SilkandPost-ConflictCambodia:EmbodiedPracticesandGlobal

andLocalDynamicsofHeritageandKnowledgeTransference

(1991-2018)

MAGALIANBERTHON

Athesissubmittedinpartialfulfilmentoftherequirements

oftheRoyalCollegeofArtforthedegreeof

DoctorofPhilosophyinHistoryofDesign

October2021

TheRoyalCollegeofArt

ThisresearchissupportedbyTECHNE–ArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil

2

CopyrightStatement

ThistextrepresentsthepartialsubmissionforthedegreeofDoctorofPhilosophyatthe

RoyalCollegeofArt.Thiscopyhasbeensuppliedforthepurposeofresearchforprivate

study,ontheunderstandingthatitiscopyrightmaterial,andthatnoquotationfromthe

thesismaybepublishedwithoutproperacknowledgement.

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Abstract

Mythesisexaminessilkintermsofcraft,heritageanduseincontemporaryCambodiaunder

theperspectiveofahistoryoftrade,conflict,loss,andforeigninfluence.InCambodia,silk

weavingdevelopedintoacottageactivitysincethetwelfthcentury,producingceremonial

textilesforthedomesticmarketandtrade.TheKhmerRougeregime,whichclaimedcloseto

twomillionlivesbetween1975and1979,heavilyimpactedthisancestralcraftbyimpeding

silkyarnproduction,weaving,andskillstransmission.Thecountry’sslowreconstruction

boostedbythereopeningofforeigninvestmentinthe1990shasdeeplymodifiedits

culturallandscape.Howtosustainthreadsofknowledgeandculturalidentityinapost-

conflictcontext?Inthisthesis,thedynamicsofruptureandrevivalofculturalpracticesand

knowledgeredefinedunderlocalandglobaltensionsareinvestigatedthroughthescopeof

silk.

Indoingso,thepositionofsilkinCambodiaanditsglobaldiasporasincethefallofthe

destructiveKhmerRougeregimeopensthewaytoapolyvocalexploration.Anglesof

analysisincludelookingattheenmeshmentofsilkinCambodia’shistory,geographyand

geopoliticsandthestructurationofthesilksectorviaitsmainforeignanddomesticactors

sincethe1990s.Recentringontheweavers’keyroleinskillstransmission,thecraftof

Cambodiansilkweavingandthemeaningoftextilesanddressarelensesthroughwhichthis

studyexplorethemesofembodiment,tacitknowledge,culturalmemory,identity,and

empowerment.

ThroughseveralperiodsoffieldworkinCambodiaandLongBeach,California,combining

ethnographicmethodologies,interviewsandActionResearch,thisthesisproducesitsown

baseofprimaryoralandvisualresources.Thisprimematerialoncontemporarysilk

practicesinpost-conflictCambodiaareputindialoguewitharchivalandobject-based

studiestorevealanupdatedcriticalperspectiveonthemultilayerednatureofsilk.

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Ultimately,thepolyphonyofthehumangeographyformingthesilksectoraimstodelink

monolithicnarrativesonCambodianculturalidentityandheritage.

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Tableofcontents

Copyrightstatement 2

Abstract 3

Tableofcontents 5

Listoffigures 9

Acknowledgements 21

Author’sdeclaration 23

Abbreviations 24

Notesabouttranslationandtransliteration 25

Introduction 26

AshorthistoryofCambodiaandimpactoftheKhmerRougeregimeonsilk 33

SpecificitiesofCambodiansilk 41

Keyactorsofthesilksector 44

Literaturereview 47

Theoreticalframeworks:fromglobalsilknetworkstoindividualformsofembodiedand

tacitknowledge 58

Polyphonicandmultidisciplinarymethodology 68

Sources 74

Chaptersummary 77

ChapterOne Cambodiansilkpolyphonies:historiography,geography,and

materiality(1200-1990)

Introduction 80

Crossingtheoreticalterritories:metageography,designhistory,andvoices 84

Silkfibreandfabricationprocess 86

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GeopoliticalandmaterialjuncturesintheKhmerEmpire(802-1431CE) 93

TheThaiinfluenceoverCambodia(1430-1860) 104

FrenchcolonisationandthecraftingofaCambodiannationalculture(1863-1950) 119

MaterialityofthesilklandscapeduringIndependence(1950-69) 128

Dismantlementofthesilkterritory(1970-1979) 135

Multipleagenciesinreconstructingthesilkindustry(1980-1990) 146

Conclusion 159

ChapterTwo Keyplayersinsilkweaving:networksandnarratives(1991-2018)

Introduction 160

ConceptualandmethodologicalapproachtoexploringtheCambodiansilkscape 164

Domesticandtransnationalformsofkhsaeinpost-conflictCambodia 166

DefiningforeignagenciesintheCambodiansilkscape 170

UNESCO:generatingsilkrevitalisationinitiativesundertransnationalinput 176

ArtisansAngkor(AA):Frenchpatronageasaleadingvoiceofthesilksector 182

TheInstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles(IKTT):authority

underJapanesepatronage 197

Cambodianinitiatives:betweenmacro-consortiumandmicro-enterprises 215

Conclusion 234

ChapterThreeWeavers:dynamicsofknowledgeproductionthroughpractice,

embodiment,andmemory

Introduction 237

ActionResearchandyarning:developingdialogicmethodologies 241

EstablishingtheneedsofCambodiansilkweaverstosetuptheActionResearch

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project 251

PlanningtheKramaYuyuActionResearchproject 266

ObservingweavingduringtheActionResearchprojectatKramaYuyu 273

Weavers’interviews:agenciesinknowledgeandskillstransmissionintheActionResearch

project 286

Weavers’voicesonmemory,knowledge,andtasteinsilkpractices 296

Activatingknowledgethroughcommunity,matrilinealconnectionsand

apprenticeship 301

Conclusion 306

ChapterFour Silkembodiment:craftingCambodianidentityintheglobaldiaspora

Introduction 309

Capturingthedisplacedexperiencethroughethnographyandembodiment 311

Fromrefugeecampstoresettlement:weavingpracticeindisplacement 316

CambodiaTown:aplatformofencountersforsilkdressmakersandwearers 331

StagingsilkattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival(CTCF) 350

Ritualsinmovement:silkembodimentinKhmerclassicalballet 367

Conclusion 387

Conclusion

Keyconclusionsandoriginalcontributions 390

Challengesandreflections 398

Futureresearch 400

Appendices

A1.Khmer[phonetic]-Englishglossaryofterms 402

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A2.Technicalglossaryofweaving 406

A3.VisuallexiconofCambodiantextiles 409

A4.EthicsinformationandconsentformsforinterviewsinEnglishandKhmer 415

A5.Preliminaryschedulingchartfortheholproject,fromTomokoTakagi,2017 422

A6.Interviewexcerpts 423

Bibliography

Oralsources 431

Archivalsources 433

Primarysources 433

Newspaperarticles 443

Secondarysources 447

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ListoffiguresBesteffortshavebeenmadetocontactthecopyrightholdersofthefiguresbelow:Introduction:Fig.6Chapter1:Fig.26,38a,39a-b-c,41a-b-c-d-2Chapter2:Fig.62Chapter3:Fig.79,Chapter4:Fig.120a,128,147,150,151,160a-bIntroductionFigure1KohDachislandlocatedinKandalprovinceatthenorthofPhnomPenh,WikimediaCommons,2019.Figure2Pheap,formerweaver,showingagreensilkphamaungshehadwoven,KohDach,Kandal.Author’sphotograph,2017.Figure3ProductionofsilkyarninCambodiacitingtheCambodianSericultureStocktakingReport(Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProjectPhaseII),64.Figure4CambodiangoldensilkyarnandcocoonsondisplayattheInstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextilesshop,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,December2016.Figure5MapofthemainsericultureandweavingareasinCambodiain2016,basedondatafromtheNationalSilkStrategy2016-2020,bytheauthor.Figure6CambodiansilkvaluechainchartfromtheNationalSilkStrategy2016-2010,14.Figure7BuddhisthangingpidanshowingtheGreatDepartureofBuddha,early20thc.,silkikat,collectedbySuzanneKarpelès.acquisition71.1933.111.258,MuséeduQuaiBranly,Paris.Figure8PidanhangingsoldatCaringforYoungKhmershopinPhnomPenh.Author’sphotograph,December28,2016.Figure9Processionofwomendressedinsampothol,aor,andkramaforaBuddhistceremonyinTakeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.ChapterOneFigure10WomanwearingakramaclotharoundherchestinAngkorVat,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,2012.Figure11ThearyandChendaHeng,weaversatKramaYuyushowingasampotholfromtheirpersonalcollection,TaPouk,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,2017.Figure12Speciesofpolyvoltinebombyxmoricocoonsproducinggoldensilk,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016.Figure13Artisanalextractionprocessofthesilkthreadsfromthecocoonsinboiledwater,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016.

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Figure14EntangledsilkfilamentsonagoldensilkcocoonfromSiemReap,microscopeview.Author’sphotograph,October2017.CourtesyofQuaiBranlyMuseum.Figure15DegummedfinesilkfromSiemReap,microscopeview.Author’sphotograph,October2017.CourtesyofQuaiBranlyMuseum.Figure16Differentqualitiesofsilkyarn:rawsilkontheleftandfinesilkontherightbeforedegumming,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016.Figure17Unwindingsilkcocoons,BatiCommune,Takeoprovince,1968.PhotographcourtesyofBernardDupaigne.Figure18MapofSoutheastAsiankeypowersin900.WikimediaCommons.Figure19Pairofcarvedlotusesunderalintel,AngkorWat.PhotographbyGillianGreen,2005.Figure20CanopyfromTheSteinCollection,Dunhuang(discovered),7thcenturyto9thcentury(made),Plainwovenhemp,painted,OnloanfromtheGovernmentofIndiaandtheArchaeologicalSurveyofIndia.Copyright:GovernmentofIndia,Victoria&AlbertMuseum.Figure21Devata(celestialbeing)wearinglightweightpatternedsilkonabas-reliefinAngkorWat,SiemReap,12thcentury.Author’sphotograph,2012.Figure22Cashmedallions,PreahKhan,Cambodia.PhotographbyGillianGreen,2006.Figure23Block-printedcottontextileproducedinIndiafromFustat,Egyptfromalaterperiod(18thcentury)showingsimilarpatterns,Acquisitionnumber1973-76-16-b.CooperHewitt,SmithsonianDesignMuseum.Figure24MapofAsiaandSoutheastAsiainthe18thcentury.WikimediaCommons.Figure25EngravingplatefromDuRoyaumedeSiambySimondeLaLoubère(1642-1729),illustratorunknown,pp72-76.Figure26DetailofapaintedpageoftheTenBirthTalesfromtheThaimanuscriptOr14068;f3v,Paperfoldingbook,late18thcentury,BritishLibrary.Figure27DetailofapaintingaboutthelifeofGautamaBuddha,Cambodia,18thcentury.Cataloguenumber961.3.305,AsianArtMuseumofToulon,France.Figure28aClose-upofanirregulartwillweave2-1structureonasampothol,acquisition71.1962.22.118,QuaiBranlyMuseum.Author’sphotograph,January2017.Figure28bDiagramofthe2-1twillweave(twoweftsup,oneweftdown)formingdiagonallines,bytheauthor.Figures29a-bSampotchawngkbunholgiftedtotheIndiaMuseumbyKingMongkut;detailofbordersofyantra,c.1855,Accessionnumber:5640(IS).Victoria&AlbertMuseum.

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Figures30a-bSampotholinsaudagiristyle;detailofthecentralfield.CatalogNumber:E83,fromKingMongkut,ca.1856,NationalMuseumofNaturalHistory,SmithsonianInstitution.Figure31Textileinthesaudagiristyle,printedandresist-dyed,India,19thcentury,Accessionnumber:IPN.960,Victoria&AlbertMuseum.Figures32a-bSampotholwithconfrontednagainthecentralfield,fromViceroyPrahPinKlao,c.1856inLisaMcQuail,TreasuresofTwoNations:ThaiRoyalGiftstotheUnitedStatesofAmerica(Washington,DC: SmithsonianInstitution,1997),Figure100,96.Figure33Saputsongketwithconfrontednaga,early19thcenturyfromSingaraja,Bali,TONYRAKAArtGalleryTwitter,2019.https://twitter.com/tonyrakagallery/status/1200583237669511168[AccessedJune10,2021] Figure34MapofcountriesformingFrenchIndochinain1900.WikimediaCommons/Author’simage.Figure35GeorgeGroslierinhisofficeinPhnomPenh,Cambodia,1926.PhotographbyMartinHurlimann.WikimediaCommons.Figure36PostcardofaphotographshowingthesilkspinningandweavingworkshopattheSchoolofCambodianArts,c.1924.Figure37SilkpictorialpidaninweftikatwovenattheSchoolofCambodianArtsproducedforMaisonRodier,Vogue,1January1927,44.Figures38a-bLeft:Carte‘7.Industriesrurales’showingcottonandsericulture,inconjunctionwithweaving,matweaving,metalwork,makleuadyeing,basketry,andceramics,inJeanDelvert,Lepaysancambodgien,Paris:L’Harmattan,1994.Right:locationoftheareastudiedbyDelvertinCambodia.WikimediaCommons/Author’simage.Figure39aWomenwearingakramascarfgrowingrice,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959),Dir.SamdechNorodomSihanouk,ProducedbyKhemaraPictures,Cambodia,CNC.Figure39bWeaverwearingasampotphamaungwarpingwhitesilkthreadonawoodenwarpingdevice,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959),Dir.SamdechNorodomSihanouk,ProducedbyKhemaraPictures,Cambodia,CNC.Figure39cWomanweavingasampotrbauk,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959),Dir.SamdechNorodomSihanouk,ProducedbyKhemaraPictures,Cambodia,CNC.Figure40AdministrativezonesofDemocraticKampuchea1975-78,LibraryofCongress.FederalResearchDivision.Cambodia:ACountryStudy,c.1990,PublicDomain.Figure41aWomencollectingcottonballsinthefields,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.AccessedonSeptember16,2017.https://www.ina.fr/video/VDD06002101/tissage-artisanal-et-industriel-du-textile-sous-le-regime-khmer-rouge-video.html

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Figure41bFeedingsilkwormswithmulberrytreeleaves,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.Figure41cWomeninaKhmerRougegarbspinningsilkthread,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.Figure41dSampotholclothsdisplayingthediversityofgeometricandstylizedikatmotifs,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.Figure41eWorkersenteringtheStateTextileFactory1,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.Figure42Reproductionsofwomen’sandmen’sKhmerRougeuniforms(blackgarments,krama,andrubber-tyresandals)exhibitedattheChoeungEkKillingFields,PhnomPenh.WikimediaCommons.Figure43MapofCambodiainthe1980sshowingtheThaiborder,regionsandzonesofKhmerRougeactivity.Author’smap.Figure44ResearchmapofthesurveyconductedbyKikuoMorimotofortheUNESCO.Morimoto,UNESCOreport,1995.Figure45DecoratedwoodcarvedelementsofaKhmerloomcollectedinthe1920s.Photograph,January1923,NationalMuseumofCambodiaarchives.Figure46SampotsarabapattheNationalMuseumofCambodiafoldedinthetextilestorageroom,objectnumberN.38.Author’sphotograph,April2018.Figure47TwocontemporarypidanhangingsproducedanddonatedbyCYKondisplayattheNationalMuseumofCambodia.Author’sphotograph,April2018.Figure48KhmerballetcostumeelementsondisplayattheNationalMuseumofCambodia.Author’sphotograph,April2018.ChapterTwoFigure49MaplocatingtheorganisationspresentedinChapterTwo.Author’simage.Figure50DiagramofthebusinessmodelofStudioNaenna,aChiangMai-basedprivateenterprise,sketchedbyPeewaraJitsukummongkolforthe‘NewforOld’:SoutheastAsiaResearchResidency,December2016.Figure51Diagramofthemiddlemanbusinessmodel.Author’simage.Figure52MapofThailandhighlightingtheregionofSurinattheborderofThailand.WikimediaCommons.Figure53OfficialDevelopmentAssistancebydonorinUSDmillioninCambodia.OECD,2018.

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Figure54ChartofLesChantiersEcolesdeFormationProfessionnellestructureandnetworkoffoundersfrom1990to1995.Author’simage.Figure55Chartshowingthetransferofleadershipbetween1995and2000fromLaLigueFrancaisedel’EducationcedingLesChantiersEcolesdeFormationProfessionnelletotheCambodiaMinistryofLabourandVocationalTrainingandtheNationalSilkCentertakingchargeoftraining,andthefoundationofArtisansd’AngkorsupportedbytheEUReplicfundingprogramme.Author’simage.Figure56DiagramshowingArtisansAngkorownershipmodelsince2003.Author’simage.Figure57PavEangKhoing,SilkDirectoratArtisansAngkorworkshop,checkingtheworkofaweavertyinganikatpatternonsilkweftthreads,Puok,SiemReap,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,April2,2018.Figure58LionstatueinspiredbyBakhengtempleandsilkproductsholrbaukondisplayattheArtisanAngkorshop,SiemReap,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,December25,2016.Figure59ArtisansAngkorguidepresentingthetyingworkofholduringavisitattheSilkFarm,Puok,SiemReap,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,December25,2016.Figure60KikuoMorimotoinhishouseshowingoneofhisyuzensilks,ChotSamvillage,Cambodia,2012.Author’sphotographforTissus&ArtisansduMondeproject.Figure61KikuoMorimoto(foreground)workingonawell-drillingprojectatAranyaprathetineasternThailand,1983.PhotographcourtesyofIKTT,fromthebookKikuoMorimoto,ThemanwhobuiltavillageinCambodia(Tokyo:Hakusuisha,2015).Figure62OmCheaweaver,rightofpicture,instillfromRAE2004:11thRolexAwardsforEnterprise-2004Laureateslongform,producedbyNationalGeographicChannel,distributedbyTVEAsiaPacific,2004.Figure63KikuoMorimotoisstandingsecondontherightwithateamofspecialistsinchargeofdeminingthelandnearChotSamvillage,futureWisdomfromtheForestsite,SiemReap,2002.CourtesyofIKTT.Figure64Mapshowingdirectionstoaccesstothe‘WisdomfromtheForest’projectfromtheshopinSiemReap,collectedin2016.CourtesyofIKTT.Figures65a-bSelectionofholsilksinnaturaldyesandproductsondisplaysoldattheIKTTshop,SiemReap,Cambodia,December2016.Author’sphotographs.Figure66ArtisansAngkorbrightly-colouredsilkproducts.Author’sphotograph,January2017.Figure67ScreenshotoftheIKTTWebsitewithKikuoMorimoto’sbiopageintheEnglishversiondestinedtoaninternationalaudience.AccessedonMay10,2017.http://www.ikttearth.org

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Figure68ScreenshotoftheIKTTWebsitehomepageintheJapaneseversion.Morimotoappearsontheleftsideofthisarchivalimage.AccessedonMay10,2017.http://www.iktt.orgFigure69ChinKoeur’scertificateforhertraininginsilkweavingundermasterweaverLeavSaEm’sapprenticeship,datedOctober1995deliveredbyUNESCOPhnomPenh,SilkAssociationsofCambodiainKanhjangvillage,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure70SignforSilkAssociationsofCambodia,attheentranceofChinKoeur’shouseandoffice,Kanhjangvillage,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure71MapofSamraongDistrictinTakeoprovince,Cambodia,encompassingSlaCommuneandPhnomChisor,bytheauthorbasedonaGooglemapsview.Figure72DiagramofSilkAssociationsofCambodiabusinessmodel,basedonChinKoeur’sinterview,bytheauthor.Figure73ChinKoeurworkingonatiedbundleofweftsilkyarninherworkshop,Kanhjangvillage,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure74MaybankWomenEcoWeaversprogrammeattheMaybankSilkWeavingTrainingCenter,Slacommune,Takeoprovince,n.d.PhotographColorSilkFoundation.Figure75RangeofColorSilkikatfabricsinavarietyofcolourwaysandpatterns,ColorSilkwebsite.AccessedMay2,2020.https://colorsilkcommunity.wixsite.com/colorsilk-cambodia/fabricsFigure76DistributionofColorSilk’sexport/wholesaleanddomesticretailproducts.Author’simage.Figure77ColorSilkweaversfortheFashionRevolution2017campaign‘Imadeyourclothes’,April2017,ColorSilkFacebookpage.ChapterThreeFigure78Myfieldworkforthischapterisconcentratedintwoprovinces:SiemReapinthenorth,Takeointhesouth.WikimediaCommons.Figure79‘TheIndigenousResearchAgenda’,inLindaTuhiwaiSmith,DecolonizingMethodologies(London:ZedBooksLtd.,1999),Figure6.1,117.Figure80GroupatKramaYuyu.Lefttoright,translatorYu,weaverHengTheary,formerweaverHengChendy,weaverHengChenda,MagaliAnBerthon,co-founderTomokoTakagi,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July26,2017.

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Figure81HengChenda,centre,withSarin,Salat,SreiPon,andSoKimworkingonthewarping,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.Figure82YuonSophonworkingonherloom,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure83Poninherhouseshowingabrightbluesampotholshehaswoven,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure84SoAiwithoneofherwovensilks,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure85Kamonweavingasampotholathome,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure86TheCaringforYoungKhmerweavingcentreislocatedinTrapaingKrasaingcommune,Batidistrict,Takeoprovince.GoogleMaps,August25,2019.Figure87AmSaiweavinganindigo-dyedpidan,CYKweavingcentre,TrapaingKrasaing,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.Figure88NowSaraemworkingonthetyingframeforaspecialsampotholorder,CYKweavingcentre.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.

Figure89Pheachsortingandcollectinggoldensilkthreads,CYKweavingcentre.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.Figures90a-bDiagramofthedesignstructureofoneholpiece(kbun)asdeconstructedbyTomokoandChendafortheweavingprocess.Author’sphotographofasetofseventeenbobbins(knar)representingonerepeat(bunteah)ofonepattern(koem).Figure91ActionResearchprojectfullplanningfromMaytoOctober2017,bytheauthor.Figure92Thearywindingtheblackwarpthreadsonspools,TaPoukvillage,June2017.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi.Figure93Industrially-producedfinesilkimportedfromVietnamnexttogoldensilkthreadsatKramaYuyuworkshop,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.Figure94EmptypacketsofpinkchemicalfastdyefromThailandfortheholtie-dyeprocess,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.

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Figures95a-bChendalookingatholmotifsinbooksandtakingnotestodeterminethedesigns,TaPoukvillage,May2017.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi.Figure96ChartoftheActionResearchobservationandinterviewprogrammefromJuly24to30,2017,bytheauthor.Figure97Weaversinthewarpingprocesstryingtokeepthethreadsuntangled,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.Figure98Splitscreenshowingweaversonbothendofthewarpthreadstokeepthetensioneven.FromTheSilkChronicles:Warp,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[TimeCode01:10].Figure99Oneweaverseparatingthethreadsandtheotherpassingitthroughthereed’sdentwithahook,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.Figure100ChendaandTheary’shandscheckingthequalityofthepinkdyeingprocess,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.Figure101ThearyonthesecondroundoftyingkoemB,unmaskingcertainareasandcoveringotherswithplasticstrips,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July26,2017.Figure102SplitscreenofChendaandThearydyeingthetiedpinksilkskeinintheyellowvat.FromTheSilkChronicles:Weft,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[Timecode04:33].Figure103ThearyspinningthemulticolouredweftsilkthreadsforkoemBonspools,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.Figure104aChendamanuallymakingtheheddlesontheloom,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.

Figure104bDiagramofwheretheheddlesarepositionedontheloom.WikimediaCommons.

Figure105Chendacoatingthewarpwithwatermixedwithtapioca,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.Figure106AspooloftheknarforkoemAisputinashuttleandpassedthoughthewarp,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.Figure107Chenda’shandshowingthemulticolouredsectionshehadwoven,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.Figures108a-bChendyHengshowinghercollectionofsilkikatspoolsbroughtfromTakeoprovince,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July26,2017.

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Figure109DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemA,October2020.Figure110DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemB,October2020.Figure111DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemC,October2020.Figure112Chendawiththefourthkbunshewoveinneutraltonesandmixedpatterns,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi,October2017.Figure113SoAiandPromChakholdingherlatestpieceinabrightacidgreenandsalmonpinkmotifs,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure114SampotholpoarwovenbyPoninelectricblue,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure115StackofsampotfromPon'scollection,includingthefirsthipwrapperskirtshehadwovenforherselfonthetop,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figures116a-bKamonworkingonhersampotholpieceforaweddingandclose-up,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotographs,March17,2018.Figure117OmLai(ontheright)workingwithotherweaversondyeingsilkskeins,IKTTWisdomfromtheForestvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.Figure118JokKiangworkingonaholtextile,IKTTWisdomfromtheForestvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.Figure119PanDamatthesilkwormnursery,IKTTWisdomfromtheForestvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.ChapterFourFigures120a-bGeographiclocationofCambodiaTowninLongBeach,InAdebiyiandal.,TheStateofCambodiaTownReport(LosAngeles,CA:UCLA,2013),7;LocalisationofLongBeach,CA,GoogleMaps,2018.Figure121MapofCambodianrefugeecampsontheThai-Cambodianborder,1986.FromTonyJackson,JustWaitingtoDie?CambodianRefugeesinThailand(Oxford:OxfamResearchandEvaluationUnit,July1987),5.

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Figure122HandwovenkramawoveninKhaoIDangrefugeecamp,Thailand,1987-1989,AcquisitionnumberHT31980,donatedbyJennieRobert,CourtesyofMuseumsVictoria/CCBY.Figure123EmBunweavingonherloominHarrisburg,PA.Photograph,BlairSeitz.Figure124EmBun(left)atthe1990NationalHeritageFellowshipConcert,Washington,D.C.PhotographcourtesyoftheNationalEndowmentfortheArts.AccessedJune3,2020.http://mastersoftraditionalarts.org/artists/41Figure125Weaverworkingonherloom,screenshotfromtheKhmerDanceandMusicProjectvideoarchive:ApsaraexhibitbyAmyCatlin-Jairazbhoy,filmedonDecember6,1987duringtheopenhouseday.AccessedJune3,2020.https://archive.org/details/calauem_000240Figure126PhanIthweavingatKhmerWomenWeaversstudioinLongBeach,inAmyCatlin,Apsara:TheFeminineinCambodianArt(LosAngeles:TheWoman'sBuilding,1987),26.Figure137SeriesofkramascarvesmadebytheKhmerWomenWeavers’sProject,LongBeach,inCatlin,Apsara:TheFeminineinCambodianArt,3.Figure128WeaverdemonstratingcottonspinningattheUnitedCambodianCommunityCenteronAnaheimStreet,LongBeach,CA,inSusanNeedham,andKarenQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach(Charleston:ArcadiaPublishing,2008),66.Figure129CitysignCambodiaTowndelineatingtheCambodianethnicneighbourhoodofLongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.Figure130SokChaninhershopChandaTailor,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April6,2017.Figure131SokChanadjustingNancyLee’spurpledressatChandaTailorworkshop,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure132StacksofholpoaryardagesatChandaTailor,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure133MenKayleneatherboothattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival(CTCF),LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.Figure134EmbroideredsbaayandsolidsilksampotondisplayatKhmerBridal,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

19

Figure135GroomensembleontheleftandbridedresstherightonmannequinsatKhmerBridalshop,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure136Brideandgroomphotographedontheirweddingday.InGreen,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,194.PhotographcourtesyofGillianGreen.Figure137PortraitofformerclientsinaninterracialmarriageseenatKhmerBridal,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.Figure138MapofCambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA,GoogleMaps,2018.Figure139DrSusanNeedhamandMaryTanbothinKhmerdress,CambodiaTownCultureFestival.LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017,Figure140aFemalefestival-goerwithamatchingsilkensembleandagreensilkensash,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure140bWomendressedinthetypicalensemble:lacedaorandsilksampotholattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017,Figure141MaryTan’shusbandwearingajacketinshotsilkandholdingthecrownfortheparade,CambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure142Dressedinred,womanparticipantwearingaCambodiaTownkramawiththeembroideredlogoofCambodia,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure143ChakraperforminginfrontoftheKhmerVeterans,CambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure144RobamChhayYam,performersattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure145ActorsperformingKingJayavarmanVIIandhisqueenonafloatattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure146GroupofyounggirlsdressedinsilkbodicesandsampotchawngkbunattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure147KhmerclassicalballetperformanceforCambodianNewYearinLongBeachinfrontofapaintedbackdropofAngkorWat,ca.1980.PhotographcourtesyofCamCHAParchives.Figure148TheyoungPrincessNorodomBupphaDeviperforminganapsarapiece,c.1960s.PhotographcourtesyofTheNationalArchivesofCambodia.Figures149a-b-cMaleandfemalerolesincostume;Giant(Yeak);Monkey(Sva)incostume.PhotographscourtesyofUNESCO,2004.AccessedJune3,2020.https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000135258?posInSet=18&queryId=N-EXPLORE-6611dc0c-8034-4f37-ac53-7a9fe951e4de

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Figure150DancersincostumesandaccessoriesmadefrommaterialsfromThailand,c.1977,LongBeach,CA.PhotographcourtesyofCamCHAParchives.Figure151SophilineCheamShapiroin2009.PhotographcourtesyofAlanGovernor/MastersofTraditionalArts.AccessedJune20,2018.http://www.mastersoftraditionalarts.org/artists/300 Figure152OkKhannia(centreleft)teachingaweeklyclassatKhmerArtsAcademy,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,February2018.Figure153DanceclasswithstudentsinsilkgarmentsforpracticeatKhmerArtsAcademy,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure154SetofsilksarabaptextilesbelongingtoKhmerArtsAcademypurchasedinCambodiabySophilineCheamShapiro,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure155Close-upofashimmeringsilksarabappatternedwithscale-likegoldmotifs,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,February2018.Figure156Prince’sfullcostumeinsilkpurchasedinCambodiabySophilineCheamShapiro.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure157OkKhanniagettingdressedforaperformance,2016.PhotographcourtesyofKhmerArtsAcademy.Figure158Pleatingofthesilkskirtonadancerbeforeaperformance,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary.‘Make-upandcostumes,2009-01-13/15’.CourtesyofNewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollections.AccessedSeptember20,2020.http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/3ef7d750-0381-0131-9fd1-3c075448cc4b Figure159KhmerArtsAcademystudentsandinstructorsperformingSeasonsofMigrationattheTuTuFoundation,Torrance,CA,2017,CourtesyofKhmerArtsAcademy.Figure160aNeangNeakpiecefromSeasonsofMigration,performedbyKeoKunthearomdancingwithherextendedsbaay,choreographedbySophilineCheamShapiro,Jakarta,August2009.Figure160bDetailofthelongsbaay,SeasonsofMigrationbySophilineCheamShapiro,Jakarta,August2009.Figure161MagaliAnBerthondressedinasampotchawngkbunfordancepracticewithinstructorLathReaksmey.Author’sphotograph,February2018.

