Re-Imagining Architecture of stadium Typology

V I I I s e m e s t e r

B . A r c h

K L S G o g t e I n s t i t u t e o f

T e c h n o l o g y

B e l g a u m

i | R e t h i n k i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e o f S t a d i u m T y p o l o g y

Abstract

Stadia have the ability to reshape a city. What once was a place built

for viewing an event, is now the most important piece of civic

infrastructure. Historically, the stadium was built as a monument to

society. The Roman Colosseum and Soldier Field were built as

political gifts to the city, which symbolized the importance of

recreation and entertainment in society. They were spaces for the

cities to meet as one, to share their views, and celebrate civic

accomplishment. The modern stadium is still a space for civic

celebration, but why is it important for a city to have this space?

What is the role of the modern stadium today?

The modern stadiums are designed to capitalize financially as much

as possible and also due to increase in automobiles, the newly built

stadiums have moved from downtown to suburbs providing owners

more space for seats, larger parking lots and ultimately more revenue.

These larger disconnected stadiums have led to waning attendance

and an overall lack of use.

The thesis attempts at finding what measures would bring back the

sports arenas much closer to the common public and aims at creating

an event space for a better symbiosis of private and public sectors and

this project will establish a new prototype for stadium design in

which the stadium becomes an integral part of the city. The project

will examine how a new stadium can become a continuation of street

activity thereby uniting the urban fabric of the city. The stadium will

be a facility that serves the sporting culture as well as the city.

ii | R e t h i n k i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e o f S t a d i u m T y p o l o g y

Acknowledgement

I learned that I could not do anything in one graduation project and

experienced that frequent contact with my supervisors was fruitful

without doubt. Therefore I would like to give my special thanks to

Ar.Ritesh Darmayat sir for helping me with structuring my research

and for guiding me in all kind of ways. Many thanks to our HOD, Ar.

Pratap D.Patil, for his fair effort in giving reviews and suggestions to

each of the students in our batch.

I would like to thank my twin brother, Hareesh Gangolli for sharing

his thoughts on my thesis and making me believe in myself.

I can never forget my parents and my family for their great support

during my hard times.

Finally, I want to thank all my friends who never let me down and

who were so patient during the last year.

iii | R e t h i n k i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e o f S t a d i u m T y p o l o g y

CONTENTS

Abstract............................................................................................................... i

Acknowledgement ............................................................................................. ii

List of Illustrations .......................................................................................... iv

Literature Study ................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction of topic and Intention of the thesis: ....................................................................... 1

1.2 Objectives and scope of the project: ........................................................................................... 2

1.3 Dictionary meaning and elaboration on key words: ................................................................... 2

1.4 Elaboration on aspects of stadium architecture: ........................................................................ 3

1.4.1 Sports: ................................................................................................................................. 3

1.4.2 The stadium and the city: ................................................................................................... 3

1.4.3 Urban Integration: .............................................................................................................. 4

1.4.4 Typologies: .......................................................................................................................... 4

1.4.5 Narratives: ........................................................................................................................... 5

1.4.6 Management of Public Space around the Sporting Arena ................................................. 7

1.5 Architectural aspects of stadia: ................................................................................................... 8

1.5.1 Chronological documentation of stadium architecture: .................................................... 8

1.5.2 Contemporary stand on stadium architecture: ................................................................ 19

1.6 Illustrations ................................................................................................................................ 20

1.6.1 Oriole Park at Camden Yards ............................................................................................ 20

1.6.2 Estadio Nacional de Brasilia: ............................................................................................. 22

1.6.3 The Campus Crossroads Project ....................................................................................... 23

1.7 Opinions of Experts on the phenomenon and architecture dealing with the issue: ................. 28

Publication bibliography ................................................................................. 30

iv | R e t h i n k i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e o f S t a d i u m T y p o l o g y

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 Closed Vs Open Types ......................................................................................... 4

Figure 2 Community and the stadium ..................................................................................... 5

Figure 3 Going to the match LS Lowry, 1928 ........................................................................ 6

Figure 4 Stadium at Olympia ................................................................................................. 8

Figure 8 Panathenaic stadium (2004 Olympic Games of Athens) .......................................... 9

Figure 5 Plan of 331 BC Panathenaic Stadium ....................................................................... 9

Figure 6 Panathenaic stadium (1896 Olympic Games) .......................................................... 9

Figure 7 Panathenaic stadium before renovation .................................................................... 9

Figure 9 The great amphitheatre in Verona ......................................................................... 10

Figure 10 Colosseum (The Flavian Amphitheatre) .............................................................. 11

Figure 12 Circus Maximus in 80 AD .................................................................................... 12

Figure 11 View of Circus Maximus...................................................................................... 12

Figure 14 Remnants of Hippodrome of Constantinople (Bezantine Empire) ....................... 13

Figure 13 Chariot Racing in Roman Hippodromes .............................................................. 13

Figure 16 Time line of stadium development ....................................................................... 14

Figure 15 Piazza del Campo ................................................................................................. 14

Figure 17 Large amount of crowd in First Generation stadia ............................................... 15

Figure 18 Telstra Dome in Melbourne .................................................................................. 17

Figure 19 The Chinese National Stadium in Beijing – The Bird's Nest Stadium ................. 18

Figure 20 View of Oriole Park at Camden Yards ................................................................. 20

Figure 21 character of the street between the ballpark and the warehouse. ......................... 21

Figure 22 extension of the stadium to the street ................................................................... 21

file:///D:/ongoing/Gireesh/Gireesh%20(Thesis)-Rethinking%20Architecture%20of%20Stadium%20Typology/Literature%20Review/Literature%20review%20of%20Stadium(%20Final).docx%23_Toc414845896















1 | R e t h i n k i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e o f S t a d i u m T y p o l o g y

Literature Study

1.1 Introduction of topic and Intention of the thesis:

Stadium, in its purest form, is a structure that holds tiered seating arrangements built for

mass viewing of sports, competitions and public events. It is a major component of social

interaction in cultures all around the world, in both developed and developing nations. The

cathedral of sport has always been a place capable of bringing a community together; dating

back from spectacular colosseum to mega structures we build today. It is a place where

people come together to celebrate sport, see a show, congregate for self expression or some

other similar social event.

Currently many stadiums, which are civic structures, tear unsustainable holes in cities

and isolate themselves from their surroundings. It is not enough for stadiums to just co-exist

with the urban environment and become integrated into the skyline. They must infuse

activity, vitalize the surrounding area, restore urban density, and create connections to the

community. Traditional stadium design typically revolves solely around an iconic image

conveyed by these civic monuments. However, they often ignore the social potential

embedded within. How does a stadium become more than just a stadium? This thesis will

address issues of community, embodying how a new stadium can provide a nucleus for

urban regeneration within the city.

Stadiums are traditionally designed with regards to the aerial view from a blimp;

however, this is not how stadiums are experienced. Therefore, this thesis will examine how

stadiums are experienced at the human scale. This notion challenges traditional stadium

configurations. A paradigm shift for stadium design is necessary to change the way we view

their role within the urban context.

“Cities invest heavily in stadiums in terms of funding and support; therefore, it is

imperative that stadiums invest in cities in terms of physical contributions and social

benefits.”

Stadiums need to be designed to achieve public gain and can become more and

more public participatory. There is a large disconnect between a privately focused design

and a publicly focused design. Therefore there has to be a major shift in the way the

stadiums are viewed, designed and financed, allowing them to become more flexible.

Especially when integrated in mixed-use developments, they can play a key role in urban

regeneration and the trend of stadiums returning to inner city areas is one that we might

expect to see more of in the future. A stadium could become more of a public amenity to

the city instead of helping a very few to profit and only being used sparely for a limited

number of things.

