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Habitat International 44 (2014) 482e490

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Habitat International

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Social exclusion and transportation services: A case study of unskilledmigrant workers in South Korea

Younshik Chung a, *, Keechoo Choi b, Jungsik Park b, Todd Litman c

a The Korea Transport Institute, Goyang 411-701, South Koreab Ajou University, Suwon 443-749, South Koreac Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online

Keywords:Social exclusionSustainable transport serviceForeign migrant workerTransport policy

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ82 31 910 3243; faxE-mail addresses: tpgist@koti.re.kr, tpgist@gmail.co

ac.kr (K. Choi), jspark@ajou.ac.kr (J. Park), litman@vtp

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2014.09.0050197-3975/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

a b s t r a c t

As a progressive and open society, South Korea recognizes the importance of providing public servicesthat respond to the needs of disadvantaged groups, reflecting principles of social justice and communityinclusion. Korea has a growing foreign population, including many low-income migrant workers. Thisstudy investigates the transportation demands and problems of these workers, and identifies potentialways to better meet their travel needs. It is based on a survey of 300 randomly-selected Chinese, Viet-namese, Filipinos, Indonesian, and Thai workers living in Ansan, Buchon and Uijungbu industrial districtson the outskirts of the Seoul metropolitan region. The survey investigated respondents' ability tocommunicate in Korean, their knowledge of transportation services and traffic regulations, and theirtravel demands. Various transportation problems that these workers often face, and potential policyreforms to address these problems were identified. This study indicates that many new foreign workerscould benefit from information resources and education programs on Korean language, transportationservices, traffic rules and pedestrian safety. The topic is a relatively unexplored research subject; mostprevious research on low-income migrant population transport demands and improvement strategies isfrom European and North America. Some limitations and future research agenda have also beenpresented.

© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction

An important government policy goal is to ensure that publicservices respond effectively to the needs of all community mem-bers, including residents with disabilities, low incomes and mem-bers of minority disadvantaged social groups. This is called socialequity, social justice or community inclusion (Rawls, 1999). Oneimportant way to help accomplish this goal is to ensure thattransportation planning responds to disadvantaged people'stransportation demands so they have convenient and safe access tobasic services and activities such as affordable housing and shop-ping, education, employment and recreation (FHWA & FTA, 2002;Khisty, 1996; Litman, 2014; Lucas, 2004). This can be challengingsince it requires that transportation professionals obtain informa-tion about the transportation demands and problems faced bypeople who are transient, have no permanent address, have limited

: þ82 31 910 3228.m (Y. Chung), keechoo@ajou.i.org (T. Litman).

ability to speak and write in the region's primary language, anddistrust public officials.

The Republic of Korea's growing population of foreign residentsincludes many low-wage migrant workers. This reflects Korea'sgrowing productivity, education levels and prosperity, which hasled to shortages of domestic low-income laborers, so these jobs thatare increasingly filled by foreign workersda pattern that is com-mon in many industrialized counties. As a progressive and opensociety, Korea is making efforts to increasingly accept foreigners ascommunity members who deserve responsive public services(MOJ, 2012).

This article describes one the first efforts to investigate the traveldemands and transportation barriers of unskilled foreign laborers,and potential ways to improve transportation services to supporttheir integration into Korean society. This involved a survey of 300randomly-selected Chinese (including Korean-Chinese), Viet-namese, Filipino, Indonesian and Thai laborers living in Ansan,Buchon and Uijungbu industrial districts. This study should be ofinterest to transportation professionals who are working to under-stand economically and socially disadvantaged groups trans-portation problems and potential ways to address those problems.

Y. Chung et al. / Habitat International 44 (2014) 482e490 483

Literature review

“Social equity,” “social justice” and “social inclusion” all refer tothe degree that disadvantaged people (people who are poor,physical or mentally disabled, or are members of oppressed socialgroups) have economic and social opportunities which allow themto fully participate in society (Preston, 2009). Transportation pol-icies and planning decisions can have significant, but sometimesoverlooked, impacts on social inclusion; such decisions affectdisadvantaged people's ability to access activities and services(including jobs, education, shopping, healthcare and recreationalactivities), and the costs (including money, time, discomfort andrisk) of travel. Many studies which investigated disadvantagedpeople's transportation demands and problems, but most havebeen performed in developed countries (Dodson, Burke, Evans, &Sipe, 2011; Forkenbrock & Sheeley, 2004).

