socio-cultural factors and girl child education in

i

SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS AND GIRL CHILD EDUCATION IN

SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN HOIMA DISTRICT, UGANDA

BY

BYARUHANGA ALINDA SALVATORE

1173-07096-12868

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, OPEN

DISTANCE AND e-LEARNING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OF MASTER OF

EDUCATION IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

AND ADMINISTRATION OF KAMPALA

INTERNATIONAL

UNIVERSITY

NOVEMBER, 2019

i

DECLARATION

I, Byaruhanga Alinda Salvatore do hereby declare that this is my own work and has never

been submitted to any university for any academic award.

Signature ……………………………. Date…………………………………

BYARUHANGA ALINDA SALVATORE

1173-07096-12868

ii

APPROVAL

I, Dr. Kayindu Vincent hereby certify that this work has been done under my supervision as

an appointed university supervisor and I have approved it to be submitted to the Department.

Signature …………………………………..……….…

Date………………………………………………………………

iii

DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my dear colleagues at work and to my family members who

contributed morally to my education.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I first of all thank the Almighty God for being near me during the time of conducting this

study. I thank the following people for the contribution they have made to my life. For

example, my wife Kiiza Resty, my father Alinda Zaverio, my mother Bigambwenda Yasinta,

and my former Principal of Bulera PTC, Mr. Nsanze Hezekiah Michael. I also thank my

supervisor Dr. Kayindu Vincent, as well as all my children. God bless you so much.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... i

APPROVAL ........................................................................................................................... ii

DEDICATION.......................................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................. ix

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... x

CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1

1.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of the study .............................................................................................. 1

1.1.1 Historical Perspective .................................................................................................... 1

1.1.2 Theoretical perspective .................................................................................................. 3

1.1.3 Conceptual Framework.................................................................................................. 3

1.1.4 Contextual Perspective .................................................................................................. 5

1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................... 10

1.3 Purpose of the study ....................................................................................................... 10

This study was carried out to investigate the relationship between socio-cultural factors and

girl child education in secondary schools in Hoima district, Uganda. ................................. 10

1.4 Research Objectives ....................................................................................................... 10

1. Examine the extent of the prevalence of socio- cultural factors in Hoima district, as

perceived by female students in Hoima district secondary schools. .................................... 11

2. Find out the extent of girl child education in secondary schools in Hoima district. . 11

3. To analyse the relationship between socio-cultural factors and girl child education

in secondary schools in Hoima district. ................................................................................ 11

1.5 Research Questions......................................................................................................... 11

vi

1. What is the extent of the prevalence of socio-cultural factors in Hoima district, as

perceived by female students in Hoima district secondary schools in Hoima district? ....... 11

2. What is the extent of girl child education in secondary schools in Hoima district? .. 11

3. Is there a significant relationship between socio-cultural factors and girl child

education in secondary schools in Hoima district? .............................................................. 11

1.6 Research Hypothesis....................................................................................................... 11

1.7 Scope .............................................................................................................................. 11

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................. 14

LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 14

2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 14

2.1 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 14

2.3 Related Literature .......................................................................................................... 16

2.3.1 Socio- Cultural Factors .............................................................................................. 16

2.2.2 Girl Child Education .................................................................................................... 17

2.3.3 Retention ...................................................................................................................... 24

2.3.4 Relationship between Socio-Cultural Factors and Girl Child Education .................... 25

2.3.5 Beliefs on Menstruation and their Impact on Girl Child Education ............................ 27

2.3.6 Early marriages and girl child Education .................................................................... 29

CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................. 31

METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 31

3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 31

3.1 Research Design ............................................................................................................. 31

3.2 Research Population ....................................................................................................... 31

3.2.1 Sampling ...................................................................................................................... 31

3.2.2 Sample size .................................................................................................................. 32

Table 3.3.2 Showing sample size selection .......................................................................... 32

vii

3.3 Data collection methods ................................................................................................. 32

3.4 Validity and Reliability of research instruments ............................................................ 33

3.5 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................. 33

Table 3.5.1 Showing the mean ranges and their interpretation ..................................... 33

3.6 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................. 34

3.7 Ethical Consideration ..................................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER FOUR: ............................................................................................................... 36

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA ............................ 36

4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 36

4.1 Respondents .................................................................................................................... 36

Table 4.1 Showing the respondents of the study .................................................................. 36

4.2 Findings .......................................................................................................................... 36

Table 4.2: Showing the prevalence of socio cultural factors in schools in Hoima district .. 37

Table 4.3.1 Showing the access, retention and prevalence of girls in secondary schools in

Hoima district (2000-2018). ................................................................................................. 42

Table 4.3.2 Showing a cohort of S.1 female students who entered school in 2015 and

retained till 2018. .................................................................................................................. 43

Table 4.4 Showing girls’ academic performance in the national exams, S.4, (2015-2018). 44

Table 4.5 Showing relationship between social cultural factors and girl child education in

Hoima district, Uganda. ........................................................................................................ 46

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................... 48

5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 48

5.1 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 48

5.1.1 Extent of the prevalence of socio- cultural factors in Hoima district, as perceived by

female students in Hoima district secondary schools ........................................................... 48

5.1.2 Level of girl child education in secondary schools in Hoima district ......................... 49

viii

5.1.3 Relationship between socio-cultural factors and girl child education in secondary

schools in Hoima district ...................................................................................................... 50

5.2 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 52

The following conclusions were drawn based on the findings of the study on each research

objective, thus, ...................................................................................................................... 52

The prevalence of socio- cultural factors in Hoima district, which affect girls’ education in

secondary schools is low. ..................................................................................................... 52

Though girls’ academic performance as measured by the S.4 national examinations is poor,

their access to secondary schools and retention there is high, so the level of girl child

education in secondary schools in Hoima district is generally high..................................... 52

Despite the presence (prevalence) of socio-economic factors in Hoima district, they do not

adequately influence girl child education in secondary schools. .......................................... 52

5.3 Recommendations .................................................................................................... 52

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 54

APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 59

APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS........................................................ 59

APPENDIX II: Table for determining sample size from a given population by Morgan and

Krejcie); adopted from Amin (2005). ................................................................................... 63

.............................................................................................................................................. 54

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Showing the respondents of the study .................................................................. 36

4.2 Findings .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table 4.2: Showing the prevalence of socio cultural factors in schools in Hoima district. . 37

Table 4.3.1 Showing the access, retention and prevelence girls in secondary schools in

Hoima district (2000-2018). ................................................................................................. 42

Table 4.3.2 Showing a cohort of S.1 female students who entered school in 2015 being

retained till 2018. .................................................................................................................. 43

Table 4.4 Showing girls’ academic performance in the national exams, S.4, (2015-2018). 44


Hoima district, Uganda. ........................................................................................................ 46

x

ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to assess how girls’ education at secondary school level in Hoima

district has been affected by socio-cultural factors. In order to get the required results, three

research objectives were employed, namely to: Examine the extent of the prevalence of

socio- cultural factors in Hoima district, as perceived by female students in Hoima district

secondary schools; to find out the extent of girl child education in secondary schools in

Hoima district, as well as to analyse the effect of cultural factors on girl child education in

secondary schools in Hoima district. The data were collected from all the 38 secondary

schools from Hoima district. The respondents of the study were the female students. A

sample of 720 female students as respondents was taken, but the filled questionnaires

returned were 700. Data were therefore analysed basing on the quantitative responses of 700

students, 50 of whom were also subjected to oral interviews in addition to filling the

questionnaires. A cross sectional survey design was used, employing quantitative and

qualitative approaches. Socio-cultural factors were conceptualized in terms of family-related

social factors and school-related social factors, yet girl child education was conceptualized

in terms of menstruation issues and beliefs, as well as gender stereotyping issues and beliefs.

The data on socio-cultural factors were analysed using arithmetic mean, while those on girl

child education were analysed using cumulative frequency. The data on the relationship

between the variables of the study were analysed using Pearson product moment correlation.

The findings of the study were that the prevalence of socio- cultural factors in Hoima district,

which affect girls’ education in secondary schools is low; the level of girl child education in

secondary schools in Hoima district is generally high. It was also found out that despite the

presence (prevalence) of socio-economic factors in Hoima district, they do not adequately

influence girl child education in secondary schools. The researcher made rrecommendations

that there is need for school administrators and parents to improve on the socio-cultural

factors in their respective domains by for example being more responsible to the female

children, guiding them more and helping them accordingly. They should also discourage

irrelevant cultural beliefs; Also, female students’ education should be promoted more by the

parents and teachers by for example parents ensuring that their children who join secondary

schools are helped and guided to complete their secondary school education cycle. Teachers

should also teach students better and guide them so that they perform well in the national

examinations. In addition, since socio-cultural factors do not significantly affect girl child

education in Hoima district, there is need for the government leaders, civic leaders and

religious leaders to continue discouraging the socio-cultural practices which hinder girls’

education.

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the background of the study (historical perspective, theoretical perspective,

conceptual perspective, and contextual perspective), statement of the problem, purpose of the

study, research objectives, research questions, hypothesis, scope and significance of the study.

1.1 Background of the study

1.1.1 Historical Perspective

Education is as old as man. Traditionally, informal education existed and it was equally offered

to both boys and girls. Both boys and girls were taught all those aspects which were considered

vital in their lives. Girls were for example taught by their mothers and aunts issues like discipline,

cultural practices, work especially that which was considered to be for women, such as digging,

fetching water, cooking, and babysitting. During adolescence they were subjected to the cultural

practices as per their societal cultures. These included among others, female circumcision

whereby the woman’s genitalia were cut so as to reduce their libido as was the case in many

societies of Kenya and the Pokot and Sebei of Uganda. On the other hand, in other societies like

Buganda, Ankole, Toro, and Bunyoro (where the current study was carried out), girls were

subjected to elongating the labia as a way of preparing them for marriage, something which was

considered prestigious among women (Mbiti, 1968; SSekamwa, 1999).

Formal education as practiced in Uganda today was introduced by the Christian missionaries, the

Protestants and Catholics who came in 1877 and 1879 respectively. Though the Arabs had come

to Uganda earlier in 1844, they were more interested in trade than in education, the Arabs

therefore offered very limited education, mainly in form of the Quran schools to teach the

converts of Islam the basic tenets of the Islamic faith. When Ugandans embraced western

2

education, they preferred taking boys to school since girls were thought to be sources of wealth

through bride wealth; girl child education was hence neglected (SSekamwa, 1999).

For many years, girls did not enjoy the privilege of stepping in school. Even with the opening of

girls schools such as Gayaza Junior and Gayaza High School (1905), Mt. St. Mary’s College

Namagunga (1942), many girls were unable to go to school; largely because of prevailing

unfavorable societal cultural attitudes of educating girls. It was a time of strict cultural observance

that girls were supposed to be homemakers, to kneel before men, to be married off at adolescent

age and to produce children. It was worse for the daughters of peasants. Though schools had

come, at first the schools were reserved for the daughters of chiefs so that the educated sons of

chiefs could marry educated women from rich families so as to maintain the status quo

(SSekamwa, 1999).

