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Introduction to Six Sigma

Quality Gurus and Their Contribution to Quality


Quality Gurus and Their Contribution

to Quality

Introduction

„Quality must be managed; it does not just happen‟ (John S. Oakland).

There have been a lot of theoretical studies about how to improve quality.

Quality gurus like Deming, Juran, Crosby, Ishikawa, and Taguchi present

different theories of quality management.

Philip Bayard Crosby (June 1926 – August 2001)

• Philip Bayard Crosby was born in Wheeling, West Virginia, USA. He

was instrumental in popularizing the concept of „Zero Defects‟. He

established Philip Crosby Associates in 1979 to teach the

significance of “zero defects” quality and the need for building

processes which do things right the first time.



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Four absolutes of quality management

Four absolutes of quality management are:

• Crosby‟s definition of quality as conformance to requirements.

• The system for making quality is prevention

• The only standard of performance must be “zero defects” – anything

less is unacceptable.

• The only measurement of quality is the cost of nonconformance

Crosby’s 14 steps

In 1979, Crosby developed a fourteen step approach in order to improve

quality. The fourteen steps are:

• Management commitment

• The quality improvement team



to Quality

• Quality measurement

• The cost of quality

• Quality awareness

• Corrective action

• Zero defects planning

• Supervisor training

• Zero defects day

• Goal setting

• Error cause removal

• Recognition

• Quality councils

• Do it over again



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Dr. W. Edwards Deming (Oct 1900 – Dec 1993)

• William Edwards Deming was born in Sioux City, Iowa, USA. He had

a B.Sc. in electrical engineering from the University of Wyoming and

M.S. from the University of Colorado. In 1965 he received his

doctorate from Yale University. The Japanese Union of Scientists and

Engineers (JUSE) founded the Deming Prize to commemorate his

contribution to the development of quality control in Japan.

• The PDCA cycle

Deming elaborated Walter A. Shewhart‟s concept of PLAN, DO, and

SEE. The PDCA cycle, also known as the Deming cycle, consists of

four steps: Plan, Do, Check, and Act. This cycle aims at achieving

continuous quality improvement.



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Statistical process control (SPC)

Edwards Deming used the statistical process control approach in the

U.S. during World War II. After the war, he applied SPC methods in

Japan. This method is effective in examining a process with the help

of control charts.

Deming’s 14 points for management

Deming‟s 14 key points for management, first presented in his book

Out of the Crisis, are used as management guidelines. These points

help to create a better workplace and increase productivity and

profits.

• Deming‟s 14 points excerpted from his book Out of Crisis are as

follows:

• Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product

and service with the aim to become competitive, to stay in

business, and to provide jobs.

• Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age.

Western management must awaken to the challenge, must

learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership for change.

• Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate

the need for inspection on a mass basis by building quality into

the product in the first place.



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• End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag.

Instead, minimize total cost. Move toward a single supplier for

any one item, on a long-term relationship of loyalty and trust.

• Improve constantly and forever the system of production and

service, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly

decrease costs.

• Institute training on the job.

• Institute leadership. The aim of supervision should be to help

people and machines and gadgets to do a better job.

Supervision of management is in need of overhaul, as well as

supervision of production workers.

• Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the

company.

• Break down barriers between departments. People in research,

design, sales, and production must work as a team, to foresee

problems of production and in use that may be encountered

with the product or service.



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• Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force,

asking for zero defects and new levels of productivity. Such

exhortations only create adversarial relationships, as the bulk of

the causes of low quality and low productivity belong to the

system and thus lie beyond the power of the work force.

Eliminate work standards (quota) on the factory floor.

Substitute leadership.

Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate

management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute

leadership.

• Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of his right to pride

of workmanship. The responsibility of supervisors must be

changed from sheer numbers to qualify.

• Remove barriers that rob people in management and in

engineering of their right to pride of workmanship. This means,

inter alia, abolishment of the annual or merit rating and of

management by objective.

• Institute a vigorous program of education and self-

improvement.

• Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the

transformation. The transformation is everybody‟s job.



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Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum

• Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum is an American quality control guru. He

did his master‟s degree and Ph. D from the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology (MIT). Feigenbaum now serves as the president and

CEO of General Systems Co.

• He developed the concept of Total Quality Control, which was later

referred to as Total Quality Management (TQM). His two famous

books are Quality Control: Principles, Practice, and Administration

and Total Quality Control.

• According to him, „Total quality control is an effective system for

integrating the quality development, quality maintenance, and quality

improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization so as to

enable production and service at the most economical levels which

allow full customer satisfaction‟.