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AcknowledgementsCompletingthisthesishasbeenaneventful,exciting,andchallengingjourneymarkedby

preciousencountersandsupport.Firstly,Iwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetomy

supervisorsSarahCheangandMartinaMargettsforbeingsogenerouswiththeirknowledge

andexperience.Theycreatedinvaluablespacesofdiscussionfosteringcriticalthinking

whilepushingmetofollowmyideasandintuitions.Ithashelpedmeshapeandproducea

projectthathasfeltsimultaneouslypersonal,innovative,andambitious.

ThisresearchwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutadoctoralawardfromtheTechne

consortiumhelmedundertheArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil.Otherresearchbodies

havegenerouslycontributedtothefundingofmyfieldwork:TheRoyalCollegeofArt;

l’EcoleFrançaised’ExtrêmeOrient;thePasoldFoundation;andFriendsofKhmerCulture

Foundation.AttendingconferenceswasmadepossiblewiththesupportoftheDesign

HistorySociety,theBritishCouncil,andtheTextileSocietyofAmerica.

Iwouldalsoliketohighlighttheprincipalinstitutionsthatwelcomedmeandhelped

advancemyresearch:theNationalMuseumofCambodia;TuolSlengGenocideMuseum;

BophanaFilmCenter;theNationalArchivesofCambodia;MuséeduQuaiBranlyJacques

Chirac;Victoria&AlbertMuseum;BritishMuseum;l’EcoleFrançaised’ExtrêmeOrient

branchinCambodia;UNESCOPhnomPenh;andtheCambodianCommunityHistory&

ArchiveProject.Ifeltluckytoengageinrichandinsightfulconversationswithpassionate

expertsinsomeoftheseinstitutions;inparticular,ChristopheMoulhérat,SueNeedham,

BertrandPorte,BernardDupaigne,HelenWang,andJennySpancake.

IwouldalsoliketothankmyfellowPhDstudentsattheRCA,withintheTechneconsortium,

andinotheruniversitieswithwhomIgladlydiscussedthemundanerealitiesandchallenges

oftacklingathesis,asmuchasthenuancedtrappingsandcomplexitiesofspecifictheories

22

andmethodologies;inparticular,ArtunOzguner,PathittaNirunpornputta,HuhRowlands,

RebeccaBell,RuthClifford,Anne-LaurePorée,KatieIrani,andVeraMey.Iamalsograteful

toCathyJohns,ResearchLibrarianattheRCA.

IwouldliketoacknowledgeallthecontactsImadeinCambodiaandLongBeach,California:

silkfarmers,weavers,shopowners,academics,students,anddancers...Thereisnotenough

roomtocreditthemallhere,buttheseessentialencountersweredeeplyaffectingand

nourishedmyunderstandingofCambodiancultureinsideandoutsideitsborders.In

Cambodia,IwillmentionTomokoTagaki,HengChendy,ChendaandTheary,PromChak,

PavEangKhoing,SophilineCheamShapiro,SengSonetra,withaspecialthoughtforKikuo

MorimotowhomImetin2012andsadlypassedawayin2017.InLongBeach,California,I

amthinkingofOkKhannia,LathReaksmey,allthestudentsatKhmerArtsAcademy,Mary

Tan,SokChan,andKayleneMen.

Finally,Iwouldliketoacknowledgeandthankmyfamily,especiallymyparentsTuyetAnh

TranandPierreBerthonfortheirunwaveringsupport,theirpatiencetoactasmysounding

boardandfirstreaders,andtheirconstantencouragementsandcare.Iamalsogratefulto

myloveBrettandmyfriends,especiallyEmilyOrr(whoinspiredmetostartaPhD),Eloise

Larochelle,NicholasCalcott,Anne-LaureRoussille,andMyrtilleOdichelidze,whoweremy

supportsysteminthisjourney.IhavealsoathoughtformycolleaguesattheFashion

InstituteofTechnologyandNewYorkUniversitywhoneverstoppedencouragingme,and

formystudents.

IdedicatethisthesistomygrandfatherJosephBerthon,whosecommitmenttoteachingand

learningallhislifehasbeenanever-endingsourceofstrengthandinspiration.

23

Author’sdeclaration

Duringtheperiodofregisteredstudyinwhichthisthesiswaspreparedtheauthorhasnot

beenregisteredforanyotheracademicawardorqualification.Thematerialincludedinthis

thesishasnotbeensubmittedwhollyorinpartforanyacademicawardorqualification

otherthanthatforwhichitisnowsubmitted.

MagaliAnBerthon

October2021

24

Abbreviations

Note:Thefulltitlesoftheseacronymsbelowaregivenontheirfirstappearanceinthis

thesisandinthetitles.Onallfurtherreferencesonlytheacronymisemployed,exceptwhen

itisdeemednecessarytoremindthereaderoftheabbreviation’sfullwords.

AA:ArtisansAngkor

AAC:ArtisansAssociationCambodia

ANT:ActorNetworkTheory

AR:ActionResearch

CamCHAP:CambodianCommunityHistory&ArchiveProject

CPK:CommunistPartyofKampuchea

CTCF:CambodiaTownCultureFestival

CYK:CaringforYoungKhmer

DK:DemocraticKampuchea

EU:EuropeanUnion

IKTT:InstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles

ITC:InternationalTradeCenter

KAA:KhmerArtsAcademy

KR:KhmerRouge

KY:KramaYuyu

NSS:NationalSilkStrategy

OECD:OrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment

PRK:People’sRepublicofKampuchea

UN:UnitedNations

UNDP:UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

UNESCO:UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation

V&A:Victoria&AlbertMuseum

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NotesonKhmertranslationandtransliteration

Inthisthesis,wordsintheKhmerlanguageareromanisedwithaconsistenttransliteration

systeminspiredbytheALA-LCRomanizationTablesdevelopedbytheLibraryofCongress

availableatthislinkhttps://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/khmer.pdf

ThereisnouniformtransliterationsystemfortheKhmerlanguage.Theresultspresented

heredonotalwaysreflectstandardpronunciationinspokenKhmer.Itaimstoapproachit

theclosestpossibleandtoremainconsistentwithinthetext.Forthetextiletechnical

terminology,thisthesisreferstothetransliterationmodelusedinGillianGreen’sreference

bookTraditionalTextilesofCambodia(2003).

Herearesomeindicationsofpronunciationbelow:

au=asin‘rot’

ay=asin‘tie’

ea=asin‘fleet’

u=asin‘June’

oo=asin‘loot’

j=asin‘cheat’

hafterp,t,andk=indicatesinspiration

ph=asin‘pat’

r=asin‘l’

nh=asin‘line’

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Introduction

AbouttwelvekilometresnorthofPhnomPenh,KohDach,anislandlocatedinthe

middleoftheMekongRiverinKandalprovince,hasbeennicknamed‘SilkIsland’byforeign

visitors,inreferencetothelocalindustryofartisanalsilkweaving,essentialuntilthe2000s

[Fig.1].1In2006,about70percentofthe2,887familieslivingontheislandworkedinsilk

weaving.2Textileproductionhasdeclinedinthepasttenyears,mainlyduetothesteeprise

insilkfibreprices,whichhasreducedtheweavers’profitsandpushedthemtoabandon

textileactivityformorelucrativejobs.3KohDachbenefitsfromrichandfertilesoils,andits

estimated20,000inhabitantsarenowmostlyfishermenandfarmersworkingonlarge

agriculturalareasofbanana,corn,papaya,coconut,taroandcassavaplantationsandrice

paddies.4Withitsdustyroads,housesonstiltsgatheredinsmallphum(villages)andlush

landscapes,thesiteoffersaglimpseofaCambodianrurallifethatappearstohavebeen

protectedfromtherapid,widespreadurbanisationthathasaffectedPhnomPenh’s

surroundings,inparticular,sincethemid-2000s,offeringsightseeingopportunitiesfor

touristsforadaytripoutofthecity.

1MangChanno,’SilkSarongWeavingSupportsIslandFolk’,ThePhnomPenhPost,May6,1994https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/silk-sarong-weaving-supports-island-folk[Accessed30October2016].2SamRith,’BusinessDrop-offHits'SilkIsland’,’ThePhnomPenhPost,29October2008https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/business-drop-hits-silk-island[AccessedSeptember20,2019].3‘TheSilkRoadtoKohDach,’KhmerTimes,July29,2016https://www.khmertimeskh.com/26250/the-silk-road-to-koh-dach/[AccessedSeptember20,2019].4SteveNoble,’Aquick-fixbreakonKohDach,’AsiaLifeMagazine,March6,2016https://www.asialifemagazine.com/cambodia/quick-fix-break-koh-dach/[AccessedSeptember20,2019].

27

Fig.1KohDachislandinKandalprovince,northofPhnomPenh.WikimediaCommons,2019.

IwenttothisrenownedcentreofCambodiansaut(silk)productioninDecember2016to

examinethestateoflossorsurvivalofsilkpracticesandproduction.Severalloomsonthe

groundfloorsofthehouseswerevisible,butwithfewweaversworkingatthem.The

evidenceofashopwithwoodworkersbuildingandsellingnewloomsindicatedongoing

textileactivity.Theclatterofmanualloomshadbeenreplacedbyloudernoiseof

mechanicalloomsprocessingyardagesofcheckeredclothinsyntheticfibres.Discussions

witharetiredsilkweavingcouple,PheapandLim,throughtheintermediaryofChomnit,

theirnephew,whospokeEnglish,revealedahistoryofdomesticproductiondestinedforthe

localmarketandshopsinPhnomPenh.PheapandLimspecialisedintheisland’stypical

sampotphamaung,solid-colouredhipwrapsthatareusuallyadornedwithagilded

THAILAND

VIETNAM

LAOS

28

brocadedbandofdiamondsandstylisedfloralmotifs.5Pheaptookupweavingafter

marryingLimandmovingtoKohDachattheageoftwenty-five.Shepulledafewpieces

fromherwardrobe,especiallythefirsttwotubeskirtssheeverproducedasaweaverand

hadkeptcarefullyaspreciousitems.Thefirstpiecewasablacktubeskirtinmixedsilk

material,possiblyablendwithrayon,featuringanall-overpatternofsmalldiamondmotifs

insevencolours,eachcolourassociatedwithoneofthedaysoftheweekinCambodian

culture.6Thesecondpiecewasasoliddarkgreenphamaungwithahemborderofbrocaded

gildedgeometricpatterns,whichPheapoftenworeforweddingceremonies[Fig.2].7

KoOkhnaTey,asmallislandconnectedtoKohDach,alsoaccommodatedtheChiangkasnaey

silkfarmandworkshop,whichhasattractedstudentsfromschoolsfromPhnomPenhand

foreigntouristssince2013.LocalguidePichVangexplainedthattheweavingcentre,

advertisedasacommunity-basedproject,actuallybelongedtoaprivateCambodianowner,

whosenamewasnotdisclosed.8Onaquicktour,visitorscouldwalkaroundaseriesof

outdoorspacesshowcasingthewholeprocessofsilkmaking,fromthesilkwormnurseryto

thespinningsectionandtheweavingareawithseveralfloorlooms,eventuallyendingatthe

shopsection.ThedifferencebetweenPheap’sstoryandthedevelopmentofthissilkfacility

illustratestheshiftfromdomestictotouristactivity,inwhichtheareaisturnedintoa

repositoryofpastpractices,aswellasacentrefortradebetweenislanders,foreigntourists,

andurbantextiledealers.

5PheapandLim,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,December30,2016,KohDach,Cambodia.6BasedonaKhmeradaptationofHinducosmology,eachcolourislinkedtoonedayoftheweek.RedisforSunday,orangeforMonday,purpleforTuesday,greenforWednesday,yellowforThursday,blueforFriday,andpurpleforSaturday.ThisisalsoprevalentinThailand,withaslightvariationintones.SeeSusanConway,ThaiTextiles(London:BritishMuseumPress,1992),55-56.7SeeappendicesA1-A2-A3fortheglossaryoftermsinKhmerandtextiletechnicaldefinitions. 8PichVang,informaldiscussionwithMagaliAnBerthon,December30,2016,KohDach,Cambodia;Seealso:BernardDupaigne,‘L’élevagedesversàsoieauCambodge,’Revued’ethnoécologie14(2018):24.https://journals.openedition.org/ethnoecologie/3697[Accessed5November2020]

29

Fig.2Pheapshowingthegreensilkphamaungshehadwoven,KohDach,Kandal.Author’sphotograph,2017.

ThesitevisittoKohDachrevealsacontextthatconsistedofmultiplelayersofhistory,

geography,trade,andtourism,butalsoofmemory,fibreproductionknownassericulture,

weavingpracticesandfamilyrelationships.Beforethewarperiod,silkweavingwas

commonlyafemaleruralactivityledonthesideoffarming.Sericulturewasalsopractised

byfarmersinthecountrysideonasmallscale.Silkclothsweremainlyusedforclothingto

makehipwraps,shawls,andshirts.Brocadedsilktextilesorembroideredwithgoldthreads

wereintegraltotheroyalcourt’sregaliaforofficial,diplomaticandreligiousceremoniesand

fortheperformanceofKhmerclassicalballet.Cambodiansinthecountrysideandcitiesalso

favouredsilkinshantungorikatforspecificoccasionssuchasweddingceremoniesandto

30

attendreligiousceremoniesatthepagoda.Therefore,theoverarchingaimofthisthesisisto

identifyhowthreadsofknowledgeandculturalidentityhavebeenreclaimedandsustained

throughsilkpracticesintheCambodianpost-warcontext.

SociologistArjunAppaduraidescribesa‘-scape’asa‘perspectivallandscapeoffluid,

irregularshapes’which‘do[es]notlookthesamefromeveryangle’.9Accordingtothis

definition,KohDachisacircumscribedportionofthecomplexCambodiancontemporary

‘silkscape’boundby‘historical,linguisticandpoliticalsituatednessofdifferentsortsof

actors’.10Itiswithinthiscontextthatthisthesisexploresthecomplexnatureofsilkin

contemporaryCambodiaandthediasporicterritoryofLongBeach,California.Itdoessoby

examiningtheconditionsofsericultureandweavingintheaftermathofdecadesofconflict,

fromthe1970scivilwar,theKhmerRouge(KR)regime(1975-1979)anditsdownfall.What

aretheareasoflossandreclamationinsilkculturalheritage,production,knowledgeand

use,astheyhavebeenredefinedundernewlocalandglobaltensions?Bysilkcultural

heritage,itmeansthewaysinwhichsilkpracticesareessentialaspectsofCambodiansocial

andculturalfabric:inruralareaswhereskillstransmissionhappensatayoungageina

matrilinealsystem;intheeconomicandsocialinteractionsbetweenweavers,middlemen,

andmerchantslinkingruralareastourbanmarkets;finallyintheconductofculturalrituals

inwhichsilkisinvolvedsuchasdanceandweddingceremonies,especiallyinadiasporic

context.Andhowhavethemainactorsofthesepractices,suchasweavers,traders,and

companyfounders,respondedto,encouraged,orresistedthesechanges?Thisparticular

contextofreconstructionalsoaskswho,amongthemainstakeholdersandsilkweavers,has

beenabletoaccessneweconomicventures,andwhichgroupshaveremainedatthemargins

oftheseopportunities.

StudyingtherecentandcontemporaryhistoryofCambodiaandthecountry’sreturnto

9 ArjunAppadurai,‘DisjunctureandDifferenceintheGlobalCulturalEconomy,’TheoryCultureSociety7(1990):296-297. 10Ibid.

31

independenceandaglobalisedeconomysincethe1990salsorequirestheconsiderationof

Cambodia’smainhistoricalantecedents,especiallyinthecontextofforeignrelations,

culturallossanddisplacement.HistoriansEricHobsbawmandTerenceRangerpioneered

theconceptof‘inventedtraditions’asritualisedconstructsinperpetualreinvention,in

whichaspecifichistoricpastisformulated‘toinculcatecertainvaluesandnormsof

behaviourbyrepetition’.11HobsbawmandRangersuggestthattraditionsaremostly

responsestonewsituations,andhaveideological,politicalandculturalpurposes.12This

paradigmhasimplicationsforanexaminationofhowsilk,acottageindustry,was

reestablishedasanexpressionofnationalpost-conflictheritage,entailingtheperpetuation

of‘inventedtraditions’andinformingcontemporaryCambodianculturalidentity.By

locatingsilktextilesinacontemporaryandhistoricalcontextofproductionand

consumption,thisthesisaimstohighlightpotentialconnectionswiththepastwithout

confirmingthemastraditional.Insteadofconsideringtherevitalisationofsilkproductionin

Cambodiaasanostalgicreenactment,itaskshowCambodiansilkcanbeconsideredin

discontinuousandfragmentaryformsthatcrossoverlappingnarrativesofloss,reclamation,

changeandinnovation.

Thesuccessivewavesofconflictandforcedmigrationinthe1970sand1980sandthesocio-

economictransformationsinthe1990shavealsoredefinedthesignificanceofsilkfor

Cambodianconsumers.In2015,thedomesticmarket(individualconsumptionandlocal

businesses)representedanestimated50percentoftheoverallsalesvolumeofCambodian

silkproducts.Localconsumersfavouredikattextiles,scarves,bags,garmentsandsilkfabric

fromretailandwholesaleshopsinurbanmarkets.13Withmorethan6.2million

internationaltouristsvisitingCambodiain2018,salesofsilkproductsforthetouristand

11EricHobsbawmandTerenceRanger,TheInventionofTradition(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1983),4.12Ibid. 13CambodiaMinistryofCommerce,andITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy(PhnomPenh:CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,2016),46.

32

exportmarket(scarves,clothing,fashionaccessoriesandhomedecoritems)wentupto30

percentofthetotalvolume,silkbeingespeciallypopularwithAsianvisitors.14Exports

madefortheremaining20percent.Moreover,ascontendedbyanthropologistsJudy

Ledgerwood,MayEbiharaandCarolMortland,myresearchexaminestheworkingsof

'transformationandpersistence,lossandcontinuity’whichprevailparticularlyindiasporic

communities.15Takingaccountofimmigrantexperiences,thisthesisreflectsontheroleof

silkdressinovercomingasenseofculturaldisconnectiontoreclaimnewidentitiesthrough

performance,memory,andimagination.

Thisstudythusbringstogetherapolyphonyofvoicesandactorsthatformamultilayered

landscapeofsilk,emphasisingthevoicesofsilkweaversinCambodiaandconsumersinthe

diasporatoidentifytheirindividualstrategiesoftransmittingandperpetuatingspecificsets

ofskillsandcustoms.Howdovariousmaterialrealities,skillsandexperienceinlearning,

sourcing,making,andsellingsilkinformtheunderstandingofCambodiansilkthatis

presentedbydominantinstitutionaldiscoursesandstakeholders?Fiveperiodsoffieldwork

inCambodiaandLongBeachprovidedataforanexaminationofthevalueofsilktextilesas

tokensofCambodianculturalidentity,andhowskillshavebeenreclaimedthroughvarious

formsoforal,embodied,andtacitknowledge.Visualdocumentationandinterviewswere

obtainedthroughethnographicmethodologies,qualitativeinterviewsandparticipatory

ActionResearch(AR).Thedialoguebetweentheseprimaryfindingsandvisualarchives,

textilematerialsandobjectsofferanoriginalcontributiontotheunderstandingofsilkin

post-conflictCambodiaasatextileproduction,craftandculturalpractice.

14CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,47;SokChan,‘AncientSilkFarmingRegainsGrowthwithProperEcosystem’,CapitalCambodia,March4,2019,https://capitalcambodia.com/ancient-silk-farming-regains-growth-with-proper-ecosystem/[Accessed24September2019] 15MayEbihara,CarolMortlandandJudyLedgerwood,eds.,CambodianCulturesince1975:HomelandandExile(NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,1994),22.

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AshorthistoryofCambodiaandimpactoftheKhmerRougeregimeonsilk

LocatedinmainlandSoutheastAsia,Cambodiapossessesadistinctiveartistic

heritagethatisrootedinarichregionalhistorymarkedbylocalparticularismandreligious

beliefs.Italsoembracesethnicdiversity,colonialinfluences,regionalconflictsandcultural

exchangewiththeneighbouringcountriesofThailandtothewest,Vietnamtotheeast,and

Laostothenorth.Thiswiderhistoricalandgeopoliticalperspectiveneedstobeunderstood

intoordertorecognisethereenactmentofcertainposturesandpoliciesincontemporary

Cambodiancrafts.Furthermore,itisimportanttopositionCambodiawithinitsSoutheast

Asianregionalcontextandbeyond,lookingattheemergenceofotherpowerfulkeyplayers,

suchasSiamandFranceinthenineteenthcenturyfollowedbyJapanandtheUnitedStates

inthetwentiethcentury.Highlightingtheseconnectionsisessentialinthisresearch,asthey

informpatternsoftrade,culturalinfluencesandsubordination,allofwhichhavecontinued

toframeCambodiansilkinthetwenty-firstcenturywithinapost-colonial,post-conflict

context.

Cambodia’shistoryismarkedbythelongruleoftheKhmerempirefrom802CEto

1431CE,apowerfulstatewhichconqueredalargepartoftheSoutheastAsianmainland

region,coveringtheterritoriesofpresent-dayThailand,LaosandSouthernVietnam.Bythe

latetwelfthcentury,theKhmerroyalcourthadsettledinthemonumentalarchitecturalsite

ofAngkorWat.OriginallydevotedtotheHindugodVishnu,itwastransformedintoa

BuddhistsiteofworshipunderKingJayavarmanVII(c.1122-1218)markingtheshiftinthe

wholeregiontowardsTheravadaBuddhism.Thesecenturiesofconquestanddominationin

theearlymodernerahaveremainedapillarofCambodia’shistoryandcultureinscholarly

literature,aswellasinCambodiandiscoursesandimaginariestothepresentday.16

16SeeDavidChandler,AHistoryofCambodia(Boulder,Co.:WestviewPress,2000);JohnA.Tully,AShortHistoryofCambodia(CrowsNest:Allen&Unwin,2005).

34

However,bythenineteenthcenturythekingdomhadlonglostitsregionaloutreachandwas

reducedtoamarginalstate,itsindependenceendangeredbyVietnamandThailand(then

Siam),whichhadbeencompetingovertheMekongRiverareasincethefifteenthcentury.

Thelossandreclamationofsovereigntyhavebeenarepeatedpatternintheformationofthe

Cambodiannation.Inthe1840sCambodiawasapooragriculturalcountrysufferingfrom

majorinternaldissent,withapopulationoflessthanamillion.17Untilhisdeathin1860,

KingAngDuong(1796-1860)restoredrelativestabilityforafewdecades,thatwasheavily

dependentonajointvassalagebetweenSiamandVietnam.

Insearchofprotection,CambodiareachedouttoFrancetoguaranteeitsmonarchical

regimeandterritorialintegrity.CambodiabecameaFrenchcolonialprotectoratein1863,

withalimitedformofautonomy,retainingthekingasthefigureheadoftheregime.18France

expandeditspowerovertheSoutheastAsianpeninsula.By1887,theFrenchcolonieshad

gatheredtheVietnameseregionsofTonkin,Annam,CochinchinaandCambodiaintothe

IndochineseUnion,furtheraddingLaos(formerlyattachedtoSiam)in1893.

WorldWarIIpermanentlydisruptedtheFrenchcolonialempireandopenedanewand

difficultprocessofdecolonisationinSoutheastAsia.PrinceNorodomSihanoukwaschosen

bytheFrenchasthesuccessortomonarchSisowathMonivong,whodiedin1941.Backedby

theJapanese,whooccupiedterritoriesofIndochina,Sihanoukstartedpromotinganagenda

forthecountry'sindependence.19Thepost-warperiodbroughtthecontestationofFrench

colonialpowertotheforefrontacrosstheCambodianpoliticalchessboard,fromtheKhmer

Issaraks(FreeKhmer)independencemovementtoFrench-educatedgraduatessuchas

SalothSar,laterknownasPolPot,andKhieuSamphan,whohadstudiedatuniversitiesin

17Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,120.18JohnTully,‘CambodiaintheNineteenthCentury:OutoftheSiameseFryingPanandintotheFrenchFire?’inCambodiaandtheWest,1500-2000,ed.T.O.Smith(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2018),37-63;LawrencePalmerBriggs,‘TheTreatyofMarch23,1907:BetweenFranceandSiamandtheReturnofBattambangandAngkortoCambodia,’TheFarEasternQuarterly5:4(1946):439-54.19GeoffreyGunn,‘ThePassingofSihanouk:MonarchicManipulationandtheSearchforAutonomyintheKingdomofCambodia,’TheAsia-PacificJournal,10:50(1)(Dec09,2012):.1).

35

FranceanddiscoveredtheMarxistideologieswhichwouldinformthefuturenationalistKR

regime.20Inparallel,theVietnameserebellionledbyHoChiMinhandbackedbythenewly

establishedPeople’sRepublicofChinaengagedintheFirstIndochinaWar,whichledtothe

defeatoftheFrenchin1954.BoggeddownintheconflictwithVietnam,andfacinggrowing

resistance,theFrenchagreedtoCambodia’sindependencein1954.

SihanoukfoundedtheSangkumReastrNiyum(People’sSocialistCommunity)in

January1955,takingthetitleofHeadofStatein1960andleadingthecountryasan

absoluteruleruntil1970.Duringthisperiodofstability,Cambodiasawsomesocial

reform.21However,Sihanouk’srepressiveregimegeneratedanalarmingdividebetween

‘urbanconsumerism,corruption,andthedeepeningofpeasantpauperisation.’22Asaresult,

thegovernmentexperiencedinternalconflictsinthe1950swiththeriseoftheCommunist

party,theprogressivedistrustoftheeliteclassesandoppositionfromtheCommunistParty

ofKampuchea(CPK)led,amongstothers,byPolPot.23IntheColdWarera,Cambodiawas

stuckbetweenpro-AmericanregimesinSouthVietnamandThailandandCommunistChina.

Themonarch’sfearofgettingsuckedintotheVietnamWareventuallyledhimtosever

diplomaticrelationswiththeUnitedStatesin1965.24Despitethesetensions,theSangkum

erahasalsobeenconsideredthegoldenageofmodernCambodianculture.Journalist

RobertTurnbullsuggeststhatbypromotingdance,musicandtheatre,‘theregime

supersededethnic,racial,andclassdivisionsbymergingCambodia’sverydifferentstrands

20JamesTyner,TheKillingofCambodia:Geography,GenocideandtheUnmakingofSpace(Abingdon:Routledge,2008),40-50. 21Amongthesesocialreforms,in1955,womenweregiventherighttovote.Withthefoundationofelectedprovincialassemblies,ordinaryCambodianswereencouragedtotakepartinnationalpolitics.Sihanouk’sgovernmentalsoinvestedineducationbydoublingthenumberofschoolsfrom1953to1968.BrigitteBouhoursandRodericG.Broadhurst,ViolenceandtheCivilisingProcessinCambodia(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2015),151.22Ibid,164.23TheCPKwasfoundedbyagroupofCambodianswhohadstudiedinParisinthecolonialperiod,amongthemPolPot,IengSary,KhieuSamphanandDuch.24SeeDavidChandler,TheTragedyofCambodianHistory,Politics,War,andRevolutionsince1945(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1991),150-165;BouhoursandBroadhurst,ViolenceandtheCivilisingProcessinCambodia,149-165.

36

ofperformanceculture,suchasthetraditionsoftemple,court,andvillage.’25Thesecultural

forms,thatreinforcedafetishisationofCambodianness,remainedthepreserveofanurban

eliteandassociatedwithdiplomaticevents,thusexcludingthecommonpeople,especiallyin

ruralareas.

By1970,Cambodiaplungedintocivilwar.Sihanoukwasoustedinabloodlesscoup

byLonNol,theCambodianarmycommanderandmemberofhisadministration.Pro-

American,LonNolbecameHeadofStateoftheKhmerRepublicuntil1975,rulingovera

countryincreasinglyfragmentedintopoliticalfactionsandcaughtinthecrossfireofthe

Vietnamwar.SihanoukretreatedtoChinaandremainedtheleaderofthegovernment-in-

exile.TheCPK,alsoknownastheKR,gainedmorepowerduringthefollowingyears,and

eventuallymarchedintoPhnomPenhinApril1975,forcingthepopulationtoabandon

urbancentresforthecountryside,spellingtheadventofYearZeroandtheformationof

DemocraticKampuchea(DK).Thisregimequicklyturnedthecountryintoacommunist

peasantdictatorship,ruledwitheconomicquasi-autarky.26Between1975and1979,DK

institutedmasscollectivisation,separatingfamilies,displacingpeopleacrossthecountry

andengagingtheminforcedwork,particularlyricefarming.TheCPKalsoorchestrated

severalwavesofbloodypurges,firsteliminatingalltheirpoliticalopponents,civilservants,

intellectuals,andartists,andthenaggressivelypersecutingethnicminoritiesinthenameof

nationalpurification,inparticulartheethnicChamandVietnameselivinginCambodia.This

revolutionaryutopiaturnedintoahumanitariandisaster,leavingstarvingpopulations

facingpenuryandamajorsanitarycrisisthatclaimedanestimated1.7millionvictims,

aboutaquarterofthepopulationatthetime.

25RobertTurnbull,‘ABurned-OutTheater’,inExpressionsofCambodia:ThePoliticsofTradition,IdentityandChange,eds.LeakthinaChau-PechOllierandTimWinter(London:Routledge,2012),143-4. 26CharlesTwining,UScareerdiplomatinCambodia,statedaboutself-relianceinDKthat‘therehadtobesomemovementofgoodswithinthecountry.Noteveryonehadasupplyofoldtiresorhadclothandgarmentmakers.’SeeCharlesH.Twining,‘TheEconomy,’inCambodia,1975-1978:Rendez-vouswithDeath,KarlD.Jackson,ed.(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1989),121.

37

TherelationshipswiththeSocialistRepublicofVietnamhadworsenedby1978.

MilitarytroopscomposedoftheVietnamesearmyandCambodianswhohaddefected

invadedCambodia’sbordersin1979,overthrowingDKandestablishingtheVietnam-backed

People’sRepublicofKampuchea.HistorianMargaretSlocombstatesthatinthelastyearsof

DK,morethan600,000Cambodians,includingethnicVietnameseandChinesepopulations,

fledthecountry.27About350,000peoplerelocatedtorefugeecampsattheThaiborder,or

managedtocrossthebordertoThailandandVietnam.28Morethan240,000Cambodians

relocatedoutsideSoutheastAsiapermanently,including152,000peopleintheUnited

Statesandanother90,000inEuropeandAustralia.ThisforcedmigrationofCambodians

hasradicallytransformedthedefinitionofcontemporaryCambodia,andthusissuesof

diasporaandculturalidentityareimportantelementsofthisstudy.Thecountrywasleft

witharavagedeconomythatreliedoninefficientagriculturalpolicies,inadequatetechnical

andindustrialexpertiseandunderdevelopedinfrastructures.Inthe1980s,economic

recoverywasheavilysupportedbyotherCommunistnations,especiallytheSovietUnion

andVietnam,andwashinderedbyKRguerrillainsurgencyuntilthemid-1990s.