For example, the British government recognizes that inadequatemobility for underprivileged groups can limit their access to edu-cation, employment, healthcare, shopping, leisure, and other well-being issues, and has a significant impact on social inclusion andimmigrant adaptation (SEU, 2003). Government and advocacygroups have identified various policies and programs that can allowthe transportation system to better respond to disadvantagedgroup's mobility demands and help support social inclusion (CBT,2012).

Similarly, Norway has about 265,000 foreign-born residents,representing 6% of the total population, 72% of whom are non-European origins. One study surveyed 300 non-Europeans by mailand interviewed125migrantswhohave lived inNorway for less thanfive years (Uteng, 2007). The results indicate significant differencesin the travel patterns of recent non-European immigrants and otherresidents, and evidence of social exclusion. In response to suchresearch the Norwegian government introduced policies to promotesocial inclusion in the transportation sector by regulating publictransportation fares and providing public transportation service likea dial-a-bus transportation service for marginalized groups.

In the United States these issues are often called “environmentaljustice” (Forkenbrock & Sheeley, 2004) or “transportation equity”(Altschuler, 2013). Some U.S. studies have investigated the travelpatterns of lower-income (Agrawal, Blumenberg, Abel, Pierce, &Darrah, 2011; Blumenberg & Pierce, 2012) and immigrant pop-ulations (Tal & Handy, 2010). In one study, standard travel surveyswill oversample immigrant households in order to better under-stand their travel demands (MTI). Others U.S. studies have devel-oped models for evaluating how particular transportation and landuse planning decisions affect various demographic groups,including low-income and minority households (Rodier, Abraham,Dix, & Hunt, 2010). This research indicates that disadvantagedpeople have diverse transportation demands: in the U.S., mostpeople travel primarily by automobile and so benefit from low-priced fuel and un-tolled roads, but many also travel by walking,cycling, ridesharing and public transportation, and so benefit fromimprovements to these modes of mobility.

In recent years, an increasing amount of research on disadvan-taged people's travel demands has been performed in developingcountries. In 2003 the South African Department of Transportationcommissioned that country's first National Household Travel Surveywhich sampled more than 50,000 residents, a larger than normalsample size for such a survey in order to ensure credible statisticaldata for all major demographic and geographic groups concerningboth motorized and non-motorized travel (SADOT, 2005). DuringApril and May 2012, researchers completed 2068 travel surveyinterviews in three Rio de Janeiro favelas (informal, low-incomeslum communities) which provided information on vehicularownership, non-motorized transport, modal share, vehicle parking,

perception of road safety, plus data on the destination, mode,timing and purpose of 4336 unique trips (Koch, Lindau, & Nassi,2013). Results of these studies provide possible ways for trans-portation services to support slum-upgrading programs in the Riode Janeiro favelas.

The Handbook for Socio-economic Impact Assessment (SEIA) ofFuture Urban Transport (FUT) Projects, designed to provide guid-ance for planning urban bus systems in Indian cities, providesguidance on methods for collecting and applying quantified traveldemand data (Arora& Tiwari, 2007). Amajor study, the Low-CarbonMobility in India and the Challenges of Social Inclusion integratedIndian travel survey and consumer expenditure data to understandhow people from various income classes travel, the financial bur-dens of this travel, and possible ways to improve affordable, lowpolluting mobility options (Mahadevia, Joshi, & Datey, 2013).