The thesis attempts at finding what measures would bring back the sports arenas

much closer to the common public and aims at creating an event space for a better

symbiosis of private and public sectors and this project will establish a new prototype for

stadium design in which the stadium becomes an integral part of the city. The project will

examine how a new stadium can become a continuation of street activity thereby uniting the

urban fabric of the city. The stadium will be a facility that serves the sporting culture as well

as the city.


1.2 Objectives and scope of the project:

To promote and enhance prospects of sports.

To discuss what are the stands of experts and common people over the topic at

present.

To appreciate main areas of debate around the topic and also try to contribute to that

debate.

To provide for all citizens a variety of enjoyable leisure opportunities those are

accessible safe, physically attractive and uncrowned.

To access the requirement of sports complex in the light of regional potentials and

aspirations of the people.

To think of all possible ways to make the stadium, an integral part of the city life and

meet the expectations of present generation.

There is real scope for the study as the contemporary sport arenas are looking at the

different possibilities to achieve social and economical gain. There is a lot of discussion

going on around the world on this topic and in developing countries like India it is still

possible to integrate stadiums within urban fabric, enriching the aspiration of the people

towards sports.

1.3 Dictionary meaning and elaboration on key words:

Sport: ‘Sport’ is termed as all forms of physical activity that contribute to physical fitness,

mental well-being and social interaction. These include play; recreation; casual, organized

or competitive sport; and indigenous sports or games. (Sport Recreation and Play 2004)

Stadium: Enclosure that provides a broad space for sports events and tiers

of seats for a large number of spectators. The name derives from a Greek unit of

measurement, the stade, (about 607 ft or 185 m) the length of the foot race in the ancient

Olympics. Shapes of the stadium have varied depending on use: some are regular with

curved corners; others are elliptical or U-shaped.

Typology: The doctrine or study of types or of the correspondence between

them and the realities which they typify;

Polis: A polis consisted of an urban centre, often fortified and with a sacred centre built on a

natural acropolis or harbor, which controlled a surrounding territory (chora) of land.

Hippodromes: (in ancient Greece or Rome) a stadium for chariot or horse races.

Circus: (in ancient Rome) a rounded or oval arena lined with tiers of seats, used for

equestrian and other sports and games.

Naumachia shows: an ancient Roman spectacle representing a naval battle. : A place for

naumachiae.

http://www.ancient.eu/Acropolis/


1.4 Elaboration on aspects of stadium architecture:

1.4.1 Sports:

“One of the benefits of sports is that it brings youth together. Sports help people solve

their differences and problems. Young people can change their attitude by playing sport.”

-Salah Hussein Wasughe, 2004

“Sport is one of the few things we have created in our society that is not predictable, it is

never the same. It can be unique. Sport supplies the stories that make life worth living for

many people.''

-Rod Sheard, 2005

To understand why stadia have become central to the lives of so many people, it is

necessary to examine the role of sport in society. Sport today has moved to central stage,

effectively ousting every other form of mass entertainment. Donald Katz argues that ''Sport

has arguably' surpassed popular music as the captivating medium most essential to being

perceived as young and alive ... ''. Sport goes straight to the hearts of people -be they

spectators in the stadium or television viewers -arousing passionate and partisan behavior.

Sport has been described as ''war without killing'', and the language of n1artial conflict is

employed -there are 'offence squads' and 'defense squads' in American football, we 'shoot' at

goal, we celebrate 'victory' and the 'defeat' of vanquished opponents. (Sheard et al. 2005)

“Sport has the power to change the world. It has the power to inspire. It has the power to

unite people in a way that little else does. Sport can awaken hope where there was

previously only despair.”

-Nelson Mandela, 2006

With so many diverse opportunities throughout society, sports represent one of the last

institutions that everyone can identify within a community. Stadiums are the physical

manifestation of this institution, the modern day cathedrals and town halls. They are one of

the most important types a city can have.

Modern sport has been described as (i) a ritual sacrifice of human energy; (ii)

providing a common cultural currency between peoples; (iii) a means of compensating for

deficiencies in life; (iv) a mechanism for the affirmation of identity and difference; (v)

business rather than sport; (vi) a social product; (vii) a contested arena shaped by struggles

both on and off the field of play and (viii) being a euphemism for Western or capitalist

sport. (Jarvie 2005)

1.4.2 The stadium and the city:

The stadium has always been the most iconic building in the city. From the Colosseum

in Rome, to Soldier Field in Chicago, the stadium is the urban space where cities gather to

express their civic pride. Stadia are the icon of the community that surrounds them.

Wrigleyville in Chicago would be nonexistent if it were not for Wrigley Field. No other

building typology has the same effect that stadia have on a city. The stadium as a building

typology cannot be understood without understanding the society in which it resides.

stadiums are the icon of the city. They represent the culture and views of the society;

The stadium is the urban center for the celebration of the ritual that is the event. It is

the place where the people gather to rejoice as one when the team wins, and mourn when

the team loses. The stadium is the most urban structure in the city today. But the stadium is

more than a place for sport. It is a tool for revitalizing the city. It is a center of economic

growth. In many new stadiums, transportation centers are also introduced alongside. This

proves that the stadium grows the city center. (Dureiko 2014)


1.4.3 Urban Integration:

Today, unlike any other building, the stadium stages the organized congregation of

tens of thousands of people, in a collective demonstration of a contemporary social order.

And yet, in a growing trend, stadia exist in an increasingly compromised relationship with

the contemporary city and its citizens. Once a significant facet of classical civic life, this

typology has become hermetic, standing as disconnected obstacles in urban areas,

frequently unoccupied and often relocated to the urban fringes. With sporting and large

cultural events now almost entirely controlled by private investors, sponsors and the media,

stadia architecture is often more concerned with the defense of a privatized territory, rather

than the support of a public space that engages and identifies with the city. (Paxton 2014)

In countries like India, which always celebrate sports as a religion, there is a need to

make stadiums as the integral part of the city. There can be more activities that can happen

around the stadiums which can connect them to the city and bring up the aspiration and

proud of the city.

It is clear that alongside the seats, tiers, steps, club shops, ticket offices and turnstiles of the

stadium, a range of everyday, ritualistic spaces form part of an overall spatial narrative that

characterizes the experience of viewing a sporting occasion. This project will explore how

specific ritualistic behaviors, occurring at the precise intervals of the stadium games fixture

list, may affect the urban processes happening simultaneously at the premises.

1.4.4 Typologies:

Closed configuration:

Isolation within the urban context Traditional stadium design typically emphasizes iconic

imagery conveyed by these defined civic monuments. However, they often ignore the

dynamic social potential embedded within. These stadiums, which are civic structures, tear

unsustainable holes in cities and isolate themselves from their surroundings. Inherent within

their configuration, these stadiums are intrinsically inward focused. It is a narrow-minded

approach which only addresses the stadium from an internal organization system. These

stadiums work from the standpoint of a contained entity of which they are expressive;

however, they fail with regards to contextual connections. Broader social and economic

issues are ignored. These stadiums are wrapped in circulation concourses that turn their back

to the community. Thus, this traditional "closed" stadium configuration becomes an isolated

amenity void of activity the majority of time. Traditional stadiums have few ties to their

surroundings. Their isolation portrays the idea that they can be inserted anywhere. By

applying design notions universally it is impossible to establish a sense of place. Many

current stadiums have been design with under this typology. (Birkey 2005)

Figure 1 Closed Vs Open Types


Open configuration:

(Integration within the urban context)

This is the desired configuration in order

for urban stadiums to become fully

integrated and realize the social potential

embedded within. This is the emerging

paradigm that is explored throughout the

thesis. The stadium becomes a

continuation of street activity thereby

uniting the urban fabric of the city. It

serves the sporting culture as well as the

city. It is not enough for the stadium to

just co-exist with the urban environment

it inhabits and make design gestures that

visually incorporate the stadium into the

skyline. It must infuse activity, vitalize

the surrounding area, restore urban

density, and create connections to the

community. Thus, the new "open"

prototype opens up to the community.