The first attempts at promoting girl child education in Uganda were made by the 1963 Castle

Commission. The Commission highlighted the need to expand girl’s education in the

country. However, very little progress was made as the Government Education Plan (1971/2–

1975/6) formed to implement the suggestions did not have the manpower and facilities to

accomplish the job. Serious reforms to boost girl-child education resumed with the Government

Education Policy Review Committee of 1987 which sought to among other issues address

inequalities in our education system. The subsequent 1991 publication of a Government White

Paper on Education set out benchmarks against which important programmes to attain parity in

education would be implemented. One of the key elements of this White Paper was the need to

democratise education; to provide equal opportunities to Ugandan children regardless of age,

gender, religion and other identities. These reforms led to the introduction of Affirmative Action

in University admission, ensuring that all female applicants get 1.5 points added onto their

university entry marks. In 1997, Universal Primary Education was introduced offering more

3

opportunities for girls to attend school. Despite these efforts, girls still lag behind in education

partly due to factors which are social and cultural (FAWEU, 2010).

1.1.2 Theoretical perspective

The study was based on the expectancy theory because it has direct relationship to the variables

of the study. The Expectancy theory propounded by Victor Vroom inquires into the impact of

expectancy on behaviour. In this theory, Vroom proposed that the effort a person exhibits in his

or her work is a function of two expectancy components. Expectancy or how likely it is that

performance will pay off in outcome such as a sense of accomplishment, money, promotion, and

recognition. Thus, as applied to girl child education in Hoima district, if parents expect to benefit

a lot from educating them, they can be motivated to send them to school. Relatedly, if the girls

realize the importance of schooling, they can work hard at school, take care to remain in school

and perform well, and vice versa. So, what is expected to be achieved if girls are educated, affects

girl child education.

1.1.3 Conceptual Framework

In this study, socio-cultural factors are the independent variables, yet girl child education is the

dependent variable.

Socio-cultural factors are the aspects which people, according to their traditions as per their

ethnic groups believe in and consider them as being necessary for identity. In this study, the

social factors include family-related factors and the school-related factors. Family-related

social factors are the issues in the homes where children stay in, which can affect their

education such as the stability of the families they are staying in, the number of children in

the homes, the level of parents’ education, the time parents have for their children, the number

of wives and children one’s father has, and how responsible or irresponsible parents are. These

family-related factors can affect a child’s education. How responsible or irresponsible parents

4

are means the extent to which parents or guardians rightly do what they are supposed to do

and behave towards their children, for example it is abominable for parents or guardians to

commit incest, they are supposed to guide them and urge them to study. If this is not done

properly, children’s education is at risk (Mafabi, 2016).

School-related social factors are the social aspects in schools which can affect children’s

education, such as the extent to which the children are guided, the extent to which they are

taught, the extent to which girls’ toilets are separate from those of boys, the extent to which

girls are provided with menstruation gears at school, the extent to which male teachers fall in

love with them or do not, among others (Mafabi, 2016). All these factors can in one way or

another affect girl child education, in terms of academic performance, accessing school,

attendance and retention in school.

The cultural factors perceived to affect girls’ education were categorized into two:

menstruation-related issues and beliefs, as well as gender stereotyping cultural beliefs.

Cultural factors are the issues in people’s cultures as per their ethnic groups regarding the

way they perceive different aspects surrounding them. For example, the Banyoro people who

dominate Hoima district believe that a menstruating woman is not supposed to go to the well

to fetch water or even to pass via the cross roads. It is also believed that if the used

menstruation gears of a woman are accessed by another person, somebody can use them to

bewitch the woman who used those gears and a woman can fail to produce or to get married

(Byaruhanga- Akiiki, 1978). Such beliefs can influence girls’ attendance at school during

their menstruation periods, as some of them can fear to go to school because of that. Girl child

education means the extent to which female children are educated in schools to receive formal

education. In this study, girl child education was conceptualised in terms of access to schools,

attendance at school, retention at school, as well as their academic performance. Access to school

means the extent to which girls have the schools they can go to for studies. Attendance means

5

the extent to which girls go to school on the days they are supposed to go there and actually be in

class as the schools’ timetables indicate. Retention means the extent to which girls stay in school

to complete their educational cycle. Academic performance means the extent to which the

learners (in this case the girls) grasp the subject matter taught in class, to be able to pass

examinations in the different subjects (Mafabi, 2016; Okoth, 2016).

1.1.4 Contextual Perspective

Many African countries continue to face problems in providing stable and adequate access to

basic economic infrastructure and social services. The manifestations of these problems range

from persistent poverty, poor public services, and environmental degradation, and inefficient or

low yielding agricultural sector. In the educational sector, besides poor facilities, lack of teachers,

textbooks and desks, and negative attitudes such as denying many children access to education,

local cultural beliefs and practices are worsening the situation. This is most evident in the

circumstances of the girl-child, whose needs and interests are often marginalized by social and

cultural factors.

A common proposition advanced to explain falling educational expenditure in African countries

is that it has been ‘crowded out’ by other pressing demands on government budgets (Noss 1991:

23). After decades of the World Bank (WB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF)

sponsored programmes which have not led to any significant improvements in living conditions

in many of African countries, the public policy emphasis have shifted towards tackling poverty

itself. This has contributed to poverty analysis gaining currency in the search to identify the poor

and also to properly design the public policy, as well as providing safety nets for the vulnerable.

As one of the major factors whose lack thereof perpetuates poverty, education has long been

regarded as a human right. But, in most developing countries, unequal access to education among

various social groups is staggering (www.crefa.ecn.ulaval.ca/develop/appiah-kubi.pdf). While

http://www.crefa.ecn.ulaval.ca/develop/appiah-kubi.pdf

6

heavy external debt and spending on defence are most commonly cited as responsible for this

situation, negative effects of colonialism of and bad cultural practices within certain countries

too have contributed to the gendered and regional disparities in educational opportunities.

Many countries on the African continent rank among the poorest in the world. The on-going

HIV/AIDS epidemic has contributed to the degeneration of the beautiful African land into a

human rights catastrophe. At the centre of the devastating situation is the girl-child. The girl-

children appear to be the most vulnerable and most undervalued members of the world

society. In a region where many are struggling to get enough food and to stay alive, remain out

of reach of the various violent rebel armies, and to care for those stricken with various diseases,

a basic education, especially for girl children, is low on the list of priorities. Girls are more

vulnerable to HIV/AIDS because they are at times raped, they are enticed by elderly men using

money yet many of the elderly men do not want to use condoms, among other factors. Additional

reasons why girls do not have adequate access to education in Africa include the fact that some

have to stay home to nurse relatives with HIV/AIDS. All these coupled together, impact on girl

child education (Okello, 2016).

In Uganda, there is a strong legal framework protecting the right to education as a fundamental

human right enshrined in the 1995 Constitution. Uganda has signed and ratified many important

regional and international conventions protecting the right to education, for example the United

Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) Article 26, the Convention on the

Rights of the Child (CRC) Article 28, the Convention on Elimination of All forms of

Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) Article 10, and the African Charter on the Rights and

Welfare of the Child (Article 11). These provide a comprehensive set of good education policies

that aim at ensuring education for all, and efforts are being made to reach the most vulnerable

people (FAWEU, 2010).

http://www.wikigender.org/wiki/gender-statistics-in-uganda/

http://www.parliament.go.ug/new/images/stories/constitution/Constitution_of_Uganda_1995.pdf

http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/eng.pdf

http://www.unicef.org/crc/files/Rights_overview.pdf

http://www.wikigender.org/wiki/cedaw/

http://www.unicef.org/esaro/African_Charter_articles_in_full.pdf

http://www.unicef.org/esaro/African_Charter_articles_in_full.pdf

7

Deliberate efforts have however been made to promote gender equality by focusing on increasing

enrollment of girls and boys in school at different levels, as well as attempting to retain them in

school by implementing a number of policies such as Universal Primary Education (UPE)

launched in 1997 and Universal Secondary Education (USE) launched in 2007 among others

(UNICEF, 2014). The Children´s Act (2008) requires all duty bearers, parents, community

members and teachers to ensure that children under care are safe and protected. Campaigns and

interventions to keep girls in school include the Go-Back-to-School campaign, launched in

October, 2013 by UNICEF to help girl dropouts to rejoin school and the program registered a

number of stories. Another campaign is that of Promoting the National Strategy for Girl´s

Education (NSGE) (Okoth, 2016).

Through initiatives like the United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI), the Girls

Education Movement, many girls from poor families have been empowered. According to the

World Bank Gender Gap report 2012, the female-male divide in school enrollment has narrowed

significantly and in some cases exceeded expectation. At primary level for instance the gap is

92:90, indicating that there are more girls attending primary school, while in secondary schools

it is 15:17 and 4:5 at tertiary level. According to the education ministry, the net enrollment for

girls at primary level increased from 82.3% in 2000 to 97.2% as today. While that of boys moved

from 88.8% for boys in 2000 to 96.3%. Gender parity has grown from 48:51 in 2000 to 50:51

today (Okoth, 2016).

Relatedly, Uganda is a signatory to a number of international commitments on education, for

example the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the Convention on Elimination of all

Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), Education For All (EFA) Goals, the Beijing

Declaration and Platform for Action (PFA) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The

CRC in Article 28 places commitment on the State Parties to fulfill the right to education for all

http://www.unicef.org/uganda/Re-entry_of_pregnant_girls_-_briefing_-_20_10_2014.pdf

8

children. The CRC also highlights the principle of non-discrimination in Article 2, emphasizing

equality and equity between males and females at all levels. The CEDAW, Article 1, prohibits all

forms of discrimination against women and girls including the right to education and in Article 2

commit governments to take appropriate action on the advancement of women including

Advancement through education. Education For All (EFA) Goals particularly goal 5 aims at

eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education and achieving gender equality

in education. The SDGs particularly Goal 4 aims at ensuring inclusive and equitable quality

education and promote lifelong learning opportunities while Goal 5 aims at achieving gender

equality and empower women and girls. These commitments provide strong grounds for the

delivery of gender equality in education and sports (Ahikire and Madanda, 2011).

Despite all this, girl child education has not been without challenges. With some of the girls that

enroll in secondary schools unable to complete their education, there is concern over the

significantly high drop-out rates of girls at this level and beyond. According to a 2010 United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation’s Global monitoring report on

marginalization, only 31% of all girls that enrolled for secondary education were able to complete

O’ level education compared to 39% for boys. 31.1% of the girls were able to join A level

compared to 41.3%. (Ssenkaaba, 2018). Early pregnancies, poor sanitation facilities in schools

and absence of support mechanisms especially for girls have contributed a lot to girls dropping

out of school. The situation is often worse in rural areas (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2017).

A 2011 New Vision field visit to Kasese district for instance discovered that on average young

girls drop out of school between ages of 12 and 15, to find boyfriends and husbands. This trend

is partly blamed on poverty. A number of gender parity programmes initiated to support the girls

were either poorly attended or no longer functional. Some district education officials blamed this

poor support from the district on lack of sufficient facilities.

9

Some parents justify the denial of girls of their right to education to prevent them from bringing

shame to the family through early pregnancy. Yet others believe that women who are at

the same level of education as the men are a disgrace to the community because more

often than not, they will not get married and if they do, it will be to a foreigner. For such

parents, early marriage is the best way to prevent this and at the same time preserve traditions

(Musoke, 2015; Mafabi, 2016).

