Sino-African relations: a review and reconciliation of dominant schools of thought

Sino-African Relations A Review andReconciliation of Dominant Schools

of Thought

SIMPLICE A ASONGUAfrican Governance and Development InstituteOxford Brookes University

This article reviews about 100 papers on Sino-African relations pub-lished during the past five years for the most part to put some struc-ture on the existing strands The literature is classified into dominantschools of thought namely the neocolonial or pessimistic balance-development or optimistic and accommodation schools After theclassification I reconcile the schools of thought in light of dominantthemes and debates on development models inter alia (1) pessimistsversus optimists (2) preferences of rights in development models(economic vs political national vs human and sovereign vs idiosyn-cratic) (3) the Washington Consensus (WC) versus the BeijingModel (BM) and (4) an African Consensus in both the WC andBM Both the first and second schools have core values articulatedby the New Partnership for Africas Development Policy implica-tions are discussed with emphasis on Chinas growing role fightingAfricas poverty and a more holistic conception of ldquorightsrdquo

Keywords Sino-African Relations Chinese-African Relations ChinaPolitical and Economic Influence Africa South-South InternationalRelations Review of the Literature Key Arguments in the LiteratureState of the Current Research Dominant Schools of Thought Classifica-tion Reconciliation of Schools of Thought Development Models Wash-ington Consensus Beijing Model African Consensus Rights

Related ArticlesHolbig Heike and Bruce Gilley 2010 ldquoReclaiming Legitimacy inChinardquo Politics amp Policy 38 (3) 395-422 httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1747-1346201000241xabstract

The author is highly indebted to the editor and referees at Politics amp Policy for constructivecomments

Politics amp Policy Volume 44 No 2 (2016) 351-383 101111polp12152Published by Wiley Periodicals IncVC 2016 Policy Studies Organization

Hu Shaohua 2007 ldquoConfucianism and Contemporary Chinese PoliticsrdquoPolitics amp Policy 35 (1) 136-153 httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1747-1346200700051xpdfWise Carol and Cintia Quiliconi 2007 ldquoChinas Surge in Latin Ameri-can Markets Policy Challenges and Responsesrdquo Politics amp Policy 35 (3)410-438 httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1747-1346200700067xabstract

Related MediaWorld Economic Forum 2011 ldquoAfrica 2011 The Future of China AfricaRelationsrdquo httpswwwyoutubecomwatchv5oIEnKlcOaPgWorld Economic Forum 2011 ldquoAfrica 2011 Building South SouthRelationsrdquo httpswwwyoutubecomwatchv5qTabLadA-PA

Examinamos cerca de 100 artıculos sobre relaciones Sino-Africanaspublicados en su mayorıa durante los ultimos 5 a~nos con el objetivo deestablecer una clasificacion de las ideologıas existentes La literatura esclasificada en escuelas de pensamiento dominante principalmente laneocolonial o pesimista la de balance-desarrollo u optimista y la cor-riente adaptativa Luego de la clasificacion se concilian las corrientesde pensamiento en base a los argumentos y debates dominantes sobrelos modelos de desarrollo entre otros (1) pesimistas versus optimistas(2) preferencias sobre derechos en modelos de desarrollo (economicosvs polıticos nacionales vs humanos y soberanos vs idiosincraticos)(3) el consenso de Washington versus el modelo de Beijing y (4) unconsenso africano en el consenso de Washington y el modelo de BeijingLa primera y segunda escuela de pensamiento tienen articulados susvalores fundamentales en la Nueva Asociacion para el Desarrollo deAfrica (NEPAD por sus siglas en ingles) Se discuten las implicacionesen la polıtica publica con enfasis en el creciente papel de China lalucha contra la pobreza en Africa y una concepcion holıstica de losldquoderechosrdquo

Lost decades of the Washington Consensus (WC) as a development theoryhave pushed African policy makers to start seeking non-Western allies (Fofack2014 6) Moreover a plethora of factors are constraining African nationstoward alternative development models inter alia manipulation during theCold War Structural Adjustment International Monetary Fund policies cor-ruption of governments by Western companies Slavery and Colonialism Inthis light the growing political and economic influence of China has becomean interesting option for African nations (Asongu Nwachukwu and Amin-keng 2014 Jacob 2016 Robinson 2009) Accordingly the burgeoning Sino-African South-South relationship is essentially motivated by the need for moreequity (at least in policy) which the West has not delivered to African nationsfor centuries

Chinas burgeoning footsteps on the African continent has led to a seriesof debates in academic and policy-making circles because ldquoChina returns to

352 | POLITICS amp POLICY April 2016

Africa in the twenty-first century with not only a need for economic resourcesbut with the cash to play the game dramatically and competitivelyrdquo (Lyman2005) The debates have been substantially based on Chinas economic dip-lomatic strategies (Asche and Scheurouller 2008 Besada Wang and Whalley2008 Biggeri and Sanfilippo 2009 Ortmann 2012 Taylor 2006) The numer-ous studies have discussed the need for multi-polar development strategies(Tull 2006) analyzed limited short-term benefits of the relationship (Duclos2011) put forward the resource-seeking and bad-governance orientedChinese motivations (De Grauwe Houssa and Picillo 2012 Kolstad andWiig 2011 Renard 2011) isolated push and pull factors governing the nexus(Biggeri and Sanfilippo 2009) and discussed the politics in the nexus(Taylor 2007)1

As far as this author has reviewed the evolving literature on Sino-Africanrelations2 has left a substantial gap to be filled with two important parts firstthe systematic classification of narratives into dominant schools of thoughtand second a reconciliation of the schools of thought To the best of myknowledge Babatunde (2013) and Asongu and Aminkeng (2013) are studies inthe literature closest to the current inquiry While the former is essentiallybased on stylized facts with a limited perusal of the literature the latter presentthe debate in terms of schools of thought but failed to critically engage existingnarratives supporting the schools Babatunde (2013) whose article referencesonly 17 articles has used stylized ldquofacts and figuresrdquo to present the good badand ugly faces of China in Africa

Asongu and Aminkeng (2013) also used stylized facts to classify Sino-African relations into three dominant schools of thought the optimistic pessi-mistic and accommodation schools It should be noted that ldquothe bad thegood and the uglyrdquo sides of China documented by Babatunde (2013) do notindependently correspond to the three schools of thought suggested by Asonguand Amingkeng (2013) In essence all three Chinese faces could in some casesonly be consistent with the narrative of a single school of thought For exam-ple after presenting all the faces of China authors may either take a pessimis-tic an optimistic or an accommodative view

1For details in these areas see inter alia Alden Large and De Oliveira (2008) Alves (2006) Gaye(2006) Guerroro and Manji (2008) Kaplinsky and Messner (2008) Kitissou (2007) Lall Weissand Oikawa (2005) Mawdsley (2008) Moreira (2007) Muneku and Koyi (2008) Wang andZheng (2012) and Wei (2007)2Which includes Schiere and Walkenhorst (2010) Jenkins and Edwards (2006) Brenton andWalkenhorst (2010) Chemingui and Bchir (2010) Schiere (2010) Sanfilippo (2010) Wu andCheng (2010) Wei and Wang (2009) Biggeri and Sanfilippo (2009) Wang and Zheng (2010) Ji(2010) Duclos (2011) Zhu (2010) De Grauwe Houssa and Picillo (2012) Renard (2011)Drogendijk and Blomkvist (2013) Lin and Farrell (2013) Wei (2013) Diaw and Lessoua (2013)Zhang Wei and Liu (2013) Munemo (2013) Adekunle and Gitau (2013) Asongu and Aminkeng(2013) and Babatunde (2013)

Asongu SINO-AFRICAN RELATIONS | 353

The present study ranges ahead of the above literature by classifying thestock of recent Sino-African literature into the dominant schools of thoughtand reconciling the schools in light of dominant views and models of develop-ment First the literature is classified into dominant schools of thoughtnamely the neocolonial or pessimistic balance-development or optimisticand accommodation schools After the classification a concerted attempt ismade to reconcile the schools of thought in light of dominant themes anddebates on development models inter alia (1) pessimists versus optimists (2)preferences of rights in development models (economic vs political nationalvs human and sovereign vs idiosyncratic) (3) the WC versus the BeijingModel (BM) and (4) an African Consensus that integrates ideals of both theWC and BM An African Consensus within the framework of the study refersto broad common policy priorities that may be followed by African countriesin view of incorporating relevant sequencing of rights into their developmentagendas In essence a sequence of prioritizing economic rights over politicalrights in the short-term does not negate the fact that Africa consists of 54 dif-ferent countries with varying political legal economic value and culturalsystems The African Consensus proposed here builds on a reconciliation ofschools of thought to propose a model that integrates both ideals of the WCand BM

The rest of the study is organized as follows The first section presents theschools of thought and arguments The schools are then reconciled in the sec-ond section Conclusions are presented in the final section

Schools of Thought and Arguments

The Pessimistic or Neocolonial SchoolConsistent with Asongu and Aminkeng (2013) this first school is led by

critics or skeptics of the BM According to Nijs (2008) the BM of developmentis in favor of state regulation and prudence in the openness of markets Moreemphasis is placed on prudential market reforms and national sovereigntyWhile Moyo (2013) defines the WC as liberal democracy private capitalismand priority in political rights the BM is defined as deemphasized democracystate capitalism and priority in economic rights In spite of some criticisms(see Huang 2010) there is growing consensus that the BM is more adapted totwenty-first century development in comparison to the WC that focuses ongovernment failures by prescribing ldquoliberalization marketization andprivatizationrdquo (Fofack 2014 6)

The narrative of this school of thought sustains that Chinese external flowsto Africa are not consistent with conditions that promote good governanceAccording to Clinton (2011) it is simply neocolonialism and profit making


without morals3 In line with the school Western development approaches likethe USA-oriented African Growth and Opportunity Act go beyond profitmotives by offering an economic ladder of opportunity and sustainable invest-ment that should benefit Africa in the long run This school has motivatedmyths in the Sino-Africa relationship

China targets aid to African states with abundant natural resources andbad governments Chinese do not hire Africans to work on their projectsChinese workers and managers live in extremely simple conditions ascompared to Western advisors China outbids other companies by flout-ing social and environmental standards and low linkage levels betweenChinese and local businesses (Asongu and Aminkeng 2013 263)