Contributions to the community are an

equal priority to that of the functional

aspects of stadium operations. (Birkey

2005)

1.4.5 Narratives:

The following pages describe a series of architectural narratives that reveal intersections

between the urban condition and the stadium or sporting logic; masses, ritual, typology and

hybridization. These themes will develop ideological, theoretical and tectonic strands to the

project.

a) Masses:

In the staging of an event, stadia must act as architectural devices to somehow manage the

filling up and emptying of the arena - a choreography of the masses. A stadium can be

considered as being made up of two masses, that of the solid mass of the static structure and

that of the flowing, temporal mass of the spectators, thus, the filling up of the stadium,

completes the construction. During the filling and emptying phases, it is important to

distinguish between the crowd inside and outside the stadium. These contrasting conditions

may be defined as 'open' and 'closed' crowds. Outside, the open crowd is without limits, it

grows, while inside, the closed crowd is now formalized within limits, its density and

numbers controlled by the architecture. Spatial and architectural techniques such as the

positioning and orientation of seats, the paths of circulation and the frequency and

dimensions of entrances may be used to organize the movement of the crowd, with specific

psychological and behavioral implications. The traditional arrangement of seats, informed

by the optimal relation of spectator and actor, imposes a kind of reverse panopticon

condition. Canetti explains,

"The seats are arranged in tiers around the arena, so that everyone can see what is

happening below. The consequence of this is that the crowd is seated opposite itself. Every

Figure 2 Community and the stadium


spectator has a thousand in front of him, a thousand heads. As long as he is there, all the

others are there too; whatever excites him, excites them; and he sees it. They are seated

some distance away from him, so that differing details which make up individuals of them

are blurred; they all look alike and they all behave in a similar manner and he notices in

them only the things which he himself is full of their visible excitement increases his own.

There is no break in the crowd which sits like this, exhibiting itself to itself. It forms a closed

ring from which nothing can escape. (. . .) this crowd is doubly closed, to the world outside

and in

This project will engage with the psychological and behavioral nature of both the crowd

and the individual, in relation to the filling and emptying of the stadium, and concepts of its

inside and outside. (Paxton 2014)

This project will engage with the psychological and behavioral nature of both the crowd and

the individual, in relation to the filling and emptying of the stadium, and concepts of its

inside and outside.

b) Ritual:

The presence of the stadium and the influence of the sporting event extend far beyond the

perimeter of the pitch or gates at the turnstile. It is through spectator behavior, the rituals

and performances that comprise 'going to the match: encompassing the everyday spaces that

both surround football stadia and make up journeys to and from them, that a wider, more

diffuse area of the city is caught up in the regular staging of major sporting events in a

specific location.

Architectural significance may be found in the spatial organization of some particular set of

sequences and the paths between the spaces. It must be noted that a series of rituals occur

before and after the event, and are therefore conditioned in relation to its outcome – a team's

triumph or defeat.

For home fans, these ritualistic spaces

and the habitual activities that occur

within them contribute to a strong sense

of belonging to a place -a feeling that

Bale describes as a topophilia:

" Occupation of the same spot over the

years, the historical catalogue of

dramatic events on the pitch, the smell

of hot drinks and the waft of cigarette

smoke, the jokes and the chants, and the

whole rich panoply of successive shared

events that become sedimented in the

inhabitation of the stadium and the

passage towards it". (Paxton 2014) Figure 3 Going to the match LS Lowry, 1928

Equally, the away supporters' 'topophobic' experience may be unfamiliar and somewhat of a

novelty, producing a completely different set of behavioral implications on the local urban

environment. It is clear that alongside the seats, tiers, steps, concourses, club shop, ticket

office and turnstile of the stadium, a range of everyday, ritualistic spaces form part of an

overall spatial narrative that characterizes the experience of viewing a sporting event.


This project will explore how these specific ritualistic behaviors, occurring at the precise

intervals of the stadium game fixture list, may affect and be informed by complimentary or

contradictory urban processes happening simultaneously.

c) Hybridization:

Besides sporting events and concerts, a stadium could also serve as a public playhouse,

movie theater, or venue for farmers markets and seasonal fairs. Compared to conference

halls, auditoriums, and other structures that host large numbers of people, the open roof of a

stadium creates a stronger feeling of "belonging" in a city, especially when other buildings

are visible from within the space.

1.4.6 Management of Public Space around the Sporting Arena

The public space adjacent to the stadium has two distinctly different phases of

management. The first and most obvious is the management during an event, primarily in

the run up to the event and directly after its conclusion. The second phase, and for the

purposes of this thesis, the more fundamental phase exists outside of event times when the

space is for the most part vacant.

During this time the public space performs entirely differently to match day. It is more

similar to the public space that is seen elsewhere in the urban landscape such as around

high-rise buildings. The difference however is that in this case the building is relatively

unoccupied. The management of this public space is something that concerns not just

architecture but also geography, culture, politics and criminology.

Increasingly in today's world the role of urban space in our lives is significant. Where,

in decades gone by these spaces have been neglected now their relevance to society is being

acknowledged. Even more recent is the shift in opinion regarding the public space around

the stadium. Now more consideration is being given to these spaces. In the past these

buildings were fenced or walled off and gates were only opened on match day. Now,

contemporary stadium designs allow access right up to, if not partly into, the building itself.

The stadium in many urban settings acts as a heart to the area. At intervals it will draw

masses of people to it and its surroundings. Yet equally as fast as they arrived, the stadium

will dispel them back to the extremities of the city. In order to achieve greater public space

the intervals between each occurrence of this must be shortened. A regular heartbeat to the

stadium will supply active use of the public space around it. (Williams 2012-13)

Matthew Carmona, a Professor of Planning and Urban Design at the Bartlett School

of Planning, points out that,

“There is a particular type of formal, high profile public space that through a wide

variety of development and policy processes, have become increasingly privatized and

therefore more or less exclusionary."

This is applicable to the public space in the stadiums adjacency and is a response that

the architect, through design, must avoid the public experiencing. (Williams 2012-13)


1.5 Architectural aspects of stadia:

1.5.1 Chronological documentation of stadium architecture:

The stadium may be considered as an architectural translation of cultures of gathering

and viewing public events, their timely evolution subject to a complex mix of political,

sociological, technological and ideological shifts. The origins

It could be no-one but Heracles (Hercules in the Roman world), the mythological hero

of strength and of exertion, to set the length over which the athletes had to compete against

each other in the only competition of the first Olympic Games. Legend has it that six-

hundred feet of the hero, one after the other, determined in 776 BC the length of the track of

the running event, a length just exceeding 192 m after which the competition itself and the

facility welcoming it were named: "Stadion". (Spampinato) Greeks:

The ancestral prototypes for modern sports facilities of all kinds are the stadia and

hippodromes of ancient Greece. Here Olympic and other sporting contests were staged, starting

in the eighth century BC.

Greek stadia (foot racecourses):

The stadium at Olympia

There was a sports field situated adjacent

to an enclosed training gymnasium and along

the edge of the field a colonnade with stone

stepping to accommodate the spectators. As the

track became more popular two stands were

constructed, facing each other on opposite sides

of the activity area. The fully developed stadium

consisted of a track 192m long and 32m wide

with rising tiers of seats on massive sloping

earth banks along a rudimentary athletics track

shaped as an elongated "U". The first stadium

therefore originated at Olympia in the VIII

Century BC ultimately accommodating up to

45,000 spectators. The stadium had two

entrances, the Pompic and the Secret, the latter

used only by the judges. Elongated-U-shaped stone stand ran along the three sides of the track,

two rectilinear and one bended, on the other side opening onto the surrounding landscape.