There are also examples of special resources to help disadvan-taged groups, including new immigrants, to safely use trans-portation systems. Some government agencies provide brochures,websites and training courses to help new immigrants learn how touse basic public services, including public transportation. Forexample, Willkommen in Berlin (“Welcome to Berlin”) provides in-formation on housing, employment, education, healthcare, familyassistance, and transportation services in various languagescommonly used by immigrants (Gembus, 2008). Similarly, theEdmontonNewcomers Guide, available in eight languages includingChinese, Hindi, Somali and Vietnamese, provides information onhousing, policing, garbage collection, transportation, public transit,education, health, recreation and leisure, libraries and municipalgovernment services for people moving to Edmonton, Canada (Cityof Edmonton, 2010).Many countries also produce driver's educationand cycling guides inmultiple languages. For example, the CaliforniaDriver License Handbook is available in Spanish, Arabic, Armenian,Chinese, Farsi, Korean, Punjabi, Russian, Tagalog and Vietnamese,including audio versions of some languages to accommodate peoplewho cannot read English well (www.dmv.ca.gov/pubs/pubs.htm).These examples indicate the efforts that some governmentsmake toaccommodate people with special needs.

Statistics on immigrant workers in Korea

According to statistics published by the Ministry of Justice (MOJ,2011), the number of foreigners living in Korea has grown signifi-cantly during the last two decades, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Therewere about 381,000 foreigners in 1999, but it increased approxi-mately three times, to 1.261 million, in 2010. This represents about3% of Korea's total population. Foreigners are relatively young: 29%were 20e29 years old and 25% were 30e39 years old.

Nearly half of all foreigners living in Korea work (others arestudents or married to Koreans). Excluding those in industrialtraining, a total of 557,941 foreigners work in Korea: 44,320 pro-fessionals such as foreign language instructors and professors, and513,621 low-income, unskilled laborers. Of these, 55%were Korean-Chinese, 10% Vietnamese, 5.4% Filipino, 4.7% Indonesian, and 4.4%Thai. These five nationalities accounted for about 80% of foreignerworkers, mostly unskilled.

Migrant travel survey

Survey design

To analyze Korean migrant worker travel demands and identifypotential transportation policies to improve social inclusion, asurvey was conducted of randomly-selected foreigners from thefive major nationalities employed in Korea: Chinese (includingKorean-Chinese), Vietnamese, Filipino, Indonesian, and Thai. As

Fig. 1. Trend of foreigners living in Korea (MOJ, 2011).

Table 1Statistics of foreigner workers living in Korea (MOJ, 2011).

Nationality Total (%) Legal aliens Undocumented aliens

Korean-Chinese 284,145 (50.9) 274,931 9214Chinese 19,771 (3.5) 13,213 6558Vietnamese 57,293 (10.3) 48,688 8605Filipino 30,180 (5.4) 23,904 6276Indonesian 26,308 (4.7) 22,372 3936Thai 24,484 (4.4) 21,283 3201Sri-Lankan 16,989 (3.0) 15,917 1072Mongolian 12,548 (2.3) 9074 3558Other 86,139 (15.4) 77,494 8645Total 557,941 (100) 506,876 51,065

Y. Chung et al. / Habitat International 44 (2014) 482e490484

presented in Table 1, these five countries account for 80% of theworking foreigners staying in Korea (54.5% Chinese, 10.3% Viet-namese, 5.4% Filipino, 4.7% Indonesian, and 4.4% Thai).

The foreign workers are distributed unevenly with 36% residingin the Gyeonggi Province and Incheon (31% in Gyeonggi Provinceand 5% in Incheon), and 29% in Seoul. Overall, most foreignworkers(65%) live in the Seoul metropolitan area (see Fig. 2).1 Thoseworkers that can communicate fluently in the Korean languagework in places in the service sector such as restaurants. However,those who cannot communicate fluently work on the outskirts ofmetropolitan areas such as Ansan, Buchon, and Uijungbu. Thesethree areas (Ansan, Buchon, and Uijungbu) have different kinds ofmanufacturing industries, so it is assumed that a high number offoreign workers are employed in these industries. In Ansan andBuchon for instance, steel, metal, and machinery are the majorindustries located in these areas, while furniture-related industriesare concentrated in Uijungbu. Also different is the size and struc-ture of these cities and their transportation service forms. There-fore, to ensure a representative sample, all the three areas ofBuchon, Ansan, and Uijungbu were included in the survey.

Three hundred people were set to be the total sample, and thesurvey was administered through face-to-face interview by thesurvey agents who are fluent in their native languages.2 The surveyperiod lasted for three weeks from July 3 to July 23, 2010. Thesurvey questions pertained to traffic awareness in Korea such asbasic awareness of the Korean transportation service, accidentexperience, and driver's license for car and motorcycle, and

1 The Seoul metropolitan area implies the area that covers the city of Seoul, thecity of Incheon, and the Gyeonggi province.