The literature supporting this first school is summarized in Panel A of Table 1The narratives include first Chinese trade crowding-out and rendering Africandomestic industries vulnerable (Giovannetti and Sanfilippo 2009 506) Secondthe agricultural exports of Southern Africa not being positively impacted byChinas growth (Villoria 2009 531) Third prostitutes from China being perceivedas ldquojunk and cheaprdquo as Chinese trade commodities (Ndjio 2009 606) Fourth theUnited States and Europe growingly suspicious of the burgeoning Sino-Africannexus and searching for strategies to improve their footprints (Huliaras andMagliveras 2008 399) Fifth Sino-African relations remain asymmetric from theWestern perspective (Alden 2006 147) And finally substantial discontent in work-ing relationships in the textile industry of Zambia (Brooks 2010 113)

Accordingly the investment of China in Sudan is destroying local com-munities for Askouri (2007 71) It is similarly destroying resource-drivenChinese investments (Kiggundu 2008 130) Elu and Price (2010 587) find thatthe burgeoning trade relations are not a source of higher standards of living inthe long term for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) For Chemingui and Bchir (2010562) Africa will not benefit from the relations because it is characterized bylow levels of diversification and small productive capacities Others argue thatthe nexus is harmful to the industrial prosperity of SSA because it is contraryto the mainstream wisdom of industrialization as a crucial development strat-egy component (Power 2008 7) Sino-African relations may also export humanrights violations (Breslin and Taylor 2008 Zhou 2005) and there are myths

3Clinton (2011) opines ldquoWell our view is that over the long run investments in Africa should besustainable and for the benefit of the African people It is easy ndash and we saw that during colonialtimes ndash it is easy to come in take out natural resources pay off leaders and leave And when youleave you dont leave much behind for the people who are there You dont improve the standardof living You dont create a ladder of opportunity We dont want to see a new colonialism inAfrica We want when people come to Africa and make investments we want them to do well butwe also want them to do good We dont want them to undermine good governance We dontwant them to basically deal with just the top elites and frankly too often pay for their concessionsor their opportunities to investrdquo


Table 1 Synthesis of the Schools of Thought

Panel A The Pessimistic or Neocolonial School

Giovannetti and Sanfilippo(2009 506)

Chinese trade is crowding-out and making Africandomestic industries vulnerable ldquoUsing disaggregateddata for the period 1995-2005 we present significantevidence on the existence of a displacement effect atdifferent levels sector product region and marketrdquo

Villoria (2009 531) Southern Africas agricultural exports have not beenpositively affected by Chinas growth ldquoWe find littlecomplementarity between Chinas agriculturalimport demand and the Southern African (SA)countries agricultural export supply We alsoexplore the possibility of China affecting SA agricul-tural exports through higher world agricultural pri-ces associated with Chinas growing demand forfood We find that although China has moderatelyincreased agricultural prices (in an aggregatedsense) SA exports do not seem to benefit from theseprice increasesrdquo

Ndjio (2009 606) Chinese prostitutes are perceived as cheap and junk asthe Chinese commodities at large ldquoThe main argu-ment of this paper is that Shanghai beauties asCameroonians generally refer to Chinese migrantprostitutes are part of the cheap and depreciatedcommodities that China is exporting to this countrythrough its well-organized trade networks mostlycontrolled by Chinese traders from overseas Assuch the equivocal perception of these Asian sexworkers by the native population as both cheapbodies and junk sex only reflects the general percep-tion of China-sourced goods at largerdquo

Huliaras and Magliveras(2008 399)

The United States and Europe are increasingly suspi-cious concerning the growing Sino-African nexus andlooking for strategies to increase their own presenceldquoThe recent inroads made by China in the Africancontinent as a trading partner investor and donorhave been important both in terms of magnitudeand pace Even though for a number of Africanregimes it signifies increased bargaining power thegrowing Chinese presence in Africa was greeted withskepticism or anxiety in the West After an overviewof the multifaceted Chinese presence in Africa andthe stance taken by the USA the article attempts toidentify the reasons that could explain the ratherbelated especially if its traditional ties with Africaare taken into account EU responserdquo

Alden (2006 147) Sino-African relations are asymmetric and have raisedconcerns from the West ldquoChinesendashAfrican coopera-tion however remains constrained by the asymmet-ric nature of relations and Africas changing attitudetoward issues such as humanitarian interventionrdquo

Continued


Table 1 Continued


Brooks (2010 113) Substantial discontent in labor relations in the Zambiantextile industry ldquoWages were suppressed throughcasualization working conditions worsened andstrict discipline was imposed Workers did not gainthe modern livelihoods they anticipated and throughlabor struggles meanings and understandings ofracial differences were produced and anger towardthe Zambian state was articulatedrdquo

Askouri (2007 71) Chinese investments in Sudan are destroying local com-munities ldquoThe sad truth is both the Chinese andtheir elite partners in the Sudan government want toconceal some terrible facts about their partnershipwrites Askouri They are joining hands to uprootpoor people expropriate their land and appropriatetheir natural resourcesrdquo

Kiggundu (2008 130) Chinese investments are resource driven ldquoResults showthat largely driven by monopolistic state-ownedenterprises (SOE) Chinas outward FDI is concen-trated in a few large resource-rich African countriescharacterized by high risk governance environmentsand poor global competitivenessrdquo

Elu and Price (2010 587) Growing trade openness with China is not an avenue ofhigher living standards in the long-term for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) ldquo[i]ncreasing trade opennesswith China has no effect on the growth rate of totalfactor productivity To the extent that total factorproductivity and its growth is a crucial determinantof economic growth and living standards in the longrun our results suggest that increasing trade open-ness with China is not a long-run source of higherliving standards for sub-Saharan Africardquo

Chemingui and Bchir(2010 562)

Africa will not benefit much from Sino-African relationsbecause the continent is characterized by low levels ofdiversification and small productive capacities ldquoChinais expected to achieve in 10 years (2010-2020) whatinitially was expected to be achieved in 20 years incase of no agreement under the Doha Round wherea simple linear estimation on the evolution of Chi-nese exports is carried out Our results also showthat even in the case where China will offer moremarket access for African countries the situationwill not improve much for most of them The reasonis that Africa is still suffering from small productivecapacities and a low level of diversification of itseconomyrdquo

Power (2008 7) The relations are harmful to SSAs industrial growthbecause it challenges the mainstream wisdom of indus-trialization being a crucial development strategy com-ponent ldquoThese challenges are expressed through a

Continued


Table 1 Continued


combination of direct impacts (expressed in bilateralcountry-to-country relations) and indirect impacts(reflected in competition in third country markets)In current structures these impacts are predomi-nantly harmful for SSAs industrial growth asexpressed through its recent experience in theexports of clothing to the US under AGOA (AfricanGrowth amp Opportunity Act) If Washington Con-sensus policies prevail these harmful impacts will besustained and deepenedrdquo

Breslin and Taylor (2008 59) Sino-African relations may also export human rightviolations

Large (2008 93) Chinas noninterference policy in Sudans Darfur crisisis very disturbing ldquoToday China faces the challengeof accommodating its established policy of noninter-ference with the more substantive and growing com-plexity of Chinese involvement developed over thepast decade in Sudan amidst ongoing conflict inwestern Darfur and changing politics after theNorth-South peace agreement of January 2005rdquo

Panel B The Optimistic or Balance-Development School

Munemo (2013 106) Dependence on Chinese capital goods leads to economicgrowth in SSA ldquoThe author finds robust evidence insupport of the hypothesis that capital goods fromChina are an important technology transfer channelthat enhances economic growth in Africa Thereforetrade liberalization policies aimed at attracting Chi-nese capital on a nonpreferential basis are impor-tant In addition the results also suggest thatgrowth strategies based on greater physical andhuman capital accumulation increased trade open-ness political stability and less government con-sumption expenditure are importantrdquo

Ajakaiye and Kaplinsky(2009 479)

The dependence theory should be dropped to betterunderstand the nexus ldquoA reincarnation of depend-ency theory where Africa was seen as a quiveringvictim of external forces must be abandoned bothto understand better what is happening and why it ishappening and in helping Africa to make the bestof the opportunities opened up by the rapid emer-gence of the Asian Driver economies and the conse-quent restructuring of the global order in thetwenty-first Centuryrdquo

Ademola Bankole andOdewuyi (2009 485)

Both positive and negative trade effects exist althoughthe negative effects outweigh the positive in Africa Itis up to African policy makers to work toward reduc-ing the negative effects ldquoThe article confirms that

Continued


Table 1 Continued


there are both trade-related gains and losses arisingfrom ChinandashAfrica trade relations Beyond this isthe concern that the existing pattern of Africa-Chinatrademdashwhich continues to be strengthened byChinas rising profilemdashdoes not correspond to theregions longer term objectives that is to diversifyits economic and trade structure and ensure thattrade contributes to the industrial development ofAfrican countries This article suggests that formany African countries the negative effects mayoutweigh the positive onesrdquo

Kaplinsky and Morris(2009 551)

SSA should devise rational policies to benefit from theexploitation of its natural resources ldquoThe article con-cludes that SSA countries should maximize theopportunities opened to them by their resource-baseby adopting a similarly integrated and focusedresponse to Chinese (and other large) investors whoseek to draw on the continents natural resourcesrdquo

Ancharaz (2009 622) China-Africa relations are beneficial even toldquononresources richrdquo countries like MauritiusldquoMauritius with no exploitable natural resourcesand facing acute Chinese competition in its tradi-tional markets is a most likely candidate to sufferChinas onslaught This article argues that Chinaseconomic rise can benefit Mauritius Analyzing theimpact of China through the channels of trade aidand investment we show that preference erosionnot Chinas emergence is to blame for the drasticloss of jobs in the clothing industry This industryhowever has proved resilient since exports are backon a rising trend Conversely Chinese aid to financeconstruction and infrastructure projects has been awelcome relief even when it has been tied to the useof Chinese labor and inputs The most significantbenefits of Chinas engagement are likely to occur inthe area of investment as China strategically usesMauritius as a platform to penetrate the Africanmarketrdquo