Such stadia were built in all cities where games were played. Some, following the pattern

of Greek theatres, were cut out of a hillside so that banks of seats with good sightlines could be

formed naturally, while others were constructed on flat ground. In the latter case the

performance area was sometimes slightly excavated to allow for the formation of shallow

seating tiers along the sides.

Stadia built on the flat existed at Ephesus, Delphi and Athens. The one at Delphi was

almost 183m long by 28m wide, had a shallow bank of seats along one side and around the

curved end, and the judges’ seats were at the midpoint of the long side – very much as in a

modern facility.As sport became more popular, stadia were built in many Greek towns alongside

with hippodromes. These had similar characteristics and dimensions but they were used for

horse and chariot racing. These sports facilities soon started to play key roles within the "polis".

There are still vestiges in Delphi, Ephesus and most of all in Athens, where in 331 BC

Panathenaic stadium was built. It was then reconstructed in AD 160 and reconstructed again in

1896 for the first modern Olympic games and was recently renovated for the Olympic Games of

Figure 1 Figure 4 Stadium at Olympia


Athens 2004. In this form it can still be seen, accommodating up to 50 000 people in 46 rows.

(Spampinato)

Figure 8 Panathenaic stadium (2004 Olympic Games of Athens)

Figure 5 Plan of 331 BC Panathenaic Stadium

Figure 6 Panathenaic stadium (1896 Olympic Games) Figure 7 Panathenaic stadium before renovation


Hippodromes

These courses for horse and chariot races were roughly 198m to 228m long and 37m wide

and were laid out, once again, in a U-shape. Like Greek theatres, hippodromes were usually

made on the slope of a hill to give rising tiers of seating, and from them developed the later

Roman circuses, although these were more elongated and much narrower. (Spampinato)

From Greece to Roma

From an architectural viewpoint, with its partially open structure and its plan, shaped as an

elongated "U", the stadium, which is built sometimes by excavating tiers along a slope and other

times by building them at a certain height on a level ground, is the meeting point between the

two great typological models of the Greek and Roman world, which are also public facilities but

used for performances: theatre and amphitheatre.

The amphitheatre was built during the Roman age starting from the first century BC in

contrast to the Greek model, from which it differed due to its most urban nature. Tiers were built

on an elevated level often with superimposed rows. The elliptical layout fully encompassed the

amphitheatre and spectators could focus only on the arena, the central area for the cruel

gladiators' fights or for naumachia. Besides, unlike those in the theatre stands were often

screened by a curtain screen made up of cloths actuated by ropes. Arles amphitheatre, Verona

Arena (30 AD) and of course Flavian Amphitheatre, the Colosseum (80 AD), are the most

important and best preserved examples. (Spampinato)

Roman times:

Amphitheatres

The militaristic Romans were more interested in public displays of mortal combat than in

races and athletic events, and to accommodate this spectacle they developed a new amphi-

theatrical form: an elliptical arena surrounded on all sides by high-rising tiers of seats enabling

the maximum number of spectators to have a clear view of the terrible events staged before

them. The term ‘arena’ is derived from the Latin word for ‘sand’ or ‘sandy land’, referring to the

layer of sand that was spread on the activity area to absorb spilled blood.

The overall form was, in effect, two Greek theatres joined together to form a complete

ellipse. But the size of the later Roman amphitheatres ruled out any reliance on natural ground

slopes to provide the necessary seating profile, therefore the Romans began to construct

artificial slopes around the central arena – first in timber (these have not survived)and, starting

in the first century AD, in stone and concrete. Magnificent examples of the latter may still be

seen in Arles and Nimes (stone) and in Rome, Verona and Pula (stone and a form of concrete).

The great amphitheatre in Verona,

built in about 100 AD, is world

famous as a venue for opera

performances. Originally it

measured 152m by 123m overall,

but very little remains of the outer

aisle and it currently seats about

22 000 people. The arena

measures 73m by 44m.

(Spampinato)

Figure 9 The great amphitheatre in Verona


The Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, better known as the Colosseum from the eighth

century onwards, is the greatest exemplar of this building type and has seldom been surpassed to

this day as a rational fusion of engineering, theatre and art. Construction began in AD 70 and

finished 12 years later. The structure formed a giant ellipse of 189m by 155m and rose to a

height of four storeys, accommodating 48 000 people – a stadium capacity that would not be

exceeded until the twentieth century. Spectators had good sightlines to the arena below, the

latter being an ellipse of roughly 88m by 55m bounded by a 4.6m high wall. There were 80

arched openings to each of the lower three storeys (with engaged columns and encircling

entablatures applied to the outer wall surface as ornamentation), the openings at ground level

giving entrance to the tiers of seats.

Figure 10 Colosseum (The Flavian Amphitheatre)

The internal ambulatories and access passages formed by the structural arcades were so

well-planned that the entire amphitheatre could, it is thought, have been evacuated in a matter of

minutes.

The arena was used for gladiatorial contests and other entertainments and could be flooded

with water for naval and aquatic displays, thus anticipating modern mass entertainments.

Beneath the arena was a warren of chambers and passageways to accommodate performers,

gladiators and animals. The amphitheatre could be roofed by stretching can-vas awnings across

the open top. All these diverse functions have been smoothly assimilated into a great drum that

stands magnificently in the townscape – functional in layout, rational in appearance, yet rich and

expressive in its surface modeling.

In parallel with the transition from theatre to amphitheatre, the tradition of sports facilities

moved from Greece to the Roman world with the birth of circus, the typological evolution of the

prototypes of stadium and of hippodrome, between the II and the I century BC. (Spampinato)


Circuses:

The circus concerned equestrian sports and drew the elongate "U" shape from the previous

models but it differed from them as its fourth side was closed by buildings. Seats rose in tiers

along the straight sides of the U and round the curved end, the lower seats being in stone and

reserved for members of the upper classes, the upper seats made of wood. The sometimes

monumental buildings on the fourth side included the horses' starting stalls marking the

boundary of a further side of the track. The course was continuous and races on more laps could

therefore take place. The starting and return courses were separated by a spina – a low wall

decorated with carvings and statues. Two pillars at its ends indicated the "metae", the turning

posts for the horses.

Circuses were usually built around the walls and adjacent to the imperial palace, in order

to ensure direct access for the emperor and his court. Due to their positions, these large open

spaces were sometimes used for some more public activities as well, thus turning into an

integral part of the city life.

A notable early example was the Circus

Maximus in Rome (sixth century), followed in 46 BC

by a successor of the same name. This was possibly the

largest stadium ever built. It was about 660m long and

210m wide and offered all-seating accommodation for

spectators in three tiers parallel to the track, could

welcome about 200,000 spectators. The stands covered

three levels, behind which there was an external façade

with three superimposed rows. The lowest row was

provided with large arcades used by the spectators

reaching the facility and streaming out of it. The arcades

also featured workshops opening onto the outside. Thanks to its location, near the Tiber, it could

be filled with the river waters and as a consequence Circus Maximus could be also used for

naumachia shows. (Spampinato)

Figure 12 Circus Maximus in 80 AD

Figure 11 View of Circus Maximus


The Hippodrome was considered the most

important building of the Byzantine

Empire, and Chariot racing was the most

important event in the life of ordinary the

Byzantine citizen. Chariot racing was

arguably the most popular sport, as it was

the sport that took place the most often at

the Hippodrome, however one could argue

that this did not necessarily make it the

most popular.