InOctober1991,theParisPeaceAgreementsallowedCambodiatotransitionfromits

VietnamesetutelagetotheUnitedNationsTransitionalAuthorityinCambodia,whichwasin

chargeoforganisingfairelectionsinMay1993.Thiskeymomentopenedthecountryto

foreignaidpresence.ThisrecentringofCambodiaontheglobalmapsignificantlymodified

thecountry’ssocio-economiclandscape.Between1997andthe2009worldfinancialcrisis,

Cambodiaexperiencedrapideconomicgrowthfacilitatedbyincreasinginternationaltrade

andthemassiveexpansionoftelecommunicationsacrosstheterritory.Thismovement

towardsglobalisationwasfurtherencouragedbyitsregionalincorporationintothe

27MargaretSlocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury(Singapore:NUSPress,2010),195. 28UnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOffice,NationalSecurityandInternationalAffairsDivision,ReliefEffortsforCambodianCampsFactSheet(Washington:UnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOffice,1991),2.

38

AssociationofSoutheastAsianNationsin1999andtheWorldTradeOrganisationin2004,

‘provid[ing]aninstitutionalframeworkthat[has]arguablyimprove[d]thecountry’s

prospectsfordevelopment’.29

Thesedecadesofpoliticalunrestinformtheunderlyingstructuralimbalancesof

Cambodia’ssilksectorattheturnofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inthelate1940s,mulberry

treeplantationswhoseleavesfeedbombyxmorisilkwormscoveredabout6,000hectaresof

theCambodianterritory,withPhnomSrokdistrictinBanteayMeancheyprovinceasthe

mainproducingarea.30Inthe1960s,silkfarmersyieldedbetweentwentytofiftymetric

tonnesofyarnayearforanationalconsumptionofeightytonnes.AnthropologistBernard

DupaignewasthelastresearchertoconductfieldworkonsilkinCambodiabeforethecivil

war.Hisstudyrevealedthatuntilthe1970ssericulturewasstructuredasacottageindustry

thatwasalmostexclusivelyrunbywomeninruralareasanddestinedfordomestic

consumption.31Bythelate1970s,silkproductionandweavingpracticesweremassively

impactedbythedestructionofmulberrytreefields,thesackingofvillages,andthe

displacementofcraftspeople.

Mostofthedataonsilkfarminginthetwentiethcenturymustbeconsideredasestimates.32

TheofficialnumberpresentedintheNationalSilkStrategy2016-2020(NSS)forsilk

productioninthepost-warerais0.8metrictonnesofsilkyarnannually,withoutindicating

theexactyearforthelowestleveleverrecordedinthetwentiethcentury.33Thisreportalso

29SokUdomDeth,KairatMoldashevandSerkanBulut,‘TheContemporaryGeopoliticsofCambodia:AlignmentinRegionalandGlobalContexts,’inTheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,eds.KatherineBrickellandSimonSpringer(London:Routledge,2017),21. 30JeanDelvert,Lepaysancambodgien(Paris:L’Harmattan,1994),282-3.31Dupaigne,‘L’élevagedesversàsoieauCambodge,’Revued’ethnoécologie14(2018):4.32Duetothelackofofficialsurveys,estimatesonsericulturehaveremainedapproximate,differingfromonereporttotheother.JeanDelvertspokeof25tonnesofsilkfibreintheearly1950s.MeyKalyan,founderoftheRoyalUniversityofPhnomPenh'sSilkResearchCentrein2018withthesupportoftheUNDPandJapan,statesthatinthe1960s,only20tonnesofsilkfibrewereproduced.The2016NationalSilkStrategymentions50tonnesinthe1960s.SeeMeyKalyan,‘FinalReport:EffortstoRevivetheSilkSectorinCambodia,’13February2013,2;JeanDelvert,Lepaysancambodgien(Paris:L’Harmattan,1994),282-3;CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.33CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.

39

mentionsthatonlyfifteenhectaresofmulberrytreefieldswererecordedintheBanteay

Meancheyareaafterthewarwithoutprovidingacleardateorsource.34Boththesenumbers

werepresented–thistimedatingfrom1995–inthepamphletOntheGoldenSilkTrails

publishedbyKhmerSilkVillagein2006,whichisreferencedintheNSS.KhmerSilkVillage

wasanassociationfoundedin2005withthesupportofPASS(Projetd’AppuiauSecteurde

laSoie)tosupportsericultureandsilkweavinginBanteayMeanchey.35Thepublicationwas

illustratedandtoneddownforageneralaudience.Itisnotfootnotedwithprecisesources

butacknowledgesitsrelianceonapreliminarystudypublishedbyPASSin2004.36

PublishedbyCambodia’sMinistryofCommercewiththetechnicalsupportofthe

UnitedNationsInternationalTradeCenter(ITC),theNSSreportis98pages,combininga

comprehensivesurvey(pp.1-43)andanactionplanonthesilksector(pp.44-73).Itsdata

mainlyreliesonpriorITC-ledprojects:afirstsilksectorstrategyontheCambodianvalue

chainin2005,followedbytheSector-wideSilkProjectlaunchedin2007intwophasesuntil

2012,implementedbyITCandfundedbytheSwissStateSecretariatforEconomicAffairs

andtheNewZealandAgencyforInternationalDevelopment.37

ThesecondphaseofthisSector-wideSilkProjectwasevaluatedinternallyin2011.The

reportexplainsthatthedatausedinthestudyisbasedondiscussionswithkeyactorsofthe

silksectorandontworeportsTheSilkIndustryinCambodiain2005andCambodian

SericultureStocktakingReportin2008.38InternalevaluatorArturDillmanstates:‘the

validityofthedatautilizedinthereportsisrepeatedlyquestionedinthosereports

themselves;forthepurposeofthiselaborationtheavailabledataseemstoprovide

overwhelmingevidenceforthebelowinterpretation,moreprecisedatawouldpossiblegive

34CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.35PASSwasattheinitiativeoftheCambodianMinistryofAgriculturewiththefundingoftheFrenchDevelopmentAgency.KhmerSilkVillages,OntheGoldenSilkTrails(Cambodia:2006),6.36PASS,CambodianSilkSector,2004.37InternationalTradeCenter,Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProject(PhaseII)CMB/49/05A(Geneva:ITC,2011),5.38Jalin,H.,PASS,BDPA,TheSilkIndustryinCambodia,2005;BuddGibbonsandJoseVahl,CambodianSericultureStocktakingReport:ForCambodianSector-WideSilkProject(Geneva:ITC,2008).

40

moredetails,butcertainlywouldnotsignificantlychangethegeneralperspective’.39Dillman

underlines‘theunknownlevelofcredibility’ofthecollecteddata,adding:‘dataon

perceptionofprojectactivitiescanbeutilizedforinterpretations,butitismorefor

qualitativepurposes’.40InthischartfromtheCambodianSericultureStocktakingReport

presentedintheITCMid-TermExternalEvaluation,onecanseethereisnodatacollectedfor

theproductionofsilkyarnbetween1960and1990,whichreflectsthedestructiveyearsof

thecivilwar,theKRregimeandtheVietnameseoccupation[Fig.3].Theseissuesofdata

credibilityillustratethechallengesofstudyingsilkproductioninCambodia.However,while

thedataisnotfullyreliable,itstillprovidesusefulestimatesthathaveinformedthe

strategicdecisionsandinvestmentsofthestakeholdersinvolvedinthesilksectorsincethe

1990s.

Fig.3ProductionofsilkyarninCambodiacitingtheCambodianSericultureStocktakingReport(Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProjectPhaseII),64.

Moreover,thenumberofweaverswhoperished,quitorescapedduringthecivilwarfrom

1970to1979remainsunknown.Untilsilkproductionbecameamoresalientconcernfor

officialsintheearly2000s,therewasnodataavailableaboutthenumberofweaversstill

39InternationalTradeCenter,Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProject(PhaseII)CMB/49/05A,11.40Ibid,41.

41

activeafterKRregime.

SpecificitiesofCambodiansilk

Thestudyofsilkincorporatesthegeographicalcharacteristicswhichallowthe

growthofmulberrytreefieldsandsilkworms.Cambodia’sclimatefollowsmonsoonwinds,

withawetseasonfrommid-MaytoearlyOctoberandadryseasonfromearlyNovemberto

mid-March.Itssoilsaremostlysandyanddonoteasilyretainnutrients.However,they

benefitfromthefloodingoftheMekongonceayearduringtherainyseason,which

generouslyfertilisesthecentralplainwithalluvialsediments,creatingasuitableecosystem

forrice-growing.Asapredominantlyagriculturalcountry,about80percentofthetotal

populationof16millionliveinruralareas,i.e.12,047million,accordingtothe2017

census.41Silkwormrearingandweavinghavebeensideactivitiesgroundedinvillagers’

lives.Withitswarmtropicalclimate,Cambodiasupportstheindigenousspeciesofbombyx

morisilkworms,whichproduceatypeofsilkcommonlycalledCambodiangoldensilk,

recognisableforitsbrightyellowcolourwhichwashesawayatthedegummingstageto

revealacreamywhitetone[Fig.4].Cocoonsareprocessedbyhand.Onecocoongivesan

averageoffourhundredmetresoffilaments,comparedtoaminimumofonethousand

metresfromthewhitemulberrysilkcocooninotherpartsofAsia.42ThenativeCambodian

silkhasbeenvaluedforitspropertiesofabsorbencyanddurability,withaheaviertexture

thanwhitemulberrysilk,andasoftersheen.

TheNSSreportstatedthatby2005subsidisedsericulturefarminghadeffectivelyresumed

andpeakedattentonnesofannualsilkyarnproductionin2008.However,bythe2010s,

41CambodiaNationalInstituteofStatistics,CambodiaSocio-EconomicSurvey(PhnomPenh:MinistryofPlanning:2018),5.Since2019,theCambodianpopulationhasexceeded16million.42Thefirstsemi-automatedsilkreelingmachinewasdevelopedin2019byAoralSilkCommunity.SokChan,‘AncientSilkFarmingRegainsGrowthwithProperEcosystem.’

42

withfewersponsoringprogrammes,sericulturehaddeclinedagaintoanaverageofoneto

threetonnesofyarnannually,returningtoitslowestlevelssince1990.43Tocompensatefor

thislowindigenoussilkproduction,about400tonnesoffibreannually–oftenoflower

quality–isimportedfromVietnamandChina.44Thesecontrastingfactsaboutsericulture

delineateacontextofruptureandrecoveryinwhichtherevitalisation,continuityand

declineofsilkoverlap.In2016,theCambodianMinistryofCommerceaskedtheEuropean

Union(EU)tograntgeographicalindicationstatustosilkyarnfromPhnomSrok,Banteay

Meancheyprovince,thelargestareaforsericulture.45Obtainingthistrademarkwould

encouragelocalproductionandreachexportmarkets,sellingtheconceptofaquality

locally-producedfibretoexportbuyersandtouristconsumers.Theconjunctionbetween

naturalresources,land,nationalproduction,andtradeisadeterminantspecificityof

Cambodiasericulture,whichjustifiesthematerialandgeographicapproachinthisthesis.

43CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.44RannReuy,’ImportedRawSilkGetsCheaper,’ThePhnomPenhPost,September11,2012,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/imported-raw-silk-gets-cheaper[AccessedSeptember10,2019];CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,37. 45Thisinitiativehasnotyetbeengranted.KampotpepperhasbeenrecognisedasGIin2016andKampongSpeupalmsugarin2019.SokChan,‘GIStatusSoonfor4Products,’KhmerTimes,November2,2016,https://www.khmertimeskh.com/61763/gi-status-soon-for-4-products/[Accessed10September2019]

43

Fig.4CambodiangoldensilkyarnandcocoonsattheInstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextilesshop,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,December2016.AnthropologistJohnTerHorst,whohasproducedthemostextensiveandrecentresearchon

silk,identifiedtheprovincesofKandal,Takeo,PreyVeng,KampongCham,andSiemReapas

themainareasforsilkweavingactivitiesinCambodia[Fig.5].46Eachareaisknownfora

specifictypeofproduction.Thelargestsilkweavingworkforce,isconcentratedinTakeo,

aboutfortykilometressouthofPhnomPenh,especiallyinthePreyKabasandBatidistricts,

whereabouttenthousandweaverswereactiveintheareain2005.47Silkweaversfrom

Takeoareexperiencedintheartofhol,theCambodiantermforpolychromicweftikatsilk.48

Asstatedearlier,KohDachweaversinKandalproducesampotphamaung,theplainsilk

clothoftenpatternedwithabrocadedbandatthehemthatissoldtotextiledealersin

PhnomPenhforthedomesticmarket.SiemReap,whereAngkorWatislocated,thathosts

morethantwomillionvisitorseveryyear,benefitsfromthelargepresenceofNGOsand

craftcompaniesdrawnbytourism.PreyVengandKampongChamaresecondarycentresof

activitywithfewerweavers,about2,500in2005.49TheweavingcommunitiesofPreyVeng,

locatedalongtheMekong,makevariouskindsofsilks,includingorganzaandsilksoldbythe

metreinPhnomPenhtextileshops.50TheChamethnicgroupsofKampongChamprovince

mostlyweavecottonkrama,thecheckedCambodianscarf.Highqualitysilks,especially

sampothol,arestillproducedinthevillageofPrekChangkran,SithorKandalDistrictinPrey

Veng.51

Fromthe1990s,theoverallnumberofsilkweaversgrewexponentiallyto20,000in2005,

decliningagainatanalarmingratefromthe2010stoanestimateof5,000in2016.52Silk

46TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia:TradeandIdentityPoliticsinthe(post)-ColonialCambodianSilkWeavingIndustry(Amsterdam:EigenBeheer,2008),131.47Ibid,133.48SeeappendicesA1-A2-A3. 49TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia:TradeandIdentityPoliticsinthe(post)-ColonialCambodianSilkWeavingIndustry,140. 50Ibid,138.51Ibid,139.52Ibid,131;CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.

44

fibreproducershavedecreasedtoonlyahundredpeople.Thediscrepancybetweensales,

tourism,andadecliningworkforceprovidesakeyparadoxtostartwithinthestudyofsilk

weaving.Thispointstotheneedtoreevaluatethenotionofthe‘revival’ofsilkproductionas

alinearconstructionandconsiderwhichaspectsofCambodiansilkhaveindeedbeen

revived,lost,andtransformedinthecontemporaryera.Thisalsomotivatesthefocusonthe

twomainsilk-producingregionsofTakeoandSiemReap,whichbothhostnumerouscraft

organisationsandgroupsofindependentweavers,toarticulatetheconnectionsand

differencesinweavingpractices,productsandmarketsbetweenTakeoasthehistorical

regionofsilkikatproductionandSiemReapastheleadingtouristcentre.

Fig.5MapofthemainsericultureandweavingareasinCambodiain2016,basedondatafromtheNationalSilkStrategy2016-2020,bytheauthor.

45

Keyactorsofthesilksector

Theconceptofasilkscapeenablesanapproachtothedisjuncturesandmovementsinthe

sectorbysimultaneouslyconnectingandchallengingthelocalandtheglobalworlds.Ina

dynamicviewofgeography,Appaduraihasidentifiedfiveoverlapping‘-scapes’:the

ethnoscape,themediascape,thetechnoscape,thefinancescape,andtheideoscape,which

areterritoriesorflowsformingtheglobal,thataremediatedthroughhistorical,linguistic,

cultural,andpoliticalcontexts.53Theseflowsinvolvenumerousactorssuchasnation-states,

transnationalinstitutions,diasporiccommunitiesandsub-nationalgroupsofdifferent

scales.Underthispremise,silkbecomesadynamicmatteranimatedbythecirculationof

people,discourses,skills,variousformsofknowledge,andimaginaries.

Since1991,whenthecountry’seconomywasreopenedtoliberalism,Cambodiahas

welcomednewactorstothesilksector,supportedbyforeigninvestorsfromtheEU,Japan,

andtheUnitedStates.54Withthepotentialtocontributetopovertyreduction,rural

developmentandculturalpreservation,silkhasgeneratedinterestfrominternational

developmentinstitutionssuchastheITC,theUNFoodandAgricultureOrganisationandthe

EU.OneinstitutionalrepresentationofthesilkscapeisthisdiagramfromtheNSSreport

[Fig.6].ThisperspectiveontheCambodiansilksectorisinvaluablebecauseitoffersavisual

materialisationofthenumerousflows–includingtransnationalexchanges–ofagents,raw

materials,andsilkproducts.Theinternationalkeyplayersareinblueandthedomesticones

inorange.Arrowsshowcontractsandmaterialinputsbetweendifferentactorsofthechain.

Thisdiagramexemplifiesanattemptinencapsulatingascomprehensivelyaspossiblethe

complexsystemofCambodiansilkproduction.Thisthesiswillprovideadditionaldiagrams

tolocateandvisualisespecificaspectsofthesilkscape.Also,thisthesiswillfocusspecifically

53ArjunAppadurai,ModernityatLarge(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2003),33.54Deth,MoldashevandBulut,‘TheContemporaryGeopoliticsofCambodia:AlignmentinRegionalandGlobalContexts,’24.

46

onthecentralsectionofwhatisrepresentedintheNSSdiagram:theweavers,SMEs,NGOs

andmiddlemen,intermediariesandnationalinstitutionsinvolvedthesector.

47

Fig.6 Cambodiansilkvaluechainchart,NSS2016-2020,14.

48

Literaturereview

Thisthesisisconcernedwiththetopicofknowledgeandskillstransmissionin

contemporarysilkpractices.Thisliteraturereviewisbuiltwiththeideathatknowledgeis

powerandthatproducersofknowledgehaveaspecificagencyinconveyingdominantor

marginaldiscoursesaboutCambodia.Inadditiontopresentingkeycanonsofscholarshipon

history,Frenchcolonialisation,theKRregime,immigration,ruralityandtextilepractices,all

ofwhichhaveprovedusefulinmythesis,itisessentialtocriticallyconsiderthespacegiven

toindigenousperspectivestoemphasisethemfurtherinthisresearch.Fromtheearlytravel

writingsonCambodiabythethirteenth-centuryChineseenvoyZhouDaguantothe

extensivescholarshipontheFrenchcolonialperiod,thescholarlyliteratureonCambodia

wasmostlywrittenbyforeignvoicesuntilWorldWarII.55TheKRtyrannywasapivotaltime

inthetwentiethcentury,whichimpededfurthertheriseofCambodianacademic

scholarship.Itbroughtavastarrayofinternationalscholarstofocusonthepolitical,human

andsocialcostofthisdictatorialregimeanditsoutcome,includingtherefugeecrisis.

Cambodianscholarsslowlyemergedinthe1980swiththecontributionsofanthropologist

AngChoulean,linguistSaverosPouandbotanistPaulineDyPhon,whichsignificantly

expandedanddisseminatedexpertknowledgeonpre-modernCambodiaanditsritesand

religiousbeliefs,aswellasonlocalflora.Forinstance,AngChouleanoffersanethnological

viewwhichexpandsmorecommonarthistoryperspectivesontheKhmerEmpire.His

examinationofthedevatastatuescarvedonAngkorWat’swallsshiftsitsfocustothe

psychologyandsensibilitiesoftheKhmerartisanswhoaimedto‘representtheseprecious

womeninalltheirphysicaldiversityandpersonalities’.56

55ZhouDaguan,PeterHarris,trans.,ARecordofCambodia:TheLandandItsPeople(Bangkok:SilkwormBooks,2007),75-76.56AngChoulean,‘Psychologiedel’artisankhmer:unepetitepièceàverserdanslegranddossier’,Udaya,JournalofKhmerStudies6(2005),188.

49

InaspeechdeliveredinFebruary1998,SaverosPoucoinedtheterm‘Khmerology’to

designateadiachronicapproachofKhmerlanguageandancienttextsrelyingonepigraphic

sourcesandthethoroughtrainingofCambodianstudents.Shearguedthat‘thehistoryofa

countryis[…]thatofhumanbeings,oftheirthoughts,theiraction,theirwayoflife,

individualsandasmembersofthecommunity’.57

PaulineDyPhonlisted1,254extantplantspeciesinCambodgewiththeirnamesinLatin,

Khmer,EnglishandFrench,includingplantsfornaturaldyesandspeciesofmulberrytrees

monthom(Morusalba)andmontoch(Morusaustralis).58Alltheseperspectivesprovide

importantformsofinsiderknowledgeconnectedtoCambodia’sland,cultureandlanguage.

ArchaeologyhaddevelopedasafieldinCambodiabythemid-1990swiththeparticipation

oftheRoyalUniversityofFineArtsincollaborationwithinternationalpartners.59Moreover,

withtheprominenceoftheUN-backedExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia

inthelate1990s,genocidestudieshaveexpanded,eventuallybecomingthemosthospitable

fieldforCambodianexpertise.TheInternationalAssociationofGenocideScholars

conferenceheldinPhnomPenhin2019exemplifiestheriseofearly-careerCambodian

researcherssuchasHangNisayandSeangSopheak,artistsKimHakandNeangKavichand

performerPhloeunPrim,allofwhomareactivelyengagedwithCambodia’shistoryof

genocide.60

TheFrenchdominanceofthehistoriographyofCambodianartanddesignbegan

withtheFrenchrediscoveryoftheruinsofAngkorWatin1907,cededbytheThais,andthe

establishmentofL’EcoleFrançaised’ExtremeOrient,theFrenchSchoolofFarEastStudies.

57SaverosPou,‘WhatisKhmerology?(inKhmer),’trans.bySothearaVong(MinistryofCultureandFineArtsandtheBuddhistInstitute,PhnomPenh,1998).58PaulineDyPhon,PlantesutiliséesauCambodge=RukkhajātiproeprâsknuṅpradesKambujā(PhnomPenh,2000),894. 59LowerMekongArchaeologicalProject,DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofHawaiihttp://www2.hawaii.edu/~miriams/lomap/index.html[AccessedAugust20,2020] 60InternationalAssociationofGenocideScholars14thconvention,‘'TheMissingPicture’:RethinkingGenocideStudies&Prevention,’PhnomPenh,July14-19,2019.

50

FocusedontheconservationofthemonumentalsiteofAngkorWat,theorganisation

fosteredresearchinarchaeology,arthistory,andreligiousstudies,mainlyconcentratedon

theKhmerEmpireandthewealthofarchaeologicaltemplesfoundinthecountry.This

FrenchcolonialideologyhasleftanenduringmarkonthehistoriographyofCambodian

crafts.CraftsbecameconcreteexpressionsoftheCambodiannationbuiltontheglorious

pastoftheKhmerEmpire.

ThiswasepitomisedbythewritingsofarthistorianandarchitectHenriMarchalandartist

andeducatorGeorgeGroslierinthe1910s.61BothpraisedtheuniqueaestheticofKhmer

ornamentalartwhiledeclaringtheimpendingdecadenceofCambodiancrafts.62Sincethe

2000s,Groslier’slegacyhasbeenthesubjectofmanycriticalstudies.Thepioneeringwork

ofIngridMuan,andsubsequentlythatofhistorianGabrielleAbbe,evaluatedGroslier’s

promotionofKhmerartsandcraftsaspartofthe‘civilisingmission’oftheFrench

Protectorate,to‘craftanationaldiscourse[…]andtheconstructionofaKhmercultural

identity,especiallyforaWesternaudience’.63

Inrelationtotextilesinparticular,PennyEdwardshasexploredtheconnectedissues

ofterritoriality,nationalism,colonialismandindigenousartisticproductioninCambodia

from1850to1950.64Shehighlightshowdressstylesinthecolonialeraredefinedsocial

normsofgenderidentityandethnicity,separatingmenfromwomenandKhmerpeople

fromethnicVietnameseandChineselivinginthecountry.Edwardsdemonstrateshowthe

sampotbecamethecentralelementofwomen’sattireandtheepitomeoftheCambodian

nationaldress,notonlydomesticallybutalsoinmainlandFrancethroughcolonial

61HenriMarchal,‘L’artcambodgienmoderne,’BulletindelaSociétédesEtudesindochinoises65(1913):69.62GeorgesGroslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’LaRevuedeParis,6(Nov-Dec1899):398-402.63IngridMuan,‘CitingAngkor:The‘CambodianArts’intheAgeofRestoration1918-2000’,(unpublishedPhDthesis,ColumbiaUniversity,2001),19;GabrielleAbbe,‘LedéveloppementdesartsauCambodgeàl’époquecoloniale:GeorgeGroslieretl’ÉcoledesArtscambodgiens(1917-1945),’Udaya,JournalofKhmerStudies12(2014):35.64PennyEdwards,Cambodge:TheCultivationofaNation,1860-1945(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,2008),144-150.

51

exhibitions.65EdwardsdidnotdirectlyincorporateCambodiansubjectivities,instead

groundingheranalysisinearlyFrenchcommentators’writingsandrarearticulationsby

voicesfromtheCambodianelite.

TocounterthewaysinwhichCambodianculturalhistoryhadbeendominatedbyforeign

perspectives,IngridMuanandDaravuthLyinvitedfourCambodianresearchers,Chea

Narin,CheaSopheary,KemSonine,andPreapChanmara,tocollecttestimoniesfromelderly

Cambodiansondressandbeautycustomsfrom2001to2003.Thisarchive,entitled‘The

MemoryBank’reconstructed‘individualmemoriesofhistoricaleventsassociatedwith

colonialismandindependence;localbeliefsofgeographyandlanduse;conceptionsof

genderandtheexperiencesofwomenandeverydayaccountsofmodernisationandchange’

outsideoftheofficialhistoriesoftwentieth-centuryCambodia’.66Thisthesisbuildsonthis

approachoflookingatthevernacularandembracingthenarrativesofinsidersthathave

beenmarginalisedintheexistingEnglish-andFrench-languagescholarship.

Ethnographicapproaches,however,arenotnew.Inthe1960s,thefocusofstudies

shiftedfromarchaeologyandhistorytotheanthropologicalstudyofrurality.MayEbihara,

consideredthefirstAmericananthropologisttocarryoutethnographicresearchin

Cambodia,withMiladaKalab,recognisedkinshipwithFrenchgeographerJeanDelvert’s

pioneeringsurveyofCambodia’scountryintermsofclimate,territory,ruraleconomyand

peasantlife.67In1968Ebiharapublishedatwo-volumedissertationonarice-producing

villageofsevenhundredinhabitantsinKandalprovincetodiscussthesocial,familyand

religiouspatternsofruralCambodia.68Herworkdemonstratedthevalidityofasmall-scale

materialistandhumanisticfocus,followingFranzBoas’advocacyofsynchronicstudiesto

65PennyEdwards,‘RestylingColonialCambodia(1860–1954):FrenchDressing,IndigenousCustomandNationalCostume,’FashionTheory5:4(2001):393-416. 66IngridMuanandal.,SeamsofChange:ClothingandtheCareoftheSelfinlate19thand20thcenturyCambodia(PhnomPenh:ReyumPublishing,2003),i.67MayEbihara,‘BookReview,'AmericanAnthropologist,65(1963):1155-1157;Delvert,Lepaysancambodgien,282-283.68MayEbihara,AndrewC.Mertha,andJudyLedgerwood,Svay:aKhmerVillageinCambodia(1971)(NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,2018).

52

understandlocalhistoriesandadiversityofcultures.69Thismethodisappropriatetothe

prevalenceoforalityinCambodianculture,especiallyinthecountryside.Bernard

Dupaigne’skeyethnographicstudyofsericultureandweavinginthesameperiodfitsthis

model,exploringsilk-makingprocessesinvillagesthroughobservation,description,and

conversationswithsilkfarmersandweavers.70

InadditiontoDavidChandler,whohasremainedtheauthorityonCambodianpolitical

studiesandtheKRinparticular,scholarssuchashistorianBenKiernanhaveused

interviewingmethodsbyintroducingtestimoniesofsurvivorstounderstandtheextreme

violenceexertedontheCambodianpopulation.71Intheearly1980s,Kiernaninterviewed

hundredsofCambodianrefugeesintheThaibordercampsaboutthemasskillingsand

ethnicpurges.

Withitsrangeofethnographicmethods,anthropologyhasprovidedsomeofthemost

potentstudiesonsocialissuesincontemporaryCambodia–inChandler’swords,‘neither

orientalistnorcondescending’but‘displayinganextraordinaryopennessandsensitivityto

Cambodianculture’.72Inthe2000s,anthropologistsfocusedonabroaderspectrumof

crucialtopics,includingtheKRgenocide,thecivilwaraftermath,Buddhism,ethnicityand

diaspora.73StudiesontherefugeecrisisandtheCambodiandiasporahavefolloweda

similarhuman-centricpath,exploringthereconstructionofKhmeridentityinthepost-civil

warperiod.AnthropologistNancySmith-Hefnerinterviewed175Khmerimmigrantsto

69Ledgerwood,‘Introduction,’inAKhmerVillageinCambodia,xii.70Dupaigne,‘L’élevagedesversàsoieauCambodge,’1-29.71DavidChandler,TheTragedyofCambodianHistory:Politics,War,andRevolutionsince1945(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2010);BenKiernan,ThePolPotRegime:Race,PowerandGenocideinCambodiaUndertheKhmerRouge,1975-79(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2008).72DavidChandler,‘Preface,’inCambodianCulturesince1975:HomelandandExile,eds.MayEbihara,CarolMortland,andJudyLedgerwood,(NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,1994),xii-xiii.73NoteworthyinthisanthropologicalliteratureareAlexanderHinton,WhyDidTheyKill?CambodiaintheShadowofGenocide(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2004);ElizabethGuthrieandJohnAmosMarston,History,Buddhism,andNewReligiousMovementsinCambodia(ChiangMai:SilkwormBooks,2006);JoachimSchliesinger,EthnicGroupsofCambodia,Volume3:ProfileoftheAustro-Thai-andSinitic-SpeakingPeoples(Bangkok:WhiteLotusCoLtd,2011).

53

documenttheirconditionsofresettlementintheUnitedStatesandtherenegotiatedsocial

bondswiththeirfamiliesandcommunities.

Studiesfocusedonimmigrantcommunitieshaveexpandedthedebateaboutthe

reformationofCambodianculturesincethe1990s.LedgerwoodandMortland,who

originallyspentextensiveperiodsinrefugeecampsattheThaiborder,examinedthe

mechanismsoflossinritualandartisticpractices.Theyinvitedthemuch-needed

perspectiveofCambodianexpertssuchKhingHocDyonliteratureandSam-AngSamon

music.74Similarly,researcherssuchasSusanNeedhamandKarenQuintilianihavetakenon

theroleofculturalbrokers,workingcloselywithcommunities,collectingphotographsand

testimoniesoverdecadestoreconstructtheformationoftheethnicneighbourhoodof

CambodiaTowninLongBeach,California.75DancescholarJudithHamerafollowedand

interviewedafamilyofformerKhmerballetdancersinLongBeach,showinghowthe

traumaofmigrationandwaraffectsCambodianrefugeesinhowtheyprojectandreclaim

theirmemoriesandsenseofidentity,especiallythroughculturalartisticpractices.76

Cambodiansurvivorsthemselves,especiallythoseresettledinthediasporainthe2000s,

havealsoreclaimedtheirvoicesbypublishingtheirmemoirs.77Thesediverseandessential

contributions,providingasituatedandembodiedscholarshipofCambodian-Americanand

refugeeexperience,informtheapproachandpositioningofthisthesis.