Girls have all along lagged behind in education since they are usually thought of as property for

sale (through bride price/wealth), they are usually married off at an early age for fear that they

will become pregnant before finishing their studies, and some male teachers interrupt the girls’

education through making them their sexual partners (Kafeero, 2017). Against this background,

the government of Uganda and non-government organisations have put in place many

programmes meant to promote girls’ secondary school education in Uganda, such as Universal

Secondary Education, The National Strategy for Girls Education (NSGE), The Promotion of Girls

Education (PGE) Scheme, The Equity in the Classroom (EIC) programme, the Alternative Basic

Education for Karamoja (ABEK), The Classroom Construction Grant (CCG) programme, The

Gender desk in the Ministry of Education and Sports headquarters, The Girls’ Education

Movement in Africa (GEM), Child Friendly School programme, Focusing Resources for

Effective School Health (FRESH), among other programmes. Despite these programmes, girls,

compared to their male counterparts, still lag behind in terms of access to secondary schools,

academic performance, and retention; some do not complete the six-year cycle of secondary

education, during the course of studying, some of them do not attend school during the days they

are in periods, while others perform poorly (Ahikire and Madanda, 2011; UWEZO, 2016; Okoth,

2016; Kafeero, 2017). Hoima district has been mentioned among the areas where girls’ education

is challenged. The current study thus addressed the extent to which girls’ education at secondary

school level in Hoima district has been affected by socio-cultural factors.

10

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Though many policies are in place to promote girl child education, it is not yet a success story.

For instance, the policy on affirmative action does not favour the unique circumstances of young

women in rural, marginalised areas who are unable to access educational institutions because of

their difficult circumstances. It is also a problem that the education policy does not spell out

measures to deal with parents that ‘sell off’ their young daughters into marriage and those that do

not provide lunch to their children. In other instances, female secondary school students are

impregnated by men, and hence drop out of school. There are also cases of male relatives who

force their nieces whom they are looking after or are sponsoring in school, into sexual relations

and sometimes impregnate them, hence negatively affecting the education of the girls. Others

hold traditional beliefs that a menstruating girl is not supposed to pass through cross-roads, or

else she can fail to produce, can get miscarriages, and can fail to be married. Because of this,

some of them do not attend school during the days they are in periods. To make matters worse,

some girls spend more than three days in menstruation ((Ahikire and Madanda, 2011; UWEZO,

2016; Okoth, 2016; Kafeero, 2017). By implication, though different government interventions

are in place, girl child education is not yet a success story especially in the rural areas partly due

to social and cultural factors. This prompted the current study.

1.3 Purpose of the study

This study was carried out to investigate the relationship between socio-cultural factors and girl

child education in secondary schools in Hoima district, Uganda.

1.4 Research Objectives

The current study was carried out to:

11

1. Examine the extent of the prevalence of socio- cultural factors in Hoima district, as

perceived by female students in Hoima district secondary schools.

2. Find out the extent of girl child education in secondary schools in Hoima district.

3. To analyse the relationship between socio-cultural factors and girl child education in

secondary schools in Hoima district.

1.5 Research Questions

This study was carried out to answer the following questions:

1. What is the extent of the prevalence of socio-cultural factors in Hoima district, as

perceived by female students in Hoima district secondary schools in Hoima district?

2. What is the extent of girl child education in secondary schools in Hoima district?

3. Is there a significant relationship between socio-cultural factors

and girl child education in secondary schools in Hoima district?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

The following hypothesis was tested:

There is no significant relationship between socio-cultural factors and girl child education in

secondary schools in Hoima district.

1.7 Scope

Geographically, the study was conducted in Hoima district of Mid-Western Uganda since it is a

rural area with un-evenly distributed secondary schools. The area also has many illiterate and

economically challenged parents who are un-likely to take girl child education very seriously.

Content wise, the study was limited to the socio-cultural factors traditional practices which

usually affect girl child education, such as the family-related factors, school related social factors,

12

as well as the cultural factors namely menstruation related issues and beliefs, and gender negative

stereotyping of girls. The idea was to assess the extent to which they promote girls’ education in

secondary schools in Hoima district, referring to the girls’ accessing of secondary schools, their

being retained at school to finish at least the four years of Ordinary Level secondary education

cycle (S.1-S.4), as well as their performance in academics, based on the national S.4 results.

Regarding time, though the study was carried out in 2019, it assessed the socio- cultural factors

as they are, and as they are perceived by the female students at present. Girl child education with

regard to their access, retention in schools and their performance was taken to be from the year

2015-2018. This period was chosen because there has been high level of government, non-

government and cultural leaders’ high level of sensitizing the masses on the importance of

educating girls. Also, during this period, universal primary and secondary school programmes

are in place, hence it is hoped that parents cannot give excuses of not having the money to educate

their female daughters. The four-year period was taken with a view of following a cohort of

female students admitted in S1 in 2015 to follow them up to S.4, to know whether they were all

retained or some dropped out before completing S.4.

1.8 Significance of the Study

This study is expected to be significant to several stakeholders, such as the researchers,

headteachers, teachers, students and the district Education Department officials.

To the researchers, they may use the findings of this study as appoint of reference (by referring

to them) in their studies, as well as finding the gaps in the current study to fill them in their future

studies.

13

Regarding the teachers and headteachers, since they were involved in the study and since they

gave their views on the subject, the findings of this study may enable them to appreciate their

roles as teachers in causing female students be retained in schools to finish their studies.

To the Government, the findings of this study will enable them put in more effort to ensure that

the policy on girl child education are implemented by the parents and the schools.

14

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the conceptual framework, theoretical review, as well as the review of the

literature related to the variables of the study.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

Fig1. Showing the relationship between the independent and dependent variables of the

study

Independent variable Dependent variables

Socio-Cultural Factors

1.

Factors Girl Child Education

Extraneous Variables

Source: Drawn based on Odaga, A, & Heneveld, W. (1995). Girls and Schools in Sub-Saharan

Africa, IBRD, Washington. World Bank, and modified by the researcher, 2019.

1. Access to schools

2. Retention

3. Academic performance

in the S.4 national

examinations

Economic factors

Political factors

Psychological factors

.

•

1. Social factors

(a) Family related factors (e.g family stability,

number of children in the home, parents’ level of

education, number of children in the home, etc)

(b) school related factors (e.g availability of girls’

toilets separate from those of boys, provision of

menstruation gears at school, relationship between

teachers and students, extent of guidance, etc.

2. Cultural factors

(a) Issues and traditional beliefs associated with

menstruation

(b) Gender stereotyping cultural beliefs

15

Figure 1 shows that various socio-cultural factors, such as family and school-related factors;

as well as the cultural factors conceptualized as issues and traditional beliefs associated with

menstruation, and gender stereotyping cultural beliefs, can affect girl child education. They

can influence girls’ accessing of schools, their being retained there, as well as their academic

performance. The extraneous variables namely, economic factors, political factors and

psychological factors mean that they can also affect girls’ education, but the current study

did not address them; these can be areas for future studies.

Many traditional practices militate against the girl-child access to education. For example, many

countries on the African continent rank among the poorest in the world. The on-going HIV/AIDS

epidemic has contributed to the degeneration of the African land into a human rights catastrophe.

At the centre of the devastating situation is the girl-child. The girl-children appear to be the

most vulnerable and most undervalued members of the world society. In a region where many

are struggling to get enough food and to stay alive, remain out of reach of the various violent

rebel armies, and to care for those stricken with various diseases, a basic education, especially

for girl children, is low on the list of priorities. Girls are more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS because

they are at times raped, they are enticed by elderly men using money yet many of the elderly men

do not want to use condoms, among other factors. Additional reasons why girls do not have

adequate access to education in Africa include the fact that some have to stay home to nurse

relatives with HIV/AIDS. All these coupled together, impact on girl child education (Okello,

2016).

2.2 Theoretical Review

16

The study was based on the expectancy theory. The Expectancy theory was propounded by Victor

Vroom. In this theory, Vroom proposed that the effort a person exhibits in his or her work is a

function of two expectancy components. Expectancy or how likely it is that performance will pay

off in outcome such as a sense of accomplishment, money, promotion, and recognition. Thus, as

applied to girl child education in Hoima district, if parents expect to benefit a lot from educating

them, they can be motivated to send them to school. Relatedly, if the girls realize the importance

of schooling, they can work hard at school, take care to remain in school and perform well, and

vice versa. So, what is expected to be achieved if girls are educated, affects girl child education.

There is a general tendency among parents especially in rural areas that educating girls is a

wastage of money and time since at the end of it they will be married by men and then produce

children for other clans. Therefore, the issue of expectancy comes in, in the sense that to some

parents, not many profits are expected from educating girls, hence such parents do not exhibit

much effort in educating girls. On the other hand, family-related factors such as the level of

education affects girl child education. Educated parents are more likely to educate their daughters

since they expect social and economic returns from that (Ssenkaaba, 2018).

2.3 Related Literature

2.3.1 Socio- Cultural Factors

There are many socio-cultural factors which usually affect girl child education. These include

Constraints related to Uganda’s patriarchal cultures; harmful traditional practices and attitudes

which inflict physical and Psychological damage, e.g. initiation rituals, early marriage, and bride

wealth payment; traditional division of labour in the home and school; family instability; some

traditional beliefs which reinforce negative cultural practices; the insecure environment in and

outside school, coupled with the girl’s physical, social and psychological conditioning to a docile

outlook with very low self-esteem; differential motivational scope for the male and female child;

17

sanitation facilities for female students in co-educational institutions; lack of provisions in public

and private buildings to allow for easy mobility of persons, especially girls, with disabilities;

negative gender stereotyping in the curriculum, instructional materials, teaching-learning

methodology and assessment systems, among others (Ssenkaaba, 2018).

Education in Uganda hinges on both the international and National policy and regulatory

frameworks. These are against the harmful socio-cultural practices which cause people to lag

behind. Some of the international frameworks that the education in Uganda is anchored upon

include the Sustainable Development Goals which aims at leaving no one behind, the United

Nations Convection on the rights of the child which emphasise Non-discrimination; Best interest

of the child, Right to survival and Development and right to be heard as four major guiding

principles, and sees education as a right. The Darker Framework for Action 2000 which aims at

meeting Education for All, among others. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which has

17 goals is the latest development framework to which Uganda is a signatory among other

countries. Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aims to ensure inclusive and

equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030. Seven

specific targets were identified for SDG goal 4 which addresses specific areas of educational

needs. For example, target 4.1 emphasizes that by 2030, all girls and boys complete free, equitable

and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes.

2.2.2 Girl Child Education

Many policies have been put in place to support girl child education in Uganda (Uganda Bureau

of Statistics, 2017)., such as the following:

a) The National Strategy for Girls Education (NSGE), launched to foster gender parity in

education. It acts as a master plan for use by all stakeholders in girls’ education. NSGE is

18

managed by a national coordination/planning committee put in place by the Gender desk

at the MoES. Among other things the committee provides support to the districts through

planning with them the implementation and monitoring of the NSGE.

b) Universal Primary Education (UPE) and universal secondary education (USE); UPE was

launched in 1997 following the recommendations of the Education Policy Review

Commission (EPRC, 1989), the subsequent relevant stipulations of the Government of

Uganda White Paper (1992), and the development of the Children’s Statute (1996). The

policy emphasises equal opportunity for both boys and girls. It focuses on promoting

gender parity in enrolment, retention, and performance in primary education. As a result

of this, girls’ enrolment in primary schools and secondary schools has increased (Uganda

Bureau of Statistics, 2017).

c) The Uganda National Curriculum Development Centre (UNCDC) has been revising

primary and secondary school education curriculum since 1992 to make it more gender

responsive as part of the Primary Education Reform. The UNCDC recognizes that gender

equality is not mentioned in the outline of the Education Sector Investment Plan (ESIP).

d) A 1990 affirmative action measure awarded 1.5 bonus points to women qualifying to enter

public universities to increase the number of women graduates. This has increased

enrolment of women at the university level from 23 in 1989 to 35percentin 1999,

and41percentin 2002 (Makerere University Academic Registrar’s Records).

e) The Promotion of Girls Education (PGE) scheme which aims at improving girls’

retention and performance at school. More than 1000 primary schools in 15 districts of

Uganda have so far benefited from this scheme. The PGE scheme provides funds for

construction of latrines, classrooms, houses of senior women teachers; girls’ play grounds,

enabling school children to access water and sportswear.