2 The Korea Transport Institute (KOTI) was responsible for the survey, and theinterview was performed by the survey agent by the KOTI's guideline.

individual travel behaviors. Table 2 shows a summary of the surveyquestionnaire.

Survey results

Characteristics of respondentsIt was anticipated that a survey of equal regional distribution

would be administered. However, the number of respondents fromAnsan was slightly more than those from Buchon and Uijungbu.Since interviewees were randomly selected, their nationalities andresidence periods are assumed to be similar to those of the popu-lation. Table 3 shows the respondents' basic statistics. Almost halflived in dormitories provided by their employers. We assume thatmost of these workers commute on foot or by company-providedbuses.

Knowledge of transportation conditions and optionsTable 4 shows respondents' knowledge of Korean transportation

conditions and services. Only 18.3% were aware of theirgeographical environment, indicating that only few foreignworkers are aware of the transportation modes or facilities avail-able to them. Less than a third (30.3%) were able to communicate inKorean without difficulty. More than 30% of respondents were wellaware of transportation-related information. More than half of re-spondents (51.7%) were familiar with the use of the electronictransportation payment card (transportation card), and most of theforeign workers took advantage of the transportation card whenusing public transportation. The transportation card is a recharge-able one for paying transportation fares. It can also be used in lieu ofcash or credit cards in some convenience stores and other business(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-money). By operating the unifiedtransportation fare charging systemvia the transportation card, thepassenger can have a discounted fare if the passenger has multipletransfers among different transportation modes such as subwayand various types of buses, within the designated initial distance. Inaddition, the results indicate low awareness of traffic laws andregulations concerning cars (18.0%), motorcycles (17.3%), andbicycling (26.3%), and relatively high awareness of pedestrian lawsand regulations (37.0%).

As shown in Fig. 3(a),3 foreign workers' ability to speak Koreantends to improve the longer they reside in the country: about 60% ofrespondents who had lived in Korea for less than a year haveproblems communicating, but this declines to 21.9% of respondentswho had lived in Korea from one to four years, and to only 8.6% of

3 Responses may not sum to 100% due to non-responses.

Fig. 2. Geographical location of study area in Seoul metropolitan area.

Table 2Foreign worker questionnaire items.

Main items Category Awareness item

Korean transportationknowledge

Basic knowledge - Ability to communicatein Korean

- Geography of KoreaKnowledge oftransportation-systems

- Neighboring roadways- Neighboring bus systems- Neighboring rail systems

Knowledge of publictransportation service

- Rail- Bus- Taxi- Transportation card

Knowledge of trafficlaw and regulations

- For driving- For motorcycling- For bicycling- For walking

Korean electronictransportationpayment card

e - Possession- Frequency of use- Pattern of use

Travel behavior Weekday pattern - Travel mode- Travel time- Travel purpose

Weekend pattern

Y. Chung et al. / Habitat International 44 (2014) 482e490 485

respondents who had lived in Korea for more than four years.Knowledge of Korean geography also tends to increase with theduration that foreignworkers had lived in Korea (see Fig. 3(b)). Thisindicates the importance of providing education programs forimproving communication and geographical knowledge targetingforeign workers who have recently arrived in Korea.

Fig. 4 summarizes knowledge of transportation-related infor-mation according to the region and duration of residency in Korea.Approximately 50% of respondents who have lived in Korea for lessthan one year know little about road, bus, and rail transportationsystem conditions, while more than 50% of respondents who livedin Korea for more than four years are well aware of transportationsystems.

Knowledge of transportation services and traffic laws wereanalyzed according to the region and duration of living in Korea. Astheir residency in Korea increased, knowledge of taxi and bus ser-vices generally increased (see Fig. 5). However, foreign workerswith good knowledge of railway (see Fig. 5(c)) and car trans-portation systems (see Fig. 6(a)) showed relatively little change inthis knowledge if they reside in Korea less than four years. Theseresults suggest that low-income foreign workers have little reasonor opportunity to learn about automobile or rail transport. Incontrast, most low-income foreignworkers living in Korea for morethan one year understood how to use the transportation card, asshown in Fig. 5(d). This indicates that these cards are relatively easyto understand and useful to foreign workers.