AswomenmakeupthemajorityofthesilkproductionworkforceinCambodia,and

arealsothemainconsumersofsilktextiles,italsoneedstobepointedoutthatmyresearch

integratesastrongerfocusonfemaleviewpointswithoutframingitasagenderedstudyof

74Sam-AngSam,‘KhmerTraditionalMusicToday,’InCambodianCulturesince1975:HomelandandExile,eds.Ebihara,MortlandandLedgerwood(NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,1994),39-46.75SusanNeedham,andKarenQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach(Charleston:ArcadiaPublishing,2008).76JudithHamera,DancingCommunities:Performance,DifferenceandConnectionintheGlobalCity(Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan,2006),7.77KatharyaUm,‘RefractionsofHome:Exile,MemoryandDiasporicLonging’,inExpressionsofCambodia:ThePoliticsofTradition,IdentityandChange,eds.LeakthinaTollierandTimothyWinter(London:Routledge,2006),86-101;LoungUng,FirstTheyKilledMyFather:ADaughterofCambodiaRemembers(NewYork:HarperCollins,2006);ChilengPaandCarolMortland,EscapingtheKhmerRouge:ACambodianMemoir(Jefferson:McFarland,2005).

54

silkunderafeministframework.ThisthesisexaminessocialpatternsanimatingCambodian

societyandtheformationofculturalidentities,includingtherolethatsilkplaysindefining

femininity.Women’sperspectiveshavebeenmarginalisedindominanthistoricalnarratives

ofCambodia.FemalesocialscholarssuchasTrudyJacobsenandAnnuskaDerkshave

pioneeredscholarshiponwomen’shistory,internalmigrationsandgenderinequalitiesin

Cambodia.78GeographerKatherineBrickellhasalsoexaminedthehistoriographyofideals

placedonwomeninCambodiansociety,bringingdisruptivenarrativesofgenderbiastothe

forefrontandrepositioningwomenas‘vocalsubjects’.79Lookingatgenderedsocialcodesin

Cambodiainregardstoissuesofmobilityandeducation,Brickellprovidesaninvaluable

modelof‘microlevelresearch’combininghistoricalstudywith‘empiricalmaterial’taken

fromgroupdiscussionsandinterviews.80

OtherareasofresearchdealingwithcontemporaryaspectsofCambodia,suchassocial

justice,geopoliticsinruralandurbancontextsandenvironmentalstudies,havereceived

broadcoverageintherecentHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,whichnotablyoffersa

panelofCambodianscholars.81Thebookalsodealstoalesserdegreewithculturaland

artisticexpression.

SoutheastAsiantextilestudieshavenoticeablycentredonIndonesia,Myanmarand

ThailandratherthanCambodiaandLaos,lookingatmaterials,thread-making,weavingand

dyeingprocesses,alongwithdresstypologiesasethnicmarkers,representativeofthewide

78TrudyJacobsen,LostGoddesses:TheDenialofFemalePowerinCambodianHistory(Copenhagen:NIASPress,2008);Similarly,anthropologistAnnuskaDerkshasexploredthestoryofCambodianwomenresettlingandmigratinginurbanareastoprovide‘acomprehensiveunderstandingoftheinterplaybetweenindividualexperiencesandstructuresofinequity.’AnnuskaDerks,KhmerWomenontheMove:ExploringWorkandLifeinUrbanCambodia(Honolulu:UniversityofHawai'iPress,2008),20.79KatherineBrickell,‘WeDon’tForgettheOldRicePotWhenWeGettheNewOne,’Signs,36:2(Winter2011):441.80Ibid,443-444.81KatherineBrickellandSimonSpringer,eds.,TheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia(London:Routledge,2017),1-13.

55

diversityofminoritiesbasedintheregion.82ScholarshiponCambodiantextilesanddress

hasremainedfocusedontechnicalandiconographicdevelopmentsinsericulture,weaving

anddyeingwhileoverlookingpoliticalandtheoreticalaspects.Ithasofferedthestudyof

notableexamplesfrommuseumcollectionssuchasthispidan(pictorialikat)collectedby

SuzanneKarpelès,founderoftheBuddhistInstituteofCambodiain1930[Fig.7].Todate,

textileexpertGillianGreenremainstheleadingreferenceforherextensivehistoricalstudy

ofCambodiantextilespreandpostKR.83Greenhastreatedcontemporarytextiletechniques

as‘traditional’,praisingtheir‘enduringimportance’andlinkingthemtotextile

developmentsdatingfromtheAngkorianperiod.84Herworkhasbeencomplementedbya

handfulofstudiesonthematerialcultureofsilkartefacts,notablySophearithSiyonn’swork

onthepictorialikathangingpidanandKikuoMorimoto’sresearchandadvocacyonthe

productionofhol(ikat).85Green,Morimoto,andaUNESCOpublicationhavefocusedonsilk

andnaturaldyestechniquesasessentialformsofculturalheritage,stressingtheimportance

ofrevitalisingtheseancientpractices.86Thisthesisacknowledgesthisbodyofliteratureasa

foundationalsourceofknowledgeonCambodiantextilesandtechniques,tobe

complementedbyotherformsofknowledgecarriedbycontemporarysilkpractitionersand

consumers.

82SeeSylviaFraser-Lu,HandwovenTextilesofSouth-EastAsia(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1992);JasleenDhamija,ed.BergEncyclopediaofWorldDressandFashion:SouthAsiaandSoutheastAsia(Oxford:BloomsburyAcademic,2010),https://www.bloomsburyfashioncentral.com/products/berg-fashion-library/encyclopedia/berg-encyclopedia-of-world-dress-and-fashion-south-asia-and-southeast-asia[AccessedNovember22,2019];FionaKerlogue,RudolfG.Smend,FulvioZanettini,andLeoHaks,BatikDesign,Style&History(London:Thames&Hudson,2004).83GillianGreen,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia:CulturalThreadsandMaterialHeritage(Bangkok:RiverBooks,2003);GillianGreen,PictorialCambodianTextiles(Bangkok:RiverBooks,2008).84GillianGreen,‘TextilesattheKhmerCourtofAngkor,’inThroughtheThreadofTime:SoutheastAsianTextiles:theJamesH.W.ThompsonFoundationSymposiumPapers,ed.JanePuranananda(Bangkok:RiverBooks,2004),24;Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia:CulturalThreadsandMaterialHeritage,107.85SeeappendicesA1-A2-A3.SopearithSiyonn,Pidan(Bitān)inKhmerCulture(PhnomPenh:ReyumPublishing,2008);InstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextiles(IKTT)andCentreforKhmerStudies(CKS),eds.,‘Hol’TheArtofCambodianTextiles,SeminarProceedings12-13Dec.2003(SiemReap:CentreforKhmerStudies,2003).86SeethisBuddhistInstitutepublicationcommissionedbyUNESCO:SorSokny,PhatChanmony,andSomVannak,TechniqueofNaturalDyeingandTraditionalPatternofSilkProductioninCambodia(PhnomPenh:UNESCO&TheBuddhistInstitute,2008).

56

ThisideaofcontinuityandtraditioninCambodianculturehasbeenarecurring

patterninthediscourseoncraftsduringtheFrenchcolonialperiod.Theindependence

yearsoftheSangkumbrieflydepartedfromthecrystallised‘notionofthe‘CambodianArts’

ashandmade,traditional,andunchanging’.87Thenarrativereturnedstronglyinthe1990s

inthefaceofthetremendousdamageinflictedonCambodiancultureaftertheKRregime.

CraftstheoristssuchasClareM.Wilkinson-WeberandAliciaOriDenicolahaveused

Hobsbawm’sperspectiveoninventedtraditionstocritique‘thenotionsofcraftaseithera

relicorrevival’.88Similarly,thisthesisarguesfortheneedtosituatecontemporarycrafts

withinshiftingsocialandhistoricalcontexts.

Fig.7BuddhisthangingpidanshowingtheGreatDepartureofBuddha,early20thc.,silkikat,collectedbySuzanneKarpelès.acquisition71.1933.111.258,MuséeduQuaiBranly,Paris.

Addressingholpidan,silkhangingsoriginallydonatedtomonksandexhibitedinBuddhist

temples,producedbytheJapaneseNGOCaringforYoungKhmer,arthistorianJoanna

87IngridMuan,'PlayingwithPowers:ThePoliticsofArtinNewlyIndependentCambodia,’Udaya,JournalofKhmerStudies6,(2005):44. 88ClareM.Wilkinson-WeberandAliciaOriDenicola,eds.‘TakingStockofCraft’,inCriticalCraft:Technology,Globalization,andCapitalism(London:Bloomsbury,2016),2.

57

Wolfhartquestionedthe‘familiardiscursivedichotomyof'traditional’against‘modern’or

‘contemporary’[Fig.8].89Shearguedthat‘theprocessesusedtoproducethesetextiles’were

traditional,whilethecontextoftheirproduction‘undertheauspicesofaforeign

organisation’differedsignificantlyfrompastpractices.Mythesisexploresthesetensionsto

overcome‘thestaticconnotationsimpliedbytheideaofa‘traditional’artform’.90Forthese

reasons,thisthesisinsteadreferencesancient,ancestralandartisanaltechniques,usingthe

terms‘heritage’,‘legacy’,‘practices’,‘customs’,‘usage’,and‘habits’.

Fig.8PidanhangingsoldatCaringforYoungKhmershopinPhnomPenh.Author’sphotograph,December28,2016.

Finally,afewkeycontributionshavebroughtcontemporaryperspectivesonCambodian

silk.GreenreliedontestimoniesoftheCambodiandiasporainAustraliatorecover

89JoannaWolfarth,‘HolPidan:CambodianTraditionalPictorialSilkTextile:PreservationandDevelopment,attheNationalMuseumofCambodia,2016,’SoutheastofNow1:1(March2017):207.90Wilkinson-WeberandOriDenicola,eds.‘TakingStockofCraft,’6.

58

knowledgeofclothingstylesstillprevalentinthe2000s,andincorporatedthisdataina

generalchapteronCambodiandress.91Mythesisexpandsonsilkpracticesreclaimedinthe

contextofculturaldisplacementbyconsideringhowthemajormigrationwavesofthe

1980shaveimpactedonandmodifiedCambodiandress-relatedculturalpracticesinthe

UnitedStates.

FashionscholarKatalinMedvedevhastakenintoaccountthesector’snewordersincethe

1990sbyfocusingonNGOsinvolvedintheindustry’seffortstowardsrevitalisation,suchas

IKTTinSiemReapandBlueMekonginStungStrengprovince.92Basedonperiodsof

fieldworkcarriedoutin2008,Medvedevinvestigatedtheimpactofthesesilk-producing

organisations'aspositivechangeagent,especiallyinfashionperipheries’.93Lookingatthe

genesisandstructureoftheNGOs,andtheirfounders’history,andmostlyleavingasidethe

vantagepointsoftheweavers,MedvedevintegratessilkhandicraftsproducedbylocalNGOs

intotheCambodianfashionindustryalongwiththegarmentfactoriessubcontractingfor

multinationals.WhileMedvedev’sfocusonNGOsisvalid,thisthesisarguesthatthe

artisanalsilksectorisseparatedfromtheindustrialgarmentsectorforexport,aviewpoint

alsosupportedbyCambodiansilkprofessionals.94

Lastly,TerHorst,whohasproducedthemostrecentandextensiveworkonCambodiansilk

weavers,hasconsideredthesilkchainbeyondCambodianbordersbystudyingtheroleof

ethnicChinesecommunitiesinsilkfibretrade,sales,andweaving.95TerHorstaimedto

91Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,194.92KatalinMedvedevandBrittanyReef,‘PickingUptheThreads:ModelApproachHelpsCambodiaDesignaNewFashionImage,’Women'sStudiesQuarterly,41:1-2(2013):131-149;KatalinMedvedev,‘TheRootsofChangeintheContemporaryCambodianFashionScene’,InternationalJournalofFashionStudies,2:1,(2015):9-37;KatalinMedvedev,‘CambodianFashionNGOs:AreTheyDoingGood?’JournalofTextileEngineering&FashionTechnology,1:4(2017):148-151.93MedvedevandReef,‘PickingUptheThreads:ModelApproachHelpsCambodiaDesignaNewFashionImage,’135.94‘TheindustrialgarmentsectorispartofadifferentvaluechainwithoutanymajorlinkagestosericultureandsilkweavinginCambodia’,CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,5.95JohnTerHorst,IkatWeavingandtheEthnicChineseInfluencesinCambodia(Bangkok:WhiteLotusPress,2011),xiv.;SeealsoHeidiDahlesandJohnTerHorst,‘WeavingintoCambodia:NegotiatedEthnicityinthe(Post)colonialSilkIndustry’,inExpressionsofCambodia:ThePoliticsofTradition,Identity,andChange,eds.Ollier,LeakthinaChan-Pech,andTimWinter(London:Routledge,2006),119-132.

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contestthediscourseselevatingsilkasaCambodiannationalproduct,whichheargues

conflatethenotionofCambodianwiththedominantKhmerethnicityandignoretheagency

ofotherminoritiesinvolvedinthesector.Hisresearchdeconstructingthedynamicsofsilk

fromthe1990s,showingmultipleactorsfromsilkyarnproducerstoweavers,

intermediariesandtraders,especiallyfromdiverseethnicities,hasbeenanessentialsource

forthisthesis.TerHorst,however,largelyignoredthematerialityofsilkasobjectsandsilk

practicesasaformofknowledgeandagencyfortheweavers,whichisakeyfocusof

ChapterThreeinthisthesis.

Theoreticalframeworks:fromglobalsilknetworkstoindividualformsofembodiedandtacit

knowledge

Theliteraturereviewhasdemonstratedtheeffectivenessandnecessityof

ethnographicandcriticalapproachesinestablishingamultifacetedunderstandingof

Cambodia’sculturalhistoryanditspeoples.Italsoconfirmsthevalidityofapolyvocalstudy

thatincludesotherformsofknowledgerespondingtoepistemologiesgroundedinorality,

tacitness,thebody,andmemory.SociologistBoaventuradeSousaSantoscoinedtheterm

‘theepistemologiesoftheSouth’todefinetheseformsofknowledgethatdepartfrom

Eurocentricfieldsofresearch.96Hequalifiedthemas‘popular,lay,plebeian,peasant,or

indigenousknowledgesontheothersideoftheline’,engagingscholarsincrossing

boundariesandlookingfurther.97

First,thisthesispositionsCambodiandressandtextilepracticeswithinthetheoretical

argumentsupportedbyfashionscholarsJenniferCraikandAngelaJansenthatis‘disputing

misassumptionsconcerningnon-Europeanfashionasbeingstatic,authenticand

96BoaventuradeSousaSantos,‘BeyondAbyssalThinking:FromGlobalLinestoEcologiesofKnowledges’,Eurozine,29June2007,2,https://www.eurozine.com/beyond-abyssal-thinking/[AccessedJune1,2020]97Ibid.

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symbolic’.98Cambodiandresshasitsownfashionsystemrespondingtochange,taste,

economicandculturalexchanges,andincludingclothingstyles,hairstylesandcosmetics–

thathasbeenwelldemonstratedbyinterviewsonCambodianclothinganddailylife

documentedinthebookSeamsofChange.99However,narrativesonCambodianfashionhave

notdepartedfromthecommonpolarisedtropesthatCraikandJansenalsochallenge,

separatingWestfromnon-West,marginsfromcentre,traditionfrommodernity,andlocal

fromglobal.ThemostcommondiscourseonCambodianfashionhistorylinksdresschanges

totheriseofforeigninfluencesoftheSiamkingdomandespeciallyFrenchcolonialpower,

thusreinforcingtheconstructionofCambodianfashionunderaWestern-centricscope.For

instance,Edwardshasexplainedhowinthemid-nineteenthcenturytheestablishmentofa

specificCambodianstylerespondedtothecolonialrule’sattempttodeterminecodified

representationoftheCambodiannationalidentity.Inthe1900s,KingSisowath,malecourt

andgovernmentalofficialsworesampotchawngkbun(wrappedtrousers)withtailored

jackets.100Ontheotherhand,thesampothol,asilkhipwrapperoflavishpolychromicweft

ikat,becameacommodityinmainlandFrance.Intheyearsofindependence,theideaof

fashionwastiedtothearrivalofmass-producedWestern-styleclothingwithfittedshapes

andcolourfulpatternsbecomingpopularamongCambodianurbanites.Thedictatorshipin

the1970sforbidtheCambodiansocietytowearanysortoffashion.Afteritscollapse,from

the1980stheCambodianwardrobehasincludedacombinationofmass-producedclothing

andhandmadetextiles.Silktextilesarestillworntothepresentdayonspecialoccasions.

Forwomen,themainceremonialattireconsistsofasilkpleatedsampot(hipwrap)anda

cottonorlacyaor(blouse),oftenwithakramasaut(silkscarf)wornasymmetricallyonthe

shoulder[Fig.9].

98AngelaJansenandJenniferCraik,ModernFashionTraditions:NegotiatingTraditionandModernitythroughFashion(London:Bloomsbury,2016),1. 99Muanandal, SeamsofChange:ClothingandtheCareoftheSelfinlate19thand20thcenturyCambodia. 100LindaWeltersandAbbyLillethun,FashionHistory:AGlobalView(London:BloomsburyVisualArts,2019),183-184.

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FashionscholarsJoanneEicherandSandraLeeEvensonhavearguedthat‘tocounter

Eurocentrism,wemustrecognizethatcontemporarystylesofdressaretheconsequenceof

ahistoryinwhichinternalandexternalforcesofchangehaveselectivelyshapedthe

form’.101ThisthesisacknowledgesthatCambodianclothinghasoscillatedbetweenbeing

consideredfashionandtraditionalthroughhistory,andthatchangesindresshavelargely

beendiscussedinconnectionwithexternalinfluences.Thatsaid,thisthesisalsoaimsto

counterEurocentricassumptionsinherentintheterminologiesoffashionscholarship.

Therefore,thisthesiswillnotusetermsthatpromoteastereotypedviewofCambodian

dressastraditional,regionalorunderthe‘rigidlyprescribedcostumeformwithfew

variations’.102Itemphasisestheuseoftheterm‘dress’,whichencompassesclothingand

bodymodifications,and‘fashion’.Theterm‘costume’isemployedsolelytodesignate

garmentsusedindanceandtheatre,followingJoanneEicher’sdefinitionthat‘costume

primarilydesignatesdresspracticesthatconcealortransformtheindividual’sidentity

whenperformingindance,theater,andmasqueradesacrosstheworld’.103

101JoanneB.EicherandSandraLeeEvenson,TheVisibleSelf:GlobalPerspectivesonDress,Culture,andSociety(London:Bloomsbury,2015),101.102Ibid.103JoanneB.Eicher,‘IntroductiontoGlobalPerspectives,’BergEncyclopediaofWorldDressandFashion,eds.JoanneB.EicherandPhyllisG.Tortora(Oxford:Berg,2010)InBloomsburyFashionCentral.https://www.bloomsburyfashioncentral.com/products/berg-fashion-library/encyclopedia/berg-encyclopedia-of-world-dress-and-fashion-global-perspectives/introduction-to-global-perspectives[AccessedDec.8,2020]

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Fig.9Processionofwomeninsampothol,aor,andkramaataBuddhistceremonyinTakeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.

DuringfieldworkinCambodiainDecember2017,themajorityoftheCambodiansIsaw

woreWestern-styletrousers,sarong,shirts,andt-shirts.Krama(plaidwovenscarf)isworn

asadailyaccessorybyallCambodians,menandwomen.Onlyasmallnumberofwomen

woretubeskirts,rarelyinsilk,inthephamaungandholstyles.Theseobservationsmirrored

aseriesofarticlesinThePhnomPenhPostin2011,whichblamedWesternfashionand‘sexy

dresses’forcausingthedisappearanceofthetraditionalattire,especiallywhenattending

BuddhistceremoniesatthetemplesuchasPchumBenorKhmerNewYearcelebrations.104

104‘KhmerCulture,’ThePhnomPenhPost,September21,2011,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lift/khmer-culture[AccessedMay16,2018];KimSamathandTouchYinVannith,‘WhydoWomenWearSexyClothesinPagodas?,’ThePhnomPenhPost,21September2011,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lift/why-do-women-wear-sexy-clothes-pagodas[AccessedMay16,2019].

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Inthesearticles,Cambodianofficialsandmedialinkedwhattheyconsideredsignsof

culturaldeclinetoglobalisationandliberalism,whileyoungpeopleexpressedadesireto

wearcomfortableclothes,andcitedthehighcostandmaintenanceofsilkgarments.Fashion

scholarMargaretMaynardhasstressedthatglobalisationanditsrealmofdisjunctions,as

developedbyAppadurai,havecreatedtensionsinthewaypeopledress,between

homogenisationandheterogenisation.105Thisthesisaddressesthissetofdebatesaround

changesandadaptationindressuseinthefaceofglobalisation,firstinChapterOneonthe

historiographyofsilkanddressinCambodiathatshiftsbetweenlocalandforeign

influences,andinChapterFourontheCambodianAmericandiasporaandtheirclothing

practices.Similarly,thefieldofglobaldesignhistoryhasencouragedsitedapproaches

‘privilegingtheinteractivemovementofthingsandideas,andtheprocessofcross-

fertilisationoftaste’.106SarahTeasley,GiorgioRielloandGlennAdamsonareconcernedwith

‘themultiplicitiesandfragmentedconditioninwhichweexperienceandenactdesign’,

whichisasuitablecontextwithinwhichtoexaminetheCambodiansilksectorwhile

acknowledgingitshistoricties,geographicpositioningandcontemporary

reconfiguration.107

ThisthesisconsidersthewaysinwhichtheCambodiansilksectoroperatesasa

complexnetworkwhichintegrateswhatanthropologistAnnaLowenhauptTsingwouldcall

globalandlocalfrictionsboundbyhistoricalandgeographicencounters.108Tsingargues

thatethnographicanalysiscanhelpunpacklocalisedareasoffrictionandexposetheir

significance.Therefore,theculturalspecificityoftheseglobalinteractionsisexploredto

revealtheirramifyingeffectsonsilk.109TheseeminglyisolatedrealitiesofCambodiansilk

105MargaretMaynard,DressandGlobalisation,(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2004),21-22.106SarahTeasley,GiorgioRielloandGlennAdamson,eds.,GlobalDesignHistory(NewYork:Routledge,2011),3.107Ibid,4.108AnnaLowenhauptTsing,Friction:AnEthnographyofGlobalConnection(Princeton:UniversityPress,2004),3. 109Ibid,3.

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weaversarereintegratedinthecontextofanationalandglobalproductionchain.Global

designhistoryalsorelieson‘networktheory[which]helpsustounderstandhow

knowledgeistransmittedacrosscultures’.110WiththeconceptofActor-NetworkTheory

(ANT),BrunoLatour,MichaelFallonandJohnLaw,partoftheScienceandTechnology

Studiesfield,havecontributedtothestudyofproductionflowsandthecirculationof

commoditiesintechnosocialandtechnoscientificcontexts.Latourarguesthatpowerisa

forcecirculatingbetweenvarioushumanandnon-humanagents.111Networksmayinclude

objects,materialsandorganisations.In2008Latourbroughtthisphilosophicaland

anthropologicalperspectivetodesignstudies,emphasisingitspotentialtoconnectmaterials

tothingstoforcesand‘carryingwithitanewattentionofmeaning’.112Thetransformative

andmultidimensionalqualityofANTprovidesausefulmethodologicallensthroughwhich

toconsiderthemultiplenatureofthesilknetwork,‘aparliamentofthings[to]be

assembled’,whichrespondstotheagencyofspecificplayersthat,inturn,resorttoaseries

ofprocesses,tools,andmaterialstoproducesilkobjects.113

ANThasalsoshownlimitations.Latourhimselfhasacknowledgedthenon-hierarchical,

flatteningnatureofANT,inwhich‘bothmicroandmacroarelocaleffectsofhookingupto

circulatingentities’.114SociologistTomMillshasarguedthat‘itshorizontalist,symmetrical

approachisill-suitedbothtothedevelopmentofscientificknowledgeaboutsocial

structures,andtotheinterrogation,empiricalornormative,ofthecentresofcontemporary

socialpower’.115Moreover,severalScienceandTechnologyStudiesscholarshavecritically

110Teasley,RielloandAdamson,eds.,GlobalDesignHistory,3.111BrunoLatour,ReassemblingtheSocial:AnIntroductiontoActor-NetworkTheory(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2005),72.112BrunoLatour,‘ACautiousPrometheus?AFewStepsTowardaPhilosophyofDesign(withspecialattentiontoPeterSloterdijk)’,inNetworksofDesign:Proceedingsofthe2008AnnualInternationalConferenceoftheDesignHistorySociety,UniversityCollegeFalmouth,3-6September,ed.JonathanGlynne,FionaHackneyandVivMinton(BocaRaton:Universal-Publishers,2009),2-4.113Ibid,5.114BrunoLatour,‘OnRecallingANT’,TheSociologicalReview47:1(May1999):19.115 TomMills,‘Whathasbecomeofcritique?ReassemblingsociologyafterLatour’,TheBritishJournalofSociology,69(2018):298-9.

65

addressedtheWestern-centricuniversalistthinkingbehindANT,comparingthisparadigm

topost-colonialperspectivesandEastAsianlocalpractices.116Wen-YuanLinandJohnLaw

stressedthattheheterogeneityofworldsis‘contextual’,meaningthat‘whatcountsasgood

knowledgeinonelocationmayormaynotcountasknowledgeanywhereelse’.117They

arguedthat‘theobjectistohighlightunderprivilegedlocalperspectivesandsituations

withoutessentialisinglocality’.118SociologistsDavidDumouilinKevran,MinaKleiche-Dray

andMathieuQuetrecommendpursuingtheenergisingcrossingbetweenscienceand

technologyandpostcolonialculturalcriticismtoquestion‘themultiplenatureofpower

(thatweknowonlyfromsitesofobservationthataredifferent)andtheinterplayofforms

ofotherness’,andexplorealternativeempiricalformsofmodernity.119

Inadditiontotheseinvaluableinterpretations,mythesisalsoreliesonthescripting

approach,derivedfromANT,toexamineartefacts,makingprocessesandmaterials.

DevelopedbysociologistoftechnologyMadeleineAkrich,scriptingconsidershowtechnical

objectsaretherecipients,sums,andresultsoftheirdesigners'agency,builtfromtheir

interactionswiththeusers,whetherimaginedorreal.120KjetilFallanvalidatesthis

approachfordesignhistorianswhoarelookingat‘howaproduct'sutilitarianfunctions,

aestheticsexpressions,socialmeaningandculturalidentitiesareconstructed’.121

ScholarsofceramicsLouiseAllisonCortandLeedomLeffertsproducedacomparativestudy

ofmakingprocessesinthemid-1990sinmainlandSoutheastAsia,includingCambodia.122

116DavidDumouilinKevran,MinaKleiche-Dray,andMathieuQuet,'LesSTSont-ellesunSud?Penserlessciencesdans/aveclesSuds’,Revued’anthropologiedesconnaissances11:3(2017):423–454;Wen-yuanLinandJohnLaw,‘WeHaveNeverBeenLatecomers!?MakingKnowledgeSpacesforEastAsianTechnosocialPractices',EastAsianScience,TechnologyandSociety:AnInternationalJournal9(2015):117–126.117LinandLaw,‘WeHaveNeverBeenLatecomers!?MakingKnowledgeSpacesforEastAsianTechnosocialPractices,'120-21.118Ibid.119DumouilinKevran,Kleiche-Dray,andQuet,'LesSTSont-ellesunSud?Penserlessciencesdans/aveclesSuds,’297.120MadeleineAkrich,‘TheDe-ScriptionofTechnicalObjects,’inShapingTechnology/BuildingSociety,editedbyW.BijkerandJ.Law(Cambridge:MITPress,1992),208.121KjetilFallan,DesignHistory:UnderstandingTheoryandMethod(Oxford:Berg,2010),13.122LouiseAllisonCourtandLeedomLeffertshaveappliedPierreLemonnier’smethodof‘chaînesopératoires’.TakingtheexampleofankavedrumsinPapuaNewGuinea,Lemonnierhasarguedthat

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Followingtheconceptofchaînesopératoirescommontoarchaeologyandcultural

anthropology,theydeconstructedthedifferentstepsofpotterymaking,lookingat

‘technologyasanembodiedbehaviour’–thatis,theposturesandactionsadoptedby

artisanstoachievearangeofspecifictasks.SimilarlytoAkrich,theyconsidered‘the

behavioralpatternsinvolvedinproductionandtheirimpactontheitemproduced’which

helpstoidentifytheinteractionsbetweentheartisans,theirgesturesandthematerials.123

Informedbytheseexamplesofscriptingandpost-colonialANT,thisthesisaimstomapthe

silksector,navigatingfrommacro-geopoliticalsystemstomicro-processesofproduction.

Conversely,itnavigatesfromthefibretotheeconomyofsilkandtrade,whileintegrating

makersandconsumersaskeyagentsandproducersofknowledge.

Inadditiontonetworktheory,thisthesisusesculturalgeographytoestablisha

strongsenseofplace,tofullysituatetheresearchgeographicallyandhistoricallyinthe

specificterritoriesofsilkproductionandconsumptioninCambodiaandLongBeach,

California.GeographerDavidDelaneyhasestablishedthatterritoriesfind‘their

manifestationsintheirhistoricspecificity'.124Inotherwords,territoriesareinterdependent

withtheprocessesofcultural,socialandpoliticaltransformationsthatcrossthemandaffect

theirnature.125Asexemplifiedatthebeginningofthischapter,indiscussingKohDach

island,thisthesisoptsforalocatedethnographicanalysisgroundedinmapsand

descriptions,treatingthespacesofsilkweavingas‘humansocialcreations’,and‘significant

culturalartefacts’.126Moreover,Delaneyfocusesonmacro-andmicro-territorialstructures,

eachstepoftheproductionsequencemustbedetailedtoperceivethe‘materialdimensionoftechnicalbehaviours’.SeePierreLemonnier,‘Mythiqueschaînesopératoires,’Techniques&Culture,43-44:1(2004):1-2;LouiseAllisonCortandLeedomLefferts,‘AnApproachtotheStudyofContemporaryEarthenwareTechnologyinMainlandSoutheastAsia,’JournaloftheSiamSociety88:1&2(2000):205. 123CortandLefferts,‘AnApproachtotheStudyofContemporaryEarthenwareTechnologyinMainlandSoutheastAsia,’205.124DavidDelaney,Territory,AShortIntroduction(Malden,MA:Blackwell,2005),20.125Ibid,23.126Ibid,10.

67

‘whereindividualhumansasembodiedbeingsorganisethemselveswithrespecttothe

socialandmaterialworld’.127Inthissituatedframework,thisthesisisparticularlyconcerned

withtherelationshipbetweenmaterialityandthepeopleformingthesilkscape,starting

withweaversaskeyagentsofknowledge.

Cambodiansilkweaversworkinruralareas,eitherindependently,withintheirownfamily

orneighbouringvillagers,oraspartofcraftNGOs,whichcreatesadiversityofsituationsin

termsoffamilydynamics,socialandmaterialinterrelationsandeconomictransactions.

However,weavinginCambodiaisalsoapracticecommonlypassedonfrommotherto

daughteratayoungagethroughobservation,oralinstruction,copying,andrepetition.

Lookingat‘themakers’individualprocesses,strategies,andtacticsofknowing',Trevor

Marchandhasdevelopedarichcanonofscholarshiponthedifferentformsofknowledge

producedthroughcraftpractices.128ToMarchand,‘makingthingsisthereforemaking

knowledge.Bycarefullystudyingthesemicro-processes,westandabetterchanceof

describingthemechanismsofsocialandculturalchange’.129Thisstrongemphasison

engagingcloselywithweavers’workprovidesauniquelensintotherevitalisationand

survivalofCambodianculturalpracticesinthecontextofpost-conflicteconomicandsocial

reconstruction.

