of money spent on design and construction.

40

approvaL of tHe paneL (after a sHort List of five finaL candidates). tHrougHout tHe document of evaLuation for suitaBiLity, tHe London commission empHasised tHe games as a “cataLyst for tHe redeveLopment [...] reHaBiLitation and regeneration proJect in east London” (pg.64), as WeLL as considering tHe positive impact for tHe future of sport in great Britain.

HoWever, one of tHe most suBstantiaL promises made for tHe construction of tHe

tHe surrounding oLympic viLLage Was destined to Be turned into sociaL Housing But tHis never Happened and tHe WHoLe area Lies practicaLLy deserted.

atHens [2004] softBaLL stadium is noW overrun WitH Weeds and aBandoned due to Lack of interest in tHe sport since tHe oLympics.

figure 24figure 23

“it is not aBandoned. it’s Just tHat noBody ever pLays softBaLL. [tHis] sums up tHe proBLem WitH

tHese stadiums”

(Business insider: 2014)

41

significant parts of tHe London venue scHeduLe of accommodation Were constructed WitH tHe intention of dismounting and sHipping off to tHe 2016 oLympics in rio. of tHe permanent fixtures WHicH remain, various futures aWait. of particuLar significance is tHe main oLympic stadium, WHicH Has Been BougHt By West Ham united footBaLL cLuB and WiLL Be rennovated in time for tHe 2016/17 season.

tHis venue, too, Was originaLLy intended to Be of temporary existence, despite tHe Hefty £429m pricetag. HoWever, it WiLL noW continue to operate as a muLti-functionaL status [Hosting footBaLL and atHLetics] due to a £154m conversion proJect WHicH adds a retractaBLe roof and additionaL permanent seating.

cHeaLsea fc are in tHe searcH for a neW stadium. Battersea poWer station is a grade ii Listed BuiLding in London, uk. tHe footBaLL cLuB Were Hoping to create an iconic statement WitHin tHe parameters of a proposed stadium insertion. aLtHougH tHeir Bid for tHe poWer station Was uLtimateLy unsuccessfuL, tHe principaL of reusing an existing BuiLding to House a sport venue is BotH unusuaL and intriguing. as a ruLe, stadia are purpose-BuiLt arenas.

HoWever, if tHe Latest generation of stadium design caLLs for aestHeticaLLy iconic consideration tHen sometHing as unique as adaptation of an existing HistoricaL site potentiaLLy faLLs WitHin tHis category. additionaLLy, tHis puts an oLd BuiLding to good use, ratHer tHan expecting tHe uLtimate aBandonment of a neW one.

tHe neW West Ham stadium converted from tHe oLympic stadium after tHe London 2012 games, sHoWn in atHLetics format [top] and footBaLL venue [BeLoW].

figure 25

interior render [unreaLised] of tHe design for cHeLsea fc’s neW stadium at tHe site of Battersea poWer station.

areaL vieW sHoWing tHe insertion of tHe stadium intervention BetWeen tHe existing toWers.

figure 26 figure 27 43

sHuLke cHaLLenges tHe arcHitecturaL future of tHe stadium in accordance WitH tHe groWing appreciation of ‘puBLic vieWing’ [pv] spaces – a pHenomenon first fuLLy appreciated at tHe 2006 [footBaLL] WorLd cup in germany. if tHe purpose of tHe stadium is to faciLitate tHe needs of tHe spectator to engage WitH tHe Live sporting event, tHen tHe pv pLatform is Just as adequate in its aBiLity to fuLfiL tHis commitment, By providing an atmospHeric condition tHat equaLs tHat of tHe stadium interior.

puBLic vieWing increases tHe accessiBiLity

of sport to tHe spectator By providing a stage of action tHat does not require stadium attendance. sHoWing matcHes on Large screens in toWn squares enaBLes fLexiBiLity of movement and nods Back to tHe roots of spectator sports Before tHe introduction of purpose-BuiLt arcHitecture.

tHe struggLe in tHis sense, HoWever, is tHe Lacking of an interior environment.

tHis tHeory impLies tHat tHe topopHiLic quaLities of tHe stadium reside WitHin tHe individuaL’s aBiLity to engage WitH tHe activity taking pLace on an emotionaL LeveL, regardLess of tHe connection to tHe pHysicaL environment. sHuLke descriBes a situation in WHicH tHe stadium as an arcHitecturaL icon ceases to exist and is repLaced By tHe eLectronic capturing of an event taking pLace in a remote environment, questioning tHe necessity for tHe containing of an audience at aLL.