Friedman (2009 1) China is transforming Africa by exporting entrepreneur-ial talents and economic dynamism ldquoAgainst the con-ventional wisdom that Chinese involvement cannottransform Africas economy for the better so as toend much of the poverty and also to spark highspeed growth this article finds that China is alreadyin the process of transforming Africa While theconventional wisdom sees corrupt regimes and weakstate capacity in Africa frittering away Africasopportunity to rise by plugging into Chinese dyna-mism China is found in this article already to beexporting entrepreneurial talent to Africa and to be

Continued


Table 1 Continued


dynamizing the African economy through EastAsian practices Chinese can bring industry toAfrica much as Japan brought it to Southeast Asiain the 1960s and 1970s Africa could therefore beincorporated into Asian economic dynamismrdquo

Power and Mohan (2010 462) It is a mutually beneficial historic relationship that issustainable in the future ldquoChina in its quest for acloser strategic partnership with Africa has increas-ingly dynamic economic political and diplomaticactivities on the continent Chinese leaders andstrategists believe that Chinas historical experienceand vision of economic development resonatespowerfully with African counterparts and that thelong-standing history of friendly political linkagesand development co-operation offers a durable foun-dation for future partnership Rather than high-lighting one strand of Chinese relations with Africanstates (such as aid or governance) we propose herethat it is necessary to critically reflect on the widergeopolitics of ChinandashAfrica relations (past and pres-ent) to understand how China is opening up newchoices and altering the playing field for Africandevelopment for the first time since the neo-liberalturn of the 1980srdquo

Mohan and Lampert (2010 92) African agencies are also playing an important role inshaping Sino-African relations ldquoMost analyses ofChinas renewed engagement with Africa treat Chinaas the driving force and little recognition is given tothe role of African agency especially beyond thelevel of state elites While both cases demonstrateAfrican agency the ability of African actors to exer-cise such agency is highly uneven placing Africanpolitics at the heart of any understanding of ChinandashAfrica relationsrdquo

Kuo (2012 24) The Beijing model should be engaged instead of beingcriticized ldquoThis article argues that instead ofcriticizing Beijing for security free-riding and nonco-operation in liberal peace projects in Africa weshould engage with Beijings perspective on Africansecurity and its rationale for noninterference inAfricas domestic affairsrdquo

Buckley (2013 429) From the Senegalese experience Chinese land grabbingcould be more beneficial to local actors if their viewsare more considered in the negotiation of contractsldquoWhat emerges is a picture of a Chinese agriculturalmanagement regime for African land that is simulta-neously fraught with conflict while also replete withcollaboration benefiting some smallholder farm-ers I argue that land grabbing must be seennot as a straightforward linear process of state or

Continued


Table 1 Continued


corporate takeover of global land but as a dynamicperformance of negotiation among diverse stateactors corporate players and citizensmdashone that willreshape global development in unanticipated waysrdquo

Mohan (2013 1255) More studies are needed to prove the myths surroundingSino-African relations especially that on the Chineseimporting their own labor ldquo[the study] then examinesa pervasive theme in ChinandashAfrica relations whichassumes that the Chinese work through enclavedinvestments to secure the resources of low-incomeeconomies although in this sense the Chinese are nodifferent from other investors Where they do differis in their bundling of aid trade and FDI and theiruse of imported labor which has been termedsurgical colonialism The article does not disputethe existence of Chinese enclaves but argues that weneed more empirical evidence on the levels of laborimportation in relation to local labor marketconditionsrdquo

Carmody (2009 1197) Sino-African relations offer the possibility of a develop-ment regime that reduces poverty ldquoSimilarities toprevious rounds of extractive globalization notwith-standing with greater inter-African coordinationthere is scope for South-South cooperation to have asubstantial poverty reduction impact in the futureConsequently the new ldquoscalar alignmentrdquo opens upthe possibility of a poverty reducing developmentregimerdquo

Diaw and Lessoua (2013 189) Trade with China diversifies the economy and mitigatesthe negative impact of natural resource specializationon economic growth ldquo[The paper] uses dynamicpanel estimations to measure the impact of tradeorientation on economic growth in the CEMACcountries and concludes that specialization in natu-ral resources affects economic growth negatively Butthis effect is somewhat mitigated by the orientationtowards Chinardquo

Edinger (2008) Growing specialized economic zones initiated by Chinaare improving African value chains

Jenkins and Edwards(2006 207)

The trade relationship may be positive or negativedepending on countries ldquoThe ways where Africa hasbeen affected differs from country to country withsome such as Angola Nigeria and Sudan beingimportant exporters others such as Ghana Ethio-pia Kenya Tanzania and Uganda mainly importersfrom Asia and Lesotho facing competition fromChina in export marketsrdquo

Goldstein and others(2006)

The rise in prices of natural resources benefit Africabut there are also dramatic and unexpectedconsequences

Continued


Table 1 Continued


Wu and Cheng(2010 629)

Chinas substantial rate of poverty mitigation holds spe-cial lessons for Africa that can be drawn from under-standing Sino-African relations ldquoThis article focuseson Chinas poverty reduction policies and programsand their impact on the poor regions and poorhouseholds Lessons are drawn for poverty reductionand economic development in African countriesThe article also explores the potential for collabora-tion in poverty reduction between China and Afri-can countries and recommendations are made forthe governments and donor agenciesrdquo

McCormick (2008 73) Chinas aid to Africa significantly affects developmentbut the impact varies depending on structural andinstitutional characteristics of recipients

Panel C The Accommodation School

Drogendijk andBlomkvist (2013 75)

Chinese firms have similar motivations to Westernfirms ldquoAll else equal the authors find that Africancountries enjoy a higher likelihood of Chinese out-ward FDI than the rest of the world Moreoverthey find that Chinese firms invest in African mar-kets for market-seeking natural resource-seekingand strategic asset-seeking motives hence themotives for Chinese FDI in Africa seem to matchthose of Western firms investments in globalmarketsrdquo

Lin and Farrell (2013 85) Chinese FDI is like conventional FDI ldquoWhile priorresearch has viewed Chinese outward investmentfrom the latecomer perspective the authors foundthat the behavior of Chinese privately owned enter-prises does not deviate substantially from thatdescribed by conventional foreign direct investmenttheoriesrdquo

Gu (2009 570) The primary factors driving private investment are Afri-can market opportunities competition within Chinaand the presence of a strong entrepreneurial spiritldquoKey findings are that the Chinese private firmshave followed their own paths to Africa and the pri-mary factors driving private investment are Africanmarket opportunities competition within China andthe presence of a strong entrepreneurial spiritrdquo

Zhang Wei andLiu (2013 96)

Chinese private enterprise investment is motivated byrisk-taking and market-seeking characteristics ldquoTheyalso make an empirical study of the determinants ofChinese PEs compared with state-owned enterprisesin the period 2002-2011 and found Chinese PEs inAfrica are driven mainly by the motivation ofmarket-seeking not by resource-seeking Chinasimports from the host country also facilitate Chinese

Continued


Table 1 Continued


companies investment in Africa and Chinese com-panies in Africa are risk-takersrdquo

Mohan and Tan-Mullins(2009 588)

Migration of Chinese workers into Africa is part of thecompetitive game although it has negative and posi-tive effects

Kragelund (2009 644) Chinese investments in two Zambian sectors resembleother foreign investments although they raise localeyebrows

Wissenbach (2009 662) Sino-African relations are ineluctable processes thatmerit the corporation of the EU for greater synergyin African development

Ovadia (2013 233) China represents both a new imperialism and a newmodel of development ldquoWhile differentiating betweenthe new Euro-American and Chinese imperialismsChinas new engagement exemplified by its relation-ship with Angola is a project of recolonization andappropriation of economic surplus The Chinesevariety of imperialism however offers African statesa compromise to their elite and to their citizens thathas heretofore been missing from post-colonialEuro-American imperialismmdashthe prospect of sus-tained economic growth and improvement to thequality of everyday liferdquo

Carmody and Owusu (2007 504) China versus American geoeconomic strategies in Africaare reworking structures of colonial trade fueling con-flicts and consolidating autocratic regimes

Kamwanga and Koyi (2009 6) The Chinese investments in Zambia are broadly consist-ent with the rule of free market competition ldquoMostof the Chinese firms operating in Zambia are stateowned andor are strongly supported by the Chinesestate which advantages them over other compet-itors The Chinese businesses do not operate likeconventional profit maximizing firms often willingto provide concessions to gain access to marketsFor some the practices include bidding at very lowprices settling for low profit margins sourcingcheap inputs from China and using fairly skilledChinese workersrdquo

Kolstad and Wiig (2011 31) Chinas investment in Africa is resource and ldquoweakinstitutionsrdquo driven This is not different from themotivations behind Western FDI

Osei and Mubiru (2010 1) Chinas move into Africa is not different from that ofthe West (hence there is a need for sources of rawmaterials and markets for finished products)

Sanfilippo (2010 599) This study goes beyond the mainstream determinants ofnatural resource endowments and market potentialdrivers to establish that Chinese FDI is also substan-tially linked to economic cooperation

Schiere (2010 615) There is need to build complementarities among Africatraditional development partners and China ldquoThe

Continued


surrounding Sino-African relations presented by Asongu and Aminkeng (2013263) from a bulk of literature (see eg De Grauwe Houssa and Picillo 2012Freschi 2010) Table 1 collates key claims andor argument synopses from cen-tral works in each school of thought discussed in this article

The Optimistic or Balance-Development SchoolAccording to the second school summarized in Panel B of Table 1 Sino-

African relations should be seen from an optimistic angle Moreover if the rela-tionship is asymmetric African governments have the leverage to take action fora balance-development approach (Duclos 2011 Menell 2010) This school formsan antithesis to the first school because it argues that the approach of patroniz-ing African countries by Western nations is more severe compared to the Chi-nese foreign policy that is based on unconditionality and noninterferenceFurthermore the use of ldquocolonialismrdquo by the first school to qualify the relation-ship is too strong a term andor even hypocritical because the use of foreign aidby the West to influence domestic policies in African countries is more friendlyto ldquoneocolonialismrdquo (Asongu and Aminkeng 2013 Tull 2006)