19

f) The Equity in the Classroom (EIC) programme aims at facilitating equal participation of

girls and boys in the classroom. It is a USAID funded program that provides Technical

Assistance and Training workshops whose great target is to increase girls’ classroom

participation and completion of primary school. It is in line with the MoES’ mission to

“provide quality Education For All. Teachers have been sensitized to change any negative

attitudes towards girls’ education and adopt methods to promote equity in the classroom.

The implementation of EIC is basically done through the core primary teacher training

colleges (CPTCs), and EIC activities have been mainstreamed in the National Reform

Programme of MoES. All the 18 CPTCs have been covered. The PTC trained

446coordinatingCentre Tutors (CCTs) who have the capacity of reaching over 9,000

(85%) primary schools of Uganda (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2017).

g) The Complementary Opportunity for Primary Education (COPE) program and the

Alternative Basic Education for Karamoja (ABEK) are initiatives aimed at increasing the

access of disadvantaged children who are not able to attend formal school many of whom

are girls. Both COPE and ABEK are programmes facilitated by UNICEF Uganda.

h) The Classroom Construction Grant (CCG) programme builds classrooms and pit latrines

for schools while specifically separating girls’ latrines from those of boys.

i) The Gender desk in the Ministry of Education and Sports headquarters was established to

promote activities and programmes aimed at collecting the gender imbalances in

education. The gender desk aims at achieving: Equitable access to basic education,

increased girls’ retention in school; increased girls’ performance especially in science and

mathematics; Protection of girls against child abuse and other forms of molestation;

Reforming the curricular to make it more gender sensitive; Improving educational

facilities by making them more conducive particularly to girls and the disadvantaged

20

children; Training and re-training teachers (particularly senior women/men teachers and

career teachers) in gender responsive methodology and practice and formulating a gender

policy for the Ministry of Education and Sports.

j) The Girls’ Education Movement in Africa (GEM) was also launched in Uganda in August

2001.The movement aims at promoting gender parity in education through enabling girls

to realise and concretize their rights to participate in identifying best practices that

enhance their participation in education, and issues that affect their education, and life

skills henceforth. GEM specifically targets girls with special needs and creating awareness

among the communities about the benefits of educating girls. GEM is a product of the

MoES gender desk.

k) Child Friendly School programme is another intervention facilitated by the UNICEF GoU

CP for2001. It aims at promoting girls’ education in a friendly school and home

environment at the sub county, district and national levels. This program is coordinated

by the gender desk of the MoES.

l) Focusing Resources for Effective School Health (FRESH) focuses on provision of safe

water and sanitation to schools, provision of washrooms for girls, urinals for boys, and

latrines with priority for girls and special emphasis on separation from boys’ facilities.

Though the policies and efforts are in place, their implementation in rural areas like Hoima district

needs to be studied, hence the current study.

By 2017, the national secondary school Net Enrolment Rate was 44 percent, which implies that

only 44 percent of students who were expected to be in secondary school (13-18years) were

actually enrolled in secondary school. By 2017, the population aged 19years, which is expected

to have completed upper secondary education or senior six and attained Uganda Advanced

Certificate of Education (UACE), the net completion rate for upper secondary education in

21

Uganda for the population aged 19 years was six percent. The net completion rates for the females

(6.4%) were more than for the males (5.7%). Disaggregation by residence indicated that the net

Secondary completion rate among the urban population was 7 times more than that among the

rural population. By sub regions, Karamoja (2%) had the lowest and Kampala (29%) had the

highest net completion rates of senior six for the population aged 19 years among all the regions.

Nevertheless, apart from Kampala, Central 1 and Central 2 regions, all the remaining regions had

a lower proportion of the population aged 19 years who completed upper secondary education

(Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2017). This shows that girl child education still faces challenges

despite several government interventions. This study was carried out in Hoima district to find out

what is on the ground now, this this literature, despite being relevant, does not address it.

Research has shown that millions of girls do not have access to school despite the concerted

efforts to push the cause forward. Factors like child labour, poverty and lack of sponsorship,

quest for wealth, bereavement, truancy, broken home, engagement of children as house helps,

have been identified as factors or the clog in the wheel of children’s access to education in

Africa. According to World Bank (2003), More than 350 million people, over half Africa’s

population, live below the poverty line of one dollar a day. This implies that poverty, too,

excludes children, including the girl-child, from school. No mention however, was made of

Hoima district, hence the current study.

In Ethiopia, girls are sometimes abducted for marriage when they are no more than eight years.

In West Africa, they are recruited from poor rural families to work as domestic servants in coastal

cities or even neighbouring countries. Relatedly, in South Africa, a recent report by Human

Rights Watch warns that sexual violence and abuse are hampering girls’ access to education. In

Afghanistan, they have simply been barred from school under the Taleban regime. Customs,

poverty, fear and violence are the reasons why girls still account for 60% of the estimated 113

22

million out-of-school children, and majority live in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

Most of the factors that militate against the girl-child access to education are socio- cultural.

Many countries on the African continent rank among the poorest in the world. The on-going

HIV/AIDS epidemics, over-crowding in cities, tribal warfare and despotic governments have

contributed to the degeneration of the beautiful African land into a human rights catastrophe. At

the centre of the devastating situation is the girl-child. The girl-children appear to be the most

vulnerable and most undervalued members of the world society. In a region where many are

struggling to get enough food and to stay alive, remain out of reach of the various violent rebel

armies, and to care for those stricken with various diseases, a basic education, especially for girl

children, is low on the list of priorities.

The right to education, which is a fundamental human right, is frequently denied to girls in

some Africa countries. The then United Nations Secretary General, Kofi Annan, stated that in

Africa, when families have to make a choice, due to limited resources, of educating either

a girl or a boy child, it is always the boy that is chosen to attend school. In Africa, many girls

are prevented from getting the education entitled to them because families often send their

daughters out to work at a young age, so that they can get the additional income they may need

to exist beyond subsistence level, and finance the education of sons. Despite the relevance of

this, what obtains in secondary schools in Hoima district is not clear, hence the present study.

It has been reported in BBC News (2006), that African patiarchical societal viewpoint favours

boys over girls because boys maintain the family lineage. Additional reasons why girls do

not have adequate access to education in Africa include the fact that many have to stay home

to nurse relatives with HIV/AIDS; that their mothers were not educated is another reason

that makes them feel that their daughters do not need education. Furthermore, some families

23

do not believe in education of girls. In Ethiopia for instance child brides face early pregnancy,

responsibilities to their children and in-laws, and reticence of their husbands, who are usually

much older, to let them out of the house.

In Kenya, girl–child education is elusive. Mwangi, (2004) noted that a combination of poverty,

disease and backward cultural practices continued to deny the girl-child her right to education.

Even with the introduction of free primary education, access to education is still remaining a

wide dream to many Kenyan children. Despite the introduction of free primary education in the

country which accounted for an increase in enrolment, a sizeable number of children, especially

girls, still find themselves out of school owing to a number of reasons. These reasons are:

demands for their labour in the homes such as assisting in looking after their young siblings;

child marriage, doing house chores, death of mother, and looking after the sick member of the

family.

Some of the girls are given to marriage against their wish and when they refuse, they are

threatened with death. The children are given to marriage at a tender age in quest of

dowry from the husbands. But how much is the amount and for how long does it last? The

girls lament that because of the setbacks they still did not escape from poverty and their parents

had nothing to show for the dowry received (Mwangi, 2004).

Some parents justify the denial of girls of their right to education to prevent them from bringing

shame to the family through early pregnancy. Yet others believe that women who are at the

same level of education as the men are a disgrace to the community because more often

than not, they will not get married and if they do, it will be to a foreigner. For such parents, early

marriage is the best way to prevent this and at the same time preserve traditions (Mwangi,

(2004).

24

2.3.3 Retention

UNICEF (2003) reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa, the number of girls out of school each year

has risen from 20 million in 1990 to 24 million in 2002. Of the 25 selected countries studied,

fifteen (15) were in sub-Saharan Africa. The criteria studied were: low enrolment rates for girls;

gender gaps of more than 10 percent in primary education; countries with more than one million

girls out of school; countries included on the World Bank’s Education For All Fast Track

Initiative and countries hard hit by a range of crises that affect school opportunities for girls,

such as HIV/AIDS and conflict. The fifteen countries included Chad, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania,

Eritrea, Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The need to find out girl child retention

in secondary schools in Hoima district partly prompted the current study since the above

reviewed sources do not mention it.

The worst hit is Southern Sudan, which has been seriously affected by civil war for decades.

UNICEF said to wait for an end to the conflict would be to dismiss the rights of generations of

children. UNICEF noted that in the area, as few as 15 percent of primary school-aged children

were in school and girls represented only one quarter of the number. By the time the upper

primary level was reached, there were hardly any girls left in school and at the territory's

foremost secondary school, Rumbek, there was a solitary girl. Only 560 of the 8,000 teachers in

southern Sudan are women, which was merely seven percent (Nduru, 2003).

In rural areas, social and cultural patterns combined with relatively poor quality of schooling

place girls, their education and development in a disadvantaged and vulnerable position. Girls

bear the heaviest burden for household responsibilities, including care of sick parents and

siblings, and are first ones to drop out of school (Okello, 2016). Though Okello (2016)’s study is

relevant, it was carried out in Kampala, an urban area; not Hoima district, hence the current study.

25








Eritrea, Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. This is in line with the assertion of

Mwangi, (2004) who claimed that a combination of poverty, disease and backward cultural

practices continued to deny the girl-child her right to education in Kenya. Even with the

introduction of free primary education, access to education is still remaining a wide dream to

many Kenyan children. Despite the introduction of free primary education in the country which

accounted for an increase in enrolment, a sizeable number of children, especially girls, still find

themselves out of school owing to a number of reasons. These reasons are: demands for their

labour in the homes such as assisting in looking after their young siblings; child marriage, doing

house chores, death of mother, and looking after the sick member of the family. Though this is

related to the proposed study, time lag is a factor prompting the proposed study as the

aforementioned studies and claims were made many years ago. From 2003 to the present 2018,

many changes must have occurred due to changes in science, technology, global warming, new

diseases, among others, thus prompting the current study.

2.3.4 Relationship between Socio-Cultural Factors and Girl Child Education

Many socio-cultural factors generally impact on the education of female students. For example,



26






Eritrea, Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. This is in line with the assertion of

Mwangi, (2004) who claimed that a combination of poverty, disease and backward cultural

practices continued to deny the girl-child her right to education in Kenya. Even with the

introduction of free primary education, access to education is still remaining a wide dream to

many Kenyan children. Despite the introduction of free primary education in the country which




house chores, death of mother, and looking after the sick member of the family. Though this is

related to the proposed study, time lag is a factor prompting the proposed study as the

aforementioned studies and claims were made many years ago. From 2003 to the present 2018,

many changes must have occurred due to changes in science, technology, global warming, new

diseases, among others, thus prompting the current study.