“Bringing croWds of peopLe togetHer is a priviLege”

(sHuLke: 2010)

44

additionaLLy, as traditionaL venues tecHnoLogicaL vieWing and more extreme sports, tHe traditionaL stadium couLd struggLe to compete WitH tHe cuLturaL movement toWards tHis neW type of event. neW, Less Limiting sporting events are groWing in popuLarity and tHis is proven By tHe interest in tHe Winter oLympics in socHi [european russia, 2014], WHicH is set to inspire a neW generation to participate in Winter sports, sucH as snoWBoarding and skiing, WHicH cannot pHysicaLLy take pLace WitHin tHe Boundaries of a sterotypicaLLy encLosed stadium environment.

concLusion

on tHe importance of sports arcHitecture, rod sHeard puts forWard His argument By stating tHat “tHe greatest BuiLdings, tHe ‘icons’, Have aLWays refLected tHe zeitgeist. and rigHt noW, tHe zeitgeist is sport” (2005: pg.20).

tHe reLevance of tHe stadium as an urBan Landmark is impLicated By its connection to an audience – tHe sports spectator. tHrougHout HistoricaL precedence and five suBsequent generations of [modern] sports stadia (sHeard: 2005), tHe stadium Has provided an appropriate arena for communaL activity. tHis deveLopment Has aLWays coincided WitH tHe cHanging needs of tHe sporting WorLd: as spectator sports evoLved from figHts in ampHitHeatres, tHrougH cricket and atHLetics in grandstands, to muLtipurpose faciLities for oLympic events, tHe stadium Has expanded to enHance

tHe experience for BotH spectator and participant.

sHeard aLso notes tHe struggLe for sport venues to gain tHe “status and creditaBiLity tHat tHey deserve WitHin tHe arcHitecturaL estaBLisHment” (2001, pg.xiii). in fact, tHis Was not aLWays tHe case. tHe panatHenaic stadion of ancient greece Was considered of sucH importance as an entertainment arena tHat it Began tHe tradition of competitive sports and Was suBsequentLy redeveLoped in order to Host tHe first modern oLympic games.

more often tHan not, tHe HistoricaL vaLue and ineffaBLe quaLities of tHe stadium HoLd more importance to tHe average spectator tHan its arcHitecturaL cHaracter. tHis u does not, HoWever, mean tHat supporters are not impressed By tHe stadium’s design

or tHat it is considered irreLevant. tHe arcHitecturaL merits of any space most truLy come to LigHt WHen tHey are occupied By tHe intended user. a stadium WHicH is used once a Week is perHaps more important and WortHy, tHerefore, tHan one WHicH is used intermittentLy over a period of time. in attending to tHis tHeory, goLdBerger decLares tHat “WHen We see a concert HaLL empty, after Hours, We can appreciate its pHysicaL form, But We see it as a vacuum, cut off from its purpose, and tHus We BareLy see it at aLL” (2009, pg.16).

WHiLe a stadium Like WemBLey migHt possess a faerie-taLe quaLity in tHe imaginations of tHose WHo can onLy dream of seeing tHe iconic arcH of WemBLey stadium, tHe aWe of tHe experience is HeigHtened WHen tHe community Joins togetHer to appreciate tHe spectacLe tHat is ‘matcH day’.

45

Herzog + de meuron: tHe aLLianz arena, municH.

figure 28

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BiBLiograpHy

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“tHe reaL skiLL in designing a stadium is not tHe tecHnicaL stuff

– it’s designing a BuiLding tHat BottLes emotion”

norman foster