Asche and Scheurouller (2008) have provided an interesting literature about con-cerns of the first school and concluded that empirical evidence to substantiatethe positions of this school is not yet very apparent This finding is confirmed byAsongu and Aminkeng (2013) and supported by Menell (2010) who concludesthat Sino-African relations offer possibilities for mutual development Someanalysts have even postulated that policy makers in Africa should stop listeningto the West (Akomolafe 2008) because China and Africa were both in the sameeconomic stalemate in the 1970s Nijs (2008) a former junior Dutch ministersupports this school in her position that Chinas foreign policy is consistent with

Table 1 Continued


article advocates that complementarities can be builtbetween these development modalities on a nationalregional and global level This would enhance devel-opment effectiveness increase efficiency and createwinndashwin situations which would be beneficial toAfrican countries China and traditional develop-ment partnersrdquo

Mohan and Power (2008 23) Although Sino-African relations offer new options forthe development of Africa Chinese involvement is alsocontextual and ambivalent

Alden and Alves (2008 43) Sino-African relations is a historical evolution

Notes SSA Sub-Saharan Africa FDI Foreign Direct Investment EU European UnionCEMAC Economic and Monetary Community of Central African States


the New Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) because it is in linewith the African Unions conception of African ownership4

The conclusions in the literature supporting this second school are sum-marized in Panel B of Table 1 The narratives include inter alia first thedependence theory as postulated by the first school should be abandoned tobetter understand the Sino-African nexus (Ajakaiye and Kaplinsky 2009 479)Second the BM should be engaged instead of being criticized (Kuo 2012 24)essentially because Sino African relations offer the possibility of a developmentregime that mitigates poverty in Africa (Carmody 2009 1197) Third depend-ence on capital goods from China is good for economic prosperity in SSA(Munemo 2013 106) And finally there are both positive and negative effectsof the nexus and African policy makers should work toward mitigating thenegative effects which outweigh the positive (Ademola Bankole and Odewuyi2009 485) For example SSA should devise sustainable policies to benefit fromthe exploitation of its natural resources (Kaplinsky and Morris 2009 551)essentially because the rise in prices of natural resources is benefiting Africaalthough there are also dramatic and unexpected consequences (Goldstein andothers 2006)

The literature in the second school also contains at least 11 centralconclusions

1 China-Africa relations are mutually beneficial even in nonresource rich coun-tries like Mauritius (Ancharaz 2009 622)

2 China is bringing transformation to Africa through economic dynamism andexport of entrepreneurial talent (Friedman 2009 1)

3 the relationship has been historically mutually beneficial and is sustainable inthe future (Power and Mohan 2010 462)

4 African agencies are also playing a substantial role in shaping Sino-Africanrelations (Mohan and Lampert 2010 92)

5 from a Senegalese experience Chinese land grabbing could be more benefi-cial to local actors if more of their views are considered in the negotiation ofcontracts (Buckley 2013 429)

6 more studies are needed to prove the criticisms by the first school of Sino-African relations especially on the import of Chinese labour (Mohan 20131255)

7 growing specialized economic zones that have been initiated by China areimproving value chains in Africa (Edinger 2008)

4For Nijs (2008) ldquo[t]he West are used to telling African countries that if you are liberalized priva-tized and become more democratic we will help you But China treats African countries as equalpartners ndash the partnership rather than conditional relationship More and more economistsincluding me are considering the Beijing Consensus a better model in this century than the Wash-ington model People sometimes make the mistakes that modernization equals WesternizationIts not the case We cannot force the Western model on anything in the world Chinas rise lieson the changing of geo-economy which is tilting towards the East not the financial crisis in west-ern countriesrdquo


8 the effect of the relationship may be positive or negative depending on coun-tries (Jenkins and Edwards 2006 207)

9 trade with China is diversifying African economies and mitigating the nega-tive impact of natural resource specialization on economic prosperity (Diawand Lessoua 2013 189)

10 Chinas substantial rate of poverty mitigation holds special lessons for Africathat can be drawn from better understanding Sino-African relations (Wu andCheng 2010 629) and

11 Chinas aid to Africa significantly affects development but the impact variesdepending on structural and institutional characteristics of recipients(McCormick 2008)

The Accommodation SchoolThe third stream of the literature the accommodation school argues that theSino-African relationship is neither an issue of pessimism (or neocolonialism)as advocated by the first school nor one of optimism (or balance-development)as in the narrative of the second school According to this third school thenexus is simply a chain of ineluctable evolving globalization and economic rela-tional processes to which African nations should accommodate Africannations have no other major alternatives beside the West and China hencemust succumb (Asongu and Aminkeng 2013 Asongu Nwachukwu andAminkeng 2014 De Grauwe Houssa and Picillo 2012)

In essence the underpinnings of the school are based on two foundationsFirst while China and Western nations may have the same neocolonial ambi-tions African nations have no other alternatives Second China is using thesame norms of free market competition advocated by the WC to win moreprojects in Africa Moreover prescriptions of the WC administered to Africancountries over the past decades have failed to deliver for the most part (Asongu2012 Bartels Alladina and Lederer 2009 Darley 2012 Fofack 2014 Tuomi2011) thus it is politically correct for China to instrument the underlying fail-ure in her foreign policy

The conclusions of the literature supporting this third school are summar-ized in Panel C of Table 1 presented earlier The narratives include first corpo-rations from China have the same motivations as Western companies(Drogendijk and Blomkvist 2013 75) Second Sino-African relations are ine-luctable processes that merit the cooperation of the European Union forgreater synergy in African development (Wissenbach 2009 662) ThirdChinas engagement with Africa represents both a new imperialism and a newmodel of development (Ovadia 2013 233) And finally Chinese versus Ameri-can geoeconomic strategies in Africa are reworking patterns of colonial tradefueling conflicts and consolidating autocratic regimes (Carmody and Owusu2007 504)


Additional narratives feature several key points Chinese foreign directinvestment (FDI) is similar to conventional FDI (Lin and Farrell 2013 85)Also the primary factors motivating Chinese private investment in Africa aremarket opportunities a strong spirit of entrepreneurship and competitionwithin China (Gu 2009 570) or risk-taking and market-seeking features(Zhang Wei and Liu 2013 96) Another strand focuses on the argument thatmigration of Chinese workers into Africa is part of the competitive gamealthough it has raised concerns (Mohan and Tan-Mullins 2009 588) Focus-ing on investments others highlight that Chinese investments in two Zambiansectors are not different from mainstream foreign investment (Kragelund2009 644) and Chinese investments in Zambia are also broadly consistentwith the rule of free market competition (Kamwanga and Koyi 2009 6)While Chinese investments in Africa are resource and ldquoweak institutionsrdquodriven this is not different from the motivations behind Western FDI (Kol-stad and Wiig 2011 31) or Chinas move into Africa is not different from thatof the West centuries ago which was motivated primarily by the need for rawmaterials for her industries and markets for her finished products (Osei andMubiru 2010 1)

Sino-African relations is a historical evolution (Alden and Alves 2008 43)and hence according to this school studies should go beyond mainstreamdeterminants of market potential and natural endowments and criticallyengage how FDI is linked to economic cooperation (Sanfilippo 2010 599)This is seen to confirm the need to construct complementarities among Africatraditional development partners and China (Schiere 2010 615) This wouldultimately dissipate the ambivalent Sino-African relations although it offersnew options for the development of Africa (Mohan and Power 2008 23)

Reconciling the Schools of Thought and Contemporary Practical Implications

Reconciling the Schools of ThoughtThis section reconciles the schools of thought into four main strands pessi-

mists versus optimists preferences in rights (national vs human sovereign vsidiosyncratic and economic vs political) WC versus BM and an African Con-sensus incorporating both the BM and WC

First based on the available literature the accommodation school is themost supported because there are genuine reasons to be both pessimistic andoptimistic about Sino-African relations On an initial note as postulated byTull (2006) and recently supported by Asongu Nwachukwu and Aminkeng(2014) the West has been hypocritical in her criticism of Chinas foreign policyin Sino-African relations This is essentially because the United States foreignpolicy in Saudi Arabia is selective and not constrained by human rights con-cerns In essence it is motivated by the same ldquooil or resourcerdquo diplomacyemployed by China Moreover the French policy in Africa has historically not


been motivated by her cherished values of ldquoliberty fraternity and equalityrdquoOn a second note Sino-African relations are historical processes that arebound to continue in the distant future because of the growing relevance ofChina in an increasingly globalized world In essence globalization has becomean ineluctable process whose challenges cannot be neglected without putting injeopardy the prosperity of nations (Tchamyou 2015) Hence advocates of theoptimistic or balance-development school can rely on the criticisms of the pes-simistic or neocolonial school to improve the Sino-African nexus This ismainly because China is simply playing by the very standards of globalizationcherished by the latter school

Second there are issues in preferences of rights motivating the first and sec-ond schools that merit reconciliation These include national versus humanrights (Taylor 2006) sovereign versus idiosyncratic rights (Asongu Nwachukwuand Aminkeng 2014) and economic versus political rights (Asongu 2014a 2015Lalountas Manolas and Vavouras 2011 Moyo 2013) While the second sets ofrights are substantially advocated by the pessimistic school the first sets are pri-oritized by the Chinese model and hence represent the foundations of the opti-mistic school Three points warrant some discussion here On a first noteChinas foreign policy of noninterference is partially founded on the preferenceof national rights over human rights Africas historic suspicion of Western biasin the conception and definition of human rights has been recently entrenchedwith gay rights considered as fundamental human rights in the face of nationalrights (executive judiciary and legislative)5 Accordingly the ability of Africancountries to pass and enforce anti-gay laws is being seriously constrained A casein point is the recent anti-gay legislation bill in Uganda that has been welcomedwith the suspension of foreign aid and loans by some Western donors and theWorld Bank respectively (Asongu 2015)

On a second note specific individual rights which could be classified asldquoidiosyncratic rightsrdquo should not take precedence over sovereignty rightsaccording to Chinese foreign policy (Taylor 2006) Therefore since Africannations are more in tune with principles that are friendly to the absence ofhegemony international law should not enable sovereign nations to criticizeother sovereign nations on matters that are backed by domestic law and princi-ples of democracy If this is the case most radical criticisms leveled at Sino-African relations by the pessimistic school would be relaxed in favor of moreconstructive criticisms

The third note on preferences between ldquothe right to voterdquo and ldquothe right tofoodrdquo has been the object of intense debate in recent development literature(see eg Asongu 2015 Moyo 2013) There is a growing consensus that politicalrights are more endogenous to economic prosperity productive structures or