There is no denying however that it was

one of the most important sports of the

Byzantine Empire. (Tavish, Upshall Danielle)

Figure 14 Remnants of Hippodrome of Constantinople (Bezantine Empire)

The Pessimus Hippodrome which was unique at the time in consisting of a Greek theatre and a

Roman hippodrome linked at the centre of the hippodrome via the theatre stage. Two events

could be staged separately in theatre and hippodrome, or the latter could be used in combination

for a single grand event. This building was an obvious ancestor of the modern multi-purpose

stadium complex.

One of the best preserved circuses is the Circus of Maxentius in Roma is also a famous

example. It was built in the IV century AD together with the other large buildings of the new

capital of the Roman Empire. However by the time it was built circuses were no more serving

their original purpose, that is hosting equestrian events, but they were rather used for other

public activities. (Spampinato)

Fifteen centuries of suspension

During the IV century AD, the importance of sports practice was considerably reassessed

all over the ancient world, which unavoidably affected the development of sports facilities.

After Christian cult was legitimized by Constantine Edict, the Council of Arles held in

314 imposed a ban on the circus charioteers, actually banning the pagan practice of chariot

racing and thus speeding up the conversion of circuses into non-sports public facilities.

Similarly in 394, when Greece had been under the Roman rule for a long time, an edict

promulgated by the emperor Theodosius who accepted the request made by Milan bishop

Figure 13 Chariot Racing in Roman Hippodromes


Ambrose led to the abolition of the Olympic Games, which were regarded as a pagan rite

contrary to religious rites.

Therefore shifted to new building typologies such as churches and cathedrals, castles,

fortifications, towers and municipal palaces which became peculiar elements of Medieval towns

and of their development. Sports activities were seldom and limited. The ancient Greek and

Roman sports buildings were progressively abandoned. Many of them were converted into

markets or houses, others were fully pulled down to reuse building materials.

Sports practice was given

a new boost during the

Renaissance when running

events and equestrian events

were reintroduced. However

they did not take place in

specific facilities, but usually in

areas serving other purposes, in

large open spaces or in the

squares, which were often

provided with wooden tiers and

small temporary roofs for the

most important spectators.

Piazza del Campo in

Siena and its Palio horse race

are the most important case that

is still popular nowadays, while in Firenze in Piazza Santa Croce the forerunners of modern

football used to play in teams made up of 27 members each without any rule, but the one to

throw the ball into the goal of the opposite team.

Sports were properly defined a few centuries later, in the second half of the Nineteenth

Century, which also saw the setting up of the first clubs and sports federations. The enthusiasm

for the new sports, football and rugby in particular, quickly grew in Great Britain, where in the

cities in which population had dramatically grown due to the urbanization process resulting from

the Industrial Revolution people soon felt the need to build new facilities that could welcome a

high number of fans.

In the same years the revival of the Olympic Games, proposed in 1894 by the French

baron Pierre de Coubertin, sanctioned the final importance of sport in the modern age and

symbolically marked the start of a new age of stadia.

Figure 16 Time line of stadium development

Figure 15 Piazza del Campo


The modern age:

So far the technological evolution is almost one century and a half long. On the basis

of the peculiar aspects that have marked the different stages, partly drawing on the

theoretical analysis made by Rod Sheard, five "generations" of stadia can be identified.

These are generations marking the steps of a faster and faster development with many

stadia, fully renovated or rebuilt over time, that have gone through more stages of this

evolutionary process.

"The 'Five Generations' theory evolved from practical observations of the way that the

development of stadia has changed over the years. It is important that the forces which have

driven the development of stadia over the last two decades are understood, along with an

appreciation of how stadia can now contribute to the growth of sustainable communities.''

The precedents for modern stadia can be found in ancient Greece and Rome. The Greek

form was dictated by the site, and stadia either occupied the floor of a valley with the

spectators using the natural slopes for seating, or they were built on the shoulder of a hill

with the upper slopes forming the seating. Essentially they were embedded in the

topography, and the spectators had a panoramic vista over the landscape. This model was

used at Delphi, Epidaurus and Olympus.

The Roman form was the antithesis of this, and amphitheatres, such as the Colosseum

in Rome (80AD), dominated the landscape. The Roman stadium was oval in shape and was

encompassed by substantial facades. The attention of the spectator was focused inwards on

the intense and frequently violent action, and there was no opportunity for the

contemplation of nature. Whereas the Greek stadium was essentially rural, the Roman

version was an urban form. These two models became powerful determinants of stadium

morphology in the late 19th Century, when sports were codified and the designers sought

precedents. The Greek model was suited to a more leisurely contemplation of sporting

events which lasted for several hours or even days, and was therefore adapted for early

cricket grounds and racecourses. The Roman model was eminently more suited to the

'cauldrons' of soccer, rugby and American football where the length of play is relatively

short and the action is very aggressive. Early baseball parks and Australian Rules football

grounds were a hybrid of both types. (Sheard et al. 2005)

1. First Generation Stadia

"The history of the modern stadium dates back to the codification of sport in the second

half of the 19th Century. The First Generation of stadia placed the emphasis on

accommodating large numbers of spectators, with minimal concern for the quality of the

facilities or the comfort of those spectators.''

First-generation stadia were like huge

hotchpotches whose purpose was

basically to host a large amount of

spectators in an age when there was no

television and sports events could be

watched just live.

Particularly in the first years, they were

facilities with no architectural value,

uncomfortable and the provision of

facilities was basic. Tiers were made of

concrete or just with the arrangement of

embankments standing and often

crammed into the stands, with the

Figure 17 Large amount of crowd in First Generation stadia


exception of some small seating stand, sometimes also provided with a small roof for the

most important spectators. Their extension was usually disorderly and non-homogeneous, in

order to satisfy the increasing demand for seating areas by the spectators.

This model was introduced in Great Britain as football facility with the typical

rectilinear stands running parallel to the sides of the pitch and was soon adapted to the

model of the Olympic stadium with continuous tiers running along the perimeter of the

athletics track. The White City stadium, now pulled down, was the first example during the

Games of London 1908.

Alongside with the passion for football, these models were exported from Great Britain

to the rest of Europe and to South America. They often featured the Marathon Tower, which

made them easily identifiable in the city environment. This first generation of stadia took

different forms until the end of the Fifties, when they had to be confronted with a sudden

reduction in the number of spectators. (Sheard et al. 2005)

2. Second Generation Stadia: The Influence of Television

"Television, which had been developed in the 1930s, began broadcasting sports events in

the late 1950s. Almost immediately there was a sharp decline in the numbers attending

live sporting events. The Second Generation of stadia was the response, placing greater

emphasis on the comfort of spectators and improving support facilities in the venue.

However, these stadia were still largely concrete bowls and a great many of the world's

sporting venues remain as Second Generation stadia''.

The 1960s were the television age. Almost everyone could afford a television set, and

sport from all over the world could be enjoyed in your own home. Everything seemed

possible. The 'global village' was established and conceptually the world began to shrink.

Mark McCormack remarked that, “... an unholy alliance was developing. Sport was

helping to make television and television was helping to make sport.”

To solve this problem the new stadia started to be equipped with more facilities for

spectators in order to improve their comfort. The new stadia built in the three following

decades or many of the already existing ones that were renovated provided themselves with

viewing sectors with seats, with roofed stands and with a higher number of toilet facilities,

also including food and beverage outlets in the stand area. The stadia were also equipped so

as to welcome television broadcasting systems as best as possible and to develop their

potentials. The interior of many facilities was renovated, thus stressing their nature of

"introverted" stadia, which were comfortable inside yet anonymous outside, which was a

common element of that age. They were also provided with artificial lighting installations

thus ensuring night broadcast. What was still a problem in the stadia was inside safety.

(Sheard et al. 2005)

3. Third Generation Stadia: The Family Stadium

“The Third Generation of stadia emerged in the early 1990s, developing more user-

friendly facilities to lure the entire family. Sport was the focus, but not the only attraction,

and the principal source of revenue for the sporting clubs change, shifting from turnstile

receipts towards merchandising and television.”