• To him, the word „control‟ includes four steps:

• Establishing quality criteria

• Evaluating conformance to standards

• Acting when standards are not fulfilled

• Planning to make improvements in the criteria



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Feigenbaum’s ten benchmarks

Feigenbaum, in his book Total Quality Control, points out ten

important benchmarks for total quality control. They are as follows:

• Quality is an organization-wide process.

• Quality is what the customer says it is.

• Quality and cost are a sum, not a difference.

• Quality needs both individual and team work.

• Quality is a means of managing.

• Both quality and innovation depend on each other.

• Quality is an ethic.

• Quality requires continuous improvement.

• Quality is cost-effective.

• Quality is implemented with a total system connected with

customers and suppliers.



to Quality

Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa (1915 – April 1983)

• Kaoru Ishikawa was born in Tokyo. Ishikawa received the Deming

Prize and the Nihon Kezai Press Prize. He did his Ph. D in

engineering and is considered as the father of quality circles. He is

well known for his cause-and-effect diagrams, also known as

Ishikawa or Fishbone diagrams. These diagrams are used to find out

the root causes of any particular problem under study. He also

expanded Deming‟s PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) model.

• Company Wide Quality Control (CWQC)

Ishikawa, in his book What is Total Quality Control? The Japanese

Way, explained the concept of Company Wide Quality Control

(CWQC). All the individuals involved in the processes of the

organization should be included in the quality program. According to

Ishikawa, CWQC includes:

• All department involvement

• All employee involvement

• Integrated process control

This approach is intended to achieve total quality by constantly

improving all processes.



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• Quality circles

Ishikawa developed the concept of „Quality Circles‟ in 1962, which is

widely used in Japan. A quality circle is a volunteer group which

consists of employees who, under the leadership of their team

manager are prepared to recognize and evaluate work-related issues,

and provide their suggestions for the better performance of the

company.

• 7QC tools

Although „Seven Tools of Quality‟ is the term used by Ishikawa, all

these tools are not developed by him. The seven tools such as

Pareto diagram, cause-and –effect diagram, stratification, check

sheet, histogram, scatter diagram, graphs and control charts are very

simple and can be used to solve more than 90 percent of the

problems.



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Dr. Joseph M. Juran (December 1904 – February 2008)

• Joseph Moses Juran was born in Romania. When he was 8 years

old, he immigrated to the US with his family. Juran had a bachelor‟s

degree in electrical engineering from the University of Minnesota. He

is renowned for his contributions in the realm of quality management.

His classic book, The Quality Control Handbook, is really valuable for

quality managers. Besides, he wrote Quality Planning & Analysis for

Enterprise Quality and Juran on Leadership for Quality.

• According to him, quality is a „fitness for use‟. „A greater number of

characteristics to meet customer requirements‟ is a significant

constituent in Juran‟s definition of quality.



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• Juran‟s most important ideas are:

• Top management involvement

• The Pareto principle

• The need for widespread training in quality

• The definition of quality as fitness for use

• The project-by-project approach to quality improvement

• Juran’s quality trilogy

The three steps of Juran‟s trilogy are:

1. Quality planning: The quality planning step concentrates on

developing products and processes to meet customers‟

requirements. It deals with establishing the objectives and ways

essential to achieve those objectives.



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The following are the steps in the quality planning process:

• Set quality goals and ways to achieve those goals.

• Identify the customers – both internal and external.

• Determine those customers‟ requirements and tools (e.g.

direct discussions or interviews, surveys, focus groups,

customer specifications, observation, warranty data, field

reports, etc.) to collect information on customer

requirements.

• Interpret those requirements and convert into company‟s

language.

• Develop a product meeting those requirements.

• Develop processes to optimize the product characteristics in

order to meet the company‟s and customers‟ requirements.

• Prove whether the process is capable of fulfilling the quality

goals under operating conditions with minimal inspection.

• Convert the process into operating forces.



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2. Quality control: The quality control step focuses on implementing

the plans. It is important to monitor the operations so that

differences between actual performance and objectives can be

identified. This phase contains three steps:

• Describe the control. Juran defines quality control as „the

regulatory process through which we measure actual quality

performance, compare it with quality goals, and act on the

difference‟ (Juran, 1988).

• Identify different units of measurement, for example, hours

spent, fuel efficiency, and the number of defects.

• Evaluate actual performance of the operation. There are

various sensors to gather data. They are human sensors

(e.g. inspectors) and machine sensors (e.g. recorders).

• Weigh actual performance against objectives. Control charts,

trend analysis, correlation analysis, control wastes are some

of the tools to compare actual performance with goals.

• Take steps to eliminate the difference.



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3. Quality improvement: The quality improvement step aims at

achieving improvement in quality performance by changing the

process. Gibbons describes quality improvement as the organized

creation of beneficial change; the attainment of unprecedented

levels of performance. It contains several steps.