Marchand’seditedvolumeMakingKnowledgeemphasisesnon-Westernethnographic

studiessuchasthoseofIndianmatweaversandKhazakfemaleembroidererstofocuson

themechanismsofskillslearningandhowthisiscommunicatedbytheartisansfromverbal

tophysicalformsofcommunication.130Alongwithdiscoursesonweaversthemselves,this

thesisthereforeexaminestheroleoftheembodiedandthetacitinmakingandwearingsilk.

Marchandsuggeststhat‘thebodyplaysamorecrucialroleinthemakingofallformsof

127Delaney,Territory,AShortIntroduction,10. 128TrevorMarchand,ed.MakingKnowledge:ExplorationsoftheIndissolubleRelationBetweenMind,BodyandEnvironment(Chichester:WileyBlackwell,2010),15.129Ibid,112.130Ibid,15.

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knowledgethanwhatcanberevealedthroughethnographicobservationalone’.131

Embodimentisalsoakeyconceptwhenconsideringwearingsilkandhowitdirectly

mediatestheimmigrantexperienceinthecontextofdisplacement.AnthropologistDaniel

Millerstatedpowerfullythat‘astudyofclothshouldnotbecold;ithastoinvokethetactile,

emotional,intimateworldoffeelings’.132Inthisregard,Millerandco-authorMukulika

BanerjeeevocativelydescribedtheexperienceofwearingasariforanIndianwoman:where

thefabricholdsanddrapes,andhowtheclothisnegotiatedasaninterfacebetweenthe

woman’sbodyandidentityandtheoutsideworld.133Similartothesari,wearingasilk

sampotoffersaspecificexperienceofdrapingonKhmerwomen’sbodies,tiedaroundtheir

waistandwornforspecialoccasions.

TheanalysisofintimateexpressionsofCambodianculturalidentitythroughdresscouldbe

deepenedthroughautoethnography‘toproduceaestheticandevocativethickdescriptions

ofpersonalandinterpersonalexperience’.134Forinstance,dancescholarPriyaSrinivasan

usesherexperienceasadancertoexploreIndiandanceintransnationalcontexts,

suggestingthat‘thesweatingsariisametonymforthedancingbodyaslabor’.135Citing

dancerSusanFoster,Srinivasanadvocatesfor‘anexaminationofdiscoursesbyandthrough

thebodybyfocusingonitscorporealities,wherebodilyrealityisseennotasa‘naturalor

absolutegivenbutasatangibleandsubstantialcategoryofculturalexperience’.136This

approachiskeyinconsideringtheunspokenintimaciesbetweenthewearer,thebodyand

silkinthecontextofdisplacementandculturalloss.AsarguedbyEbihara,Ledgerwoodand

131Marchand,MakingKnowledge:ExplorationsoftheIndissolubleRelationBetweenMind,BodyandEnvironment,17.132DanielMiller,Stuff(Cambridge:PolityPress,2010),41.133DanielMillerandMukulikaBanerjee,TheSari(Oxford:Berg,2003),23-44.134CarolynEllis,TonyE.Adams,andArthurP.Bochner,‘Autoethnography:AnOverview,’Forum:QualitativeSocialResearch12:1(January2011),Article10http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1589/3095[AccessedJune29,2020]135PriyaSrinivasan,SweatingSaris:IndianDanceasTransnationalLabor(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2011),xi.136Srinivasan,SweatingSaris,71;SusanFoster,‘Introduction,’inCorporealities:DancingKnowledge,Culture,andPower,ed.SusanFoster(NewYork:Routledge,1995),x.

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Mortland,embracingculturalsymbolsofCambodiannessinthediasporatakesaspecific

meaning.Thiscentralpremisecreatesthepossibilityofconsideringsilkclothasametonym

forCambodianidentityandembodimentoffamilyattachments,memories,andtrauma.137

Polyphonicandmultidisciplinarymethodology

Thisthesisseekstoengagewithsubjectivitiesproducedfromapluralityofvantage

points.Toengageadiversityofvoices,fromCambodiantoforeign,organisationstopeople,

textileartefactstomaterials,polyphonyhasbeentheleadingdiscursivemethodacross

everychapterofthisthesis.Inmusic,thetermpolyphonydescribesamusicalpiece

comprisedoftwoormorelinesofmelody.Inliterature,linguisticscholarMikhailBakhtin

usedtheterm‘heteroglossia’todescribe‘aseriesofcomplexinterrelationships,

consonancesanddissonances’,asystemusedtocreatepolyphonicnovelsenrichedby

multiplelayersofsemantics.138HistorianJamesCliffordreclaimedBakhtin’stheoryto

conceptualisetheideaofapolyvocalethnographicapproachtovocaliseculturesas‘an

open-ended,creativedialogueofsubcultures,ofinsidersandoutsiders,ofdiverse

factions’.139

Moreover,thisapproachalignswiththedecolonialworkdevisedbysemioticianWalter

MignoloandsociologistRolandoVazquez.Theyhaveencouragedthehumanitiesto

repositionWestern-centricclaimshistoricallyandchallengepatternsofcoloniality.140To

137Ebihara,Ledgerwood,andMortland,CambodianCulturesince1975:HomelandandExile,9.138MikhailBakhtin,‘DiscourseintheNovel,’inTheDialogicImagination:FourEssays(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1981),276-282.139JamesClifford,ThePredicamentofCulture:Twentieth-CenturyEthnography,Literature,andArt(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1988),46-54;JamesClifford,'OnEthnographicAuthority,’Representations,2(Spring,1983):136).140WalterMignoloandRolandoVazquez,‘DecolonialAestheSis:ColonialWounds/DecolonialHealings,’SocialTextOnline,July15,2013,https://socialtextjournal.org/periscope_article/decolonial-aesthesis-colonial-woundsdecolonial-healings/[AccessedNovember3,2019]

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thisend,Mignoloarguesfor’arelocationofthethinkingandacriticalawarenessofthe

geopoliticsofknowledge’.141Foradesignhistorianworkingwithoralsourcesand

Cambodiancommunities,polyphonyprovidesaframeworkthatrebalancesinequitable

agenciesandcreatesinvaluablespaceforindigenousvoices.Combinedwiththe

deconstructingmethodsofscriptandANT,polyphonyenablesthereevaluationofthe

discoursesconveyedbystakeholdersinthesilkindustrythatmirrorthelegaciesof

colonialismandforeigninfluences.Oncepolyphonyisengaged,marginalvoices–inthis

case,thoseofCambodiansilkpractitionersandCambodianAmericanwearers–canregain

space.

Workinginter-culturallyinanon-Westerncontextwithcommunitiesrequiresa

productionofaknowledgethatisrepresentativeofthelocalcontextandthepeoplewhoare

participatingintheresearch.EducatorLindaTuhiwaiSmith’spioneeringcontributionto

decolonisingmethodologiesadvocatesforapositionofreciprocalrespecttoovercomethe

waythat‘thecollectivememoryofimperialismhasbeenperpetuatedthroughthewaysin

whichknowledgeaboutindigenouspeopleswascollected,classifiedandthenrepresented

invariouswaysbacktotheWest’.142Asaresearcher,workingwithinthisethicalframework

presentsitsownchallengesandopportunities.Artist,filmmakerandscholarTrinhT.Minh-

hahasstated:‘Idonotwishtospeakabout,onlytospeaknearby’.143Bythis,shemeant‘a

speakingthatdoesnotobjectify,doesnotpointtoanobjectasifitisdistantfromthe

speakingsubjectorabsentfromthespeakingplace’.144SpeakingnearCambodianvoices,not

overthem,withweaversandwearershasbeenaconstantconcern.

IamnotCambodian,butofFrenchandVietnameseorigin,withprofessionalexperiencein

141WalterMignolo,'TheGeopoliticsofKnowledgeandtheColonialDifference,’TheSouthAtlanticQuarterly101:0(Winter2002):67. 142LindaTuhiwaiSmith,DecolonizingMethodologies:ResearchandIndigenousPeoples(London:ZedBooks,1999),1-2.143NancyChen,‘‘SpeakingNearby’:ADiscussionwithTrinhT.Minh-Ha,’VisualAnthropologyReview,8:1,(Spring1992):86-87. 144Ibid.;TrinhT.Minh-Ha,Woman,Native,Other:WritingPostcolonialityandFeminism(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1989),6.

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textiledesignanddocumentary.Thispersonaltrajectoryhasstronglyinformedmy

methodologicalandstrategicchoicesintheconductofthisproject.Since2005Ihavevisited

Cambodiaonseveraloccasions,bothasadesignerworkingonlocaltextileartisanalprojects

withcraftcompaniesandasareporteronculturalandwomen’sstoriesin2012-13.This

thesisbuildsonthispriorengagementandfamiliaritywithCambodiansilkpracticesand

expandsmypositionasinsider/outsider,byaddingthespecificsetofanalyticaland

researchtoolsofdesignhistoryandethnography.

Intermsofadvantages,havingtrainedinweavingduringmyMFAinTextileDesignfrom

2004to2006hashelpedmeunderstandthetechniquesoftheweaversinCambodia,

especiallyinrelationtothetie-dyeprocessinvolvedinholmaking.Theyhavebeenableto

demonstratetheirskillsinsteadofhavingtodescribeeveryaction.Myprofessional

experienceasadesignerinCambodiafacilitatedmyaccesstocertainworkshops,asthis

benefitedfrompre-establishedrelationshipsoftrust.

Therewerestillchallengesinfosteringequitablerelationshipsandcollectingdata,

especiallyinrelationtotheissuesofKhmerlanguageandtranslation.Simplyput,‘the

translationisaninterpretation’that‘mustmaintainitslinktotheoriginal’.145

Anthropologistshavelongdiscussedthecomplexitiesandpowerrelationshipsinvolvedin

workinginterculturally,acknowledgingtranslationasitsinterculturalsubdiscipline.146

CatherineTihanyipointedto‘theoppositepullofthenecessityofbeingfaithfultothe

originalandtheriskofbeingunintelligibletotheirtargetreadership,andofbeingfaithfulto

theirreadershipandtheriskofsymbolicallyannihilatingtheirinformants’.147

Inthisthesis,EnglishisusedbytheownersofcraftcompaniesandKhmerbyweavers.I

tookoneyearofKhmerclassestolearnthebasicsofthelanguage,tohelpmyunderstanding

145CatherineTihanyi,‘EthnographicandTranslationPractices’,AnthropologyNews43:6(2002):5-6.146TullioPersiodeAlbuquerqueMaranhao,andBernhardStreck,TranslationandEthnography:TheAnthropologicalChallengeofInterculturalUnderstanding(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2003),xv.147Tihanyi,‘EthnographicandTranslationPractices.’

72

ofspecificvocabularyandbuildtrustduringtheinterviews.Itdidnotreplaceworkingwith

localinterpreterstoensureaclearandnuancedunderstandingoftheseinteractions.

Dealingwithtwokindsoftranslators(insidersinthecommunitiesoroutsidershiredforthe

task)bringsitsownsetofbenefitsanddisadvantages.Insidersknowthepeoplebutoften

addinformationtocontextualisetheanswers.Outsidersmaystrugglemoretounderstand

theirinterlocutor’srealitieswhileofferingadistancedpositionthatishelpfulinfocusingon

people’swords.Ineachcase,ensuringaprocessoftranslatingthatbridgedgapsbetween

Englishandtheweavers’answersinKhmerhasbeencrucialinordertomaintainthe

authenticityoftheirvoicesandworktowardspolyvocality.

Differentformsofinter-subjectivityarealsoexploredinthisthesisviaa

multidisciplinaryapproach,usinghistoricalresearch,ethnography,participatorymethods

suchasActionResearch,whichIexplainfurther,andinterviewsinconjunctionwithobject-

basedandmaterialstudies.Indesignhistory,fieldworkisunderstoodasashort-term

researchtripfollowingspecificobjectives,whichdiffersfromformsoflong-termimmersion

specifictootherfieldssuchasanthropology.Fiveseparateperiodsoffieldworkwerecarried

outbetween2016and2018,threephasesinCambodiaforatotaloftwelveweeksandtwo

inLongBeachforthreeweeks.InJanuary2017,July2017andMarch2018inCambodiaI

observedtheday-to-dayoperationsofseveralweavingworkshopsbasedinSiemReapand

Takeoprovinces.ResearchinvillagesinKohDachinKandalprovinceandindifferent

communesinTakeoprovincewasalsoconductedtomeetindividualweaversworkingfrom

home.Ididnotfocusonsericultureandsilkfarmers.InApril2017andFebruary2018in

LongBeach,theCambodiaTownCultureFestivalprovidedadynamicsettinginwhichto

observeCambodianAmericanswearingsilk.Interviewswithsilkconsumers,dressmakers

andKhmerclassicalballetdancersexploredtheroleofsilkintheexpressionofcultural

identitiesinanimmigrantcontext.

Ethnographicworkwasanchoredinparticipantobservationcombiningtimesofimmersion

73

andanalysis,describedbyanthropologistTimIngoldasapositionwhere‘theresearchers

standboth‘inside’and‘outside’thefieldofinquiryatoneandthesametime’.148Ireliedon

differentmethodsofqualitativeresearchsuchasinformalconversationswithweaversand

silkshopowners,meetingwithlocalinformantsasawayoflearnaboutthesectorandits

mainplayers,anddirectobservationinweavingworkshops,markets,andshops.Onspecific

sitevisits,Icombineddiscussionsandtheexaminationofpersonalitemsbelongingtomy

informants.Alongwithperiodsspentinobservation,visualdocumentationthrough

photographyandfilmhaveprovidedadditionallayersofmethodologytoexaminethe

materialityofsilkandmakingprocessesbeyondinterviews.Tocontinueunpackingthe

complexitiesofthesilknetwork,thisthesisusesvisualdiagramsandchartstotranslatedata

ontheevolutionoffibreproduction,distributionnetworks,andthedifferentbusiness

modelsofcraftNGOs.AworkshoponfibreanalysisattheQuaiBranlyMuseuminParison

October11and12,2017informedthestudyofsilkfromaphysicalperspectivepresentedin

ChapterOne.149Theuseofahigh-definitionmicroscopetocapturedigitalphotographyat

differentdegreesofmagnificationrevealedthedifferencesbetweenasinglethreadoffine

silkbeforedegummingandoneafterdegummingunderthepolarisingmicroscope.

InCambodia,atotalofeighteenweaverswereinterviewed(elevenwithrecordedand

transcribedinterviews,seveninformally)andsevencraftcompanyrepresentatives(one

witharecordedandtranscribedinterview,sixinformally).InLongBeach,eightwomen

wearingsilkwereinterviewed(twodressmakersandonedancer,producingrecordedand

transcribedinterviews;twosilkclients,twodancersandaLong-Beachbasedanthropologist

informally).150Researchcarriedoutduringperiodsoffieldworkhascarefullyrespectedthe

‘Donoharm’ethicalprinciplesofethnographicwork,ensuringthatthedifferent

148TimIngold,Making:Anthropology,Archaeology,ArtandArchitecture(London:Routledge,2013),5.149SeeElenaPhippsdiscussingthevalueofmicroscopeexaminationfortextileanalysisinPhipps,LookingatTextiles:aGuidetoTechnicalTerms(LosAngeles:J.PaulGettyMuseum,2012),11-12.150SeethelistofinterviewsinthebibliographyunderOralSources.

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communitiesandindividualsinvolvedinthisresearchwereproperlyinformedand

protected.ThisprojectreceivedclearancefromtheRCAResearchEthicsCommittee.

Recordingsoftheinterviews,alongwiththeirtranscription,arekeptsafelyinafolder

securedbyanencryptedpassword.Noneofthepeopleinterviewedrequestedtoremain

anonymousbuttheoptionwasofferedtothem.Inseveralcases,weaversonlygavetheir

firstname.Theinformationsheetandconsentanddataprocessingstatementwereboth

translatedintoKhmerbyVathanakSok,aLondon-basedKhmerinstructor,andgiventothe

Khmer-speakingparticipants.151Whenintervieweeswereilliterate,interpretersexplained

theproject’sobjectivesandaskedforconsentatthebeginningoftherecording.The

procedurehasalsoincludedobtainingasignedconfidentialityagreementfromthe

interpreters.

Inthepastdecade,takingacuefromexperimentalarchaeologyandanthropology,

thefieldsofhistoryanddesignhistoryhaveexploredtheintersectionsoftheoryand

practiceinthestudyofmakingprocesses.152Howcanskillsthatarelostormissingbe

accountedfor?TheWeavingKnowledgeprojectdevelopedbyPamelaSmithinThailandfor

PhDstudentsinthehumanitiesexemplifiestheuseofapprenticeshipandautoethnography

toapproachtextilecrafttechniquesfromtheinside.153However,thesemethodswerenot

suitedtoengagingwithcontemporaryCambodiansilkweavingunderadecolonialagenda.

Thegoalisnottosubstitutemyselffortheweavers’existingexpertise,buttorecentre

subjectsasproducersofknowledgeandimplementarelationshipwhichwouldbenefitthem

directlyandsupporttheircommunity.Thishasencouragedmetochooseparticipatory

formsofresearchsuchasActionResearch.ActionResearchisconcernedwith

151SeethemodelsofconsentformsinAppendixA4.152Fordesignhistory,seeGlennAdamson,ThinkingThroughCraft(London:BloomsburyPublishing,2007),TheDesignHistoryjournalspecialissue‘DangerousLiaisons:RelationshipsbetweenDesign,CraftandArt,’17:3(September2004).153WeavingKnowledge,https://weavingknowledge.org[AccessedOctober5,2020]

75

‘understanding,creatingandadvancingknowledge’.154Itisemphasisedasaprocessof

problem-solvingdefinedbycyclesofactionandreflection,‘bringingtogethertheoryand

practice,inparticipationwithothers,inthepursuitofpracticalsolutionstoissuesof

pressingconcerntopeople’.155TheActionResearchprojectpresentedinChapterThree

focusesontheplanninganddocumentingoftheproductionoffouroriginalsampotholby

KramaYuyu,asmall-scaleweavingworkshoplocatedinthevillageofTaPoukinSiemReap

province.TheleadingweaversatKramaYuyulearnedtheartofweftikatasteenagersand

hadstoppedpractisingforadecade,duetoalackofopportunity,andthenmovedtocotton

weaving.Coveringthecostsofsilkmaterialsandlabour,theprojecthasgivenweaversthe

timetorehabilitatetheseunusedskills.Astheconvenor,Isupportedtheplanningofthe

action,documentedthemakingprocessofholwithfilmandphotographyandhelped

weaversreflectontheoutcomethroughinterviews.ArchaeologistBollwerkandher

colleaguesexplainthatco-creationentails‘areciprocalrelationship[…]inwhichpoweris

sharedequallyandthatmultipleperspectivesandtypesofknowledgeareacknowledged

andintegrated’.156Here,theco-creationofknowledgeenablesthiscommunityofweaversto

developtheirskillsandsenseofrecognitionbyemphasisingtheiragencies.Thisproject

aimstoilluminatethelinksbetweenancientandupdatedweavingknow-howgained

throughmatrilinealtransmission,bodymemoryandtacitknowledge.

Sources

154OrtrunZuber-Skerritt,'ActionLearningandActionResearch:Paradigm,PraxisandPrograms,’inEffectiveChangeManagementthroughActionResearchandActionLearning:Concepts,Perspectives,ProcessesandApplications,ed.ShankarSankara,BobDick,andRonPassfield(Lismore:SouthernCrossUniversityPress,2001),15.155HilaryBradburyandPeterReason,TheSAGEHandbookofActionResearchParticipativeInquiryandPractice(LosAngeles:Sage,2008),4.156ElizabethBollwerk,RobertConnolly,andCarolMcDavid,‘Co-CreationandPublicArchaeology’,AdvancesinArchaeologicalPractice3:3(2015):181.

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TobuildapolyvocalexplorationoftheCambodiansilkscape,Ihavedrawnona

diverserangeofprimarysourcesbeyondtheoral,whichreflectsthemultidisciplinary

natureofadesignhistoryapproach;thisincludes,inparticular,film,photographs,archival

documentsandmuseumartefacts.Duringfieldwork,Ialsoproducednewdocumentationof

primaryresearch,collectingacorpusofinterviewsandinformalconversationssupported

byabundantvisualdocumentation,asdetailedearlier.

Thescarcityofsilktextilesinpost-conflictCambodiancollectionshassignificantly

diminishedtheavailableknowledgeofstylesandmotifsthatcanbedrawndirectlyfrom

historicalartefacts.WhentheNationalMuseumofCambodia(NMC)reopenedinPhnom

Penhin1980,onlyseventy-tworareexamplesofsilktextileshadbeenrecoveredfromthe

399textileartefactsanddancecostumeelementsthathadbeencollectedbeforetheKR

regime.157Themuseumhasacquiredahundredadditionalpiecesthroughdonationssince

thelate2000s.

AlongsideexamplesfromthesesignificantmuseumcollectionsoftextilesinCambodiaand

internationally,theobjectsandformsofknowledgethisthesisaddresseshavealsobeen

encounteredinthefield.InCambodia,studyvisitstoshopsandmarketsinPhnomPenhand

SiemReap,combinedwithresearchinsilkweavingworkshopsinruralareasinSiemReap,

TakeoandKandalprovinces,providethemajorityoftheprimarysourcesformythesis.This

includescollectingsilkfibreandcocoonsusedinChapterOneandthefourikatpieces

producedintheActionResearchprojectinChapterThree,tophotographyandfilmsofthe

workshops,silkproducersandmakingprocesses.Ialsoproducedtwoshortfilms,TheSilk

Chronicles:WarpandWeft,basedonfootageshotinJuly2017atKramaYuyu.Inthethird

andlongestperiodoffieldworkinCambodia,supportfroml’EcoleFrançaised’Extrême

157KhunSamen,andTouchHab,'TextilesintheCollectionoftheNationalMuseumofCambodia’,IKTTSeminarprogram“Hol,theArtofCambodianTextile,’SiemReap,Cambodia,December12-13,2003.InstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles,http://iktt.esprit-libre.org/en/2004/09/abstract_part_2_textiles_in_th.html

77

OrientfacilitatedaccesstotheNMCtextilecollectionandtheNationalLibrary,alsoonsite,

whichholdsacquisitionrecordsandobjectcataloguesdatingfromtheFrenchprotectorate

era.InPhnomPenh,theBophanaAudiovisualResourceCentre,foundedbyCambodian

documentaristRithyPanh,providedfilmfootageonCambodiansilkpractices.Researchwas

alsoconductedattheNationalArchives,whichcontainsvastdocumentationonthehistory,

sociology,anthropology,andcultureoftheFrenchProtectorateandpost-independence

eras;andatthearchivesoftheUNESCOPhnomPenhofficetoidentifydataaboutearly

developmentprogrammesforsilkweaving.Thisthesisalsomakesuseofarticlesfrom

CambodiannewspapersaimedatalocalandEnglish-speakingaudience,mostlyThePhnom

PenhPostandtheKhmerTimes,andofficialreportspublishedbyNGOsandgovernmental

andinternationalagencies,whichoutlinethedevelopmentofsilkproductionsincethe

2000s.158

AsimilarprocesswasfollowedinLongBeach,California,toproducevisual

documentationandgatherinterviews,focusingespeciallyonthe2017CambodiaTown

CultureFestival,whichincludedacostumedparadeandapublicperformanceofKhmer

classicalballet.ThelocalCambodianCommunityHistoryandArchiveProjectholds

documentationabouttheCambodianAmericancommunity,includingethnographicand

linguisticresearchconductedbyco-foundersSusanNeedhamandKarenQuintiliani,local

newspapersandephemeraandnumerousphotographsdonatedbycommunitymembers.

ThestudyofsilkanditsroleinCambodianAmericanidentitiesissupportedbyadditional

158ThePhnomPenhPostisaCambodian-basedindependentdailynewspaperfoundedin1992bytheAmericanpublisherMichaelHayesandownedbyRossDunkley,anAustraliannational,since2008.KhmerTimesisanEnglish-languagenewspaperfoundedin2014byMalaysianMohanTirugmanasamBandamandownedbyhiscompanyVirtusMediaPte.SeeThikKaliyann,‘SpinnersandsilkweaverswinsupportfromEU,’ThePhnomPenhPost,4October2010,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lifestyle/spinners-and-silk-weavers-win-support-eu[AccessedOctober30,2016];SokChan,’LocalsilkindustryseeksChinesesupport,’KhmerTimes,3May2017,https://www.khmertimeskh.com/13243/local-silk-industry-seeks-chinese-support/[AccessedSeptember29,2019];SokChan,’Japanpledgestoboostsilkindustry,’KhmerTimes,April4,2017,https://www.khmertimeskh.com/8527/japan-pledges-to-boost-silk-industry/[AccessedSeptember29,2019].

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interviewsfrompractitionersofKhmerclassicalballetfromKhmerArtsAcademy,alocal

tailorandaweddingdressdesignerandtheirclients.

Chaptersummary

ToprovideafreshperspectiveontheCambodiansilkscape,thisthesisisarticulatedaround

fourkeythemeswhichprovidethestructureforthefourchapters,examininghowsilk-

making,throughitshistoryandgeographyofproductionandconsumption,hasbeen

informedbytradeandculturalexchanges;theagencyofstakeholdersformingthesocio-

economicnetworkofthesilksector;theagencyandknowledgeoftheweavers activatedand

transmittedintheirpraxis,andtheembodiedexperienceofCambodian-Americansilk

wearerswhoengagewithissuesofacculturationinthediasporaofLongBeach,California.

Mythesisfollowstwoseparateyetcomplementarynarratives,oneoflossinthefirsttwo

chaptersandoneofreclamationinthethirdandfourthchapters,toconsidertheconditions

oftherevitalisationofthesilksectorthroughsomeofitsmainagents.

ChapterOneexaminesthemeaningsofCambodiansilkandhowCambodiamaybe

definedthroughsilkfollowingageopoliticalperspective.Silkwovenclothsenfoldregional

historyandgeography,throughthelensoftheirmaterial,spatial,politicalandeconomic

positioningthroughtime.Movingchronologically,thischaptertraceshowthe

historiographyofsilkinCambodiawasformedinresponsetosuccessivewavesofcultural

influences,exchanges,andinternalandexternalconflicts,fromthefirstaccountofsilk

weavingfromaChineseenvoyattheroyalcourtofAngkorinthelatethirteenthcenturyto

theKRregimeinthe1970sanditsaftermath.Aselectionofkeyartefactsfrommuseum

collectionsinandoutsideCambodiaillustratetheshiftingvalueofCambodiansilkasa

commoditytradedviaSoutheastAsian,Indian,Chinese,andEuropeannetworks.

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Landscapesofproductionandthewaystheseterritoriesrespondedtoperiodsofpolitical

upheavalsareexploredtoinformthecontinuityofsilkpracticesthroughtime.

ChapterTwodiscussestheemergenceofmajoractorsinthesilkweavingsectorfrom1991

to2018undertheNGOandsocialenterprisemodels,someofwhichreceivedtheearly

supportoftransnationalsponsorssuchasUNESCO.Thechapterbuildsonaseriesofcase

studiesdetailingthehistoriesandsystemsofaselectivesamplingofCambodian-based

workshopsfoundedrespectivelybytheFrench,theJapaneseandCambodians,whichhave

implementedlocaltrainingprogrammesinsericultureandsilkweaving.Thereformationof

thesilkscapeunderlocalandglobalprerogativesredefinesdiscoursesofCambodian

authenticity,tradition,andcrafts.Thesepreservationistagentshavecraftedtheir

interventionsintohumanitariandiscoursesaimedatpreventingpovertyandculturalloss,

developingnewmethodsofproductionanddistributionforexportandtouristmarketsand

establishingstandards.Thischapterwillexplorehowthesemonopolisticpositionsraise

issuesofownershipandagencytoacknowledgehowearliermodelspertainingto

colonialismandtraderouteswhichwerediscussedinthepreviouschapterhaveshaped

patternsandpoliciesinthe1990sunderthescopeofsoftpower.Thisexaminationis

necessarytooutlinethesystemicdominanceofthesestakeholdersandhow,bydefault,it

showstheabsenceofweaversasactorsintheconversation.

ChapterThreethusturnsitsfocusonweaversinSiemReapandTakeoprovinces,to

examinemechanismsofmatrilinealtransmissionofsilkknowledgeinthepracticeofsilkin

responsetophenomenaofglobalisedflows,andthedominantpositionoftransnational

bodiesexposedinChapterTwo.CentredaroundtheActionResearchprojectcarriedout

withaweavingworkshopintheSiemReaparea,observationsanddocumentationofthe

processoftheholtechniquearecombinedwithinterviewswiththeweaverstohighlight

theirstrategiestoremobilisesilkweavingpracticestheyhadsetasideforadecade.

Dynamicsoftransmissionandreclamationofskillsalsorevealformsoftacitand‘embodied

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learning’conceptualisedbyTrevorMarchand.159Furthermore,thischapterdemonstrates

waysinwhichskillsarepassedonwithinthefamily,thevillageandviatwospecifictraining

programmes,whichraisesissuesofvocation,ownershipandauthorityinsilkpractices.

ChapterThreehighlightshowthesilkweaverswhowereintervieweddealwithissuesof

agencyandknowledgeinthefaceofachangedcontemporarycontext.

Finally,ChapterFourfocusesonaperiodoffieldworkconductedinLongBeach,

California,amongtheCambodiandiasporaontheoccasionofCambodianNewYear

celebrationsinApril2017.LongBeachisconsideredtobethelargestdemographic

concentrationofCambodianimmigrantsoutsideSoutheastAsia,countingabout50,000

people.Thediasporiccommunityisregardedasanactivatesiteofheritage,identityand

performance,whereCambodiansilksareshowcasedfortheiraestheticandculturalvalue.

Interviewswithaselectionofmembersofthecommunityandauto-ethnographywillinform

howsilkdressintimatelyparticipatesinritualssuchasweddings,Buddhistceremonies,and

thepracticeofKhmerclassicalballetasanembodiedexperience.Thepainstakingprocessof

silkcostuminglinkstheemotionaltransactionofclothingtoissuesofculturalaffirmation,

memoryandnostalgia.Thisstudyhighlightsthevariouswaysinwhichdiasporic

communitiesreclaimandengagetheirdisplacedbodiesbywearingandconsumingsilk

garments,developingindividualandcollectiveapproachestoreconnectwiththeir

Cambodianidentity.Ultimately,thisthesishighlightsthehumangeographythatformsthe

silksector,demonstratinghowapolyvocalexplorationde-linksexistingmonolithic

narrativesonCambodianidentityaswellasCambodia’sculturalheritage.Tobetter

understandthecontemporarysilkscape,thisexplorationwillstartbyestablishingthe

historiographyandgeographyofCambodiansilkproductiontorevealaheritageofcultural

cross-currentsandgeopoliticalconflicts.

159TrevorMarchand,‘Muscles,MoralsandMind:CraftApprenticeshipandtheFormationofaPerson,’BritishJournalofEducationalStudies,56:3(2008):246.