5It is important to note that the selective application of law by the International Criminal Court isalso an eloquent example of African suspicion toward Western bias on the human rights concept


economic rights (Anyanwu and Erhijakpor 2014) Hence if the pessimisticschool of thought were to acknowledge that developing countries need eco-nomic rights more than they need political rights criticisms leveled at Sino-African relations would substantially reduce

Third the debate over whether political rights or economic rights shouldcome first in a development model could be reconciled with the Moyo (2013)conjecture It should be noted that whereas the BM is defined by Moyo(2013) as ldquostate capitalism deemphasized democracy and priority in eco-nomic rightsrdquo she also defines the WC as ldquoprivate capitalism liberal democ-racy and priority in political rightsrdquo While the prioritization of politicalrights is strongly advocated by the pessimistic school the optimistic schoolputs more emphasis on the need for economic rights The conjecture advo-cates a short-run model that is based on priority in economic rights or theBM and a long-term development model based on priority in political rightsor the WC

In essence a sustainable ldquomiddle classrdquo is required for political rights tobe genuinely demanded and the BM has proven historically to be the bettermodel at providing this middle class within a relatively short time horizon(Asongu Nwachukwu and Aminkeng 2014) Therefore in the presence of amiddle class political rights would automatically be demanded by the popu-lation Moreover the demand for political rights would not be tainted bycrony democracy because economic rights (of food and shelter) that are con-cerns of the low-income class would have been provided The Moyo (2013)conjecture has been broadly validated in developing nations and Africancountries respectively by Lalountas Manolas and Vavouras (2011) andAsongu (2014b)

Fourth an African Consensus has also been derived from a reconcilia-tion of the first (WC or priority in political rights) and second (BM or prior-ity in economic rights) schools The current African Consensus or NEPADis promoted by both the WC and BM Accordingly while the WC promotesdemocracy and human rights advocated by the NEPAD the BM through itsnoninterference policy is consistent with the NEPADs value of Africanownership It should be noted that the NEPAD is a consensus for Africandevelopment that underscores the ldquopromotion of rights (human and demo-cratic) good governance and strong institutionsrdquo and ldquoAfrican sover-eigntyrdquo Whereas the BM favors the latter the former is supported bythe WC

In light of the above both the first and second schools advocating the WCand BM respectively are reconcilable in the NEPAD This African Consensushas been adopted by serious African nations for the advancement of the conti-nent Democratic economic development good governance and human rightsare values articulated in its charter


Contemporary Practical ImplicationsThe contemporary relevance of reconciling the dominant schools of thought

is at least threefold Notably the reconciliation enhances understanding of (1)the growing role of South-South relations as well as the need for bi-polar devel-opment strategies due to increasing dissatisfaction by developing countries in theWC (2) Africas extreme poverty tragedy and (3) the evolving narrative ofldquorightsrdquo concepts I engage these chronologically in three main strands

First there is a consensus that the growing South-South relations are cur-rently being greased by China (Asongu 2016 Desai and Vreeland 2014) Thisgrowing relationship which has both political and economic wings is beingtailored to emphasize the imperative of bi-polar development strategies Theneed for multi-polar models of development is partly based on entrenched dis-satisfaction by some economic blocks over the role of Bretton Woods institu-tions in determining the course of economic development in the internationalarena An example of the growing role of China is found in some newly createdfinancial institutions that are destined to promote the BM of developmentnotably the proposed Asian Investment Bank New Development Bank andContingency Reserve Arrangement It is hoped that these financial institutionswould balance the international financial architecture because the power archi-tecture on which Bretton Woods institutions were created after the SecondWorld War is no longer legitimate from political economic geographic anddemographic perspectives (see Cooper and Farooq 2015 Dixon 2015) Accord-ing to the mainstream narrative the highlighted financial institutions have acore aim to challenge the hegemony of Bretton Woods institutions in providingprotection with liquidity to developing countries in periods of crises and infunding basic services and emergency assistance to member states and conflict-affected countries Given the earlier discussion reconciling schools of thoughton Sino-African relations may go a long way toward changing the narrative onrivalry between China and the West to a discourse of complementarity

Second the reconciliation also has substantial poverty alleviation implica-tions for African countries Accordingly an April 2015 World Bank report onattainment of the Millennium Development Goal extreme poverty target hasrevealed that poverty has been decreasing in all regions of the world with theexception of Africa (World Bank 2015) despite the continent enjoying overtwo decades of growth resurgence that began in the mid 1990s (Fosu 2015 44)With this frustrating background in mind the Chinese development modelmay complement the WC in the tailoring of development policies across theAfrican continent This is essentially because Chinas lessons on poverty allevi-ation to other developing countries can no longer be neglected In essenceChina has achieved its economic miracle by putting economic rights beforepolitical rights As sustained by Asongu (2016) in the postindependence eramost African countries and China had the same economic woes Unfortu-nately while China decided to chart its own development course by putting


economic rights before political rights most African nations followed prescrip-tions of the WC by putting political rights before economic rights for the mostpart Today economic development differences between Africa and China areself-evident In light of this reconciling perspectives on Sino-African relationsto the understanding that the BM (WC) is more relevant in the short (long) runwould go a long way to addressing Africas extreme poverty challenges on thepost-2015 sustainably development agenda

Third reconciling dominant schools of thought on Sino-African relationsalso improves contemporary understanding of the conception of ldquorightsrdquo Thepost-Arab Spring situation of Libya (see Asongu and Nwachukwu 2015) andprevailing crisis in the Middle East with the burgeoning Islamic State are elo-quent contemporary testimonies to the fact that sovereign rights matter as muchas political rights for the development of nation states It is difficult to objectthat Libya today is far worse off than it was under Colonel Muammar Gaddafiin 2011 and that the citizens of Iraq are also far worse off than they were underthe regime of Saddam Hussein prior to US invasion in 2003 This narrativeshould not be construed as condoning the policies of Muammar Gaddafi andSaddam Hussein What the study seeks to highlight is that had the West recon-ciled its priority of political rights with ideals of the BM (sovereignty rights andeconomic rights) Libya and Iraq might not be failed States today

Conclusion

This article has reviewed around 100 papers on Sino-African relations pub-lished during the past five years to put some structure on the existing strandsThe literature is classified into dominant schools of thought the neocolonialor pessimistic school the balance-development or optimistic school and theaccommodation school I then proceeded to reconcile the schools of thought inlight of dominant themes and debates on development models which included(1) pessimists versus optimists (2) preferences of rights in development models(economic vs political national vs human and sovereign vs idiosyncratic) (3)WC versus the BM and (4) an African Consensus in both the WC and BM

The article establishes three main reconciliations First based on the avail-able literature the accommodation school is the most supported because thereare genuine reasons to be both pessimistic and optimistic about Sino-Africanrelations Hence advocates of the optimistic or balance-development schoolcan rely on the criticisms of the pessimistic or neocolonial school to improvethe Sino-African nexus Second the study has clarified and reconciled variousissues of ldquorights preferencesrdquo in the three schools of thought Third the debateover whether political rights or economic rights should come first in a develop-ment sequence have also been reconciled in light of evolving narratives in theliterature

Reconciling the underlying dominant schools has led to a number of inter-esting policy implications that have also been discussed In essence the


reconciliation enhances understanding of the growing role of South-South rela-tions as well as the need for bi-polar development strategies Africas extremepoverty tragedy and the evolving narrative of ldquorightsrdquo concepts

About the Author

Simplice A Asongu is the Director and Lead Economist of the AfricanGovernance and Development InstituteOxford Brookes University a self-funded research institute and think tank His research interests include politi-cal sciences knowledge economy inclusive development development modelsand financial development He has authored over 200 papers with more than110 peer reviewed His most recent paper that closely aligns with this publica-tions is ldquoThe Economic Consequences of ChinandashAfrica Relations DebunkingMyths in the Debaterdquo Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies availableat httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoifull101080147652842013838384

References

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ADEMOLA O TITILOYE ABIODUN S BANKOLE and ADEOLU O ODEWUYI2009 ldquoChina-Africa Trade Relations Insights from AERC Scoping StudiesrdquoThe European Journal of Development Research 21 (4) 485-505 Accessed onDecember 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwpalgrave-journalscomejdrjournalv21n4fullejdr200928ahtml

AJAKAIYE OLUSANYA and RAPHAEL KAPLINSKY 2009 ldquoChina in AfricaA Relationship in Transitionrdquo European Journal of Development Research 21(4) 479-484 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwpalgrave-journalscomejdrjournalv21n4fullejdr200930ahtml

AKOMOLAFE FEMI 2008 ldquoNo One Is Laughing at the Asians Anymore FemiAkomolafe on the Lessons Africa Can Learn from China Stop Listening tothe West and Your Economic Dreams Will Come Truerdquo New Africa Accessedon December 2 2015 Available online at httpswwwquestiacommagazine1G1-147339305no-one-is-laughing-at-the-asians-anymore-femi-akomolafe

ALDEN CHRIS 2006 ldquoChina in Africardquo Survival Global Politics and Strat-egy 47 (3) 147-164 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online athttpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs10108000396330500248086


ALDEN CHRIS and CRISTINA ALVES 2008 ldquoHistory amp Identity in the Con-struction of Chinas Africa Policyrdquo Review of African Political Economy 35(115) 43-58 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs10108003056240802011436journalCode5crea20

ALDEN CHRIS DANIEL LARGE and RICARDO DE OLIVEIRA 2008 ChinaReturns to Africa A Superpower and a Continent Embrace London UK Hurst

ALVES PHILIP 2006 ldquoEngaging Asias Biggest Tiger Exploring the Con-tours of a SACU-China Trade Dealrdquo South African Institute of InternationalAffairs Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwsaiiaorgzadoc_view285-trade-report-no-14-february-2007

ANCHARAZ VINAYE 2009 ldquoDavid V Goliath Mauritius Facing Up toChinardquo European Journal of Development Research 21 (4) 622-643 Accessedon December 2 2015 Available online at httpasiandriversopenacukAncharaz20Finalpdf

ANYANWU JOHN and ANDREW E O ERHIJAKPOR 2014 ldquoDoes Oil WealthAffect Democracy in Africardquo African Development Review 26 (1) 15-37Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwafdborgfileadminuploadsafdbDocumentsPublicationsWorking_Paper_184_-_Does_Oil_Wealth_Affect_Democracy_in_Africapdf