Though the Jomtien Conference of 1990 launched the Education For All (EFA) initiatives,

which aimed at getting children into school within ten years and also stressed that the urgent

priority was to ensure access to and improve the quality of education for girls and

women. Many countries mapped out programmes to facilitate the implementation of the

initiatives. Uganda embarked on Universal Basic Education. All these are in a bid to meet the

Millennium Development Goal number two, which is to achieve Universal Basic Education.

Though many girls were enrolled in both primary and secondary schools, the relatively old girls

27

are usually sexually harassed by some male teachers, impregnate them, hence failing to

complete their educational cycle. Some parents justify the denial of girls of their right to

education to prevent them from bringing shame to the family through early pregnancy. Yet

others believe that women who are at the same level of education as the men are a

disgrace to the community because more often than not, they will not get married and if they

do, it will be to a foreigner. For such parents, early marriage is the best way to prevent this and

at the same time preserve traditions (Musoke, 2015; Mafabi, 2016).

2.3.5 Beliefs on Menstruation and their Impact on Girl Child Education

In many societies of Uganda, menstruation is taken as a secret affair which is not supposed to

be discussed openly, and a girl or a woman is not supposed to be known that she is menstruating

otherwise it can lead to being excluded from societal activities since she is considered to be

dirty during those days of menstruation. The menstruation gears women use are associated with

taboos, such as not being touched by another person, otherwise one can fail to produce or can

have consistent menstruation which lasts weeks (Kirwana-Ssozi, 2000). This causes some girls

to fear to go to school during the days they are menstruating. In some instances, the

menstruation periods come unexpectedly due to factors like seeing blood, seeing wet

menstruation gears of a woman, change of diet, change of environment, among others. Since

some girls cannot afford to buy menstruation gears, they choose not to go to school if they

suspect they are likely to menstruate (Kirwana-Ssozi, 2000). Mr. Kirwana-Ssozi (2000)

however does not state what obtains in Hoima district district with regard to girl child education

being affected by their menstruation, hence the current study.

Menstruation is a big challenge to school going age girls in many parts of the world, and hence

affect their education. Not addressing menstruation openly and positively impact formal

28

education of women negatively. Lack of safe and clean sanitation facilities at schools have led

to low attendance and high dropout rates for girls (Klasing & Sharma, 2014). Findings of a

UNICEF study estimated that one out of ten African girls missed school during menses; in

Burkina Faso, 83 percent of girls had no place at school to change their menstrual materials

Klasing (2014). In India 16.18% girls missed schools during menstruation. In some instances,

girls miss as many as five days of school a month because of inadequate sanitation facilities at

school, lack of hygiene products and physical discomfort associated with their periods (Bobel,

2006; Bobel, 2010).

Menstruation is one of the factors which affect school going age girls in many parts of the world,

and hence affect their education. Not addressing menstruation openly and positively impacts

formal education of women negatively. Lack of safe and clean sanitation facilities at schools

have led to low attendance and high dropout rates for girls (Klasing & Sharma, 2014). Findings

of a UNICEF study estimated that one out of ten African girls missed school during menses; in

Burkina Faso, 83 percent of girls had no place at school to change their menstrual materials

(Klasing, 2014; Wister, Stubbs & Shipman, (2013). In India 16.18% girls missed schools during

menstruation. In some instances, girls miss as many as five days of school a month because of

inadequate sanitation facilities at school, lack of hygiene products and physical discomfort

associated with their periods (Bobel, 2006; Bobel, 2010). Social, financial and environmental

costs produced by myths and taboos associated with menstruation is high. Menstrual myths and

taboos present women as polluters, incompetent and unlikeable beings with unstable

psychological and emotional health. These perspectives establish that women need treatment,

which might result in high social costs (Tuana, 1993). This is supported by a study of women

in garment factories in Bangladesh which found 73 percent of female workers interviewed saying

that they missed an average of six days of work and pay a month due to vaginal infections, often

caused by unsanitary menstrual materials (Klasing, 2014).

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002267/226792e.pdf

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002267/226792e.pdf

29

2.3.6 Early marriages and girl child Education

The practice of early marriage is still prevalent in Uganda and is highly associated with lower

female access to secondary education. In 2013, Uganda was ranked 16th among 25 countries with

the highest rates of early marriages, with 46% of girls marrying before 18 years, and 12% before

they are 15 years (World Vision, 2013). In regions where girls are married before the legal age

of 18, female secondary education is lower (OECD, 2015). Whereas this information is relevant,

it is not specific on Hoima district, hence the current study.

Girls perceived to be old enough face many challenges, for example, in Ethiopia, girls are

sometimes abducted for marriage. In West Africa, they are recruited from poor rural families to

work as domestic servants in coastal cities or even neighbouring countries. Though there is

awareness of the values of education, some parents do give out their children as house helps. In

South Africa, a recent report by Human Rights Watch warns that sexual violence and abuse are

hampering girls’ access to education. In Afghanistan, they have simply been barred from school

under the Taleban regime. According to Guttman (a UNESCO courier journalist), customs,

poverty, fear and violence are the reasons why girls still account for 60% of the estimated 113

million out-of-school children, and majority live in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

Many times girls reach secondary school at the age of 14, and in rural areas where girls start

schooling at a relatively older age, some reach secondary school at the age of 16, hence being

seen by some men as being ripe for sex and marriage which in the end interfere with their

education (Kafeero, 2017). According to UNICEF, approximately 35% of girls drop out of

school because of early marriage and 23% do so because of early pregnancy (UNICEF, 2015). In

Uganda, the teenage pregnancy rate is 24% with regional variations. This increases to 34% in the

poorest households. In rural areas 24% of girls experience early pregnancy compared with 16%

of wealthier households and 21% of urban girls (UNICEF, 2015). Many cultural settings in

https://www.worldvision.org/sites/default/files/images/Untying-the-Knot_report.pdf

https://www.oecd.org/countries/uganda/The%20Uganda%20SIGI%20Country%20Study.pdf

http://www.wikigender.org/wiki/unicef/

30

Uganda stigmatize pre-marital pregnancy among girls both in school and in communities because

it is seen as “taboo”. A girl who gets pregnant while still at school may be “victimized” on

immorality grounds. Early pregnancy has been found to cut short a girl’s education where girls

withdraw themselves from school early or after giving birth (Ahikire and Madanda, 2011)

Though the Jomtien Conference of 1990 launched the Education For All (EFA) initiatives,

which aimed at getting children into school within ten years and also stressed that the urgent

priority was to ensure access to and improve the quality of education for girls and

women. Many countries mapped out programmes to facilitate the implementation of the

initiatives. Uganda embarked on Universal Basic Education. All these are in a bid to meet the

Millennium Development Goal number two, which is to achieve Universal Basic Education.

Though many girls were enrolled in both primary and secondary schools, the relatively old girls

are usually sexually harassed by some male teachers, impregnate them, hence failing to

complete their educational cycle

31

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the research design, research population, sampling methods, sample size,

data collection tools, validity and reliability of research instruments, data analysis, ethical

considerations, as well as the study limitations.

3.1 Research Design

The study employed a cross sectional survey design and it used quantitative and qualitative

approaches. Because of the relatively large number of respondents who participated in the study,

it was a survey design. The desire to get detailed data from oral informants so as to supplement

quantitative data, caused the researcher to use a qualitative approach. It was cross sectional in the

sense that the researcher collected data from the respondents once at a time.

3.2 Research Population

The target population of 3, 750 constituted the female students from 38 secondary schools in

Hoima district. .Hoima district is made up of three counties namely, Hoima Municipality,

Bugahya County, and Kigorobya County. Hoima Municipality has four subcounties namely,

Kahoora division, Bujumbura division, Busiisi division, and Mparo division. Bugahya county is

made up of four subcounties namely, Buhanika subcounty, Kyabigambire sub county, Kitoba sub

county, and Buseruka sub county. Lastly, Kigorobya County is made up of only two sub counties

namely Kigorobya Town Council and Kigorobya Sub County. The schools which participated in

the study were got from all the ten sub counties.

3.2.1 Sampling

Since all secondary schools in the district are mixed (are for both boys and girls) and are few,

only 38, there was no sampling of the schools; all of them were involved in the study in the three

32

counties which make Hoima district (Hoima Municipality, Bugahya County, and Kigorobya

County). It were the female students who were randomly selected to participate in the study.

3.2.2 Sample size

A sample of 720 female students were selected randomly to participate in the study. They were

selected using the Krejcie & Morgan (1970) table for determining the sample. According to this

table as shown in Appendix 11, if the target population is 3,750, the minimum sample one can

take is 351. The researcher however chose not to take a minimum sample but to take a sample

larger than that (720) because the larger the sample, the more the likelihood of the accuracy of

the findings. After all, this table just shows a researcher that he or she should not take a sample

less than that, but is free to take a sample larger than that one (Amin, 2005). The way they were

chosen is shown in table 3.3.2.

Table 3.3.2 Showing sample size selection

Category Population (N) Sample size (S)

Schools in the 3 counties 38 38

Female students in 38 schools in

Hoima district

3,750 720

Grand Total (of students) 3,750 720

3.3 Data collection methods

Questionnaires were used to the female students since all the respondents were mature and

literate. In addition, 50 female students were subjected to oral interviews to get detailed data on

the variables of the study, namely socio-cultural factors and girl child education as they are in

Hoima district secondary schools. Additionally, documentary review was done with regard to

the girls’ education, that is, their access to the schools, retention and academic performance in

the period 2015-2018, was done.

33

3.4 Validity and Reliability of research instruments

The questionnaire was validated by the expert by examining the relevance/validity of questions

in relation to the research questions. The clarity of questionnaire was also ascertained. The

questionnaire was pre-tested among 68 students who did not take part in the final study. Further

testing was done statistically, and the validity and reliability indexes were 0.082 and 0.087

respectively. This affirmed that the instruments were valid and reliable.

3.5 Data Analysis

The first research objective on the extent of the prevalence of socio-cultural factors was analysed

using the arithmetic mean, and the following mean ranges were used as shown in table 5.5.1.

Table 3.5.1 Showing the mean ranges and their interpretation

The second research objective on girls’ education in terms of access to the schools, retention

and performance was analysed using cumulative frequency (percentages). Since it were the

national S.4 results considered yet these results are released in terms of Grades: Grade 1, Grade

2, Grade 3, Grade 4, and Failure, in the current study, the candidates’ performance was graded

under four grades namely Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 3, Grade 4, and above. The interpretation

attached to the above grades was:

Grade Interpretation

Mean range Response Mode Interpretation

3.26-4.00 strongly agree very high

2.51-3.25 Agree High

1.76-2.50 Disagree Low

1.00-1.75 Strongly Disagree very low

34

Grade 1 Very good performance

Grade 2 Good performance

Grade 3 Fair performance

Grade 4 and above. Poor performance

Thus, those who passed in Grade 1 were interpreted as having performed very well, those in

Grade 2 were taken as having passed well; those who passed in Grade 3 were taken as having

passed fairly; while those who passed in Grade 4 and above were taken as having performed

poorly.

The data on research objective three was analysed using Pearson correlation coefficient.

The qualitative data were analysed thematically (theme by theme), after which they were

triangulated with quantitative data.

3.6 Limitations of the Study

Firstly, some respondents did not answer 100% of the questions (items) in the questionnaire. This

may have led to over or under stating the findings. Having anticipated this in advance, the

researcher distributed more questionnaires to more people than the planned sample.