The Eighties ended with a series of catastrophic events in the UK stadia: fire of wooden

stands, the escalation of the violent phenomenon of hooligans and the disaster at Sheffield

Hillsborough Stadium, caused in April 1989 by an overcrowded stand. These events killed

hundreds of people and induced us to consider spectators' safety. The result was


summarized in the pages of Taylor Report, a survey carried out on behalf of the

Government, which in 1990 introduced the new safety measures to be adopted in the UK

stadia. The main recommendation was that all stadia had to become all-seater facilities.

Taylor Report became greatly popular not just in the UK and started a deep upgrading

process concerning many European stadia.

As a consequence, these facilities which were made more accessible, safe and

comfortable drew more diversified and heterogeneous spectators. Therefore the stadia were

not upgraded just to be in accordance with the new standards, but the process gave us the

opportunity to introduce business activities in stadia, which were soon also sponsored.

Merchandising, museums, guided tours, boxes and restaurants become popular in stadia

together with recreational and leisure areas, which ensued from a new way to manage the

facility, regarded as a public area used not for the mere sports event and open seven days a

week. (Sheard et al. 2005)

4. Fourth Generation Stadia: The flexible stadium

The solution was successful. "Commercial" stadia had excellent yield and to exploit the

potentials offered by these large audience containers at best, non-static, technologically

sophisticated facilities capable of meeting many-sided requirements were chosen.

"It became clear that stadia could make money if the design, funding and

management were integrated. Stadia should not be regarded as a drain on a city's

finances. A new era was emerging, of which the new Telstra Dome in Melbourne is a

classic example. This is truly a Fourth Generation stadium, with an opening roof, moving

seating tiers and a below-pitch car park. This is a blueprint for the city of the future.''

Mobile roofs, stands and playing

fields are the basic elements of this

generation of new multipurpose and

flexible facilities capable of being quickly

converted to offer the optimum

configuration and the maximum comfort

whatever the event to take place, whether

sports or non-sporting, may be. The

stadium is now open to marketing and to

communication: boxes, conference rooms

and hospitality areas are now part of the

language of new facilities, which in their

turn have been converted into lounges for

sponsors and companies and designed so

as to enhance television broadcasting and

to positively reach the high lighting and acoustic standards required by digital television.

“stadia have come of age. They have grown into buildings that can be used as catalysts

for the planned and strategic growth of 21st Century cities. Stadia have become powerful

symbols of our culture, our aspirations and, sometimes, of our failures. We need to learn

how to use them wisely, and how to get the most out of their potential.''

-Rod Sheard, 2005

Figure 18 Telstra Dome in Melbourne


In this way, stadia draw many users all the year round and turn into new urban

centralities, sometimes capable of acting as catalysts for the processes aimed at their

neighborhoods’ redevelopment. (Sheard et al. 2005)

5. 5th Generation Stadia: Urban Regeneration (The urban icon)

Each generation of stadia has 'raised the bar', adding a new level of sophistication and

improved facilities. Now, at the beginning of the 21st Century, a new potential has

emerged; the ability of stadia to shape new cities and to regenerate decaying areas of old

cities. The stadium typology can provide all the elements required to achieve a critical mass

capable of sustaining city life: a critical mass containing the residential, commercial, retail,

leisure and transport components which encourage cities to thrive. Inner city stadium

construction during the last decade has revitalized the cities of Baltimore, Denver,

Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, Cardiff, Melbourne, Brisbane, Lisbon and San Francisco.

The crucial determinants for stadium design in the 21st Century will be the potential

for urban regeneration, and the role of the 'iconic' stadium in the marketing and

positioning of a global city. The Fifth Generation stadium is a less tangible piece of

architecture than the previous four generations; it will be identified and categorized by its

global presence and by its regional regenerative potential. (Sheard et al. 2005)

Increasingly, new stadium

proposals are conceived as part of

bids to stage mega-events, such as

Olympic Games, World Cups and

International Fairs. As significant

structures in these ventures,

stadiums are required to serve as

symbolic landmarks, presenting an

image of the city to a global

audience. Similarly, the idea of an

iconic stadium is implemented in

city politics as a tool to clearly

communicate planning goals, gain

consensus and drive large scale

urban renewal projects.

It may be argued, then, that the most significant function of the contemporary stadium

is to act as a symbol, to transcend its immediate locality and communicate more widely on a

civic and often global scale. (Paxton 2014)

Figure 19 The Chinese National Stadium in Beijing – The Bird's Nest Stadium


1.5.2 Contemporary stand on stadium architecture:

A stadium, more than any other building type in history, has the ability to shape a

town or city. A stadium is able to put a community on the map, establishing an identity and

providing a focal point in the landscape.

The stadium is a complex planning tool. If it is used wisely, it can help a city grow,

especially on barren sites. A great deal of regeneration in cities takes place in an understated

unglamorous way, with people quietly moving into refurbished buildings. This is the type of

city regeneration for which a sporting venue can act as a catalyst.

This regeneration will occur increasingly, due to the 'emotional' acceptance of an area

when it is used for sport. People see the area in a very different light. There is an

'atmosphere' created around a sporting event, which generates powerful and intense

emotions. The emotional experience of attending and participating in a major sporting event

is exhilarating. It is not just the event, there is an 'afterglow' and this illuminates the whole

area.

Today, major sporting facilities are a mainstay of urban regeneration and their

potential has been recognized. However, a stadium alone will not transform a blighted area;

it must be part of an overall plan to attract commercial, retail and recreational activities;

and, most importantly, people. The stadium must integrate with a neighborhood, a district or

a city. Fifth Generation stadia are not 'stand-alone' buildings; they should be seen as

dynamic cells implanted into the urban fabric of a city, stimulating growth and inspiring

regeneration. A cha11enge to stadium designers is to improve urban design in the vicinity of

stadia, and to implement the new generation of stadia which must function as living parts of

their cities. (Sheard et al. 2005)

Support facilities will increasingly provide amenities for all the family to enjoy as well

as other entertainment areas for those not committed to the game.

They will eventually include every type of function from business centers to bowling

alleys, similar to the range of facilities often found in international airports or shopping

malls. Attractions will be designed to encourage spectators to arrive early and stay on

afterwards – perhaps even sleeping overnight in the Stadium Hotel.(John et al. 2007)

The key to all these approaches, if they are to be successful in the long term, will be

good creative management. Stadia management is becoming recognized as a specialist field

all over the world, and sporting venues are now beginning to attract the very best people to

the job. This will start to change the form of stadia in the future. As a result of this expertise

shift, ideas are emerging such as the concept of added-value tickets, where additional

privileges are provided to encourage the whole family to attend. These privileges can

include meals, bus rides from outer areas, and signed programmes. (John et al. 2007)

Family enclosures, which have gained popularity in the UK, are also a relatively new

but important trend. Child-minding facilities, baby-changing rooms, family cinemas,

museums, tea lounges, quality restaurants with high-chairs, and children’s play areas are

also important in encouraging family attendance and are gradually finding their way into the

modern stadium. (John et al. 2007)

The bottom line is that any facility which attracts a wider cross-section of the family,

and keeps them entertained for longer, should eventually reap financial rewards. It is

through a policy of inclusion not exclusion that the spectators of tomorrow will be created.


Tomorrow’s stadia will be places of entertainment for the family where sport is the

focus but not the complete picture. It will be possible for five members of a family to arrive

and leave together, but to experience in the intervening period five different activities.

While the parents ‘see’ the live game, their children ‘experience’ the live game in the virtual

reality studio where images from the ‘in pitch’ cameras provide close immediate action.