ASCHE HELMUT and MARGOT SCHLLER 2008 ldquoChinas Engagement inAfrica Opportunities and Risks for Developmentrdquo Deutsche Gesellschaft feurourTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Available online at https3amazonawscomzanran_storagewww2gtzdeContentPages19176160pdf

ASKOURI ALI 2007 ldquoChinas Investment in Sudan Displacing Villages andDestroying Communitiesrdquo In African Perspectives on China in Africa editedby F Manji and S Marks London UK FahamuPambazuka News 71-86

ASONGU SIMPICE 2012 ldquoGovernment Quality Determinants of Stock Mar-ket Performance in African Countriesrdquo Journal of African Business 13 (3)183-199 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httppapersssrncomsol3paperscfmabstract_id52493176

mdashmdash 2014a ldquoGlobalization (Fighting) Corruption and Development HowAre These Phenomena Linearly and Nonlinearly Related in Wealth EffectsrdquoJournal of Economic Studies 41 (3) 346-369 Accessed on December 2 2015Available online at httpsideasrepecorgpagdwpaper12-024html

mdashmdash 2014b ldquoSoftware Piracy Inequality and the Poor Evidence fromAfricardquo Journal of Economic Studies 41 (4) 526-553

mdashmdash 2015 ldquoOn Taxation Political Accountability and Foreign Aid Empir-ics to a Celebrated Literaturerdquo South African Journal of Economics 83 (2)


180-198 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httponlineli-brarywileycomdoi101111saje12064abstract

mdashmdash 2016 ldquoDeterminants of Growth in Fast Developing CountriesEvidence from Bundling and Unbundling Institutionsrdquo Politics amp Policy 44(1) 97-134 Accessed on February 27 2016 Available online at httponline-librarywileycomdoi101111polp12148abstract

ASONGU SIMPICE and GILBERT AMINKENG 2013 ldquoThe Economic Conse-quences of China-Africa Relations Debunking Myths in the Debaterdquo Jour-nal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies 11 (4) 261-277 Accessed onDecember 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoifull101080147652842013838384

ASONGU SIMPICE and JACINTA NWACHUKWU 2015 ldquoRevolution EmpiricsPredicting the Arab Springrdquo Empirical Economics Accessed on December 22015 Available online at httplinkspringercomarticle1010072Fs00181-015-1013-0

ASONGU SIMPICE JACINTA NWACHUKWU and GILBERT AMINKENG 2014ldquoChinas Strategies in Economic Diplomacy Updated Lessons for Africathe West and Chinardquo Social Science Research Network Accessed on Decem-ber 2 2015 Available online at httppapersssrncomsol3paperscfmab-stract_id52571788

BABATUNDE MUSIBUA 2013 ldquoSino-Africa Investment Relations TheGood the Bad and the Uglyrdquo Asia Pacific and Globalisation Review 3 (1) 1-23 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpsjournalsmace-wancaindexphpapgrarticleview103

BARTELS FRANK L SADIQ N ALLADINA and SUMAN LEDERER 2009ldquoForeign Direct Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa Motivating Factors andPolicy Issuesrdquo Journal of African Business 10 (2) 141-162 Accessed onDecember 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwunidoorgfileadminuser_mediaPublicationsResearch_and_statisticsBranch_publicationsResearch_and_PolicyFilesWorking_Papers2008WP08200820Foreign20Direct20Investment20in20Sub-Saharan20Africa20-20Determinants20and20Location20Decisionspdf

BESADA HANY YANG WANG and JOHN WHALLEY 2008 ldquoChinas Grow-ing Economic Activity in Africardquo National Bureau of Economic ResearchAccessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpasiandriversopenacukChina20Africapdf

BIGGERI MARIO and MARCO SANFILIPPO 2009 ldquoUnderstanding ChinasMove into Africa An Empirical Analysisrdquo Journal of Chinese Economic andBusiness Studies 7 (1) 31-54 Accessed on December 2 2015 Availableonline at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs10108014765280802604714


BRENTON PAUL and PETER WALKENHORST 2010 ldquoImpact of the Rise ofChina on Developing Country Trade Evidence from North Africardquo AfricanDevelopment Review 22 (1) 577-586 Accessed on December 2 2015 Availableonline at httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1467-8268201000265xabstract

BRESLIN SHAUN and IAN TAYLOR 2008 ldquoExplaining the Rise of HumanRights in Analyses of Sino-African Relationsrdquo Review of African PoliticalEconomy 35 (115) 59-71 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online athttpwrapwarwickacuk283

BROOKS ANDREW 2010 ldquoSpinning and Weaving Discontent Labour Rela-tions and the Production of Meaning at Zambia-China MulungushiTextilesrdquo Journal of Southern African Studies 36 (1) 113-132 Accessed onDecember 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs10108003057071003607360

BUCKLEY LILA 2013 ldquoChinese Land-Based Interventions in Senegalrdquo Devel-opment and Change 44 (2) 429-450 Accessed on December 2 2015 Availableonline at httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111dech12016abstract

CARMODY PADRAIG 2009 ldquoAn Asian Driven Economic Recovery inAfrica The Zambian Caserdquo World Development 37 (7) 1197-1207 Accessedon December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwsciencedirectcomsci-encearticlepiiS0305750X09000114

CARMODY PADRAIG and FRANCIS OWUSU 2007 ldquoChinese versus AmericaGeo-Economic Strategies in Africardquo Political Geography 26 (5) 504-524Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httplibdriastateeducgiviewcontentcgiarticle51010ampcontext5communityplanning_pubs

CHEMINGUI MOHAMED A and MOHAMED H BCHIR 2010 ldquoThe Futureof African Trade with China under Alternative Trade LiberalisationSchemesrdquo African Development Review 22 (1) 562-576 Accessed on Decem-ber 2 2015 Available online at httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1467-8268201000264xabstract

CLINTON HILLARY R 2011 ldquoInterview on Africa 360rdquo June US Depart-ment of State Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwstategovsecretary20092013clintonrm201106165941htm

COOPER ANDREW and ASIF FAROOQ 2015 ldquoTesting the Club Dynamics ofthe BRICS The New Development Bank from Conception to Establish-mentrdquo University of Waterloo Accessed on December 2 2015 Availableonline at httpwwwbricsutorontocabiblioiorj-2015-02-cooper-farooqpdf

DARLEY WILLIAM K 2012 ldquoIncreasing Sub-Saharan Africas Share of For-eign Direct Investment Public Policy Challenges Strategies andImplicationsrdquo Journal of African Business 13 (1) 62-69 Accessed on


December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080152289162012657981

DE GRAUWE PAUL ROMAIN HOUSSA and GIULIA PICILLO 2012 ldquoAfricanTrade Dynamics Is China a Different Trading Partnerrdquo Journal of ChineseEconomic and Business Studies 10 (1) 15-45 Accessed on December 2 2015Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080147652842012638460

DESAI RAJ and JAMES VREELAND 2014 ldquoWhat the New Bank of BRICSIs all Aboutrdquo The Washington Post July Accessed on December 2 2015Available online at httpswwwwashingtonpostcomnewsmonkey-cagewp20140717what-the-new-bank-of-brics-is-all-about

DIAW DIADI and ALBERT LESSOUA 2013 ldquoNatural Resources ExportsDiversification and Economic Growth of CEMAC Countries On the Impactof Trade with Chinardquo African Development Review 25 (2) 189-202 Accessedon December 2 2015 Available online at httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1467-8268201312023xabstract

DIXON CHRIS 2015 ldquoThe New BRICS Bank Challenging the InternationalFinancial Orderrdquo Global Policy Institute (28) 1-13 Accessed on December2 2015 Available online at httpwwwgpilondoncompublicationspolicy-paper-28-march-2015-the-new-brics-bank-challenging-the-international-financial-order

DROGENDIJK RIAN and KATARINA BLOMKVIST 2013 ldquoDrivers andMotives for Chinese Outward Foreign Direct Investment in Africardquo Journalof African Business 14 (2) 75-84 Accessed on December 2 2015 Availableonline at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080152289162013804320

DUCLOS VINCENT 2011 ldquoThe Rise of China and India in Africa ChallengesOpportunities and Critical Interventionsrdquo Review of African Political Economy 38(129) 506-507 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080030562442011598649journalCode5crea20

EDINGER HANNAH 2008 ldquoChinas Commercial Relationship with Africa Evalu-ating Special Economic Zonesrdquo Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Insti-tute for West Asian and African Studies (IWAAS) Beijing China April 15

ELU JULIET and GREGORY PRICE 2010 ldquoDoes China Transfer ProductivityEnhancing Technology to Sub-Saharan Africa Evidence from Manufactur-ing Firmsrdquo African Development Review 22 (1) 587-598 Accessed onDecember 2 2015 Available online at httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1467-8268201000260xabstract

FOFACK HIPPOLYTE 2014 ldquoThe Idea of Economic Development Viewsfrom Africardquo UNU-WIDER Accessed on December 2 2015 Availableonline at httpswwwwiderunuedupublicationidea-economic-development


FOSU AUGUSTIN 2015 ldquoGrowth Inequality and Poverty in Sub-SaharanAfrica Recent Progress in a Global Contextrdquo Oxford Development Studies43 (1) 44-59 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwcsaeoxacukworkingpaperspdfscsae-wps-2014-17pdf

FRESCHI LAURA 2010 ldquoChina in Africa Myths and Realitiesrdquo AID-WATCH Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpaidwatch-erscom201002china-in-africa-myths-and-realities

FRIEDMAN EDWARD 2009 ldquoHow Economic Superpower China CouldTransform Africardquo Journal of Chinese Political Science 14 (1) 1-20 Accessedon December 2 2015 Available online at httplinkspringercomarticle101007s11366-008-9037-3

GAYE ADAMA 2006 Chine-Afrique Le dragon et lautruche Essai danalysede levolution contrastee des relations sino-africaines sainte ou impie alliancedu XXIeme siecle [China-Africa The Dragon and the Ostrich Test Analysisof the Evolution of Contrasting China-Africa Relations Holy or Unholy Alli-ance of the XXI Century] France Paris LHarmattan