Secondly, not all the respondents returned the filled questionnaires. Actually out of 743

questionnaires distributed, 700 were returned. The response rate of 94.2% was therefore very

good, hence the reported findings can confidently be relied on.

Also, it is difficult to guarantee that all the responses as filled in the questionnaires, or the

information given by the oral informants was 100% true. However, the respondents were

requested in advance to answer the items correctly since the data were for academic purposes

only.

35

Thus, questionnaires were distributed to 743students, thus an extra of 23 respondents. In addition,

the respondents were first briefed on the purpose of the study so as not to be suspicious, and hence

fill the questionnaires with honesty. Of these questionnaires, 700 were returned, so a very high

response rate of the respondents was realized.

3.7 Ethical Consideration

To respect the privacy of the respondents who participated in the study, the following were done:

All the respondents were required not to write their names as well as those of their schools on the

questionnaires. The researcher instead coded the questionnaires from the respective schools as A,

B, C, D up to T. The researcher kept confidentially the names of the schools represented by the

respective codes.

Secondly, all the secondary sources consulted were put under the reference section.

Also, the findings of the research were presented in a generalized manner, without mentioning

the specific students, senior women teachers and schools.

Respondents took part in the study voluntarily, without being compelled.

36

CHAPTER FOUR:

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

4.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the findings from respondents who participated in the study. The findings

on each research objective are presented, analysed and interpreted.

4.1 Respondents

Table 4.1 Showing the respondents of the study

n =700

Age Number %

13-15 480 68.57

16-18 211 30.14

Above 18 09 1.29

Source: Primary data, 2019

Table 4.1 shows that although 743 questionnaires were given out, 700 questionnaires were

collected back. The data were therefore analysed based on the 700 respondents. The majority of

students were aged between 13 and 15 years, yet those aged between 16 and 18 were 211

(30.14%). Only 1.29% were aged above 18 years. These could be those admitted as a result of

universal secondary education.

From this we get an impression that students study when they are young.

4.2 Findings

Objective 1: Extent of the prevalence of socio cultural factors in schools in Hoima district

The findings on this research objective indicate that there is low prevalence of socio-cultural

factors which affect girl child education in Hoima district as shown by the grand mean of 2.44.

37

The details are presented in table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Showing the prevalence of socio cultural factors in schools in Hoima district

A. Social factors

Family related to social factors

Item Mean Interpretation

My father is a polygamist 2.63 High

My father is a monogamist 2.38 Very high

My father has many children 2.72 High

My father has reasonable children 2.94 High

My mother and father stay together 2.69 High

My parent hardly general 2.52 High

My parents guide and counsel me 2.58 High

My parents are well educated 2.40 Low

Average mean 2.73 High

School-related social factors

Our teachers guide and counsel us well 3.00 High

We have separate latrines at school (Separate from

those of boys)

2.67 High

Teachers are gender sensitive 2.52 High

We are provided with menstruation gears at school 1.68 Very low

We have straight talk programs at school 1.70 Very low

The books we use are gender sensitive 2.67 High

My friends at school are those who like schooling (are

serious)

2.47 Low

Teachers punish us 3.01 High

Mean 2.47 Low


Cultural factors

38

A. Menstruation-related issues and beliefs

My parents provide me with menstruation gears 2.45 Low

A menstruating girl does not pass via the cross roads 1.68 Very low

The used menstruation gears of a woman/girl can be

used in witchcraft to prevent a girl

from getting children and marriage

1.65 Very low

People seeing blood of a menstruating girl causes bad

luck to them and to the girl-

2.52 High

Seeing any type of blood causes a girl to get abrupt

periods

2.96 High

Menstruation causes weaknesses in the body, change

of moods etc.

3.28 Very high

Menstruation cycle can change due to change of

weather, environment, diet and stress

3.26 Very high

I use local menstruation gears, such as pieces of old

clothes, leaves

1.78 Low

Average mean 2.45 Low

B) Gender stereotyping cultural beliefs

To what extent do you agree with the following beliefs?

Girls are less intelligent than boys 2.44 Low

Girls child bearing age must have children 2.41 Low

If a woman produces at a late age, her children

are dull, so one should produce early

3.22 High

Grown up adolescents should not share the same

house with their parents

1.75 Very low

A man is not rejected by a woman/girl 1.72 Very low

Failure to have sex for long causes backache 2.53 High

Failure to have many men causes a woman to

produce with difficulty (since she can’t

become wide enough in the genitalia)

1.78 Low

However much a rat grows big it is for a cat to

eat, relatedly, however much a woman studies,

2.83 High

39

she has to look for a man to marry her, so why

not to marry during adolescence?

Women attract men’s attention during

adolescent/teenage

2.71 High

Average mean 2.11 Low

Grand mean (2.45+2.73+2.47+2.11)/4

2.44 low


The findings on this research objective indicate that there is low prevalence of socio-cultural

factors which affect girl child education in Hoima district as shown by the grand mean of 2.44.

The implication given by this finding is that although socio-cultural factors such as the issues and

beliefs related to menstruation, gender stereo-typing, as well as the family and school social-

related factors do exist in Hoima district, they exist to a small extent. Specifically, the family

related social factors in terms of stability, secure home environment and parental educational

level were found out to be high (mean 2.73), meaning that the families in Hoima District are

generally stable, husbands and their wives are generally responsible and hence guide and counsel

their female children, hence providing fertile grounds for girl child education. Though the

majority of parents are not well educated (mean 2.40), many of them are monogamists (mean

3.38), they have reasonable children, stay together (husband and wife) mean 2.69, and hardly

quarrel (mean 2.52). Actually one of the interviewed girls said,

“My parents are farmers, I am now in S.6, aged 16 years and I have never seen my mother leaving

our home to go away as a divorcee. Our family is very stable and both parents encourage us to

study hard so that we become important persons in society in future”

Regarding the social related factors at school, it is good that the teachers guide and counsel

students highly, the latrines used by girls are generally separate from those of the boys hence

40

making girls feel secure while at school, even the teachers are gender sensitive when they are

interacting with students in and outside class.

Surprisingly, the schools have scored poorly in some aspects, for example many of them do not

provide menstruation gears to the female students (mean 1.68), straight talk programmes are very

rare at schools, and teachers highly punish the students. Whereas the fewer factors cause girls to

like school, the latter cause them to hate schooling.

This is corroborated by a few intervened students especially in the rural countries of Bugahya and

Kigorobya who said “some teachers over punish us due to small reasons like failing an exercise,

coming late at school, failing or forgetting to comb the hair, etc……. because of this, some

students especially girls decide to dodge classes since it is very embarrassing to be cained before

other students.

On a related note, one student said

“Some of us like myself come from polygamous families. Step mothers are a menace. They don’t

wish us the best, they insult us that we are just wasting our parent’s money, that anytime we shall

become pregnant……such comments and the regular insults we get from them cause us to feel

like abandoning both home and school to get a man to stay with in peace”.

This suggests that though some female children stay in good environments which encourage them

to study, others stay in poor environments which make them hate schooling.

Regarding the cultural factors, specifically the menstruation and gender stereotyping related

issues and beliefs, the scores for both were low (mean 2.45 and 2.11 respectively). This means

that although the cultural beliefs exists, many girls do not take them seriously. It is a few who

accept them as being true. For example, very few girls accept the belief that a menstruating girl

does not pass through the cross roads, that the use menstruation gears can be used in witchcraft

to prevent a girl from producing and getting married in future, that girls are less intelligent than

41

boys, that grown up children should not share the same house with their parents among others.

Though these beliefs exist and some people take them seriously, the majority of the girls do not

accept them.

However, it is unfortunate that many parents do not provide menstruation gears to their daughters

(mean 2.45). Because of this, some girls use local materials such as leaves and plants and the

pieces of old clothes to make menstruation gears.

Some girls however strongly believe that the people seeing blood of a menstruating girl causes

bad luck to them and to the girl (mean 2.52), that seeing any type of blood can cause abrupt

menstruation (mean 2.96), menstruation causes weaknesses in the body and change of moods

(mean 3.28), and that the cycle of menstruation can change due to changes in weather, diet and

environment (mean 3.26). All these factors can impact on the education of girls.

On the issue of some parents and schools not providing menstruation gears to female students,

some students said,

“It becomes worse if the girl is staying with his uncle and the girl is not in good terms with her

uncle’s wife. How can you tell your uncle to buy you pads? It is very embarrassing……the only

way out is to ask him to give you money to buy books and clothes so that you save some money to

buy pads……...but unfortunately some of them are either too mean or do not have money, they

buy the books and second hand clothes and bring them without giving us cash”.

This suggests that getting menstruation gears is a challenge to some girls, and the impact of that

is sometimes fornication, as one girl said.

“If my parents and uncles can’t give me money to buy these pads, one of the solution is to get a

man so that he gives me money to solve some of my personal problems, as well as buying the

pads”.

42

Objective 2; Level of girl child education in Hoima district secondary schools

On this research objective, it was found that there is high level of girl child education at secondary

school level in Hoima district in terms of access to schools and retention in school, though their

academic performance is generally poor.

In order to measure these constructs of girl child education, the researcher compared girls, access

retention and academic performance in the national examination to that of the boys, as shown in

table 4.3.1 below.

Table 4.3.1 Showing the access, retention and prevalence of girls in secondary schools in

Hoima district (2000-2018).

Access

Years Girls Boys Difference % of difference

2015 2,800 3,150 300 10.71(more boys than girls)

2016 3,150 3,610 460 14.6 (more boys than girls)



Source: Hoima district Education department

On girl’s access to secondary schools in Hoima district, it was found that although the number of

boys accessing secondary school education in Hoima district was slightly higher than that of girls,

the difference was not significant hence girls accessed secondary schools highly, almost equal to

boys. In schools girls are almost equal to boys. In the year 2015, only 10.71% of more boys than

girls accessed schools. In 2016, a total of 3150 girls were in secondary schools in Hoima

compared to 3, 610 boys (14.6% difference). In 2017, the number of girls who accessed secondary

schools increased from the previous 3150 to 3500, compared to boys who were 4260 hence

21.71% difference. In 2017, the number of girls who accessed secondary schools increased from

the previous 3150 to 33500, compared to boys who were 4260 hence 21.71% differences. In 2018

43

the number of girls in secondary schools increased from the previous 3,500 to 3,750, compared

to 4, 550 boys hence 21.33% difference.

Therefore, many girls have for the last four years accessed secondary schools which reveals that

many parents have realized the importance of educating girls almost especially with boys.

Regarding retention of the girls in schools a cohort of female students who were admitted in S.1

in 2015 in the 38 secondary schools in the district was followed up to S.4. The purpose was to

find out how many of those admitted in S.1 in 2015 completed S.4 in 2018. The results are

presented in table 4.3.2.

Table 4.3.2 Showing a cohort of S.1 female students who entered school in 2015 and

retained till 2018.

Year Class n %

2015 S .1 1,800 -----

2016 S .2 1,640 3.66 reduction

2017 S .3 1,580 3.8 reduction

2018 S .4 1,430 10.41

Source: Hoima district secondary school registers

The findings indicate that the female students who were admitted in S.1 in 2015 went on declining

but the decrease was minimal. For example, in 2015, 1,800 female students were admitted in S.1.

Those who went to S.2 were 1,640 hence 3.66% decline. In 2017 their number reduced to 1, 580,

hence 3.8% decline, and in 2018 those who sat S.4 national examination were 1,430, hence a

10.10.41% decline. This reveals that though female students kept reducing for the last four years,

the reduction is low. It is even possible that they joined other schools in other districts as some

students during the oral interviews reiterated,

44

“Students usually change schools…though some leave school completely, others join other

schools in other districts either for better quality education or because of the migration of their

parents”.