The ‘real’ potential of a stadium or arena depends much more on the inter-relationship

between other factors such as: location; catchment; the nature, structure and organization of

the sports that are played in them; the characteristics and demands of spectator and market

trends, and the stage of stadium development. For stadia owners in this position the basic

objectives will be to secure good core attendance at regular sporting fixtures, efficient

operational and commercial management in relation to the facility’s primary use, and

maximizing secondary spend and alternative revenue streams by involving the local

community and businesses in activities such as corporate entertaining, product launches,

and meetings and conference business. (John et al. 2007)

1.6 Illustrations

1.6.1 Oriole Park at Camden Yards

Baltimore, Maryland, 1992

“Oriole Park at Camden Yards incorporates all the modern conveniences -for fans and

ballplayers - without sacrificing history, tradition or aesthetics. It brings the game closer to

the fans, giving the crowd a more intimate look at the game. It restored uniqueness and

single-purpose as attainable and desirable goals. It has become the most influential major-

league ballpark since Yankee Stadium."

-The Detroit News, April 12, 1999.

The design of Oriole

Park took its cues from

the historic B&O

Railway Station and a

warehouse running

along the eastern

boundary of the site,

parallel with the former

rail tracks. The stadium

has a three-storey brick

podium with a lighter

steel structure set

above. The colors are

pale buff bricks (like Figure 20 View of Oriole Park at Camden Yards


the old railway buildings) and dark green ironwork, not unlike the color and structure of the

cranes operating along Baltimore’s water-front. The field is set seven meters below the

external ground level to improve the relationship of the stadium to adjacent buildings.

Oriole Park proved to be extraordinarily popular with baseball fans, and rival ballpark

owners were inevitably attracted to the concept. (Sheard et al. 2005)

Figure 22 character of the street between the ballpark and the warehouse.

Figure 21 extension of the stadium to the street


1.6.2 Estadio Nacional de Brasilia:

The Estadio Nacional de Brasilia is located in the heart of Brasilia, the capital of Brazil The

stadium was completed in 2013 and seats about 72,000 making it the second largest stadium

in South America.

The Estadio Nacional de Brasilia is located in the heart of Brasilia, the capital of Brazil.

The stadium was completed in 2013 and seats about 72,000 making it the second largest

stadium in South America. It is also the second most expensive stadium in the world, after

Wembley Stadium in London, rounding up to about $475 million. The stadium is pursuing

to be the world's highest rated LEED Platinum certified stadium and the first net-zero

energy stadiums as well.

Though Brasilia is known for its urban sprawl, the stadium

is within a two-mile radius of most hotels it is in the city

center, and very easy to reach by public transportation. The

esplanade that runs around the stadium acts as a circulation

ring that is supported by slender reinforced concrete pillars.

It fits in well with the context of Brasilia, while creating a

welcoming feeling to the stadium. Brasilia is very warm,

but also dry. The architects designed a breathable facade

consisting of a field of columns that provide natural

ventilation to flow into the arena bowl and concourse,

reducing the amount of air conditioning needed to cool the

building. There are a total of 288 columns ranging from 1.2

to 1.5 meters in diameter, 46 meters tall.

The facade is what is most interesting to me and relevant

for this thesis. The openness the columns bring to the

stadium has potential to push the design ideas even further

in a different setting. It is a very permeable façade. It leads

me to some design questions: What if these columns held

up the tiers of seating as well as the roof? What if there

were layers of activity along this arcade of columns?


1.6.3 The Campus Crossroads Project

“The integrated nature of this project will maintain the compact walkability of campus,

facilitate deeper connection and collaboration across the various units of the university,

and offer an exciting addition to what we believe is the best on-campus student learning

experience in the country.”

Rev. John I. Jenkins, C.S.C.

President, Notre Dame University

“The Campus Crossroads Project will reposition Notre Dame’s legendary football stadium

as a year-round hub for academics, athletics and student life.” (Cross Roads)


As the largest building initiative in the university’s history, the project includes upgrading

the stadium and constructing three new buildings anchored to the west, east and south sides

of the iconic structure.

The new buildings will add approximately 800,000 square feet of classroom, research,

student life, fitness, digital media, performance, meeting, event and hospitality space. The

design renews the stadium’s original architectural character and strengthens its connectivity

to the surrounding campus.

Indoor and outdoor club-level premium seats will be added on three levels within the east

and west buildings. Terraces on each building will offer views of the playing field and

campus and will be available for campus and community use.

Hospitality areas also include loge boxes and new press facilities. HOK is designing these

areas to provide an enhanced fan experience for students and alumni while providing

flexibility for multipurpose use on non-game days.

A new Student Recreation Center in the west building will triple the amount of fitness space

available to students. The gymnasium will align with the stadium’s 50-yard line. Other

fitness spaces will include an indoor jogging track, boxing areas, a four-story climbing wall

and a functional training turf area.

HOK is a consultant to architect of record S/L/A/M Collaborative, providing design

services for the sports, recreation and hospitality components. (Cross Roads)

The Project

The Campus Crossroads Project is the largest building initiative in the 172-year history of

the University of Notre Dame. The $400 million project includes construction of more than

750,000 square feet of classroom, research, student facility, digital media, performance,

meeting, event, and hospitality space.

The facilities will be housed in three buildings attached to the west, east, and south sides of

the University’s iconic football stadium. (Cross Roads)

"The magic of Notre Dame ... is to see connections, where people only saw fragmentation."

Rev. John I. Jenkins, C.S.C., University President

The design features three new structures attached to and serving the stadium—a west

building for student life initiatives, an east building for the anthropology and psychology

departments and a digital media center, and a south building for the Department of Music


and the Sacred Music program. The east and west buildings also will include some 3,000 to

4,000 premium seats for the football stadium with supporting club amenities.

The exterior design is inspired by Knute Rockne's original Notre Dame Stadium—which

still stands today as the core of the facility—and is wed with materials, massing, and details

taken from many of the Collegiate Gothic buildings on campus. The area between the

stadium and the DeBartolo Hall classroom building will become a pedestrian plaza with

walkways, trees, planters, and seating areas. The entire project will include sustainability

practices consistent with other University projects. (Cross Roads)

Student Center

Space designed to enhance student development will dominate the nine-story west building.

Planning has ensured that the new facility will complement the student organization space

and administrative offices located in the historic LaFortune Student Center.

Levels 1 and 2: Flexible, state-of-the-art meeting rooms, graduate and undergraduate

student lounges, a dining area, student organization space, and administrative offices.

Levels 3 and 4: Recreational sports facilities; the Rolfs Sports Recreation Center will

become the practice home for the men's and women's varsity basketball programs.

Level 5: A career services center, centralized and expanded with more than 40 interview

rooms, multiple training rooms and conference areas, an employer lounge, and advising

offices. The existing working press space on this level will be integrated into a premium

seating area for the stadium.

Level 6: Mechanical support.

Level 7: A 500-seat student ballroom, club seating for football, and booths for NBC Sports

telecasts of home football games. Student-oriented programming will have priority booking

for non-game weekends.

Level 8: Premium stadium seats and terraces that will look onto the campus and the playing

field.

Level 9: Club seating, boxes for home and visiting coaches, security booths, and boxes for

administrative and athletic department leaders.

Basement: Food service space for the three new buildings and the stadium. (Cross Roads)


Music Building

The relocation of the Department of Music and Sacred Music at Notre Dame will provide

much needed new space for these growing programs. It also will put music into close

proximity to other performing arts departments and programs.

Level 1: Recital and rehearsal halls and the Frank Leahy Gate grand entrance to the

stadium.

Level 2: A large music library, to be relocated from the Hesburgh Library, classrooms, and

rehearsal and tutoring rooms.

Level 3: A club/lounge.

Level 4: Department of Music offices, practice rooms, and storage.

Level 5: The Sacred Music at Notre Dame program, offices, organ practice rooms, and

storage.