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ChapterOne

Cambodiansilkpolyphonies:historiography,geography,andmateriality(802-1990)

Introduction

WhenCambodiareturnedtoanindependentpoliticalsystemfollowingtheParis

PeaceAccordsin1991andtheelectionsin1993,thecountryalsoreopenedtointernational

exchanges,formingnewallianceswithforeigninvestorsandcloseneighbouringcountries.

SilkproductionresumedinCambodiaunderanewcontext,bysourcingmaterialsinChina

andThailandwhilealsocompetingwiththesemajorsilkproducers.Thischapterunravels

newwaystoexamineCambodia’shistoriesandgeographies,usingsilkasalensthrough

whichtoviewissuesofnationalidentity,culturalheritageandmaterialculture.This

geopoliticalexaminationsupportstheargumentthatthehistoryandphysiognomyof

Cambodiaasalandjointlyformthesocialandculturalsystemsthatstillprevailinthe

contemporaryera.Itwilldosobyidentifyingthecomplexcross-currentsofpowertaking

placeinCambodianhistoryandtheireffectsonsilkproduction,fromtheearlymodernera

toFrenchcolonisationinthenineteenthcentury,theyearsofindependence,andtheKR

regimeinthemodernera.Italsoexplorestheinfluenceofforeigncultures–especially

China,India,Thailand,Vietnam,andFrance–onsilkpractices,stylesandtrade,lookingat

howtheseinteractionsaffectedthecraftingofnarrativesofCambodiantraditionsand

nationalidentity.Moreover,thishistoricalcriticaloverviewcontributestoanunderstanding

ofthedynamicsofcontemporarymodelsofsilkcraftdevelopment.

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Followingthetrailofsilkfibreproductionfrommacroscopicandmicroscopicperspectives

furthersupportstheconsiderationofhowsilkpracticeshavebeenenmeshedinCambodia’s

geography.HowdidsilkshapeCambodia’slandscape,and,reciprocally,howhastheland

anditspeoplesshapedCambodiansilk?Thematerialityofsilk–inparticular,the

indigenousqualityofKhmergoldensilk–informs,inarchaeologistJulianThomas’words,

how‘materialculturerepresentsatonceideasthathavebeenmadematerial,andnatural

substancethathasbeenrenderedcultural'.160Findinginspirationinthefieldofcultural

geography,theconceptofterritoryappliedtoCambodiaisconsideredfrommultilayered

angles.IngeographerDavidDelaney’swords,thisinvolves‘seeingterritoriesasmorethan

static,inertthingsandinsteadfocus[ing]onthedynamicsocialprocessesandpractices

throughandinrelationtowhichterritorialformsemergeoraretransformed’.161Duringthe

KRregime,Cambodiansociety,aswellastheterritory,know-how,andmaterialcultureof

silk,wasshattered.Thischapter’sgeopoliticalandhistoricalstudyexaminestheextentto

whichsilk-makinghasrespondedtoacycleofconstruction,destruction,andreconstruction

inspaceandtime,orwhetheritrespondsmoretotheparadigmofapalimpsest,where

remnantsofpastareasandpracticesoverlapwithnewdevelopmentsandlocationsforsilk.

Apanopticsetofperspectivesisexploredtoreevaluatethedefinitionsof

Cambodia’shistoriographyandgeographythroughsilk.MichaelBrand,Asianartcurator,

stressestheimportanceoftextilesintheconstructionofSoutheastAsianculturesasa

‘dominantartform’,statingthat‘forcenturies,textileshavebeentheprimarymediumof

artisticandculturalcommunicationswithinSoutheastAsia’.162Insteadofproducinga

typologyofSoutheastAsiantextilescountrybycountry,Brandarguedintheearly1990sfor

160JulianThomas,‘TheTroublewithMaterialCulture,’JournalofIberianArchaeology9/10(2007):4.AlsocitedinIngold,Making:Anthropology,Archaeology,ArtandArchitecture,20.161Delaney,Territory,AShortIntroduction,12.162MichaelBrand,inCulturesattheCrossroads:SoutheastAsianTextilesfromtheAustralianNationalGallery,ed.RobynMaxwell(Canberra,ACT:AustralianNationalGallery,1992),5.

83

amulticentredstudy,borrowingJamesClifford’sexpressionof‘multiculturedjuncture’and

applyingittoSoutheastAsia.163Brandproposesthattheregionshouldbeconsideredasa

textilehub.ThischapterthereforereinstatesCambodiawithintheSoutheastAsianfabric

andemphasisestheparallelmovementsofappropriation,dominationandadaptationthat

impactedonlocaltextileproduction.

Intermsofexternalinfluences,Frenchcolonisationchangedthelocalgeopolitics,

establishingtheideaofamodernnationstateinCambodia,anineteenth-centuryEuropean

conceptinwhich,accordingtoEricHobsbawm,‘theequationnation=state=people,and

especiallysovereignpeople,undoubtedlylinkednationtoterritory,sincestructureand

definitionofstateswerenowessentiallyterritorial’.164TheideaofCambodiaasanation

withdefinedborders,people,culture,andartefactsisexaminedtorevealhowCambodian

craftsandmakingwereshiftedtowardsWesterncolonialmodels,andhowthecommerceof

silkhasenmeshedwithcolonisation.

Moreover,thischapterbuildsonanthropologistJohnTerHorst’sexplorationofthe

sericulturechaininCambodia.TerHorstfollowedthetrailofimportedsilkfibretradedby

ethnicChinesecommunitiesbasedinVietnamafterthecivilwar,challengingtheideaofsilk

asanationalproduction.165Themarginalnatureofsilkweaving,relyingonsparse

quantitiesofdomesticKhmersilkandtheperipheralpositionofCambodiaawayfromthe

maincentresofsericultureinAsia,contradictsthenarrativeofsilkasahistoricallykey

Cambodianartisanalproduct.

Twomajortypologiesoftextileobjects,thekrama,thecottonginghamclothwornbythe

commonpeople,andtheceremonialsampothol(weftikathipwrap)arediscussed,

demonstratinghowtheyembodythesemodernhistoricalgeopoliticalshifts[Figs.10-11].166

163Ibid.;Clifford,ThePredicamentofCulture,213.164EricHobsbawm,NationsandNationalismsince1780:Programme,Myth,Reality(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2017),19.165TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,125-62. 166SeeappendixA3.

84

Whilethesilksampotbecameacommodityunderdiplomaticandcolonialagendas,the

kramatakesapoliticalmeaningwhenitisusedintheKRmilitiauniformsinthe1970s.

Examiningaselectionofobjectsfrommuseumssupportstheexpandingofthenarratives

revolvingaroundthekramaandsampothol.

Fig.10WomanwearingakramaclotharoundherchestinAngkorWat,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,2012.

85

Fig.11ThearyandChendaHeng,weaversatKramaYuyushowingasampotholfromtheircollection,TaPouk,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,2017.

Crossingtheoreticalterritories:metageography,designhistory,andvoices

Thenecessitytocombinehistorywithgeographytoredefinegeopoliticsand

nationalidentitiesthroughcraftsbuildsonthefoundationalworkofhistoriansand

geographersMartinLewisandKarenWigen.Theseauthorshaverightlycritiquedvarious

dominantmetageographiessuchasEast/West,FirstandThirdWorld,orWest/Rest

binarism.Metageographyisa‘setofspatialstructuresthroughwhichpeopleordertheir

knowledgeoftheworld’thatreproducesmajorarbitrarygeographicalseparations,often

boundedbycolonialhistory.167Todeconstructthesepreconceivedperceptionsofspaceand

nation,theauthorsreengagewithconceptsofworldregionalframeworks–core,

semiperiphery,andperiphery–thatareusedbyworld-systemstheoristsandhistorians.In

167MartinLewisandKärenWigen,TheMythofContinents:ACritiqueofMetageography(Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,1997),x.

86

thischapter,LewisandWigen’scriticalperspectiveisaninvaluableresourcefornuancing

thevariousgeopoliticalrepresentationsofCambodiaandtheSoutheastAsianregion.

Locatingresearchgeographicallyandpositioningitsscopewithregardtoglobalhistoryis

alsoakeytheoreticalquestioninthecurrenthistoryofdesignfield.Wheredoyouspeak

from,towhom,andhow?Theseseeminglyobviousquestionsbecomemorecomplexwhen

discussingcultureswhichusuallystandattheperipheryofWestern-centricperspectives,

‘unfamiliarcountries’,asSpanishdesignthinkerAnnaCalveraqualifiesthemintheJournal

ofDesignHistory.168Calveraadvocatedageographicalapproachtothefield,openingup

designexperienceslocatedatthemargins.Sheoutlinedthetheoreticalchallengesforlocal

andregionalhistorianstopresenttheirworktoaninternationalaudience,defining

peripheralhistoriesas‘thoseleftaside’from‘thegeographicalpointofview’:thatis,‘the

nationsandcultureswhosedesignactivitiesandachievementsarestillunknownabroad’.169

Calveraencourageddesignhistorianstocontextualisetheirregionalstorieswithinglobal

history‘tomanageandtodrawanewoutlineofthemapofdesignusefulenoughtobuild

uponaWorldHistorythatallowsaglobalunderstandingofthesubject’.170Thiscallto

recentreCambodiaremainsnecessaryforacountrythatisunfamiliarinthefieldsofcrafts,

textileanddesignhistoryglobally.Therefore,afurthergoalofthischapteristooutlinethe

flowsofinfluencewhichhaveimpactedonsilkproduction,butalsotopointthediversityof

voicesexpressingthesemultipleperspectivesthatintegrateCambodia’shistorywithina

regionalandglobalview.

Calvera’sworkreferstoTonyFry’sseminalarticle‘AGeographyofPower:DesignHistory

168AnnaCalvera,‘Local,Regional,National,GlobalandFeedback:SeveralIssuestoBeFacedwithConstructingRegionalNarratives,’JournalofDesignHistory18,no.4(2005):372.169Calvera,‘Local,Regional,National,GlobalandFeedback:SeveralIssuestoBeFacedwithConstructingRegionalNarratives,’372.170Ibid.;SeealsoShu-meiShihonpursuingapostcolonial‘coupd’état’which‘involvestheenlargementoftheframeofreferenceanddiscoursefromthenationaltothetransnationalterrain,inwhichtherearemorepossibilitiesofempowermentfortheimmigrantandtheminority’,Shu-meiShih,VisualityandIdentity:SinophoneArticulationsacrossthePacific(Berkeley:UniversityPressesofCalifornia,2007),42-3.

87

andMarginality’,publishedin1989.Fryaddressedtheconceptofmarginsindesignhistory

intermsofbothlocationandpower,statingthat‘beingontheedgeofcentresofpoliticalor

economicpowerthusbecomesdefinedaspowerlessness,irrespectiveofphysicaldistance

fromanycentreofpower’.171Beinginthemarginsmeansstandingoutsidethemain

networksandaccesstomarkets,astherecipient,nottheactor,oftradingexchange.Fryuses

Australiaasanexample.AformerBritishcolonyandsettlernationdiffersfromCambodia,a

formerFrenchcolony.However,hisdescriptionofAustralia’smovetowardsindependence

bybuildingamodernitybyfragments,andthewaythatconstantdiscoursesoftradition

create‘partlyacultureofdespair’,arebothrelevanttoCambodia.172

Thispolyphonyofauthoritiesonsilkdevelopsatopographythatexpandsthegeneral

understandingofgeographytobecome,inFry'swords,‘adispositionofmind,matter,and

spaceuponamaterial,geophysical,andculturalterrain’.173Theoverarchinggeographical

approachenablesashiftfromdifferentscales,fromtheinfinitelysmalltotheinfinitelylarge,

fromthematerialtotheimmaterial,fromthepasttothepresent,andalsoaddressesthe

spatialimbalancebetweenruralityandurbanitywhichprevailedthroughtime.Itexplores

theeffectsofshiftingtheperceptionofsilkfromaresourcetoaterrainandcombiningit

withthehistoryofthesocial.Withinthisparadigmthischapterisinterestedinlocating

Cambodiansilkasasitewherematerials,artefacts,asmuchashumanexperienceandsocial

identities,havebeenreshapedthroughtime.

Silkfibreandfabricationprocess

171TonyFry,‘AGeographyofPower:DesignHistoryandMarginality,’DesignIssues(Autumn1989):15.172Ibid,25,21.173Fry,‘AGeographyofPower:DesignHistoryandMarginality,’30.

88

ThissectionfocusesonCambodiansilkasafibretoexplainwhatkindofmaterialit

isandwhatitsproductionentails.Silkfibreistheresultofachainofprocessesrootedinthe

naturalenvironment.InCambodia,anindigenousspeciesofdomesticatedpolyvoltine

bombyxmorimothsproduceeggswhich,fedbymulberryleaves,growintosilkwormswhich

formcocoonsofgoldensilk[Fig.12].174Thisspeciesalsoexistsinotherpartsofmainland

SoutheastAsia–inThailand,LaosandVietnam,inparticular.

AlthoughtheoriginsofsilkinCambodiaremainundated,thearcheologicalfindsinBan

ChiangvillageintheNortheastarea,UdonThani,areproofofasericulturehistoryin

Thailanddatingbackto4000BCE,asoldasthefirstevidenceofChinesesilkproduction.175

ThisdoesnotprovetherewassilkonCambodianland,butshowsthatitwascultivatedin

mainlandSoutheastAsia.

Thelifecycleofagoldensilkwormlastsforaboutforty-eightdays(tendaysfortheegg’s

incubationperiod,twenty-eightdaysforthewormtogrow,andtendaysforthepupainits

cocoontoturnintoamothtorepeatthecycle.176Fromthesecocoons,silkthreadsare

extractedinboiledwater,reeled,refinedindifferentqualitiesandwashed,tobedyedand

wovenintotextiles[Fig.13].

174Polyvoltine:termdescribinghowthebombyxmorisilkmothproducesmorethanonebroodofeggsinayear.SeealsoAppendixA2andFigure4. 175JenniferSharples,andAmornratRifenberg,ThaiSilk(Bangkok:PostBooks,1994),15.176CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,4.

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Fig.12Polyvoltinebombyxmoricocoonsinmulberrybranches,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016.

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Fig.13Artisanalsilkthreadextractionfromcocoonsinboiledwater,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016.

AccordingtoCambodianbotanistPaulineDyPhon,Cambodianspeciesofbombyx

morifeedontwokindsofmulberryleaves,themonthom(Morusalba)andmontoch(Morus

australis).177BernardDupaignealsoassertedthatinthelate1960stheimportationof

Japanesemulberrytreeswithbiggerleaves,apparentlyviaThailand,supplantedthelocal

species.178Khmergoldensilkgiveslesssilkthreadthanwhitemulberrysilkofcoarser

quality–aboutfourhundredmetrespercocoonversusathousandmetres–andisonly

processedbyhand.Theyellowpigmentcontainedinthesericin,thegumsecretedbythe

silkworm'sspinneretslocatedonitshead,whichbindsthetwosilk-proteinfilamentsof

fibroin,washesoutatthedegummingstage.Theyellowcoatingappearsclearlyinthis

177DyPhon,PlantsusedinCambodia,894.178Thereislittletonoinformationabouttheconditionsoftheseimports.Dupaigne,‘L’élevagedesversàsoieauCambodge’,117;‘MulberryTrees,’March1,1996,Khemara.http://www.cambodia.org/clubs/khemara/mulberry.htm[AccessedMarch21,2020]

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imageofagoldensilkcocoonfromagoldensilkproducerbasedinSiemReapunderan

OlympusS2x7high-definitionmicroscope[Fig.14].

Fig.14EntangledsilkfilamentsfromagoldensilkcocoonfromSiemReap:microscopeview.Author’sphotograph,October2017.CourtesyMuséeduQuaiBranly.

Fig.15DegummedfinesilkfromSiemReap:microscopeview.Author’sphotograph,October2017.CourtesyMuséeduQuaiBranly.

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Fig.16Differentqualitiesofsilkyarn:fromrawsilktothelefttofinesilkontherightbeforedegumming,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016. Figure15showsthewhitelustroussilkthreadsinthedegummingstage,oncethesericin

hasbeenwashedoff,underthesamemicroscopeattheMuseeduQuaiBranlytextile

laboratory.Thethreadsarethenreadytobedyedandwoven.Thefirstlayerofthesilk

threadsinacocoon,rawsilk,represents20percentofthecocoonandiscommonlyusedto

maketablerunnersanddomestictextileproducts.Thesecondlayer,onceproperlyreeled,

givesdifferentqualitiesoffinesilkandisusedtomakescarves,kramasaut(silksarung)and

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sampot[Fig.16].

Fig.17Unwindingsilkcocoons,BatiCommune,Takeoprovince,1968.PhotographcourtesyofBernardDupaigne.

InFigure17,aphotographtakeninBaticommuneinTakeoprovincein1968,

Dupaignedocumentedtheprocessofsilkextractionandspinningconductedbywomenin

theirhomes,asimilarprocesstothatwhichIobservedinKohDachin2017.179Dupaigne

meticulouslydescribedtheinterdependenceofmulberrytreefarming,domesticsericulture,

179SeeFigure5foramapofsilkregionsinCambodia.

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spinningandweavinginavillagespecialisinginhigh-endsilksforanurbanclientele.

Humanactivitylinkstheseseparateprocesses,materialsandspacestogethertoforman

interrelatedecosystem.

Cocoonproducerswereusuallyinchargeofsilkreelingandwouldsellsilkyarn.

Independentpeddlers,potentiallyalsosilkproducers,wouldtravelfromvillagetovillage

offeringsilkmaterialstowomenwithoutaccesstolocalsericulture.Weaversalsopurchased

silkfromChinesewholesalersandreceivedcommissionsfromshopowners.Dupaigne’s

studyexposedafragileruraleconomywithnumerousobstacles;onethatcouldeasilyfalter

duetosilkwormdisease,lackoffarmableareasformulberrytrees,competitionwith

importedsilkfibre,orBuddhistimperativestonotkillworms,areligiousbeliefalsonoted

byJeanDelvert.180Theshifttowardsindustrialisationinthe1950s,reinforcedbythelackof

publicandprivateinvestmentinagriculture,pushedtheruralandurbanworldsfurther

apart.Thehuman,materialandspatialcomponentsofthelandscapeofsilkproduction,

unlikethatofotherfibressuchascottonandjute,stoodatthemarginsof

industrialisation.181Thesestructuralweaknessesonlyincreasedwiththesubsequent

politicalhavocinthe1970s.

Thisdistributionofroles,tasksandprocessesstillexistinpresent-dayCambodia.

Independentsmallholdersericulturefarmersaremostlymen,whocultivatemulberrytrees,

breedsilkworms,andproduceyarnmanually(reelingandspinning).Theywereestimated

toonlyahundredpeoplein2016.Theoverallnumberofsilkweavers(mainlywomen)was

estimatedto5,000in2016.Whentheydonotpurchasepre-dyedsilkyarn,weaversarein

chargeofitsprocessingfromdegummingtobleachinganddyeing.182

180Dupaigne,‘L’élevagedesversàsoieauCambodge,’130;Delvert,Lepaysancambodgien,282;SeealsoMichaelVickery’sanecdoteaboutsilkweaversintheremotevillageofBanteayChmaarattheborderofThailandin1962,MichaelVickery,Cambodia1975–1982(Bangkok:SilkwormBooks,1999),2.181Slocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury,105-6. 182 CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,8-9.

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ThissectionhasshownthespecificitiesofCambodiangoldensilkfibreandthecomplexities

ofprocessingit.Thismicro-perspectivenowleadstoamacro-perspectiveonthehistorical

andgeographicalstudyofsilkproduction,startingfromtheearlyhistoryofsilkin

Cambodia.

GeopoliticalandmaterialjuncturesintheKhmerEmpire(802-1431CE)

AsexplainedintheIntroduction,Cambodia’sentirehistoryconsistednotonlyofa

seriesofconquests,alliances,andconflictswithneighbouringcountries,butalsoofempires

thatattemptedtodominatetheSoutheastAsianregionandappropriatelocalresources

(men,goodsandlands)andtraderoutes.ThegeographicalpositionofCambodiain

SoutheastAsia,surroundedbyThailand,Vietnam,andLaos,closetoChinainthenorthand

MyanmarandIndiainthewest,hasmarkedlydefineditshistoryandtheformationofits

civilisation.ForsixcenturiestheKhmerEmpireoccupiedadominantpositionwhilefacing

numerouswarswithitsneighbours[Fig.18].ItfoughttheChamKingdomfromthetenthto

thetwelfthcenturyandtheThaiKingdomofAyutthayainthefourteenthcentury,leadingto

theKhmerEmpire’sprogressivedeclineinthemid-fifteenthcentury.183

183Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,59,79.

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Fig.18MapofSoutheastAsiain900.WikimediaCommons.

EuropeanscholarshipintheeighteenthcenturyhasconsideredtheSoutheastAsian

regionas‘FartherIndia’,beforebecoming‘Indo-China’,theintermediaryregionbetween

IndiainthewestandChinainthenorth.184LewisandWigencommentedthatapplyingthe

term‘Indo-China’toSoutheastAsiareflectedthe‘mixtureofChineseandIndiancultural

influences’whilealso‘implicitlydenyingitaregiononitsown’.185However,theiranalysis

replicatedthisperspectivebydefiningthe‘natureofSoutheastAsiancivilisationas

‘derivative’,aunifiedpatchworkmorethanacohesiveregion,whichhasbeendisprovedby

historianssuchasAnthonyReid.186ReidstressedthelimitsoftheinteractionswithChina

andIndiaintheformationofSoutheastAsiancivilisations,whichalldevelopedtheirown

184As‘colonialismbroughtcontinuingadjustmentstoEuropean'sviewofthisarea’sgeographicalcontours ’thejointtermIndochinawasreclaimedbytheFrenchtodesignatetheirAsiancolonies’.LewisandWigen,TheMythofContinents:aCritiqueofMetageography,171.185Ibid,171.186Ibid,174.

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‘featuresofmaterialcultureandsocialstructure’.187Thissectionexaminestowhichextent

ChinaandIndiainfluencedCambodiantextileproductionanduseintheMedievalera.Italso

establishesconnectionswithotherkeyplayersintheregionsuchasSiam.

TheearliestreferencetoCambodiansilkcomefromtheaccountofChineseofficial

ZhouDaguan.HewassenttotheroyalcourtofAngkorunderKingIndravarmanIII(1295-

1308)‘aspartofanofficialdelegationsentbytheChineseEmperorTemürduringtheYuan

Dynasty’.188Inhisobservations,hearguedthatCambodianshadmasteredneither

sericulturenorweavingtechnologies,exceptforbackstrapweaving,workingonlywith

cottonandkapok.TextilescholarGillianGreenhasidentifiedtheseindigenousweaversas

theKhmerLoeuethnicgroup,ahilltribewhichstillinhabitstheremoteareasofRatanakiri

andMondulkiritoday.189

StressingtheinterconnectednessofproductionbetweenAngkorandtheSiamese,Zhou

claimedthatsilkwasimportedandprocessedbySiameseweaversestablishedinthe

AngkorEmpire,whoproducedthedark-coloureddamasksilkwornbyCambodians.Healso

statedthatSiamesewomencould‘stitchanddarn,sowhenlocalpeoplehavetornor

damagedclothingtheyaskthemtodothemending’,whichmadethemlocaltailors.190

Zhou’scommentsabouttheroleofSiameseweaversinCambodia’stextileproduction,has

yettobesupportedbyvisualormaterialevidence.However,thepresenceofSiamese

artisansattheAngkorcourtcouldbeexplainedbythepresenceofKhmeroverlordsinthe

Siameseterritoriesthatnowformmodern-dayThailand.Inthetenthandeleventh

centuries,theAngkorEmpiredominatedtheLavoKingdom(modernLopburi)andtheIsaan

187AnthonyReid,AHistoryofSoutheastAsia:CriticalCrossroads(Chichester:Wiley-Blackwell,2015),26. 188ZhouDaguan,PeterHarris,trans.,ARecordofCambodia:TheLandandItsPeople,vii.189 Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,28. 190Zhou,ARecordofCambodia:TheLandandItsPeople,75-76.

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area,whichweremostlyoccupiedbyKhmerandTaipopulationsbeforetheTaipeople

rebelledtoformtheirownkingdomofSukhothaiin1238.191

AChinesemancomingfromacountrywithapowerfulsilkindustry,Zhou’stestimony

focusesonthevalueofthismaterialasacommodityandexpressionofstatus.AttheAngkor

court,textilesheldfunctionalpurposes,especiallyforreligiousandroyalceremonies.

ImportedsilksfromChina,redandgreentaffeta,weredonatedtomonkstomakeparasols

anddecoratepalanquins.192Hedescribedthecourtiers’regalattireasmadeofexpensive

textilesobtainedthroughexchangesintheregionwithCambodia'smaincompetitors,Siam,

Champaand‘theWesternSeas’,whichmostlikelymeansIndia.193Thisaccount,chronicled

byaforeignenvoy,putsChina,Siam,andIndiaonthemapasCambodia'smaininterlocutors

inthemedievalsilkscape.

GillianGreen’sworkisusefulinconsideringconnectionsbetweenChineseand

Cambodiantextiledesigns.Shecross-checkedkeyelementsofZhou'sreportwithabundant

visualevidencefoundonsculpturalimagestoformaclearerpictureofthetextilesproduced

inthethirteenthcentury,lookingatall-overpatternsincorporatingdifferentmotifs(vines,

stars,waves,stripes,diamondsanddifferenttypesofflowers)determiningrankingthrough

regalia.194Therearesimilaritiesbetweenthemedallionmotifsonstoneandwoodcarvings

depictingmedallionsonAngkoriantemplestodifferentgroupsoftextilesfoundinChinain

theTang(618-907)andSong(960–1279)dynasties.Forinstance,thesemedallions

decoratingastonelintelofadoorwayatAngkorWatphotographedbyGreenhaveshown

strongsimilaritieswiththispaintedhempartefactfromtheAurelSteincollectionheldat

theV&A[Figs.19-20].DiscoveredinDunhuang,amajorarchaeologicalsiteoftheSilkRoad

inChina,thislargetextilewithacreamgroundusedtocoveraBuddhiststatuefeaturesa

191ChristopherJohnBakerandPasukPhongpaichit,AHistoryofAyutthaya:SiamintheEarlyModernWorld(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2017),23.192Zhou,ARecordofCambodia:TheLandandItsPeople,61.193Ibid,50.194GillianGreen,'IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,’JournaloftheEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOrient43,no.3(2000):277-313.

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boldcentrallotusflower.Greenhasalsopointedtoasilksamitefragmentenclosinglotus

flowersinitsroundelswhich,‘withapearlmedallionenclosingafullyopenlotus,isalmost

identicaltothesculptedforms’.195Stylisedpetal-shapedlotuswerealsoprominentmotifs

onChinesesancai(‘threecolours’)glazedvesselsproducedduringtheTangDynasty,mainly

forexport.196ThislimitedevidencesupportsZhou’stestimonyandhistoricalrecordsof

pointsofcontactbetweenChinaandCambodiainthetwelfthcentury.197

Fig.19Pairofcarvedlotusesunderalintel,AngkorWat.PhotographbyGillianGreen,2005.

195Greendescribedthecanopyasmadeofsilk,buttheV&Awebsiteindicatesitishemp.Thedimensionsof105cmx91cmalsodifferfromGreen,citingSusanWhitfieldinstatingitisa139-metresquarepiece.SeeGillianGreen, ‘AngkorVogue:SculptedEvidenceofImportedLuxuryTextilesintheCourtsofKingsandTemples,’JournaloftheEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOrient,50,no.4(2007):438;SusanWhitfield,TheSilkRoad:Trade,Travel,WarandFaith(Chicago:Serindia,2004),269;VictoriaandAlbertMuseum,‘Collections:TheSteinCollection,’http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O92230/the-stein-collection-canopy-unknown/[AccessedMarch13,2020].196NigelWood,ChineseGlazes:TheirOrigins,ChemistryandRecreation(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1999),199,206.;ReginaKrahl,‘Tang:ExuberanceinColour,’Christies,October26,2020https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/tang-exuberance-in-colour[AccessedJune10,2021] 197Green,‘AngkorVogue:SculptedEvidenceofImportedLuxuryTextilesintheCourtsofKingsandTemples,’442.

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Fig.20CanopyfromtheSteinCollection,Victoria&AlbertMuseum.DiscoveredinDunhuang;made7thto9thcentury.Plainwovenhemp,painted.Copyright:GovernmentofIndia;Victoria&AlbertMuseum.

TheelaborategarmentsdepictedonAngkoriansculpturesaretestamenttothe

varietyofstyleswornbytheAngkorcourtfordomestic,ritualandmilitaryuse.198Sculpted

figuresshowcasedifferenttypesoflowergarmentssuchasthenarrowclothofindigenous

production,skirt-clothandhip-cloth,followingdifferentpleatingmethods.OnFigure21,the

devataiswearingatranslucenthipwrapwithafieldofsmallflowersrevealingherlegs,

withthepatternededgesflaringaroundthewaist.Thiskindoftextilewouldnotbemadeof

coarsekapokonabackstraploombyindigenousKhmerLoeupeople,butmostlikelyof

198SeeSapphoMarchal’svisualstudyofdressandornamentsofsculpteddevataoriginallypublishedin1928.SapphoMarchal,Costumesetparureskhmèrsd'aprèslesdevatâd'Angkor-Vat(Paris:L'Harmattan,1997);Green,‘IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,‘295.

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patternedsilkorfinecottonmuslinthatwouldhavebeenimported,possiblyfromIndiaor

China.Greenarguesinthissense,thatthebackstrap-wovenclothwouldbeused‘by

commonersandascetics,couldbeconstructedfromnarrowlengthsofclothsuchasthose

wovenbyindigenousKhmerweavers.Theother,portrayedondeitiesandeliterequiring

widerweftwidths,couldnot’.199

Fig.21Devata(celestialbeing)wearinglightweightpatternedsilkonabas-reliefinAngkorWat,SiemReap,12thcentury.Author’sphotograph,2012.

199Green,‘IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,‘283.

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AnothersetofdebatesrelatestotheIndianisationofCambodiantextilepracticesin

Angkoriantimes.HistorianssuchasGeorgesCoedèsandlaterIanW.Mabbett,alongwith

arthistorianJohnGuy,havelongestablishedIndia’sculturalinfluenceonCambodian

civilisationsinceantiquity.Coedèscoinedtheterm‘Indianisation’todesignatehowIndian

kingdomspropagatedintheSoutheastAsianregion,whichledtotheexpansionofthearts,

customsandreligionsofIndiaandtheuseofSanskrit.200Inthefirstcenturytothesixth

centuryCE,thestateofFunanlocatedintheMekongDeltadevelopedastatecraftfollowing

Indianmodelsintermsofadministrativeandtechnologicaladvancementsinaslowprocess

ofculturalsynthesis.201HinduismbecamethestatereligionuntilJayavarmanVII,whichalso

influencedtheproductionofreligiousartandarchitecture.Nuancingtheconceptof

Indianisation,DavidChandlersuggeststhatIndianculturewasundeniablyformativeof

Cambodia,withoutfullydefiningit,assessingthat‘elementsoflifethataretraceableto

Indiaweremerelycomponentsofthesum’,whichistheanglesupportedbythisthesis.202

FromthetenthcenturyonwardsundertheCholadynasty,powerfulguildsof

merchantsfromSouthIndiaandlinkedtolocalcraftspeoplewereinvolvedinactivelong-

distancetradewithSoutheastAsiathroughtheIndianOcean.203HistorianTirthankarRoy

assertsthatIndiantextileswereproducedfortheeliteclassofSoutheastAsianpowers,

includingtheKhmerEmpire.Royadds:‘thismarketwassosecureandprofitable,andIndia

sofaraway,thetradeencouragedimportsubstitution’withlocalproductioncomingmainly

fromCambodiaandJava.204

200GeorgeCoedès,SueBrownCowingandWalterF.Vella,TheIndianizedStatesofSoutheastAsia(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1996),15.201KennethHall,‘The"Indianization"ofFunan:AnEconomicHistoryofSoutheastAsia'sFirstState,’JournalofSoutheastAsianStudies,Vol.13,No.1(1982):84-85.202Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,13. 203UpinderSingh,AHistoryofAncientandEarlyMedievalIndia:FromtheStoneAgetothe12thCentury(Noida,India:Pearson,2019),602.204TirthankarRoy,IndiaintheWorldEconomy:FromAntiquitytothePresent(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2012),43.