Table 4.4 Showing girls’ academic performance in the national exams, S.4, (2015-2018).

Year n Grade (n)

1 2 3 4 & others

Grade %

1 2 3 4 and others

2015 1005 80 209 370 346 7.9 20.9 36.81 34.43

2016 1210 86 200 398 526 7.11 16.53 32.89 43.47

2017 130 98 320 400 552 7.15 23.36 29.20 40.29

2018 1430 130 345 480 475 9.29 24.13 33.57 33.20

Source: UNEB examination results as accessed in the District Education Officer’s (DEO)

office, Hoima district

Girls’ academic performance was measured using the S.4 national examinations results for 2015,

2016, 2017 and 2018. The interpretation of the results was done as follows.

Grade 1-Very good performance

Grade 2-Good performance

Grade 3-Fair performance

Grade 4 and above –poor performance

The results indicate that in 2015, 7.97% of the female students performed very well as they passed

in grade I, and 20.79 of the students (girls) passed in grade 2. However, a relatively large number

of female students (34.43%) performed poorly as they passed in grade 4 and above.

In 2016, those who scored first grades declined slightly from 7.97 of (in 2015) to 7.11% in 2016.

Those who performed poorly increased from 34.43% in 2015 to 43.47% in 2016.

45

In 2017 there was a slight increase in first grades and second grades for example in 2017, 7.15%

of the girls scored first grades while 23.36% of the girls scored second grades. Failures also

declined slightly from the previous (2016) of 43.47% to 40.29%. The year 2018 registered an

improvement for example those who scored first grades increased from the previous (2017)

7.15% to 9.09% in 2018. Those who passed in grade 2 also increased from the previous (2017).

23.36% to 24.63%. Poor performance reduced from the previous (2017) 40.29% to 33.20% in

2018. This gives an impression that girls performance in Hoima district is poor since for the last

four years, the number of girls who passed in grade 4 and above outnumbers those who passed in

the very good, good and fair grades.

These results were corroborated with qualitative data. One female student for example said,

“There is no marked difference between boys and girls in their academic performance. We study

together, we are taught the same things by the same teachers, we have the same abilities and

sometimes we perform better than boys… there are however some lousy girls who perform poorly,

especially those who have men (sexual partners)’’

Objective 3: Relationship between socio-cultural factors and girl child education in Hoima

district, Uganda.

In order to get results for this particular objective, the three aspects of girl child education (access,

retention and performance) were correlated with social-cultural factors. The finding was that there

is no relationship between socio cultural factors and girl child education in Hoima (Sig 0.067), as

shown in table 4.4.

46


Hoima district, Uganda.

Variables Mean R-value Sig-value

Socio-cultural factors

Vs

Girl child education

2.46

2.72

0.312 0.062

Source: primary data, 2019.

At 0.05 level of significance commonly used in social sciences, the finding that the sig. value was

0.062 shows that the relationship between the variables of the study is not significant. In other

words, socio-cultural factors do not significantly or adequately influence or affect students’

retention in school, access to secondary schools and academic performance in the national

examinations. This gives an impression that it is other factors which highly influence female

student’s access to secondary schools, their retention in the schools as well as their performance

in the national examination. This was even proved by the qualitative data collected from the oral

interviews with the female students. The factors they identified as affecting their education were

government’s inability to fully enforce the policy on girl child education; that the secondary

schools especially the universal secondary schools are not evenly distributed in the countries and

sub countries of Hoima district: as well as the inability of parents to fully fulfil girls’ economic

needs.

The sig values of 0.062 also means that though the relationship between the variables is not

significant, the independent variable slightly affects the dependent variable. In other words, socio-

cultural factors do, in a small way, influence female student’s education in secondary schools in

Hoima and in that way some girls drop out of school and others perform poorly. This was even

47

revealed in the qualitative data especially by students in the overall part of Hoima district, such

as Kigorobya and Bugahya countries. A few students said,

“Some girls perform poorly because of the worries they have due to the school and social factors.

For example, some teachers demand sex from them, and some stay with their male relatives who

demand sex from them thus makes them hate school”.

48

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the discussion of findings, conclusions, recommendations, areas for

further research, references and appendices.

5.1 Discussion

5.1.1 Extent of the prevalence of socio- cultural factors in Hoima district, as perceived by

female students in Hoima district secondary schools

The result indicated that the socio-cultural factors are low. This implies that the people of Hoima

district have been sensitized enough not to take cultural beliefs seriously. This relates to

Byaruhanga Akiiki (1991)’s assertion that cultural beliefs were put in place for hidden motives

such as ensuring people observe their traditions, be well behaved and morally responsible, careful

and hardworking for instance on the belief that the used menstruation gears can be used in

witchcraft, that was meant to cause women to be careful, not to expose the gears anyhow since

they are not good to look at. Based on qualitative data from the female students, the reasons

advanced for the low level of socio-cultural factors were high level of sensitization by the

government and religion leaders. Some gave an example of Owobusobozi Bisaka, a man

operating in Bunyoro area who is believed to possess divine powers of healing all sorts of illnesses

and performing miracles. That the hundreds and thousands of people who throng his church which

he calls “Itambiro” are forbidden from believing in baseless beliefs. Other reasons cited included

Hoima district being discovered as an oil rich district which has attracted many rich people and

49

foreigners to the land, so it is now a cosmopolitan area, hence some cultural beliefs are beginning

to loose grounds.

5.1.2 Level of girl child education in secondary schools in Hoima district

The findings indicate that girls ‘education has been highly promoted. Many girls have accessed

secondary schools, many have been retained to finish secondary school level, and some are

performing well academically, though the majority perform poorly.

Good girl child education in Hoima is attributed (as per the qualitative responses) to the area

(Hoima) not being so poor economically. Because of the oil in the area, there is good market for

all people’s agricultural products, leave alone some people being employed. Other factors

include government introduction of Universal Secondary Schools, the kingdom (Bunyoro Kitara

Kingdom) administration sensitizing the masses to educate girls, as well as the role played by

non-government organizations.

Therefore, these findings contradict the assertions of Mwangi, (2004) that poverty, disease and

backward cultural practices continued to deny the girl-child her right to education. Even with

the introduction of free primary education, access to education is still remaining a wide dream

to many children. Despite the introduction of free primary education in the country which




house chores, death of mother, and looking after the sick member of the family. Some of the

girls are given to marriage against their wish and when they refuse, they are threatened with

death. The children are given to marriage at a tender age in quest of dowry from the

husbands. Mwangi (2004) however wrote about Kenya, not Uganda, so it is not surprising that

the results are different. Moreover, the time lag or gap whereby his claims were made in 2004

yet the current study was done in 2019, can account for the difference.

50

In addition, the Government of Uganda (GoU) through the Ministry of Gender, Labour and

Social Development (MGLSD) formulated the National Action Plan on Women (NAPW) and

the National Gender Policy (NGP) to help advocate for gender equity at all levels in all aspects

of life. The ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) in collaboration with the GoU and the

International community have in addition put in place a number of

initiatives/interventions/policies. The policy emphasises equal opportunity for both boys and

girls. It focuses on promoting gender parity in enrolment, retention, and performance in primary

education. According to (Doris Kakuru, 2003). This could have caused such high level of girl

child education in Hoima district.

5.1.3 Relationship between socio-cultural factors and girl child education in secondary

schools in Hoima district

The findings indicate that the relationship between the variables of the study is not significant.

The respondents said that although beliefs on menstruation and gender stereotyping, such as

referring to girls as being lazy, marriage material, etc are dying out with the influence of social

media such as the internet, WhatsApp, YouTube, etc. people have come to realize that such

stereotyping is wrong.

The interviewees however noted that some girls in rural areas lack means of buying pads, so they

use local materials like the pieces of old clothes. Some of the girls decide to stay at home in the

days they anticipate to be in periods till their 3-5 days cycle is over. This negatively impacts on

their education especially on the aspects of performance. This view is related to Ahikire and

Madanda, (2011) who lamented the high level of female students’ dodging of school partly due

to menstruation.

Other oral respondents referred to the cultural practice of Pulling of the labia, that it is a

cultural practice among the Banyoro people who dominate Hoima district. It is carried on

51

adolescent girls to prepare them for future marriage since it is believed that elongated labia

please men, hence marriage stability. It is done during adolescence when girls’ body is still

soft to be elongated. This is done to prepare girls for marriage, not for education. By doing

it, some girls develop a feeling that they are now ready for marriage, which sometimes affects

their education as some of them give in for marriage.

Traditionally, females are supposed to do much of the domestic work, such as getting food

from the garden, peeling, cooking, washing, fetching water, cleaning the house, babysitting,

among others (Byaruhanga- Akiiki, 1978). These are usually extended even to the female

students, which affect their education.

The findings of the current study relate to those of Julian Kiiza (2014) who studied menstrual

experiences, social support and school attendance among primary school pupils in Mbarara

Municipality. The findings were that Menstrual experience and social support strongly relate to

school attendance of menstruating primary school girls. In this study, information about the

relationship of menstrual experiences and social support on school attendance was sought from

240 randomly selected primary school girls, 10 and 20 purposively selected senior women

teachers and matrons respectively in Mbarara Municipality. The results indicated that earliest age

of menarche among girls was 10 years while the latest was 14 years, with a mean age of 12.55

(SD=.98) years. The physical experience most girls (80.3%) complained of was abdominal pains.

Majority of the girls (84.2%) reported using disposable sanitary products. Social support

received was moderate (M=27.33, SD=11.83). Some primary school girls did not attend

school during menstruation due to a variety of menstrual experiences. The general school

attendance in relation to social support received by girls during menstruating was high. It was

concluded that, menstrual experiences are a major hindrance to menstruating girl’s school

attendance, but the impact of the menstrual experiences can be minimized by provision of

adequate support. She recommended that Government of Uganda makes policies on provision of

52

conducive and appropriate home and school environments for girls to benefit from adequate

social support, and that, schools should strictly ensure that the girls are provided with basic

requirements for menstruation and school attendance. Workshops and seminars were also

recommended for different stake holders in individual schools on how to improve girls’ school

attendance during menstruation.

5.2 Conclusions

The following conclusions were drawn based on the findings of the study on each research

objective, thus,

The prevalence of socio- cultural factors in Hoima district, which affect girls’ education in

secondary schools is low.

Though girls’ academic performance as measured by the S.4 national examinations is poor, their

access to secondary schools and retention there is high, so the level of girl child education in

secondary schools in Hoima district is generally high.

Despite the presence (prevalence) of socio-economic factors in Hoima district, they do not

adequately influence girl child education in secondary schools.

5.3 Recommendations

The following recommendations were made basing on the findings of the study on each of the

research objectives.

Firstly, there is need for school administrators and parents to improve on the socio-cultural factors

in their respective domains by for example being more responsible to the female children, guiding

them more and helping them accordingly. They should also discourage irrelevant cultural beliefs.

53

Secondly, female students’ education should be promoted more by the parents and teachers by

for example parents ensuring that their children who join secondary schools are helped and guided

to complete their secondary school education cycle. Teachers should also teach students better

and guide them so that they perform well in the national examinations.

Thirdly, since socio-cultural factors do not significantly affect girl child education in Hoima

district, there is need for the government leaders, civic leaders and religious leaders to continue

discouraging the socio-cultural practices which hinder girls’ education.