Level 6: Mechanical, with a scoreboard on the exterior. (Cross Roads)

Academic Building

Offices and labs for the Departments of Anthropology and Psychology, which are housed in

a variety of buildings on campus, will now be in one place in the east building. In addition,

a state-of-the-art digital media center in this building will position Notre Dame as a national

leader in what is an increasingly important component of higher education.


Level 1: A digital media center with a 2,000-square-foot studio and production, teaching,

learning, research, and scholarship facilities. A control room will support faith-based

programming, such as Masses at the Basilica of the Sacred Heart, as well as athletics events,

performing arts presentations, and academic lectures and speeches.

Level 2: Anthropology offices, administrative space, conference and tutoring areas, and

multi-function research and teaching labs.

Levels 3, 4 and 5: Psychology offices, classrooms, labs, computer rooms, and a student

lounge.

Level 6: Mechanical support.

Level 7: Outdoor club seating for football, outdoor terraces, and a large space that will

double as a club area and flexible classroom.

Level 8: Outdoor club seating for football.

Level 9: Working press box, radio booths, and a club area with indoor and outdoor

premium seating for football. (Cross Roads)

Stadium Enhancements

An additional 3,000 to 4,000 fans will cheer on the Fighting Irish once the Campus

Crossroads project is complete.

Enhancements to Notre Dame Stadium include outdoor club-level seating within the east

and west buildings. Additionally, terraces will adorn each of these buildings, allowing for a

view of both campus and the playing field.

Fans will also enjoy modernized concession facilities and improved broadband coverage.

The existing press box will be completely removed and replaced by additional seating. The

press box will move to the east side of the stadium. NBC Sports will continue to broadcast

home football games from the west side of the stadium, however.

Enhancements to the south side of the stadium include a new scoreboard and a redesigned

Frank Leahy Gate, creating a grand entrance to Notre Dame Stadium. No club-level seating

is currently planned for the south side of the stadium. (Cross Roads)


1.7 Opinions of Experts on the phenomenon and architecture dealing with the issue:

The Stadium and the City:

"Stadia are entertainment buildings, a building type largely ignored by city planners over the

last 25 years. That is understandable: the earlier versions were dull to look at usually- low

budget and d low art solutions. That hall changed as in the 21st

Century they are now high

budget and high art public buildings. They contribute intrinsically to urban areas and can

totally transform community. They create precincts where people gather to enjoy

themselves, and representation of that enjoyment' is a new concept architecture."

-Rod Sheard, (THE STADIUM, Architecture for the New Global Culture)

Philosophy of stadium design:

“A clear and unhindered view of the action is paramount and therefore that should be

the primary focus when it comes to stadium design. This, coupled with a teeming yet

comfortable and clear layout, is what fans and owners alike really want.”

“I want optimal density and vision for the fans. I have particular demands on the way I

want to lead the public – from the different fans to VIP guests. The most important thing in

differentiating stadia is the location and the differing identity of their corresponding cities”

“My grandson who is a passionate football player and also a trainer in the youth team

teaches me a lot. Through him I have learned to see new things and with him I developed a

different perception of the game in a stadium. What goes on there has fascinated me. I like

going there with young people.” (gmp 2013)

-Prof Marg

How would you describe the upcoming stadium generation?

Basically, we want to create places where people often meet. A stadium that can only

reached in good traffic connections that are situated in front of the city gates on a green

meadow and every visitor has to rely on public transportation or the car; in this case it will

be difficult to accomplish this aspiration. Our stadiums should be accepted for diverse

events of city culture and society life. This will increase the acceptance of society and the

stadium can become a self-evident and lively part of a city. With our stadiums we want to

create places that become popular meeting places for people of a city and region. (gmp

2013) -Hubert Nienhoff, gmp partner

When it comes to arena design, how do you arrive at a final concept?

When thinking about a new facility, the design should be informed by several factors

including the potential event calendar, context, climate and culture. The team needs a deep

understanding of how the building operates in relation to the site. A project’s deliverability

also is based on having a realistic view of what types of events, and how many, the facility

will attract, as well as the project’s budget aspirations.

Considering these different parameters, amongst others, will start to create

opportunities for solutions and begin to define the character of a building on the way to

arriving at the final concept. In my experience, a shared, strong concept always makes a

project more deliverable and enjoyable. (HOK)

- John Rhodes, a director of Sports in HOK’s London office

What changes have you witnessed in arena design over the last decade?

In recent years – across Europe, in particular – we have seen a clear shift away from

single-purpose functional venues toward spaces that cater to a much more diverse event

calendar, focused on live entertainment rather than purely sport. In addition to enhanced


flexibility, this shift means that relationships between the audience and the performer are

more important than ever and require much more design consideration than basic viewing

analysis.

Consumers are demanding a higher quality and more authentic experience of the

event. With the multimedia revolution, we’re seeing significantly higher experiential

competition in the marketplace. This means that the experience of going to an event needs

to exceed the convenience factor of watching online at home. A more considered venue is a

key tool in this competition. Venue designers need a better understanding of how people

want to use spaces and engage in an event. (HOK)


What do you think will be the next ‘big thing’ in arena design in the next decade?

Arenas are increasingly becoming more integrated within the centre of cities. As a

result, there is a need for them to become more multipurpose. This puts pressure on the

capital cost of a project, as the venue has to deliver an elevated architectural presence and

deal with more complex technical issues such as access and acoustic leakage. Though this

may add complexities to the design process, there is a real value to this as arenas can act as

catalysts for regeneration and become key community anchors for urban areas.

Over the next decade, arenas will start to combine with other community components

like education, science and technology, hotels, and parks. To facilitate this, clients will want

a team with specialties in all of these areas. (HOK)



Publication bibliography

Sport Recreation and Play (2004). Available online at

http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/5571_SPORT_EN.pdf, checked on 3/22/2015.

Birkey, Ryan (2005): THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOWL. Stadium as an ACTIVE URBAN AMENITY.

Bachelor of architecture. Ball State University.

Cross Roads: Notre Dam Stadium.

Dureiko, Matthew J. (2014): Stadium Urbanism. Stadia, SPort and the Image of the American City.

Kent State University CAED.

gmp (2013): COLISEUM-Sports venues of the world. CATHEDRALS OF SPORTS. gmp.von Gerkan,

Marg and Partners. Architects.

HOK: Trends Influencing Stadium and Arena Design. Available online at

http://www.hok.com/thought-leadership/trends-in-stadium-and-arena-design/, checked on

3/20/2015.

Jarvie, Grant (2005): Sport, culture and society. London: Routledge. Available online at

http://basijcssc.ir/sites/default/files/Sport,%20Culture%20and%20Society%20An%20Introduction.

pdf, checked on 3/21/2015.

John, Geraint; Sheard, Rod; Vickery, Ben (2007): STADIA. A Design and Development Guide. Fourth

edition. Germany.

Paxton, Christopher (2014): Stadia and the City. Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, EK. School of

Architecture.

Sheard, Rod; Powell, Robert; Bingham-Hall, Patrick (2005): The stadium. Architecture for the new

global culture. Singapore, North Clarendon, VT: Periplus; Tuttle [distributor].

Spampinato, Angelo: World Stadiums - Architecture :: Stadium history. Available online at

http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_menu/architecture/historic_stadiums.shtml, checked on

3/20/2015.

Tavish, Jeff Mac; Upshall Danielle: Chariot Racing. Important Social Behaviour In Byzantine Empire

during the Byzantine period. Available online at

http://www.theodorechristou.ca/tmc/Byzantium_and_Education_files/Byzantine.pdf, checked on

3/22/2015.

Williams, Eric (2012-13): Stadia - From street to street. Bachelor of Architecture. Waterford

Institute of Technology.

Re-Imagining Architecture of stadium Typology

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