GIOVANNETTI GIORGIA and MARCO SANFILIPPO 2009 ldquoDo ChineseExports Crowd-Out African Goods An Econometric Analysis by Countryand Sectorrdquo European Journal of Development Research 21 (4) 506-530Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpasiandriversopenacukPaper20Giovannetti-Sanfilippo20for20Ajakaiye-Kaplinsky20EJDR20Special20Issue2023-04-2009pdf

GOLDSTEIN ANDREA NICOLAS PINAUD HELMUT REISEN and XIAOBAOCHEN 2006 ldquoThe Rise of China and India Whats in it for Africardquo OECDDevelopment Centre Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online athttpwwwoecdorgdevtheriseofchinaandindia-whatsinitforafricahtm

GU JING 2009 ldquoChinas Private Enterprises in Africa and Implications forAfrican Developmentrdquo European Journal of Development Research SpecialIssue 24 (4) 570-587 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online athttpwwwpalgrave-journalscomejdrjournalv21n4fullejdr200921ahtml

GUERRORO DOROTHY-GRACE and FIROZE MANJI 2008 Chinas New Rolein Africa and the South A Search for a New Perspective Oxford UKFahamu and Focus on the Global South

HUANG YASHENG 2010 ldquoDebating Chinas Economic Growth The BeijingConsensus or the Washington Consensusrdquo Academy of Management Perspec-tives 24 (2) 31-47 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpampaomorgcontent24231short

HULIARAS ASTERIS and KONSTATINOS MAGLIVERAS 2008 ldquoIn Search of aPolicy EU and US Reactions to the Growing Chinese Presence in AfricardquoEuropean Foreign Affairs Review 13 (3) 399-420 Accessed on December 2


2015 Available online at httpswwwkluwerlawonlinecomabstractphparea5Journalsampid5EERR2008029

JACOB JABIN T 2016 ldquoChinese Migrants and Africas Development NewImperialists or Agents of Changerdquo Africa Review 8 (1) 71-72 Accessed onDecember 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs1010800974405320151090664journalCode5rafr20

JENKINS RHYS and CHRIS EDWARDS 2006 ldquoThe Economic Impacts ofChina and India on Sub-Saharan Africardquo Journal of Asian Economics 17 (2)207-225 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwsci-encedirectcomsciencearticlepiiS1049007806000418

JI BAOCHENG 2010 ldquoChinas Economic Recovery and the China ModelrdquoJournal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies 8 (3) 215-226 Accessedon December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080147652842010493638

KAMWANGA JOLLY and GRAYSON KOYI 2009 ldquoThe Impact of China-Africa Investment Relations The Case of Zambiardquo African EconomicResearch Consortium November Accessed on December 2 2015 Availableonline at httpswwwafricaportalorgdspacearticlesimpact-china-africa-investment-relations-case-zambia

KAPLINSKY RAPHAEL and DIRK MESSNER 2008 ldquoIntroduction TheImpact of the Asian Drivers on the Developing Worldrdquo World Development36 (2) 197-209 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwsciencedirectcomsciencearticlepiiS0305750X07001970

KAPLINSKY RAPHAEL and MIKE MORRIS 2009 ldquoChinese FDI in Sub-SaharanAfrica Engaging with Large Dragonsrdquo The European Journal of DevelopmentResearch 21 (4) 551-569 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online athttpwwwpalgrave-journalscomejdrjournalv21n4fullejdr200924ahtml

KIGGUNDU MOSES 2008 ldquoA Profile of Chinas Outward Foreign Direct Invest-ment to Africardquo Proceedings of the American Society of Business and BehavioralSciences 15 (1) 130-144 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwseiofbluemountaincomuploadproduct2009112008jrhy12a7pdf

KITISSOU MARCEL 2007 Africa in Chinas Global Strategy London UKAdonis and Abbey

KOLSTAD IVAR and ARNE WIIG 2011 ldquoBetter the Devil You KnowChinese Foreign Direct Investment in Africardquo Journal of African Business 12(2) 31-50 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs1010801536710X2011555259

KRAGELUND PETER 2009 ldquoPart of the Disease or Part of the CureChinese Investments in the Zambian Mining and Construction Sectorsrdquo


European Journal of Development Research 21 (4) 644-661 Accessed onDecember 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwpalgrave-journalscomejdrjournalv21n4fullejdr200923ahtml

KUO STEVEN 2012 ldquoBeijings Understanding of African Security Contextand Limitationsrdquo African Security 5 (1) 24-43 Accessed on December 22015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080193922062012653306

LALL SANJAYA JOHN WEISS and HIROSHI OIKAWA 2005 ldquoChinas Competi-tive Threat to Latin America An Analysis for 1990-2002rdquo Oxford DevelopmentStudies 33 (2) 163-194 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online athttpswwwidsacukfilesChinascompetitivethreattolatinamerica2005pdf

LALOUNTAS DIONISIOS GEORGE MANOLAS and IOANNIS VAVOURAS 2011ldquoCorruption Globalization and Development How Are These Three Phe-nomena Relatedrdquo Journal of Policy Modeling 33 (4) 636-648 Accessed onDecember 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwsciencedirectcomsciencearticlepiiS0161893811000172

LARGE DANIEL 2008 ldquoChina amp the Contradictions of Non-Interference inSudanrdquo Review of African Political Economy 35 (115) 93-106 Accessed onDecember 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs10108003056240802011568journalCode5crea20

LIN XIAOHUA and CARLYLE FARRELL 2013 ldquoThe Internationalization Strategiesof Chinese State and Private State Enterprises in Africardquo Journal of African Busi-ness 14 (2) 85-95 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080152289162013804311journalCode5wjab20

LYMAN PRINCETON 2005 ldquoChinas Rising Role in Africardquo Council on For-eign Relations July 21 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online athttpwwwcfrorgchinachinas-rising-role-africap8436

MAWDSLEY EMMA 2008 ldquoFu Manchu versus Dr Livingstone in the DarkContinent How British Broadsheet Newspapers Represent China Africaand the Westrdquo Pambazuka News Accessed on December 2 2015 Availableonline at httpwwwpambazukanetencategoryphpcomment45593

MCCORMICK DOROTHY 2008 ldquoChina amp India as Africas New Donors TheImpact of Aid on Developmentrdquo Review of African Political Economy 35(115) 73-92 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs10108003056240802011501journalCode5crea20

MENELL NATASHA 2010 ldquoChina and Africa The New Neocolonialismrdquo HelenSuzman Foundation Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwebcachegoogleusercontentcomsearchq5cacheBS4pZKL9wlIJhsforgzaresource-centrefocusfocus-58-september-2010-south-africa-and-the-changing-worldNMenellpdfdownload1ampcd51amphl5enampct5clnkampgl5mx


MOHAN GILES 2013 ldquoBeyond the Enclave Towards a Critical Political Econ-omy of China and Africardquo Development and Change 44 (6) 1255-1272Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at hsforgzaresource-centrefocusfocus-58-september-2010-south-africa-and-the-changing-worldNMenellpdf

MOHAN GILES and BEN LAMPERT 2010 ldquoNegotiating China ReinsertingAfrican Agency into China-Africa Relationsrdquo African Affairs 112 (446) 92-110 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpswwwresearchgatenetpublication261295801_Negotiating_China_Reinserting_Afri-can_Agency_into_ChinaAfrica_Relations

MOHAN GILES and MARCUS POWER 2008 ldquoNew African Choices ThePolitics of Chinese Engagementrdquo Review of African Political Economy 35(115) 23-42 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs10108003056240802011394

MOHAN GILES and MAY TAN-MULLINS 2009 ldquoChinese Migrants in Africaas New Agents of Development An Analytical Frameworkrdquo European Jour-nal of Development Research 21 (4) 588-605 Accessed on December 2 2015Available online at httpwwwpalgrave-journalscomejdrjournalv21n4fullejdr200922ahtml

MOREIRA MAURICIO 2007 ldquoFear of China Is There a Future for Manu-facturing in Latin Americardquo World Development 35(3) 355-376 Accessed onDecember 2 2015 Available online at httppapersssrncomsol3paperscfmabstract_id5964280

MOYO DAMBISA 2013 ldquoIs China a New Idol for Developing CountriesrdquoTED Talks Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpswwwyoutubecomwatchv54Q2aznfmcYU

MUNEKU AUSTIN and GRAYSON KOYI 2008 The Social Economic Impactof Asian FDI in Zambia Lusaka Zambia Friedrich Ebert Stiftung

MUNEMO JONATHAN 2013 ldquoExamining Imports of Capital Goods fromChina as a Channel for Technology Transfer and Growth in Sub-SaharanAfricardquo Journal of African Business 14 (2) 106-116 Accessed on December2 2015 Available online at httpeconpapersrepecorgarticletafwjabxxv_3a14_3ay_3a2013_3ai_3a2_3ap_3a106-116htm

NDJIO BASILE 2009 ldquoShanghai Beauties and African Desires MigrationTrade and Chinese Prostitution in Cameroonrdquo European Journal of Develop-ment Research 21 (4) 606-621 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available onlineat httpwwwpalgrave-journalscomejdrjournalv21n4fullejdr200931ahtml

NIJS ANNETTE 2008 ldquoChinese Model of Development Suits 21st Centuryrdquo Xin-hua News Agency November Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online athttpwwwchinaorgcnbusinessnews2008-1107content_16728807_2htm


ORTMANN STEPHAN 2012 ldquoThe Beijing Consensus and the SingaporeModel Unmasking the Myth of an Alternative Authoritarian State-Capitalist Modelrdquo Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies 10 (4)337-359 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtand-fonlinecomdoiabs101080147652842012724981

OSEI BARFOUR and ALEX MUBIRU 2010 ldquoChinese Trade and InvestmentActivities in Africardquo African Development Banks Policy Brief 1 (4) 1-12Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwafdborgfil-eadminuploadsafdbDocumentsPublicationsChinese20Trade2020In-vestment20Activities20in20Africa2020Augpdf

OVADIA JESSE 2013 ldquoAccumulation with or without Dispossession Abothand Approach to China in Africa with Reference to Angolardquo Reviewof African Political Economy 40 (136) 233-250 Accessed on December 22015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080030562442013794724journalCode5crea20