54

REFERENCES

Abdi, A. A. (2006). Culture of Education, Social Development, and Globlization: Historical

and Current Analyses of Africa. In A. A. Abdi, K. P. Puplampu and G. J. S. Dei

(Eds), African Education and Globalization: Critical Perspectives. Lanham.

Lexington Books.

Ackroyed, S. & Hughes, J. (1989). Data Collection in Context. London. Longman.

.

Agyeman, D. K. (1988). Ideological Education and Nationalism in Ghana under Nkrumah

and Busia. Accra. Ghana Universities Press.

Ahikire, J. and Madanda, A. (2011). A Report on Re-entry of Pregnant Girls in Primary and

Secondary Schools in Uganda. Available at

http://www.education.go.ug/files/downloads/gender_Report%20on%20Girls%20 Re-

ntry%20in%20school.pdf

Ainsworth, M. (1994. The Socio-Economic Determinants of Fertility in Sub-Saharan

Africa: A Summary of the Findings of a World Bank Research Project. Co-sponsored

by Africa Technical Department and Policy Research Department. Washington DC.

World Bank

Bendera, S. (1999). Promoting Education for Girls in Tanzania. In Heward, C. and Bunwaree,

S. (Eds). Gender, Education and Development: Beyond Access to Empowerment.

London and New York: Zeb Books.

Bills, D. B. (2004.) The Sociology of Education and Work. Blackwell. Malden Mass.

Bista, M. B. (2004). Review o f Research Literature on Girls’ Education in

Nepal.

Byaruhanga-Akiiki, A.B.T (1978). Religion in Bunyoro. Kampala: Makerere University.

http://www.education.go.ug/files/downloads/gender_Report%20on%20Girls%20%09Re-%09ntry%20in%20school.pdf

http://www.education.go.ug/files/downloads/gender_Report%20on%20Girls%20%09Re-%09ntry%20in%20school.pdf

55

Byaruhanga-Akiiki, A.B.T (1991). African world religion: A grassroots perspective.

Kampala: Makerere University.

Cohen, L. & Manion I. (1989). Research Methods in Education. London: Routelage

Colcough, C. (1982). ‘The impact of primary schooling on economic development: A review

of evidence,’ World Development, 10(3), pp. 167-185.

Colcough, C., Rose, P. & Tembon, M. (1998). Gender Inequalities in Primary Schooling: The

Roles of Poverty and Adverse Cultural Practice. Brighton. University of Sussex,

Institute of Development Studies [IDS], Working Paper No. 78.

Cutrufelli, M. R. (1983). Women of Africa: Roots of oppression. London. Zed Press.

Daily Graphic (2007). Its Human Rights Abuse to Dismiss Pregnant Girls from Schools.

(2007, August 08). pp.8

Dewar, E. B. (1987). A Framework for Integrating Gender Interests in

Development.

Durkheim, E. (2006). Education: Its Nature and Its Role. In Lauder, H., Brown, P.,

Dillabough, Jo-Anne and Halsey, A. H. (Eds), Education, Globalization and Social

Change. Oxford. Oxford University Press.

Ellis, F. (2000). Rural Livehoods and Diversity in Developing Countries. Oxford. University

Empowerment. London and New York: Zeb Books.

FAWEU (2010). Girls´ education access in Uganda today: Overview of enrollment,

Retention and performance at primary and secondary levels.Feminism” in the third

wave. Sex Roles, 331-345.Journal of Sex Research, 535-545.

Gardiner, J. (1997). Gender, Care and Economics. Landon. Macmillan

Press.

Guba, E.G., & Lincoln, Y.S. (1981). Effective Evaluation. San Francisco. Jossey-Bass.

Hannum, E. & Buchmann, C. (2005). ‘Global educational expansion and socio-economic

development: An assessment of findings from the social sciences,’ World Development.

Harper, C., Marcus, R. & Moore, K. (2003) ‘Enduring poverty and the conditions of childhood:

56

lifecourse and intergenerational poverty transmission,’ World Development

Havighurst, R. J. & Levine, D. U. (1979). Society and Education. Boston: Allyn Bacon.

Heward, C. (1999). The New Discourses of Gender, Education and Development.

Kabeer, N. (2003). Gender mainstreaming in poverty eradication and the millennium

development goals. A handbook for policy-makers and other stakeholders. London:

Commonwealth Secretariat.

Kane, E. (2004). Girls’ Education in Africa, What Do We Know About Strategies That

Work?Kathmandu. UNESCO.

King, E. M. & Hill, M. A. (1993). Women’s Education in Developing Countries.

Baltimore.

Kirwana –Ssozi (2000). Ebyobuwangwa y’emmunyeenye y’eggwanga.

Kampala: Tapset Printers.

Klasing, A., & Sharma, K. (2014, May 27). Dispatches: menstruation a human rights issue?

Konlan, K. (1988). A Sociological Study of Marriage among the Bimoba People. Unpublished

Bachelor of Arts Dissertation, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,

Kumasi, Ghana.

Laverack, G. & Wallerstein, N. (2001). Measuring Community Empowerment: A Fresh Look

at Organizational Domains, in Health Promotion International, 16 (2) June 2001.

Lewin, K. (1995). Education and Development; The Issues and Evidence. London:

Cambridge University Press.

Mafabi, P. (2016). Culture and girl child education in Kapchorwa district of

Uganda. Unpublished MED dissertation, Kampala International

University.

Mbiti, J. (1988). Introduction to African religion. Nairobi: Heinemann.

57

Musoke, P. (2015). Socio-cultural factors as determinants of secondary school students’

interest in schooling. Un published Master of community psychology dissertation:

Makerere University.

Narayan, K. (1993). “How Native is the “Native” Anthropologist?” American Anthropologist,

vol, 95(3): 671-686.

Nung, B. (1996). The Participation of Rural Women in Income Generating Activities. The

Case of the Bunkpurugu Area in the Northern Region of Ghana. Unpublished Master

Thesis, University of Tromsø, Department of Planning and Community Studies,

Tromsø, Norway.

Odaga, A, & Heneveld, W. (1995). Girls and Schools in Sub-Saharan Africa, IBRD,

Washington. World Bank.

Okello. W. (2016). Drug abuse, poverty, environment and HIV infection among adolescents in

Kampala district, Uganda. Un published Master of community psychology

dissertation: Makerere University.

Okoth,C.(2016). Uganda’s Achievements in promoting the girl child education. The New

Vision, October, 11, 2016.. Kampala: The New Vision Publishing Co.

Uganda.

Oppong, C. (1974). Marriage among a matrilineal elite: a family study of Ghanaian senior

civil servants. London: Cambridge University Press.

Page, N. & Czuba, C. E. (1999). Empowerment: What is it? In Extension Journal, Inc, 37(5),

pp. 140-144.

Pauline, R. & Tembon, M. (1999). Girls and Schooling. In Ethiopia in Heward, C. and

Bunwaree, S. (Eds) Gender, Education and Development: Beyond Access to

Empowerment. London and New York: Zeb Books.

58

Robeyns, I. (2007). When will society be gender just? In Jude Browne (eds). The future of

gender. London. Cambridge University Press.

Rose, P, & C. Dyer (2006). Education and Chronic Poverty: A review of literature. Paper for

the Chronic Poverty Research Center. London: ODI

Ssekamwa, J. (1999). History of Education in East Africa. Kampala: Longman

Ssenkaaba, S, (2018). Girl child education in Uganda. The New Vision, Monday, October

01,2018. Kampala: The New Vision Publishing Co. Uganda.

Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2017). The National Population and Housing Census 2014.

Education in theThematic Report Series, Kampala, Uganda

United Nations (2015). Universal declaration of human rights. Retrieved

from http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/

Universities Press.

UWEZO (2016). Are our children learning? Annual learning assessment report. Kampala,

Voices from the Subaltern. Lewiston, NY: E. Mellen Press.

Wister, J., Stubbs, M., & Shipman, C. (2013). Mentioning menstruation: A stereotype threat

that diminishes cognition? Sex Roles, 19-31

Zimmerman, M. A. (2000). Empowerment Theory: Psychological, Organizational, and

Community Level of Analysis. In Rappaport, Julian and Edward Seidman (2000),

Handbook of Community Psychological. New York. Kluwer Academic/Plenum

Publishers.

http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/

59

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS

Introduction.

Iam carrying out a study on the relationship between Socio-cultural factors and girl child

education at secondary school level in Hoima district. Kindly participate in this study by filling

this questionnaire. The information will be for academic purposes only and will be kept

confidential. Please don’t write your name anywhere on this questionnaire. Thank you.

Section A: Bio Data

1. Your age……………….

2. Your class…………………

Section B: Cultural factors

Kindly tick 1, 2, 3, or 4, whereby 1 stands for strongly disagree; 2; Disagree; 3: Agree; and

4: strongly agree.

60

A. Social factors 4 3 2 1

Family related social factors

1. My father is a polygamist

2. My father is a monogamist

3. My father has many children

4. My father has reasonable children

5. My mother and father stay together

6. My parent hardly quarrel

7. My parents guide and counsel me

8. My parents are well educated

School related social factors 4 3 2 1

1. Our teachers guide and counsel us well

2. We have separate latrines at school (separate from

those of boys)

3. Teachers are gender sensitive

4. We are provided with menstruation gears at school

5. We have straight talk programs at school

6. The books we use are gender sensitive

7. My friends at school are those who like schooling (are

serious)

8. Teachers punish us

Cultural factors 4 3 2 1

A) Menstruation related issues and beliefs

61

1. My parents provide me with menstruation gears

2. A menstruating girl does not pass via the cross roads

3. The used menstruation gears of a woman/girl can be

used in witchcraft to prevent a girl from getting children

and marriage

4. People seeing blood of a menstruating girl causes bad

luck to them and to the girl

5. Seeing any type of blood causes a girl to get abrupt

periods

6. Menstruation causes weaknesses in the body, change of

moods etc.

7. Menstruation cycle can change due to change of

weather, environment, diet and stress

8. I use local menstruation gears, such as pieces of old

clothes leaves.

B) Gender stereotyping cultural beliefs 4 3 2 1

To what extent do you agree with the following beliefs?

1. Girls are less intelligent than boys

2. Girls child bearing age must have children

3. If a woman produces at a late age, her children are dull,

so

4. one should produce early

5. Grown up adolescents should not share the same house

with their parents

6. A man is not rejected by a woman/girl

7. Failure to have sex for long causes backache

62

8. Failure to have many men causes a woman to produce

with difficulty (since she can’t become wide enough in

the genitalia)

9. However much a rat grows big it is for a cat to eat,

relatedly, however much a woman studies, she has to

look for a man to marry her, so why not to marry

during adolescence?

10. Women attract men’s attention during

adolescent/teenage

ORAL INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR FEMALE STUDENTS

1. What cultural practices in this area affect girl child education?...........................................

How?

……………………………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………..

Why are they practiced?.......................................................................................................

2. Is girl child education promoted in this area?.......................................................

How?....................................................................................................................................

Why is it promoted?............................................................................................................

If not promoted, why?.........................................................................................................

3. How do cultural practices affect girl child education in this area?

……………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………. …………

63

APPENDIX II: Table for determining sample size from a given population by Morgan

and Krejcie); adopted from Amin (2005).

Note: N is population size

S is sample size

socio-cultural factors and girl child education in

Documents

Transcript of socio-cultural factors and girl child education in