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GreencomparedmotifsonIndianmordant-dyedIndiancottonclothsandKhmermotifson

twelfthandthirteenth-centurybas-reliefsandsculptures.Indiantextileswereexportedto

Egyptfromasearlyastheninthcenturytotheseventeenthcenturyfordomesticuseand

werefoundinthearchaeologicalsiteofAlFustât,nearCairo,inaseriesofexcavations

startingfrom1912.205SomeofthesetextilesweremadeinGujarat,India,resembling

patternsfromJainpaintingsandarchitecturalelementsinthisregion.Theseearlyexamples

ofIndianclothsmatchingtheKhmerEmpiretimelinehelpedGreenfindvisualcorrelations.

ThemedallionmotifsharesacommonaestheticwithmotifscarvedonanAngkortemple,

describedbyGreenascashmedallions,andIndianfragmentswhichcouldresemblethis

laterexamplefromtheCooperHewittMuseum[Figs.22-23].

Fig.22Cashmedallions,PreahKhan.PhotographbyGillianGreen,2006.

205Thesetextileswerethendispatchedtomajormuseumsinternationally,includingTheTextileMuseuminWashington,theMetropolitanMuseuminNewYork,theV&AinLondonandtheAshmoleanMuseuminOxford.RuthBarnes,‘IndianTradeClothinEgypt:TheNewberryCollection,’TextileSocietyofAmericaSymposiumProceedings(1990):594.https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/tsaconf/594[AccessedMarch19,2020]

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Fig.23Block-printedcottontextileproducedinIndiafromFustat,Egyptfromalaterperiod(18thcentury)showingsimilarmedallionpatterns,CooperHewitt,SmithsonianDesignMuseum.

Furthermore,thereareimportantcommonalitiesindressbetweenupperclothsspecificto

therepresentationofKhmersoldiersonbas-relief,intheformoflongjackets,cropped

bodicesandsashes,whichalsoappearedandIndianimagesdatingasfarbackasthefourth

centuryCE.206DrapedandpleatedskirtclothsfoundonAngkoriansculptureswerealsopart

ofearlyIndianformsunderthenameantariya,theancientnamefordhoti,forinstance

duringtheGuptaempire(mid-to-latethirdcenturyCEto543CE).207Epigraphicvocabulary

inSanskritandancientKhmershowedasharedrepertoireoftermsforclothingwhichcould

applyto‘theHinduisedritualoftheKhmercourt’.208

However,theCambodiantextilecultureofthatperioddoesnotfullymirrorIndiandress.

BreastbandsandheadscarvespresentonIndiandresswerenottypicalofKhmerclothing

206Green,‘IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,‘295.207SulochanaAyyar,CostumesandOrnamentsasDepictedintheSculpturesofGwaliorMuseum(Delhi:Mittal,1987),90.208Green,‘IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,‘293.

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imageryonsculptures,potentiallyduetodifferencesofclimate,‘customsconcerning

modesty,andstatus;andthepersistenceofindigenousKhmercustoms’.209

Thissectionhasforegroundedtheideaofwell-developedtradebetweentheAngkor

Kingdomandothersurroundingpowers.Indiawasapowerfultradepartnerwhosestylistic

influenceintextiledesignanddressremainedpredominantoverMedievalCambodia.China

wasactivelypositioneddiplomaticallyandasamainexporterofsilks,butdidnotinfluence

thestyleofCambodiangarments.BesidesZhou’stestimonythatstatesthepresenceof

Siameseweaverswhocouldhavesharedtheirknow-howtolocalweavers,thereisno

evidenceofadevelopmentofindigenoussilkpracticesinCambodia.TheSiamKingdom,

Java,andChampawerealsoestablishedasprizedsuppliersofmanufacturedtextilesofthe

Angkorcourt.210

Inthethirteenthcentury,theseimportsmostlikelyenrichedCambodiantextileculturewith

technicalinnovationsinweavingandopenedtheKhmerEmpireelitetoarepertoireof

stylesandmotifsbeyondindigenoustextilepractices.

Inthefourteenthtothefifteenthcenturyonwards,anincreasingquantityoflowandhigh-

valuesilktextilesfromChinawereimportedthroughoutSoutheastAsia,including

Cambodia,especiallytabbyweave,pongeeandsatinsilkcloths.211Textileconnections

betweentheSiameseandtheKhmerappeartohavesolidifiedlaterintheearlymodernera

withtheestablishmentoftheKingdomofAyutthaya.

209Green,‘IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,‘296.210Ibid,302-303. 211DerekHeng,‘DistributiveNetworks,Sub-regionalTastesandEthnicity:theTradeinChineseTextilesinSoutheastAsiafromtheTenthtoFourteenthCenturiesCE,’inTextileTrades,ConsumerCultures,andtheMaterialWorldsoftheIndianOcean,eds.PedroMachadoetal.(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2018),173-174.

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TheThaiinfluenceoverCambodia(1430-1860)

ThissectionfurtherintroducesthemainplayersintheformationofCambodiansilk

productionduringtheearlymodernera.KhmerEmpireenteredaperiodofconflictwithits

neighbours,especiallytheSiamesekingdom.TherivalrybetweenCambodiaandthe

KingdomofSukhothai(1238-1438)intensifiedwiththesackingofAngkorcapitalcityin

1431,whichpushedKhmerrulerstomovetheircapitalcitytoKrongChaktomuk,the

ancientnameforPhnomPenh,andfinallytoLongvekinKampongChhnangProvince.Inthe

sixteenthcentury,theSiamesekingdomofAyutthaya(1351-1767)invadedCambodiain

1591inresponsetotheKhmerEmpireattacks.ThisSiamese-CambodianWar(1591–1594)

resultedinthesackingofLongvekandthecaptureofmembersoftheCambodianroyalty

untiltheearly1600swhenKhmerkingSuriyopearreturnedtohiscourtinUdongand

eventuallyreclaimedauthorityoverhiskingdom.212Wars,migrationandgeographic

proximitybetweenUdongandAyutthayaledtoincreasingculturalexchangesbetween

SiameseandCambodianpeople.Chandlerexplains:‘untiltheendofthesixteenthcentury,

‘PhnomPenh’(or‘Lovek’or‘Udong’)and‘Ayudhya’consideredthemselvesparticipantsofa

hybridculture’relyingon‘Hinduizedkingship,andTheravadamonarchicaccessibility’.213

Thisalsoledtotheadoptionofcommonelementsindressandtextiles.214

ThismapofAsiaintheeighteenthcenturydemonstratesthefragmentationofmainland

SoutheastAsiaintosmallerkingdoms,aswellasthereducedsizeofCambodiaandits

proximitytoAyutthaya,Vietnam,theMughalEmpireandtheQingEmpire[Fig.24].Located

onanislandaccessiblebyriver,thecapitalofAyutthayawasconsideredoneofthelargest

cosmopolitancities,withapopulationofuptoonemillioninthelate1700s,withwavesof

212MichaelVickery,“’1620’,ACautionaryTale”inNewPerspectivesontheHistoryandHistoriographyofSoutheastAsia,ContinuingExplorations,eds.MichaelArthurAung-ThwinandKennethR.Hall(London:Routledge,2011),157-166.213Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,80.214Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,34.

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travellersfromneighbouringcountries(Chinese,IndianMuslims,MalayMuslims)andfrom

Europe(Dutch,French,Portuguese,andEnglish).215Thiswasan‘exceptionalmoment’for

‘theeffectsofculturalexchange’.216Themetropolisbecameaplatformforstoringand

tradingcloths–Indiantextilesinparticular–butalsoacentreofproductionforcraftgoods,

includingsilk,onintra-Asianandgloballevels,untilitwasdestroyedbytheToungoo

BurmeseDynastyin1767.217

Fig.24MapofAsiaandSoutheastAsiainthe18thcentury.WikimediaCommons.

KingNarai,whoruledoverAyutthayafrom1656to1688,grantedextraterritorialrightsto

theDutchEastIndiaCompany,whichconsolidatedtheexpansionofSoutheastAsiantrade

215ChrisBaker,‘MarketsandProductionintheCityofAyutthayabefore1767:TranslationandAnalysisofPartoftheDescriptionofAyutthaya,'JournaloftheSiamSociety,99(2011):40-41.LondonwasthemostpopulatedEuropeancity,withapproximately600,000people.IncomparisonBeijing’spopulationwasabout659,000in1647.SeeHanGuanghui,TheHistoricalPopulationandGeographyofBeijing(Beijing:Beijingdaxuechubanshe,1996).AlsocitedinLillianM.LiandAlisonDray-Novey,‘GuardingBeijing'sFoodSecurityintheQingDynasty:State,Market,andPolice,’TheJournalofAsianStudies58,no.4(1999):995. 216Reid,AHistoryofSoutheastAsia:CriticalCrossroads,138-139.217ChrisBaker,andPhongpaichitPasuk,AHistoryofAyutthaya:SiamintheEarlyModernWorld(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2017),121,125.

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withEuropeannationsandfurtherassertedtheDutchmonopolyovertheregion,especially

inrelationtothepricesofIndiancloth.218Cambodiaparticipatedinthesemaritime

commercialexchanges‘withtheprosperityofitselitedependentonseaborneoverseas

tradeconductedinlargepartbyEuropeantraders,Chinese,andethnicMalaysoperatingout

ofSumatraandSulawesi’.219Cambodianswerealsoactiveplayersintextiles.220An

eighteenth-centuryThaidocumentcalledAthibaiphaenthiphranakhonsiayutthaya

(DescriptionofAyutthaya)providesinformationaboutthecity’seconomicorganisation

beforeitsfallin1767,includingdataabouttradeandlistingsofmarketsandcraft

settlements.Thesectionaboutvisitingtradersdescribes‘Khmerwithcartsfrom

Battambangtransport[ing]bastardcardamom,cardamom,silk,benzoin,lac,tin,rhinohorn,

phum[ikat]silkcloth,Vietnamesesilk,thongphrai[gold],redgems,andothergoodsthat

comefromtheKhmerregion’.221

WearingsampotchawngkbuninCambodiaandchongkrabeninSiam,aunisexlower

garmentmadeofanuncutclothwrappedaroundthebodyandlegsandtuckedatthewaist,

becamethenorminbothroyalcourtsintheseventeenthcentury.222Aknown

representationoftheSiamesedresswaspassedonbySimondeLaLoubère,aFrench

diplomatwhospentfourthmonthsattheAyutthayacourtin1687andwroteadiaryofhis

travelsillustratedbyfortyengravings.223Hiscontributionisasourcewell-regardedby

218PrapassornPosrithong,‘IndianTradeTextilesasaThaiLegacy,’inTheSea,IdentityandHistory.FromtheBayofBengaltotheSouthChinaSea,ed.SatishChandraandHimanshuPrabhaRay(NewDelhi:Manohar,2013),332-333.219Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,88.220Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,16.;Conway,ThaiTextiles,98.221Baker,‘MarketsandProductionintheCityofAyutthayabefore1767:TranslationandAnalysisofPartoftheDescriptionofAyutthaya,’57.222Conway,ThaiTextiles,30-31.223SimondelaLoubère.DuRoyaumedeSiam,Vol.1(Paris,1691),72-29.ItisunclearinthebookwhetherdelaLoubèredrewtheillustrationshimself.

109

scholarssuchashistoriansDavidK.WyattandRonaldS.Love,whoconsiderthatdela

Loubère’swritingsofferanuancedandaccurateperspectiveonlifeinAyutthaya.224

ThetoppartofFigure25showstwoSiamesemandarins,high-rankingofficials,

wearingatunicasanupperclothandachongkrabenlowercloth;oneofthemwearsa

lomphok,apointedhatwornbyroyaltyandnobility.Inthelowersection,awomanisshown

dressedinaphanung(hip-wrap),barechestedandwithaphasabai,anupperbodywrap

wornovertheshoulder.TheserepresentationsofSiamesedressareconsistentwiththe

onesappearingonextantillustrationsinBuddhistThaimanuscriptsfromtheAyutthaya

period,suchasmanuscriptOr14068depictingtheTenBirthTalesheldattheBritish

Library[Fig.26].Whilethesemanuscriptsretellthemythicalstoriesofthelifeofthe

Buddha,theyalsoincorporateinformationaboutSiamesecustomsofthetime,including

fashion.225Inthispaintingthefemalefigurecarryingaparasolwearsaphanungpatterned

atthehemandaphasabaioverherchest.Themanontheleftalsowearsaphanungwith

floralmotifsinblue-red-whitecolourwaywhichmaybeIndianchintz,amajortextileimport

inSiam.226Otherillustrationsfromthisfoldedbookshowcommonerssuchasmalehunters

wearingloinclothsorworshippersinchongkraben..

224DavidK.Wyatt,‘Introduction,’inTheKingdomofSiam,SimondeLaLoubere,(Singapore:OxfordUniversityPress,1986),viii-ix;RonaldS.Love,“SimondeLaLoubère:FrenchViewsonSiaminthe1680s,”JournaloftheSiamSociety82/2(1994):156.225HenryGinsburg,Thaimanuscriptpainting(London:BritishLibrary,1989)46,97,100.226MattiebelleGittinger,MasterDyerstotheWorld:TechniqueandTradeinEarlyIndianDyedCottonTextiles(Washington:TheTextileMuseum,1982),163.

110

Fig.25EngravingfromDuRoyaumedeSiambySimondeLaLoubère(1642-1729),illustratorunknown,pp.72-76.

111

Fig.26DetailofapaintedpageoftheTenBirthTalesfromtheThaimanuscriptOr14068f3v,late18thcentury.BritishLibrary.

Figure27isaCambodianpaintingofthelivesofGautamaBuddha,filledwithsaturated

colors,gilding,anddecorativepatterns,whichalsooffersarepresentationofeighteenth-

centurydresssimilartotheThaistyledescribedearlier.Thebottomsection,partofthe

GreatDeparturescene,showsasetofgarmentssimilarwiththeonesdiscussedinthe

previousfigure.Thetwomenlyingdownontheleft-handsidewearasampotchawngkbun

insolidredandyellow.Thestandingmanandtheonekneelingbothwearasampot

patternedwithalatticeofstylisedflowers.Thefemalefigurelyinginthebackgroundwears

asampotwrappedaroundherwaistadornedwithaphkaachan(four-petaledflower)motif.

TheseCambodianandThaidressformsalsosharesimilar-soundingnames.Forexample,

thephanunganunpatternedsilkhipwrapinThai,resemblesthetermphamaunginKhmer,

indicatingasimilarlengthofsolid-colouredsilktubeskirtforfestivities.TheThaiphasabai

(sash)existsinKhmerdressunderasimilar-soundingnamesbaay.227

227Conway,ThaiTextiles,45.

112

Fig.27DetailofapaintingaboutthelifeofGautamaBuddha,Cambodia,18thcentury.Cataloguenumber961.3.305,AsianArtMuseumofToulon,France,WikimediaCommons.

BesidesSiam,CambodiaalsointeractedwithotherAsianpowersintheseventeenth

century,whichaffecteditstextileproduction.DuringthereignofKhmerrulerRamadhipatiI

(r.1642-1649),CambodiaintensifieditsrelationshipswithChampakindgom.Active

tradersintheregion,ChampeoplestartedmakingtheirwaytoCambodiaafterthecollapse

ofChampain1471duetoVietnameseinvasions.228RamadhipatiImarriedaMalayprincess

andconvertedtoIslam,bringingweaversfromtheChamcommunitiestoworkattheroyal

courttoweavethetechniqueofhol,ahighlydecoratedsilkclothobtainedbytyingand

dyeingweftsilkthreadsinsuccessivecoloursbeforeweavingthethreadsontheloomto

createintricatemotifs.229TextilehistorianMichaelC.Howardhasarguedthatthisstyle‘was

228AlvinCheng-HinLim,‘EthnicIdentitiesinCambodia,’inTheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,eds.KatherineBrickellandSimonSpringer(London:Routledge,2017),362. 229MichaelC.Howard,TextilesandClothingofViệtNam:aHistory(Jefferson,NC:McFarland&Company,2016),80.

113

similartotextileswoveninSumatra,theMalayPeninsula,andsouthernThailand,andwas

probablyintroducedfromthere,withlocalmodificationsespeciallyinregardstomotifs’.230

HowardalsostatesthatunderRamadhipatiI,Chamweaversalsoproducedholtextiles

outsidetheroyalcourtinthecountryside,whichfacilitatedthespreadofthistechniqueand

styleinCambodia.

PhnomPenhbecameanimportantmarketplaceforimportedluxurygoodsforthe

Cambodianelite,relyingontheChineseandJapanesediasporiccommunitiestobuild

sourcingnetworksofsilkyarn.231TerHorsthasindeedpointedouttheunderdevelopment

ofsericultureinCambodiaatthetime,explainingthatthecountrymostlyreliedonimports

foritsdomesticconsumptionandwasconsideredasanactivetradingplatformfor

Tonkinese,ChineseandJapanesesilks,atrendwhichcontinueduptothemodernera.232

Theseventeenthandeighteenthcenturieswereaperiodofhighinstabilityfor

Cambodia,whichsufferedrepeatedinvasionsfromSiamandVietnam.Inexchangefortheir

militarysupport,CambodiabridgedapoliticalalliancewiththeNguyendynastywhichruled

overthesouthernpartofVietnamsince1570.In1628,thedeathofKingJayJetthaII,who

hadmarriedtheVietnameseprincessAngChuvtosecurethisalliance,precipitated

Cambodia’scollapse,openingthewaytointernalconflictsandforeigncovetousnessinthe

eighteenthcentury.233ThesackingofPhnomPenhbytheSiamesein1772turnedtheKhmer

kingdomintoavassalstateofbothSiamandVietnam.WhileSiamoccupiedCambodia’s

westernprovinces,theVietnameseexertedadministrativecontrolovertheeasternregions.

TheVietnameseempireencourageditsownpeopletoresettleinCambodia,alongwith

ethnicChinesecommunitieslivinginVietnam.RuralVietnamesesettlersmainlyworkedin

230Howard,TextilesandClothingofViệtNam:aHistory,80.231Hall,‘TheComingoftheWest:EuropeanCambodianMarketplaceConnectivity,1500–1800,’inCambodiaandtheWest,1500-2000,13;BernardPhilippeGroslier,MichaelSmithies,trans.,AngkorandCambodiaintheSixteenthCentury,AccordingtoPortugueseandSpanishSources(Bangkok:OrchidPress,2006),123.232TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,89-90.233Vickery,‘’1620’,ACautionaryTale,’157-166.

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thefishingsectoralongtheriversandinsericulture,expandingthepracticeinCambodia.234

Simultaneously,ChinesesilkmerchantsandproducersarrivedinCambodia,quickly

integratingandtakingovertheproductionchain.235Thisearlysettlementproved

instrumentalinthedevelopmentofsilkuptothe1990s,andwillbefurtherdiscussedinthis

chapter.

ThroughouttheeighteenthcenturyfineIndiancottonscontinuedtobeobjectsofprestige,

withdesignsadaptedfordifferentmarkets,notablytheSiamesecourt,andusedas

diplomaticgifts.236SilkbrocadeswerewoveninIndia,basedonThaidesigns,andimported

intoSiam,whileothersilkgoodswereimportedfromJapanandIran.237TheIndiandouble

ikatpatolawerealsohighlyregardedtextilesproducedinNorthernIndiaandtradedall

overSoutheastAsiafromIndonesiatoSiam.238However,thedemandforsilkschanged

progressivelyinSiaminfavourofChineseluxurygoodsandlocally-woventextilesdestined

fornobilityandroyalty.239Bythenineteenthcentury,Cambodianholtextilesalsoemerged

astributarygiftsandprizedgoodsforcourtiersattheThaicourt.240Cambodiaalso

produceddeerskinsandtimberproducts,whichwereprizedcommodities.241

TheexaminationofaselectionofmuseumobjectsillustratesthelinkingCambodianhol

textilestotheSiamesecourt.PennyEdwardsarguesthatinnineteenth-centuryCambodia,

silksampotwerematerialmanifestations‘integraltotheindigenoussociopolitical

234RamsesAmer,‘TheEthnicVietnameseinCambodia:AMinorityatRisk?,’ContemporarySoutheastAsia16,no.2(1994):212. 235TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,97-98.236JohnGuy,Wovencargoes:IndiantextilesintheEast(NewYork:ThamesandHudson,1998),127.237SharplesandRifenberg,ThaiSilk,18.238AlfredBühler,"PatolaInfluencesinSouthEastAsia,”JournalofIndianTextileHistory4(1959):1-46.239Guy,Wovencargoes:IndiantextilesintheEast,146.240MattiebelleGittingerandLeedomLefferts,TextilesandtheTaiExperienceinSoutheastAsia(WashingtonDC:TheTextileMuseum,1992),170. 241KennethR.Hall,‘TheComingoftheWest:EuropeanCambodianMarketplaceConnectivity,1500–1800,’inCambodiaandtheWest,1500-2000,ed.T.OSmith(London:PalgraveMacmillan2018),25.

115

hierarchies’inCambodia,embodyingpowerrelationsandstatus.Thetradingofsampotalso

revealstheglobalconnectionsinvolvedintheirproductionandconsumption.

OnetypicalfeatureofCambodianholisanirregularweft-faced2-1twillweavestructure

thatrequiresaminimumofthreeshafts,asshowninthisdetail,afeatureidentifiableinthe

followingexampleofhol[Figs.28a-b].242InThailand,silkweftikat(mudmee)isusually

wovenontwoshaftsinplainweave,exceptforweaversofKhmerancestryintheareaof

Surinwhoalsowoveinuneventwill.243

Figs.28a-bClose-upofanirregulartwillweavestructureonasampothol,MuséeduQuaiBranly.Author’sphotograph,January2017;Diagramofthe2-1twillweave(twoweftsup,oneweftdown)formingdiagonallines,bytheauthor.

ThesampotinFigure29,datingfrom1855andheldattheV&A,isoneoftheoldest

Cambodiansilkexamplesinmuseumcollectionsintheworld.Itwasoriginallyreceived

fromSingaporeandpresentedtotheIndiaMuseumin1855byKingMongkutofSiam,the

yearoftheBowringTreatybetweenSiamandBritain.AlsoknownastheEastIndia

CompanyMuseum,itscollectionsweretransferredin1979totheSouthKensington

242Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,62. 243Conway,ThaiTextiles,93,161;Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,104.

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Museum,futureV&A.244Thischawngkbunisthreemetreslong,witharedtwillgroundand

polychromiclozengemotifs.Itfeaturespatternedbordersadornedwithyantramotifs,

whichare’protectivedevicesagainstphysicalandspiritualharm’consistingof‘abstract

signs,orlettersoftheKhmeralphabet’[Figs.29a-b].245Thisobjectexemplifiesthe

sophisticatedtechnicalknow-howachievedbyCambodianweaversbythemid-nineteenth

centuryandmaterialisesageographicandhistoricalitinerary,fromCambodiatotheKingof

SiamtotheBritishEastIndiaCompanytotheV&A.

Figs.29a-bSampotchawngkbunholgiftedtotheIndiaMuseumbyKingMongkut;detailofbordersofyantra,c.1855,5640(IS).Victoria&AlbertMuseum.

OtherfineexamplesofholasSiameseroyalofferingsareheldattheMuseumof

NaturalHistory,SmithsonianInstitute,inWashingtonD.C.KingMongkutdonatedsix

244VictoriaandAlbertMuseum,‘CollectingSouthAsiantextilesattheV&A,’http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/c/collecting-south-asian-textiles/(AccessedMay31,2021]245Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,143.

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textilesincludingasetoffourKhmerholtextilestotheAmericanpresident,FranklinPierce

in1856.246HisbrotherPrahPinKlao,viceroyofSiam,donatedeleventextilepieces,someof

whichofIndianandChineseprovenance.247GiventocommemoratethesigningoftheHarris

TreatybetweenSiamandtheUnitedStatestheseartefactsembedinterwovendynamicsof

foreigninfluenceintheirproductionanddesign.

Greenidentifieslatticeandclose-packedspotscentralfieldsastypicalpatternsresponding

toSiamesesensibilities,modelledonmordant-dyedandpaintedcottontextilesfromIndia.

Oneofthedonatedpieces’centralfieldcomprisedofsimplespotsisreminiscentofthe

saudagiristyle,atypeofIndianblock-printedtrade-clothoflesserqualityspecifically

destinedfortheThaimarket,withrepeatedmotifssuchasthebhuti(singleflower)andjaal

(trellis)[Figs.30a-b].248Figure31,anineteenth-centuryprintedcottonclothfromIndia,

offersavisualcomparison.

ToidentifythepiecesasKhmerandnotSiamese,Greenfocusesherattentionontheir

uneventwillsilkground,aCambodianspecificity,andonthedesignschemeoftheseholhip

wraps.GreenexplainsthatforCambodianholtextiles,‘thecentralfieldisboundedalongits

sidebytwopatternedborderscontainedinthebandbetweencentralfieldsandborders[…]

[which]generallydonotextendbeyondthecentralfieldtothewarpendsastheydowith

Siamesesilkweftholhipwrappers’.249ThisfitsthedesignofthepiecesE-81andE-83inthe

HarrisTreatycollectionattheSmithsonian.

246LisaMcQuail,TreasuresofTwoNations:ThaiRoyalGiftstotheUnitedStatesofAmerica(Washington,DC:SmithsonianInstitution,1997),90.247Ibid,89.248Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,109;EilunedEdwards,‘Lastingimpressions:Indianblock-printsandglobaltrade,’TextileSocietyofAmericaSymposiumProceedings(2016):101.249Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,110,117.;GittingerandLefferts,TextilesandtheTaiExperienceinSoutheastAsia,165-167.

118

Figs.30a-bSampotholinsaudagiristyle;detailofthecentralfield.CatalogNumber:E83,fromKingMongkuttoPresidentPierce,ca.1856,NationalMuseumofNaturalHistory,SmithsonianInstitution.

Fig.31Textileinthesaudagiristyle,printedandresist-dyed,India,19thcentury,Accession:IPN.960,Victoria&AlbertMuseum.

AholdonatedbyPrahPinKlaolikelywoveninCambodia,displaysamotifofconfronting

nakornagainpali(snake),identifiedbyGreenasacommonelementonsampotholchawng

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kbunwornbymenordinands.250Therefore,sheassumesthispiecewasnotcommissioned

tofitSiamesetaste,butmostlikelywovenbyaCambodianweaverversedinthisstyle,and

forCambodianuse[Figs.32a-b].251Greenalsobrieflymentionsthatthisnagapatternwas

alsofoundonBalinesetextiles,resemblingmen’shipwrapsKampuhfromBuleleng.252

Furtherresearchindeedshowsthat,inthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,

Balinesenoblemen’sceremonialhipwrapscalledsaputsongketorkampuhsongket,in

brocadedsilkwithmetallicthreads,showcasedsimilarcentralfieldspatternedwithpaired

nagaasseeninthisexample[Fig.33].253However,theinventoryofgiftsformulatedbythe

SiamesecourtdesignatesthePrahPinKlao’sgiftasP’umk’amane(KhmersilkclothinThai),

whichconfirmsitsCambodianorigins.

Overall,thisassortmentoftextilesmayhavebeenofferedbytheKingdomofCambodiato

theSiamesecourtasasignofdeferenceandtributarydonationorwerecommissionedor

purchasedbytheThaicourtdirectlyfromCambodianweavers.Thevarietyoftheirdesign

schemesandpatternsspeaktothefluidityofstylescirculatingfromSouthtoSoutheastAsia

andtheintegrationofhigh-qualityCambodianholtextilesinSiamesesumptuarycodesand

diplomaticrelationships.

ItwasinthiscontextofSiameseeconomicandculturaldominationthattheFrencharrived

asnewkeyplayersinSoutheastAsia.Francestartedtoexpanditscolonialterritoryinthe

peninsula,occupyingthesouthofVietnamfromtheMekongDeltain1858.Facingtheriskof

beingdismantledandincorporatedintotheKingdomofSiam,Cambodiarequested

protectionfromtheFrench.

250Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,117-127. 251Ibid,109. 252Ibid,109,183.253BrigittaHauser-Schaublin,Marie-LouiseNabholz-KartaschoffandUrsRamseyer,BalineseTextiles(London:BritishMuseumPress,1991),48.

120

Figs.32a-bSampotholwithconfrontednagainthecentralfield,fromPrahPinKlaotoPresidentPierce,c.1856inLisaMcQuailTreasuresofTwoNations:ThaiRoyalGiftstotheUnitedStatesofAmerica,Fig.100.

Fig.33Saputsongketwithconfrontednaga,early19thcenturyfromSingaraja,Bali,TONYRAKAArtGalleryTwitter,2019.

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FrenchcolonisationandthecraftingofaCambodiannationalculture(1863-1953)

Thissectioncontinuestoexplorehowforeigninfluenceandgeopolitics,thistime

Frenchcolonisation,reshapedthehistoriographyofCambodiansilkandshifteditsposition

ondomesticandinternationallevels.AshistorianJohnTullystates,‘attheturnofthe

nineteenthcentury,fewEuropeanswereawareofCambodia’sexistence.Itsatonthe

peripheryoftheirknownworld’.254FranceonlybegantoconsidercontrollingCambodia

whentheyfearedthattheBritish,whohadsignedtreatieswithSiam,wouldexpressa

strategicinterest.In1863KingNorodomProhmbariraksignedanagreement

acknowledgingtheFrenchprotectorate,whichguaranteedthathecouldkeepthe

Cambodianterritoryintact[Fig.34].BytakingCambodiaunderitswing,Franceassertedits

positionovertheregiontodiminishthegrowinginfluenceofSiam.