The results indicate that 50% of respondents who have lived inKorea for less than one year were not familiar with the lawsconcerning pedestrian, bicycle, and motorcycles (see Fig. 6). Manynew immigrants are also unfamiliar with pedestrian laws, prob-ably because they are from rural areas that have few paved roadsand traffic to regulate. A year later, as shown in Fig. 6(d), theknowledge of pedestrian-related laws and regulations is greatlyheightened.

Table 3Basic statistics for the characteristics of respondents.

Classification Number ofrespondents

Proportion(%)

Total 300 100.0Region Uijungbu 104 34.7

Buchon 73 24.3Ansan 123 41.0

Gender Male 161 53.7Female 139 46.3

Age 20's 118 39.330's 108 36.040's 52 17.3>50 22 7.3

Residential type Company housing 144 48.0Lease on a deposit basis 55 18.3Lease on a monthlypayment basis

76 25.3

other 25 8.3Stay length in

Korea (year)<1 68 22.71e2 67 22.32e3 59 19.73e4 32 10.74e5 35 11.7>5 38 12.7Non-response 1 0.3

Nationality Vietnamese 65 21.7Filipino 29 9.7Indonesian 49 16.3Chinese 129 43.0Thai 28 9.3

Monthly income <$1000 46 15.3$1000 ~ $1500 174 58.0>$1500 75 25.0Non-response 5 1.7

Monthly transportationexpenditures

<$40 118 39.3$50 ~ $60 103 34.3>$70 79 26.3

Percentage of incomespent ontransportation

<2.5% 85 28.32.5%e5.0% 135 45.0>5.0% 75 25.0Non-response 5 1.7

Fig. 3. Survey results about basic information according to regions and duration inKorea.

Y. Chung et al. / Habitat International 44 (2014) 482e490486

Possession and usage of transportation card

Approximately 90% of respondents indicated that they possess aKorean electronic transportation payment card. Of card holders,44% used their cards just for bus, 5.9% just for subway (5.9%), and

Table 4Knowledge of Korea transport conditions and services.

Classification Responseproportion(includingstrongly agreeand normalagree)

Basic informationconcerningKorea

Communicate well in Korean 30.3%Aware of Korean geography 18.3%

Transportation-relatedinformation

Aware of neighboring roadways 31.3%Aware of neighboring bus systems 33.0%Aware of neighboring rail systems 31.0%

Public transportationservice

Aware of how to use a taxi 33.7%Aware of how to use a bus 43.7%Aware of how to use a rail 36.3%Aware of how to use atransportation card

51.7%

Traffic law andregulations

Aware of automobile-related law 18.0%Aware of motorcycle-related law 17.3%Aware of bicycle-related law 26.3%Aware of walking-related law 37.0%

49.6% for a combination of those modes (see Fig. 7). The percentageof card holders was higher with the increase in monthly income,monthly expenditures on transportation, and the length of stay inKorea. Transportation card use varied by residence areas: 9.2% ofrespondents in Uijungbu, 36% in Ansan, and 37% in Buchon used atransportation cardmore than ten times per week. The low levels ofuse by Uijungbu residents can be explained by differences in theirhousing and work locations: most foreign workers in Uijungbu livenear the furniture factories where they work and so do not need tocommute by public transportation.

Travel pattern analysis

The survey investigated travel time, destination, mode, durationand purpose, as summarized in Table 5. First, to analyze travelconditions, questions such as the time of activities, places of visit,travel modes, time taken for travel, and the purpose of travel duringboth the weekdays and weekends were included. Notable travelmodes on weekdays were walking (46.5%) and bus (41.8%) withsome regional variations: 72.5% of the respondents in Ujeongbupreferred walking, and 50.7% and 59.0% in Ansan and Buchon usedbus (Table 5).