• Prove that improvement in the product or process is

required.

• Form a quality council which consists of upper management

and discuss the areas such as policies, measures of

performance, project and team selection, resources, follow-

up, and recognition and rewards.

• Develop specific projects for improvement.

• Choose a suitable project team.

• Analyze the project team‟s performance.

• Recognize team performance and reward for quality and

quality improvement.

• Continue with quality improvements.



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Walter Andrew Shewhart (March 1891 – March 1967)

• Walter Andrew Shewhart, the first honorary member of the American

Society for Quality (ASQ), was an American physicist, engineer, and

a statistician. He was born in New Canton in 1891 and received his

doctorate in physics from the University of California, Berkeley in

1917.

• Shewhart succeeded in effectively bringing together different

knowledge area such as statistics, engineering, and economics. He is

sometimes known as the father of Statistical Quality Control (SQC).

• Shewhart, in his book Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured

Product, explains the fundamental points of SQC.



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• Control chart

The control chart, also referred to as Shewhart chart or process-

behavior chart, was developed by Shewhart in the 1920‟s. It is the

most important tool employed in statistical process control to

determine whether a process is under statistical control or not.

Shewhart invented this tool to distinguish between common and

special causes of variation.

• PDCA cycle

PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) cycle is sometimes referred to as the

Shewhart Cycle or Deming Cycle. Walter A. Shewhart developed the

concept of PLAN, DO, and SEE. Later Deming elaborated this and

made it popular.



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Dr. Genichi Taguchi

• Genichi Taguchi was born in Takamachi, Japan in January 1924 and

studied technical engineering at Kiryu Technical College. He earned

his doctorate in science from Kyushu University in 1962. In 1960, he

received Japan‟s Deming Prize. He was also awarded the Indigo

Ribbon in 1986.

• He became an honorary member of the Japanese Society of Quality

Control in 1995. Many consider him as instrumental in the emergence

of Japan as a manufacturing power.

• Taguchi believed in the statistical techniques to identify and eliminate

quality problems.

• He invented a methodology referred to as „Taguchi Methods‟ with the

objective to improve quality and decrease costs. His concept of

„Robust Design‟ is intended to optimize quality at the design phase.



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• Taguchi quality loss function

• According to him, „the quality of a product is the (minimum) loss

imparted by the product to society from the time the product is

shipped‟.

• Taguchi quality loss function, an important tenet of Taguchi‟s

quality philosophy, is established to measure financial loss to

society because of poor quality. It is used to evaluate the

financial impact on account of a process deviation from the

target.

• Design of experiments

• Taguchi made numerous innovations in the design of

experiments. Design of experiments (DOE) is a methodology to

describe the relation between input variables (Xs) influencing a

process and the outputs of the process (Y).



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Shingo Shigeo (1909 – 1990)

Shingo Shigeo was born in Saga City, Japan in 1909. He was one of

the industrial engineers at Toyota and is known for his important

concept of Poka-yoke. Shingo wrote numerous books. Some of them

are A Study of the Toyota Production System, Revolution in

Manufacturing: the SMED System, and Zero Quality Control: Source

Inspection and the Poka-yoke System.

Shingo Shigeo‟s concepts such as SMED, Poka-yoke or mistake-

proofing, and zero quality control are applied not only in the area of

manufacturing but also in the area of sales process engineering.

Poka-yoke is an important part of zero quality control (ZQC)

developed by Shigeo Shingo. Zero quality control aims at producing

zero defective products. Poka-yoke is a mistake-proofing or error

proofing mechanism to identify and prevent incorrect components

from being made or brought together.



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John S. Oakland

John S. Oakland is a British quality expert. He served as head of the

European Centre for Total Quality Management at the University of

Bradford Management Centre in Britain. His contribution to the

development of quality in Britain is noteworthy.

According to him, „quality is meeting the customer‟s requirements‟

and „quality starts at the top‟. He considers the pursuit of quality as

the basis for the success of any company.

Oakland opines that quality has emerged as the most significant

competitive weapon and total quality management (TQM) is a means

of managing for the future.



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Oakland describes seven principal features of TQM. They are as

follows:

• Quality is fulfilling the customer‟s needs.

• Most quality problems are among departments.

• Quality control is monitoring, finding, and eliminating causes of

quality problems.

• Quality assurance rests on prevention, management systems,

effective audit, and review.

• Quality must be managed; it does not just happen.

• Focus on prevention, not cure.

• Reliability is an extension of quality and enables us to „delight

the customer‟.



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Conclusion

Philip B. Crosby

Dr. W. Edwards Deming

Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum

Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa

Dr. Joseph M. Juran

Walter Andrew Shewhart

Dr. Genichi Taguchi

Shingo Shigeo

John S. Oakland

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