POWER MARCUS and GILES MOHAN 2010 ldquoTowards a Critical Geopoliticsof Chinas Engagement with African Developmentrdquo Geopolitics and Develop-ment 15 (3) 462-495 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online athttpwwwopenacuksocialsciencesbisa-africaconfpapersgeopolitics_power_mohanpdf

POWER RAPHAEL 2008 ldquoWhat Does the Rise of China do for Industriali-zation in Sub-Saharan Africardquo Review of African Political Economy 35 (115)7-22 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs10108003056240802011360

RENARD MARY-FRANOISE 2011 ldquoChinas Trade and FDI in Africardquo Afri-can Development Bank May Accessed on December 2 2015 Available onlineat httpwwwafdborgfileadminuploadsafdbDocumentsPublicationsWork-ing20126pdf

ROBINSON ALEXANDER 2009 ldquoHearts Minds and Wallets Lessons fromChinas Growing Relationship with Africardquo Journal of Alternative Perspec-tives in the Social Sciences 1 (3) 861-869 Accessed on December 2 2015Available online at httpciteseerxistpsueduviewdocdownloaddoi510114725154amprep5rep1amptype5pdf

SANFILIPPO MARCO 2010 ldquoChinese FDI to Africa What Is the Nexus withForeign Economic Cooperationrdquo African Development Review 22 (1) 599-614 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1467-8268201000261xabstract

SCHIERE RICHARD 2010 ldquoBuilding Complementarities in African betweenDifferent Development Cooperation Modalities of Traditional DevelopmentPartners and Chinardquo African Development Review 22 (1) 615-628 Accessed


on December 2 2015 Available online at httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1467-8268201000262xabstract

SCHIERE RICHARD and PETER WALKENHORST 2010 ldquoIntroductionChinas Increasing Engagement in Africa Towards Stronger Trade Invest-ment and Development Cooperationrdquo African Development Review 22 (1)559-561 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httponlineli-brarywileycomdoi101111j1467-8268201000266xabstract

TAYLOR IAN 2006 ldquoChinas Oil Diplomacy in Africardquo International Affairs82 (5) 937-959 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1468-2346200600579xabstract

mdashmdash 2007 ldquoGovernance in Africa and Sino-Africa Relations Contradic-tions or Confluencerdquo Politics 27 (3) 139-146 Accessed on December 22015 Available online at httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1467-9256200700293xabstract

TCHAMYOU VANESSA 2015 ldquoThe Role of Knowledge Economy in AfricanBusinessrdquo Journal of the Knowledge Economy Forthcoming

TULL DENIS 2006 ldquoChinas Engagement in Africa Scope Significance andConsequencerdquo The Journal of Modern African Studies 44 (3) 459-479Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httparchivesceriumcaIMGpdfTullpdf

TUOMI KRISTA 2011 ldquoThe Role of the Investment Climate and Tax Incentivesin the Foreign Direct Investment Decision Evidence from South Africardquo Journalof African Business 12 (1) 133-147 Accessed on December 2 2015 Availableonline at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080152289162011555279

VILLORIA NELSON 2009 ldquoChinas Growth and the Agricultural Exports ofSub-Saharan Southern Africardquo European Journal of Development Research21 (4) 531-550 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpwwwpalgrave-journalscomejdrjournalv21n4fullejdr200927ahtml

WANG LIMING and JINGHAI ZHENG 2010 ldquoChina and the ChangingLandscape of the World Economyrdquo Journal of Chinese Economic and Busi-ness Studies 8 (3) 203-214 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available onlineat httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080147652842010493637

mdashmdash 2012 ldquoChinas Rise as a New Paradigm in the World Economy Pre-liminariesrdquo Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies 10 (4) 301-312 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpsideasrepecorgatafjocebsv10y2012i4p301-312html

WEI PAN 2007 ldquoThe Chinese Model of Developmentrdquo Center for Chineseand Global Affairs October Accessed on December 2 2015 Available onlineat httpfpcorgukfsblob888pdf


WEI WILLIAM 2013 ldquoSpecial Issue Chinese Trade and Investment inAfricardquo Journal of African Business 14 (2) 72-74 Accessed on December 22015 Available online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080152289162013812012

WEI YINGQI and CHENGANG WANG 2009 ldquoUnderstanding Chinas Inter-national Economic Integrationrdquo Journal of Chinese Economic and BusinessStudies 7 (4) 401-408 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online athttpsideasrepecorgatafjocebsv7y2009i4p401-408html

WISSENBACH UWE 2009 ldquoThe EUs Response to Chinas Africa Safari CanTriangular Co-Operation Match Needsrdquo European Journal of DevelopmentResearch 21 (4) 662-674 Accessed on December 2 2015 Available onlineathttpwwwpalgrave-journalscomejdrjournalv21n4fullejdr200925ahtml

WORLD BANK 2015 ldquoWorld Development Indicatorsrdquo World Bank Publica-tions Accessed on December 2 2015 Available online at httpdataworld-bankorgnewsrelease-of-world-development-indicators-2015

WU ZHONG and ENIJANG CHENG 2010 ldquoPoverty Alleviation in the Peo-ples Republic of China The Implications for Sino-African Cooperation inPoverty Reductionrdquo African Development Review 22 (1) 629-643 Accessedon December 2 2015 Available online at httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1467-8268201000263xabstract

ZHANG JUAN WILLIAM WEI and ZUAHSHI LIU 2013 ldquoStrategic Entryand Determinants of Chinese Private Sector Enterprises in Africardquo Journalof African Business 14 (2) 96-105 Accessed on December 2 2015 Availableonline at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs101080152289162013804367

ZHOU QI 2005 ldquoConflicts over Human Rights between China and theUSrdquo Human Rights Quarterly 27 (1) 105-124 Accessed on December 22015 Available online at httpwwwjstororgstable20069781

ZHU YIPING 2010 ldquoTrade Capital Flows and External Balance Is ChinaUnique in Two Hundred Years of Globalizationrdquo Journal of Chinese Eco-nomic and Business Studies 8 (1) 1-22 Accessed on December 2 2015 Avail-able online at httpwwwtandfonlinecomdoiabs10108014765280903488322


Hu Shaohua 2007 ldquoConfucianism and Contemporary Chinese PoliticsrdquoPolitics amp Policy 35 (1) 136-153 httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1747-1346200700051xpdfWise Carol and Cintia Quiliconi 2007 ldquoChinas Surge in Latin Ameri-can Markets Policy Challenges and Responsesrdquo Politics amp Policy 35 (3)410-438 httponlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111j1747-1346200700067xabstract

Related MediaWorld Economic Forum 2011 ldquoAfrica 2011 The Future of China AfricaRelationsrdquo httpswwwyoutubecomwatchv5oIEnKlcOaPgWorld Economic Forum 2011 ldquoAfrica 2011 Building South SouthRelationsrdquo httpswwwyoutubecomwatchv5qTabLadA-PA

Examinamos cerca de 100 artıculos sobre relaciones Sino-Africanaspublicados en su mayorıa durante los ultimos 5 a~nos con el objetivo deestablecer una clasificacion de las ideologıas existentes La literatura esclasificada en escuelas de pensamiento dominante principalmente laneocolonial o pesimista la de balance-desarrollo u optimista y la cor-riente adaptativa Luego de la clasificacion se concilian las corrientesde pensamiento en base a los argumentos y debates dominantes sobrelos modelos de desarrollo entre otros (1) pesimistas versus optimistas(2) preferencias sobre derechos en modelos de desarrollo (economicosvs polıticos nacionales vs humanos y soberanos vs idiosincraticos)(3) el consenso de Washington versus el modelo de Beijing y (4) unconsenso africano en el consenso de Washington y el modelo de BeijingLa primera y segunda escuela de pensamiento tienen articulados susvalores fundamentales en la Nueva Asociacion para el Desarrollo deAfrica (NEPAD por sus siglas en ingles) Se discuten las implicacionesen la polıtica publica con enfasis en el creciente papel de China lalucha contra la pobreza en Africa y una concepcion holıstica de losldquoderechosrdquo

Lost decades of the Washington Consensus (WC) as a development theoryhave pushed African policy makers to start seeking non-Western allies (Fofack2014 6) Moreover a plethora of factors are constraining African nationstoward alternative development models inter alia manipulation during theCold War Structural Adjustment International Monetary Fund policies cor-ruption of governments by Western companies Slavery and Colonialism Inthis light the growing political and economic influence of China has becomean interesting option for African nations (Asongu Nwachukwu and Amin-keng 2014 Jacob 2016 Robinson 2009) Accordingly the burgeoning Sino-African South-South relationship is essentially motivated by the need for moreequity (at least in policy) which the West has not delivered to African nationsfor centuries

Chinas burgeoning footsteps on the African continent has led to a seriesof debates in academic and policy-making circles because ldquoChina returns to





























Continued


Table 1 Continued









Continued


Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued












Continued


Table 1 Continued














Continued






Table 1 Continued





















































Conclusion






About the Author


References


























































































































































Continued


Table 1 Continued









Continued


Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued












Continued


Table 1 Continued














Continued






Table 1 Continued





















































Conclusion






About the Author


References































































































































Table 1 Continued









Continued


Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued












Continued


Table 1 Continued














Continued






Table 1 Continued





















































Conclusion






About the Author


References































































































































Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued












Continued


Table 1 Continued














Continued






Table 1 Continued





















































Conclusion






About the Author


References































































































































Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued












Continued


Table 1 Continued














Continued






Table 1 Continued





















































Conclusion






About the Author


References































































































































Table 1 Continued







Continued


Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued












Continued


Table 1 Continued














Continued






Table 1 Continued





















































Conclusion






About the Author


References































































































































Table 1 Continued











Continued


Table 1 Continued












Continued


Table 1 Continued














Continued






Table 1 Continued





















































Conclusion






About the Author


References































































































































Table 1 Continued












Continued


Table 1 Continued














Continued






Table 1 Continued





















































Conclusion






About the Author


References































































































































Table 1 Continued














Continued






Table 1 Continued





















































Conclusion






About the Author


References



































































































































Table 1 Continued





















































Conclusion






About the Author


References













































































































































































Conclusion






About the Author


References
































































































































About the Author


References































































































































Sino-African relations: a review and reconciliation of dominant schools of thought

Documents

Transcript of Sino-African relations: a review and reconciliation of dominant schools of thought