Main travel modes on weekends were buses (49.6%) andwalking (31.1%) with some regional variations: 62.8% respondentsin Ansan and 52% in Uijungbu used bus, whereas 47% respondentsin Buchon preferred walking as shown in Table 6. In other words,therewas a difference in the travel patterns of Uijungbu, Ansan, andBuchon. Results showed that 73% of foreign workers in Uijungbuused the city bus on weekends, presumably for shopping and lei-sure, whereas only 14% used the city bus on weekdays. The averagetrip duration was 20 min (one-way) on weekdays and weekendsregardless of residence.

Fig. 4. Survey results about transportation-related information according to regionsand duration in Korea.

Y. Chung et al. / Habitat International 44 (2014) 482e490 487

Lastly, the survey analyzed trip purposes. On weekdays, thepurpose of the travel was for work (75.4%), education (19%),interaction with colleagues (1.7%), shopping (1.0%), and religiousgatherings (0.7%). On weekends, however, travel purposes weremore varied: interaction with colleagues (34.8%), education (21%),religious gatherings (16%), and shopping (16%). Also notable is thesignificant variation depending on the surveyed areas (see Table 7)

Discussion

Regional travel characteristics

Foreign workers tend to rely on walking, bicycling, and publictransportation, due to their low cost and ease of use compared withdriving a car or motorcycle. Travel demands vary depending on thetype of industry, residence forms and traffic patterns. Specifically,Uijungbu's furniture manufacturing factories, which employ manyforeign workers, are dispersed in the outskirts of cities. Most of

these workers live in houses near the factory or at company dor-mitories. As a result, during the weekdays they usually walk, sotravel time is relatively short. However, on weekends they spendmore time traveling by walking or buses to reach religious estab-lishments, cultural centers, and/or other services.

Foreign workers at the metal-related factories in Ansan andBuchon tend to rely on public transportation for commuting muchmore than in Uijungbu. They also tend to use public transportationfrequently to reach religious establishments, cultural centers, andeducational services. This indicates that low-income workers inUijungbu have less access to necessary services and social activitiesbecause they are not dense enough to operate frequent weekendpublic transportation services, and this spatial isolation creates asignificant hindrance to access to urban services.

Transportation service awareness

These survey findings suggest that many new foreign workerslack basic information on transportation services and regulations.Approximately 60% of respondents who lived in Korea less than oneyear have trouble communicating in Korean, and this languagebarrier affected the level of awareness of local geography. However,after a year in Korea, only 30% of respondents expressed theproblems related to geographical awareness.

Conclusions and recommendations

A progressive and open society strives for social inclusion, thatis, to provide social and economic opportunities for physically,economically and socially disadvantaged groups. One importantway to do this is to ensure that the transportation systems effi-ciently serve disadvantaged groups such as low-income foreignworkers. This is an important issue in Korea, which is experiencingrapid growth in low-income foreign worker populations.

Effective transportation planning requires accurate data. Manyresearchers and government agencies now implement targetedtravel surveys to investigate disadvantaged residents' travel de-mands and problems. This study is one of the first such surveys inKorea. It investigated the travel demands of, and problems faced by,low-income foreign workers based on a special survey of 300randomly-selected unskilled laborers from China, The Philippines,Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam residing in three industrial dis-tricts in Korea. Although this was a relatively small pilot study, itprovides useful information concerning such workers' trans-portation demands and problems, and insights about possible waysto improve their transport conditions and services.

Survey results suggest that more industry- and region-basedpolicies be implemented for areas such as Uijungbu, Ansan, andBuchon, rather than a uniform and standardized policy that appliesto all areas. Equally important for policy consideration is foreignworkers' knowledge of the Korean language, especially related totransportation, depending on their duration of stay in Korea. Thesurvey found significant variation in travel demands depending onthe type of industry, location of residence, residence forms andtraffic patterns. Uijungbu factories are dispersed in the outskirts ofcities. Workers there tend to live nearby, and commute by walkingor company-supplied buses, and so do not need public trans-portation on weekdays, but because of their isolated locations theyrely on public transportation to access non-work activities onweekends, such as visiting cultural centers and religious facilities,and for shopping and recreation in urban areas. As a result, theywould benefit from better weekend public transportation. Forinstance, a demand responsive transportation service for weekendscan be a great alternative.

Fig. 5. Survey results about public transportation service according to regions and duration in Korea.

Fig. 6. Survey results about traffic laws and regulations according to regions and duration in Korea.

Y. Chung et al. / Habitat International 44 (2014) 482e490488

Fig. 7. Possession and usage of transportation card.

Table 5Weekday travel mode by regions (multiple responses).

Classification Number of respondents Walking Bus Rail Town bus Automobile Bicycle Motorcycle Inter-regional bus Taxi Etc.

Total 297 pers. 46.5% 41.8% 5.1% 2.4% 2.0% 1.7% 1.3% 1.0% 0.3% 2.4%Region Uijungbu 102 pers. 72.5% 14.7% 2.0% 5.9% 1.0% 0.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.0% 2.9%

Buchon 73 pers. 30.1% 50.7% 11.0% 1.4% 4.1% 6.8% 4.1% 1.4% 0.0% 0.0%Ansan 122 pers. 34.4% 59.0% 4.1% 0.0% 1.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.8% 0.8% 3.3%

Table 6Weekend travel mode by regions (multiple responses).

Classification Number of respondents Walking Bus Rail Town bus Automobile Bicycle Motorcycle Inter-regional bus Taxi Etc.

Total 244 pers. 49.6% 31.1% 6.1% 5.7% 4.5% 3.3% 1.6% 1.2% 1.2% 1.6%Region Uijungbu 86 pers. 62.8% 11.6% 12.8% 4.7% 3.5% 8.1% 2.3% 0.0% 0.0% 2.3%

Buchon 68 pers. 29.4% 47.1% 1.5% 10.3% 5.9% 1.5% 0.0% 4.4% 4.4% 0.0%Ansan 90 pers. 52.2% 37.8% 3.3% 3.3% 4.4% 0.0% 2.2% 0.0% 0.0% 2.2%

Y. Chung et al. / Habitat International 44 (2014) 482e490 489

Foreign workers at the metal-related factories in Ansan andBuchon tend to rely on public transportation for commuting. Theyalso tend to use public transportation frequently for non-commutetravel. Workers in these districts tend to spend a much largerportion of their incomes on transportation and so would benefitfrom fare discounts. Specifically, the expenditure for transportationof Koreans amounts to 12% of incomes (Han& Lee, 2010), but foreignworkers are about 5%. Therefore, a transportation fare policy forforeignworkers can be considered as similar to the elderlyover 65 inKorea. Currently, the rail transportation in the Seoul metropolitanregion is free for the elderly. A similar policy can be applied toforeign workers.

Survey results indicate that many new low-income foreignworkers are unfamiliar with basic traffic laws and regulations such

Table 7Weekend travel purpose by regions (multiple responses).

Classification Number of respondents Interaction with colleagues Educati

Total 244 pers. 34.8% 21.3%Region Uijungbu 86 pers. 19.8% 45.3%

Buchon 68 pers. 17.6% 14.7%Ansan 90 pers. 62.2% 3.3%

as traffic signals, road crossings and safe walking. Approximately60% of respondents who lived in Korea less than one year havetrouble communicating in Korean, and this language barrieraffected the level of awareness of local geography. This indicatesthat during their first year in Korea, many foreign workers coulduse basic education in the Korean language, transportation ser-vices, traffic rules and pedestrian safety. Such programs should bedone on weekends to avoid conflicts with work, and be locatedwhere low-income foreign workers often visit such as culturalcenters, religious institutions, and other community centers. Be-sides training by professional instructors, it is also effective toprovide them with brochures about the use of local public trans-portation, traffic rules and pedestrian safety in their ownlanguages.

on Religious gatherings Shopping Work Cultural activities Meal Etc.

16.0% 16.0% 5.3% 3.3% 2.0% 2.09.3% 16.3% 3.5% 4.7% 2.3% 0.0

25.0% 23.6% 7.4% 4.4% 4.4% 4.415.6% 10.0% 5.6% 1.1% 0.0% 2.2

Y. Chung et al. / Habitat International 44 (2014) 482e490490

Acknowledgment

This work was supported by the Korea Transport InstituteResearch Grant in 2010, and by the National Research Foundation(NRF) of Korea grant funded by the Korean government (MSIP)(NRF-2010-0029446).

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