TheFrenchalsousedtheircoloniestotakeadvantageoflocalresourcesandcreate

commercialopportunitieswithAsia,especiallyChina,itsprimarymarket,Japan,Singapore,

andtheDutchEastIndies.255Overall,thisshareofexportslargelyexceededtheexportsto

metropolitanFrance.Inthemid-1800sFrenchsericulturewassufferingfrompébrine,a

silkwormdisease,andwasfacingaggressivecompetitionfromChineseandJapanese

imports.256SettlinginSoutheastAsiaofferedthepossibilitytouselocalsilkfibreproduction

tosupplysilkmanufacturersfromLyoninFrance,andgetashareofthesilkexport

market.257Accordingtoacolonialreportpublishedin1923writtenbyDelignon,asilkplant

254JohnTully,‘CambodiaintheNineteenthCentury:OutoftheSiameseFryingPanandintotheFrenchFire?’inCambodiaandtheWest,1500-2000,ed.T.O.Smith(London:PalgraveMacmillanLimited,2018),37.255PierreBrocheux,andDanielHémery,Indochina:anAmbiguousColonization,1858-1954(Berkeley,Calif:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2011),176-177.256TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,99;TheCévennesareaprovidedmorethanhalfofthesilkcocoonproduction,abouttwenty-sixthousandmetrictonsofcocoonsayear;SeeJacquesAnquetil,LasoieenOccident(Paris:Flammarion,1995),189.257BrocheuxandHémery,Indochina:anAmbiguousColonization,1858-1954,38;CharlesRobequain,trans.IsabelA.Ward,TheEconomicDevelopmentofFrenchIndochina(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1944),233.

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ownerinVietnam,before1899only3,886kilosofrawsilkweredestinedforFranceoutof

the185,402kilosproducedinIndochina(CambodiaandSouthernVietnamcountingfor

14,061kilos).258CambodianandsouthernVietnamesesilkwasmostlyexportedtoChina

andThailand,twomajorproducersandconsumers.

Fig.34MapofcountriesformingFrenchIndochinain1900.WikimediaCommons/Author’simage.

WiththeirkeenfascinationforAngkorWatandvestigesoftheKhmerEmpire,the

FrenchentertainednostalgicnotionsofthisgloriousCambodianhistory,bycontrast

consideringearlytwentieth-centuryCambodianculturetobedecadent.In1913,architect

andconservatorHenriMarchalechoedthenegativeideaperpetuatedbyFrenchcolonials

258LouisDelignon,‘LaproductiondelaSoieenIndochine.’Revuedebotaniqueappliquéeetd'agriculturecoloniale,3ᵉannée,bulletinn°24(31août1923):532.

123

thatCambodianpeoplewere‘indolentandapathetic[…]withnoaptitudeforcommerceor

theindustry’,yethecontendedthattheyalsoshowcased‘naturaldispositionsforthe

arts’.259MarchalstressedthepotentialofrevivingCambodianartsunderamodernform,

which‘asdecliningastheycouldbe,couldfeeddecorativemotifsforindustriessuchas

ceramics,woodwork,wallpapers,stainedglass,jewellery,embroidery’.260Underthis

mindset,theFrenchinvestmentinCambodianhandicraftproductionaimedtodevelop

artisanalproductsmarketabletoaFrenchaudienceyearningforexoticgoodsfromthe

colonies.

TheFrenchcolonialsubjectivitiestowardsCambodianculturearefurtherexemplifiedby

theinvolvementofGeorgesGroslier(1887-1945),aFrenchartist,architectandeducator

[Fig.35].HewasthefirstFrenchchildtobeborninCambodia,waseducatedinFranceand

spokeKhmerfluently.InaperspectivethatnuancesMarchal’sassertiononCambodian

artisticdecline,Groslierconsideredthattheseartsweredisappearingbecauselocalelites

disdainedtheirproducts,insteadpurchasingFrenchgoods.Whilehenotedthat‘many

womenknowhowtoweaveanddyeboldlycolouredsilkswhichareessentialtoevery

home’,healsoregrettedthat‘cottonpercalesandfloralfabricsimportedfromBritain

[were]replacinglocaltextiles’.261Headded:

‘Whilethepopularmasseshavekepttheirarts,theyareunabletopracticethem.Theykeeptheirtraditionsbutcannolongerapplythem.[…]Abandonedbytheirindigenousrulersandpagodas,theywaitforthegreatpoweroftheOccidenttointerveneandirremediablydispersetheirfragiletreasures,yetstillremembered,fromtheAngkorianera’.262

Despiteapatronisingtone,Groslier’sconcernforcraftspeopleandtheirskillssounds

sincereandexplainshiscommitmenttoimplementanewartisticeducationstrategy.

259Marchal,‘L’artcambodgienmoderne,’69.260Ibid,74. 261Groslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’400-401.Translatedbytheauthor.262Ibid,402.

124

Moreover,hejudgedpreviousCambodian-ledinitiativessupportinglocalcraftsmenas‘for

somewithoutafuture,theothersineffective’.263

Fig.35GeorgeGroslierinhisofficeinPhnomPenhholdingacarvedfigurine,Cambodia,1926.PhotographbyMartinHurlimann.WikimediaCommons.

Untiltheearlytwentiethcentury,theroyalworkshops’functionwas‘tofulfillordersfrom

thekingandthecourt,theyincludedpainters,sculptors,silversmithsorweavers,andwere

particularlyrequestedforthepreparationofdancecostumesfortheRoyalBallet’.264From

1907to1917,theCambodiangovernmentstartedtoexpandandredefinetheartsandcrafts

underroyalpatronage,realisingthesector’scommercialpotential:‘theworkshopsofthe

Palace[were]groupedtogetherwithinthe‘RoyalManufactory’,createdtoprovidenew

economicoutletstothecraftsector.Ithadtwosections,oneof‘jewelryandartobjects’,the

otherof‘sewing,embroideryandweaving’.265KingSisowathassignedhissonPrince

Monivongasthemanagerofthejewelrydepartment.266

263Groslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’395.264Abbe,‘LeDéveloppementdesArtsauCambodgeàL’ÉpoqueColoniale:GeorgeGroslieretL’ÉcoledesArtsCambodgiens(1917-1945),’8.265Ibid.266Edwards,Cambodge:TheCultivationofaNation,1860-1945,147-148.

125

ItisinthiscontextthatGroslierwascommissionedbytheFrenchGovernorGeneralAlbert

SarrauttoestablishacrafttrainingprogrammeforCambodians,L’EcoledesArts

Cambodgiens(TheSchoolofCambodianArts),in1918withaculturalrescueagendain

mindto‘educatetheforeignerandreeducateKhmerpeople’.267By1920,theschoolwas

combinedwiththemuseumAlbertSarrautinnewbuildingsestablishedneartheRoyal

Palace,withtheagreementofKingSisowath.268

ToGroslier,thisinitiativeaimed‘tofixartisticpracticesintheircurrentstate,tostudythem

andhelpthem;whilefoundinganactiveandtruemuseum’.269Hewasthedirectorofthe

SchoolofCambodianArtsfrom1920to1922andremainedinchargeofartistictraining

pedagogyuntil1944,withtheassistanceofAndréSilice,aFrenchartist.Thisorganisation

implementedsixworkshopsopenonlytoCambodians,welcomingupto165apprentices,

ledbyCambodianmastercraftsmen.Itincludeddrawingandarchitecture,sculpture,

woodworkingandgoldplating,afoundry,silversmithingandweaving.In1924,theweaving

workshopcountedtwenty-fiveyoungwomen,whoappearinthisarchivalphotographtaken

onsiteandmadeintoapostcardproducedbytheFrenchadministration[Fig.36].270

Thereisanapparentparadoxinwantingtopreserveindigenouscustomswhenthecolonial

poweritselfisanactiveagentofchange,bringingdeepmodificationstotheCambodian

culturallandscape:changeswhichweremostlyunwelcometothecolonised.Anthropologist

RenatoRosaldo,whoworkedspecificallyonthePhilippines,coinedtheterms‘imperial

nostalgia’todescribethisparadoxicalyearningforanuntouchedindigenouspastembedded

inthecolonialcivilisingmission.Rosaldo'snuancedperspectivedemonstratedhowthis

typeofideologycansimultaneouslybe‘compelling,contradictory,andpernicious’.271

267Groslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’402;SusanFallsandJessicaSmith,‘BrandingAuthenticity:CambodianIkatinTransnationalArtisanPartnerships(TAPs),’JournalofDesignHistory24,no.3(2011):7.268ThemuseumeventuallybecamePhnomPenhNationalMuseumin1953.269Groslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’398.270Ibid,403. 271RenatoRosaldo,‘ImperialistNostalgia,’Representations26(1989):110.

126

Fig.36PostcardofaphotographshowingthesilkspinningandweavingworkshopattheSchoolofCambodianArts,c.1924.

TheMuséeAlbertSarrautbecameatouristattractionforEuropeanswhohadsettledin

SoutheastAsiaandinternationalvisitorsattractedbyAngkorWat.Grosliercreatedthe

museum’stextilecollectionwithpiecesfoundacrossthecountry,primeexamplesofsilks

fromtheSchoolofCambodianArts,andceremonialbrocadesanddancecostumesfromthe

RoyalPalace.Inthe1924GeneralCollectioncatalogue,eachtextileobjectwaslistedwitha

fulldescriptioninFrenchandanacquisitionnumberstartingwithN.:forexample,‘N.49-

Sampothol,silk,1.97x0.90.Forwomen,Redwarp.Silkweftinyellow,green,purpleforming

horizontalstripes’.272EachobjectwaslinkedtoacardwritteninFrenchwithmoredata

aboutthepiece:itsdonor,material,priceofpurchaseincertaincases,dimensions,and

acquisitiondate.273

Withtheideatoprovideworkforthetrainedartisans,LesCorporationsCambodgiennes

272InFrench:‘N.49-Sampothol,soie.1.97x0.90.Pourfemme.Chaînerouge.Tramesoieteintejaune,vert,violetformantbandestransversales.’SeeCatalogueGénéralduMuséeduCambodge(MuséeAlbertSarraut),‘N.Etoffesetvêtements’(Hanoi,1924),194-207,courtesyofTheNationalMuseumLibrary.273Seecataloguecardforobject258HintheNcategory,sampothol,acquiredbythemuseuminJanuary1927,CourtesyoftheNationalMuseumLibrary.

127

(CambodianCorporations)wereestablishedin1919toproduceartefactswithFrench

customersinmind,whichGroslierdefinedas‘arichclientbase,avidforexoticismand

alwaysreadytoacquiresouvenirsandtestimonialsoffarawaycountriesthatthey

visited’.274

Atthetime,weaversmostlyproducedthree-metre-longtextilesforclothingtobedrapedas

sbaayorsampot.275WhileothertextiletechniquesexistedinCambodia,suchassolidsilk

phamaungandbrocadedrbauk,theCorporationsCambodgiennesinvestedspecificefforts

intothedevelopmentofmulticoloredweftikatsampothol,reproducingantiqueexamples

collectedatthemuseumfortherarityoftheirtechnique.LeServicedesArts(ArtsService),

anorganisationemergingfromtheSchoolofCambodianArts,actedastheintermediary

betweencustomersandartisans,receivingorders,purchasingrawmaterials,andensuringa

controlledsalesprice.276Withthisprogramme,Groslierrepurposedancestralknowledge

ownedbyindigenousartisanstoestablishacolonialmodelofproductionanddistribution.

TheColonialRevuereportedthatfrom1921to1925,threethousandsilksampot,following

highqualitystandardsestablishedandencouragedbytherésidentsupérieur(localFrench

governor),wereorderedforasuccessfulturnoverof47,500piastres,thecurrencyinFrench

Indochina,whichwentwhollytotheweavers.277

ThepromotionofLesCorporationsCambodgiennes’silksextendedtoFrenchmetropolitan

contextsoutsideCambodia.EdwardsdemonstratedthatFrenchcolonisationbroughta

particularnotionofnationalismtoCambodiandressandtextiles,‘mark[ing]suchobjectsas

“national”andfix[ing]theminaboundedgeoculturalsphere’.278Colonialpavilionswere

usedinthe1889ExpositionUniverselleinParistocommunicateessentialistattitudestoits

colonies;expositionscoloniales(colonialexhibitions)werethenlaunchedin1896inRouen.

274Groslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’415.275Ibid,420.276Ibid,418.277A.V.Dunet,ed.,‘LaséricicultureauCambodge,’LaRevueColoniale2no.15(Décembre1925):2-3.278Edwards,Cambodge:TheCultivationofaNation,1860-1945,145.

128

Inthe1922editioninMarseille,theCambodiansectionoftheIndochinapavilionfeatureda

spectacularlarge-scalearchitecturalreproductionofAngkorWat,usedassetandstagefor

Cambodiandancerswhohadbeenbroughtspecificallytoperform.279Thefairwasa

propagandatooltodemonstratewhattheorganisingcommitteecalledthe‘livinghistoryof

[French]colonisation’and'thegeneralsynthesisof[French]efforts'inIndochina.280

CambodiansilkswerealsosoldattheIndochinapavilion.

FashionscholarJenniferCraikhasarguedthat‘Westernculturesdrawontheexoticaofnon-

Westernculturesandpastculturestoaddanelementoffrissontotheeverydayculture’.281

Sheadds:'theideaoftheexoticimpliesasenseofmagic’.282Inthegrandiosesetreplicating

themythicalAngkoriantemplesinMarseille,theFrenchaudienceembracedthiscurated

experienceofothernessandappreciatedaselectionofKhmerartsandcraftslabelledas

authenticbythecolonialpowerbytheirconnectionwiththeKhmerempire.283

AsdetailedinaVoguearticlepublishedin1927,silksampotholproducedfortheFrench

marketweresaidtobedirectlyinspiredbyCambodia’sheritage:‘nexttothegodsofAngkor

andancienttextiles,modernartisansunderanastuteandintelligentFrenchmanagement,

arefortunatelyinspiredbyolddesignstoreviveKhmerart’.284 Sampotholcompetedwith

otherexoticcommodities,suchasthepopular‘Spanishshawls’producedinChinawith

279IsabelleFlour,‘OrientalismandtheRealityEffect:AngkorattheUniversalExpositions,1867–1937,’GettyResearchJournal6(January2014):71.280PennyEdwards,citingtheCommissariatGénéraldel’ExpositionNationalColonialedeMarseille.SeeEdwards,Cambodge:TheCultivationofaNation,1860-1945,154-55;CommissariatGénéraldel’ExpositionNationalColonialedeMarseille,ExpositionnationalecolonialedeMarseille(Marseille,1922),9-10.281JenniferCraik,‘ExoticNarrativesinFashion,’inModernFashionTraditions,eds.AngelaJansenandJenniferCraik(London:BloomsburyAcademic,2018),100.282Ibid,97.283AreportonMarseille’sColonialExhibitionof1922detailedthatCambodiansilktextileswereshowcasedinsidetheAngkorWatreplicabothintheartisticandeconomicexhibitionspaces.AntiqueCambodiansilks,referredtoas‘truemasterpiecesinappliedarts’,wereshowcasedwithlacquerware,jewellery,textiles,andsculpturesfromLaosandVietnamonthefirstfloor.ProductsfromtheSchoolofCambodianArtswereshowcasedwithothercolonialschools.Onthegroundfloor,silktextilesfromCambodiaandVietnamwerepartoftheeconomicexhibition.SeePierreGuesde,L'ExpositionNationaleColonialedeMarseilledécriteparsesauteurs(Marseille:CommissariatGénéraldel’Exposition,1922),50-51,89-92. 284J.R.F,‘Lessampotscambodgiens,’Vogue,1January1927,54.

129

Chinese-inspiredboldandcolourfulpatterns.285Thisarticleoffereditsreadersan

enthusiasticdepictionofholproducedbytheSchoolofCambodianArts,asiftheywerea

regionalproduct.BuyingsampotmeantbuyingFrench:‘thesetextileswithremarkable

designsare‘fromhome’,becauseourcoloniesproducethem’.286Thearticlealsodiscussed

theinvolvementoftheHouseofRodier,atextilecompanyestablishedin1848inLyon,

whichhadcommissionedGeorgesGrosliertoproducesampotholtobesoldinFranceas

shawlsanddecorativehangings[Fig.37].ThisconnectionbetweenFrenchmanufacturers

andLeServicedesArtsinthe1920sdemonstrateshowindigenoustextiles,originallya

domesticproductforlocalconsumption,wasintegratedbeyondCambodiaintothebroader

territoryoftheFrenchluxurymarket.Thecolonialcivilisingmissionisclearlystatedinthis

article:‘itistotheFrenchmetropoletohelpindigenouspopulationstoexploitthewealthof

ourcolonies,firstconditionoftheirprosperityandforthedevelopmentofcivilisation’.287

Fig.37SilkpictorialpidanwovenattheSchoolofCambodianArtsproducedforMaisonRodier,Vogue,1January1927,44.

285J.R.F,‘Lessampotscambodgiens,’42.SeealsoSarahCheang’sresearchonChineserobesandshawlswornbyWesternwomenasloungewearinthedomesticspaceoftheirhomes.SarahCheang,‘ChineseRobesinWesternInteriors:TransitionalityandTransformation’,inFashion,InteriorDesignandtheContoursofModernIdentity,ed.AllaMyzelevandJohnPotvin(Farnham:Ashgate,2017),129.286Author’stranslation.J.R.F,‘Lessampotscambodgiens,’42.287J.R.F,‘Lessampotscambodgiens’,52.

130

ThewaysinwhichCambodiansilkswerechampionedbytheFrenchcolonialpower

demonstratethenatureofFrenchcolonialismandhowdiscoursesofthecivilisingmission

wereenmeshedwithtrade.DiscussingtheworkproducedbyVietnamesepaintersin

colonialfineartsschoolsinVietnam,NoraTayloridentifiedthedifficultyofclearly

designatingthisartisticproduction,concludingthatitcouldnotbeconsiderednationally

Vietnamese,norindigenous,norFrench,butashoveringambiguouslybetweenthese

definitions.288Similarly,Cambodiansilksforcolonialtradeconservedthehandmadequality

ofCambodiancraftsmanship:‘remarkable,long,meticulous,anddifficultfabrication’,but

shiftedintermsofuseandculturalidentitytobecomehybridobjects.289

MaterialityofthesilklandscapeduringIndependence(1950-69)

AfterdelinkingtheeffectoforientalistdiscoursesandFrenchcolonialismonsilkas

artefactsandcraft,thissectionexploreshowCambodia’spostcolonialhistoryaffectsthe

spatialrealmbyexploringthegeographyandtopographicalfeaturesthatsupportsilk

production.Movingintothesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturyandtheperiodofnational

independence,thissectionexaminessilkasaresourceentangledwithCambodia’sland,

territory,andhistory.ItcontinuestounraveltheformativepatternsofCambodiansilk

withindebatesonculturalexchangesandnationalidentity.Inthatsense,lookingatthe

complexinterrelationbetweenmulberrytrees,silkfarmingandsilkweaving,andhowthis

impactedonthemorphologyofthelandscape,definessilkasaCambodianculture,and,

reversely,definesCambodiathroughsilk.290

288NoraTaylor,‘ORIENTALISM/OCCIDENTALISM:TheFoundingoftheEcoledesBeaux-Artsd'IndochineandthePoliticsofPaintinginColonialVietNam,1925-1945,’Crossroads:anInterdisciplinaryJournalofSoutheastAsianStudies11,no.2(1997):33.289J.R.F,‘Lessampotscambodgiens’,52.290SeetheconceptofculturallandscapefirstdevelopedbyCarlSauerinwhichnatureismodifiedbyhumanactions,whichthereforeimpactsonitsmorphology.CarlSauer,‘TheMorphologyofaLandscape,’inHumanGeography:AnEssentialAnthology,eds.J.Agnew,D.Livingstone,andA.Rodgers(Oxford:Blackwell,1996),309.

131

JapanbecameanindustrialisedandmilitarypowerduringtheMeijiera(1868-

1912),withregionalreachinAsiawhichfuelleditsimperialistaspirations.291Japan’sactive

expansionbeganinthe1930swiththeinvasionofManchuria,andacceleratedduringthe

Asia-PacificWarafterthePearlHarborattackin1941.From1941to1945,theVichyFrench

colonialadministrationremainednominallypresentinCambodiawhileJapanesetroops

occupiedtheterritory.Duringtheseyears,theJapaneseencouragedNorodomSihanouk,

whowascrownedCambodiankingin1941,toseekindependence.Japanstrategically

promotedtherhetoricofPan-AsianismandtheidealsofAsiansolidaritytoencourage

SoutheastAsiancountriestowardsindependence,thusweakeningtheincumbentFrench

andDutchcolonialforces.292AttheendofWW2,afterJapansurrendered,France

reestablishedcontroloverCambodia,buteventuallygrantedthecountryindependencein

1953.JapanthenofficiallyestablisheddiplomaticrelationswithCambodiaonceitbecame

anindependentnationin1953.293

NorodomSihanoukabdicatedtohisfatherNorodomSuramaritin1955tobeabletoruleas

Cambodia’sprimeministerwithhispoliticalpartySangkumReastrNiyum(People’s

SocialistCommunity)until1970.Thisperiod,knownasSangkum,wasmarkedbyimportant

economicandindustrialdevelopmentswhileSihanoukattemptedtomitigatehiscountry’s

involvementintheVietnameseconflict.AidfromFrance,theformercolonialpower,and

BritaincontinuedtobeinstrumentalinCambodia’sdevelopment,especiallyintermsof

industry,infrastructureandenergyproduction,whichshowstheprevalenceofWestern

291PeterNicholasTarling,ASuddenRampage:TheJapaneseOccupationofSoutheastAsia,1941-1945(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,2001),11-12.292SvenSaalerandChristopherSzpilman,‘Pan-AsianismasanIdealofAsianIdentityandSolidarity,1850–Present,’TheAsia-PacificJournal9,no.17:1(2011):7;Tarling,ASuddenRampage:TheJapaneseOccupationofSoutheastAsia,1941-1945,39.

293HideoSasagawa,'Japan’sInvolvementinCambodiaduringWorldWarII,’inVietnam-Indochina-JapanRelationsduringtheSecondWorldWar,ed.M.Shiraishi,andal.(Tokyo:WasedaInstituteofAsia-PacificStudies,2017),71.

132

imperialisttiestotheregionintheearlyyearsofindependence.294Despitemajorefforts

towardseducationandindustrialisation,Cambodiaremainedanagriculturalcountry

relyingonriceandrubber,itstwomainpillars,whilecottonandmulberryrawsilk

remainedminorcommercialcrops.295

Intheearly1960s,sericultureandsilkweavingwerebothactiveinthesouthwestregionin

PreyKabasandTani.ThismapdraftedbygeographerJeanDelvertshowssomeofthese

overlappingareaswithdifferentartisanalproductions(silk,cotton,metalware,natural

dyes,basketryandpottery)locatedsouthandwestofPhnomPenhatthebordersofthe

MekongandTonléSaprivers[Fig.38a-b].296Likecotton,mulberrytreesgrewonwell-

irrigatedregionsalongthesouthernbanksoftheMekongRiver.Cottonandsilkweaving

waspractisedbywomeninvillagesduringthedryseasonbecauseitwas‘oneoftheonly

resourcesavailable’inareaswithlimitedarablelands,tocomplementricefarming.297

Connectinglocalresourcestothelandalsoconnectsthemtotheirpopulations.Figure38a

alsoshowsextendedzonesofsilkweavingactivityalongtheMekongRiver,Cambodia’s

mostpopulousarea.Thenumberofweaversandtheirconcentrationindifferentsrok

(districts)correlatewithareasofsericultureinthreemainzones:southofPhnomPenh,in

KandalandTakeoprovince,aroundtheTonléTouchRiverandinafewremotephum

(villages)inBattambangandOddarMeancheayprovinces.298Intheseneighbouringregions

toVietnam,CambodiansilkproductionwasledbySino-KhmerandethnicVietnamese

communitiesinKandal,Takeo,andPreyVengprovinces.299

Relyingonextensiveperiodsoffieldworkfrom1968to1970,Dupaigneidentifiedtwotypes

ofproductioninthoseregions.InTakeo,family-ownedsilkfarmsraisedsilkwormsduring

therainyseasonfromJulytoNovember.InKandalandPreyVeng,intensiverearingcentres,

294Slocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury,77.295Ibid,101.296Delvert,‘Carte7Industriesrurales’inLepaysancambodgien,738. 297Delvert,Lepaysancambodgien,286.298Seemap,Figure5.299Delvert,Lepaysancambodgien,283;TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,100.

133

mostlymaintainedbyVietnameseimmigrantsontheBassacriverandlowerMekong,

operatedabouttwelvecyclesayearfortradebeforethe1970s,apracticethatresumedin

the1980s.300

Figs.38a-bLeft:Carte‘7.Industriesrurales’showingcottonandsericultureareas,inconjunctionwithweaving,matweaving,metalwork,makleuadyeing,basketryandceramics.Right:locationoftheareastudiedbyDelvertinCambodia.

Deconstructingtheproductionchainprovidesatrajectoryinwhichpoliticalagency

intersectswithsuccessiveandinterdependentmaterialtechnologies,whichthendictates

theconstraintsofsilkdesignandtheconditionsofthetrade.FromaCambodianviewpoint,

perspectivesoncraftswerelinkedtothepoliticsofruralityandeconomicpolicies.Onone

hand,economictheoristKhieuSamphancentredhisargumentonrevalorisingthe

300TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,112.

134

peasantry,crafts(includingweaving)andsmallindustries,advocatingfortheredistribution

ofwealthintoaruraleconomyestablishedunderMarxistprinciplesofstate-supported

cooperatives.KhieuSamphan’sdoctoralthesis,publishedin1959,becamethefoundational

ideologyfortheKRdictatorship.301

Ontheotherhandofthepoliticalspectrum,artisanaltextilepracticeswerealsopraisedas

inthe1959TechnicolorfilmFemmeCambodgienne,oneofthefirstfilmsdirectedbyPrince

Sihanouk,whoproducedatotalfortyfictionandpropagandistfilmsinhislife.302Thereis

littleinformationaboutthecontextofFemmeCambodgienne’smaking.Sihanoukoriginally

producedfilmswithforeignanddiplomaticaudiencesinmind.Moreover,cinemaswere

openingextensivelyinthecountryintheSangkumeraandthefirstCambodianfilmtobe

publiclyscreeneddatedfrom1958.303Eventually,Sihanoukwantedhisfilmstobeshownto

largeCambodianaudiences.HistorianMiltonOsbornesharesthatspectatorswere

forbiddentoleavethetheatreduringthesescreenings.304ItislikelythatFemme

Cambodgienne,atwenty-minutefilmnarratedinFrench,wasscreenedtoCambodiansas

wellasforeigners.ItportraysCambodianwomenasametaphorforCambodia’sfertileland,

withthevoiceoverrepeatingthephrase‘fertilityofthewoman,fertilityofthesoil’.305

Viewerssawwomeninactionasworking,diligentbodies,performingrepetitivegesturesof

plantingthesoildressedinblackpeasantclothingandaredginghamkrama.Afemale

weaverwearingasampotphamaungisshownspinningyarn,preparingthewarpwith

bobbinsofwhitesilkthreadwoundonwarpingbars,andweavingatwo-tonerbauk

(damask)silkonawoodenloominaworkshop[Figs.39a-c].

301KhieuSamphan,trans.LauraSummers,‘UnderdevelopmentinCambodia,’inIndochinaChronicle51-52(September-November1976):4.302MiltonOsborne,Sihanouk:PrinceofLight,PrinceofDarkness(ChiangMai:SilkwormBooks,1994),177-179.303RogerNelson,‘ThePowerofSihanoukandthePowerofCinema:AFilmedExecutioninCambodia,1964,’ACT77(April2019),http://act.tnnua.edu.tw/?p=7255[AccessedJune24,2021]304MiltonOsborne,BeforeKampuchea:PreludestoTragedy(Sydney:AllenandUnwin,1979),57. 305SihanoukwasaknownFrancophile.FrenchremainedCambodia'sdiplomaticlanguageatthetime.

135

FemmeCambodgienneembodiesthewaytheSangkumretainedelementsofFrenchculture,

combinedwithpre-colonialnostalgia,toproduceanewvisionofCambodianmodernity

relyingongenderedrepresentationsofemancipatedCambodianwomen.Inamontage,the

filmtiestogethertheAngkorianheritagewithcarvedapsaradancersandcontemporaneous

womenworkingasfarmersandweavers,linkingancestralactivities,suchascrafts,withthe

modernprofessionsoffactoryworker,judge,nurse,andacademic.Thefilmendsinthe

countryside,withfemalefarmersoperatingtractorsinsteadofploughs,showingthatin

Sihanouk’svision,rurality(withthesupportofnewtechnologies)remainsthecentral

featureofCambodia’snational,politicalandsocialstructure.306

WhilesilkweavingandtextilesarerecognisedaskeyfeaturesofCambodianculturein

politicaldiscourses,thedataontextileproductionintheSangkumremainssparse.For

instance,theMarch10,1960issueoftheJournalOfficielduCambodge(CambodiaOfficial

Gazette)showedthatcotton,kapokandsticklacweremajorexportswhiletextileswere

importedinhighquantities,withnoreferencetosilkmaterial.307Economichistorian

MargaretSlocombalsocontendsthat‘therealitybehindthestatisticswasnotasspectacular

astheofficialreportswouldhavethereaderbelieve.Toooften,itseems,politicsintervened

tothwartsoundeconomicintentions’.308

306FemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959),Dir.SamdechNorodomSihanouk,ProducedbyKhemaraPictures,Cambodia,AvailableatCNChttp://www.cnc-aff.fr/internet_cnc/Internet/ARemplir/Fiches/corpus_Indochine/FilmsSihanouk.html307PublishedmonthlyinFrenchbythegovernmenttosharedecrees,ministerialactions,budgetannouncementsandimportsandexportsdata.RoyaumeduCambodge,JournalOfficielduCambodge10(March10,1960):276-78.308Slocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury,106.

136

Fig.39aWomenwearingakramascarffarmingrice,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959),Dir.SamdechNorodomSihanouk.

Fig.39bWeaverwearingasampotphamaungwarpingwhitesilkthreadonawoodenwarpingdevice,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959).

137

Fig.39cWomanweavingasampotrbauk,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959).

Dismantlementofthesilkterritory(1970-1979)

PolPothadspenttimeinChinain1966beforetheChineseCulturalRevolutionhad

started.InresettingCambodianhistorytoYearZero,theKRsharedanumberofideological

aspectswiththeGreatLeapForward,combinedwithnationalismandpeasantism.309

Cambodia’sterritorywasreorganisedintosixzones,consistingofthirty-tworegions,all

controlledbytheCPK,whichkeptthecountryinnearautarky[Fig.40].310Hundredsof

thousandsofvillagerswereseparatedfromtheirnativetownsandfamilies,deportedto

differentregionsandputtoforcedworkinlargercooperatives.Urbanpopulationswere

309BenKiernan,‘TheCambodianGenocide,1975-1979,’inCenturyofGenocide:CriticalEssaysandEyewitnessAccounts,eds.SamuelTotten,WilliamS.Parsons,IsraelW.Charny(NewYork:Routledge,2004),355-56. 310Kiernan,‘TheCambodianGenocide,1975-1979,’343.

138

forcedtoevacuatethecitycentres.DKinvestedinthecentralisationofgoods,production

anddistributionvia‘large-scalecollectivescoupledwithirrigationprojectsandasystemof

(poorly-plannedandconstructed)reservoirsanddamswasinitiated,tofosterhigher

produceyields,andtopermitmultiplecrops’.311Thesestrategiesledtoaninefficient

rationalisationoftheagriculturalterrain,andthepopulationsufferedseverefamine.

Fig.40‘AdministrativezonesofDemocraticKampuchea1975-78’,LibraryofCongress.FederalResearchDivision,Cambodia:ACountryStudy,c.1990,PublicDomain.

RepresentationofsilkpracticeswerepartofearlyKhmerRougepropaganda

messagesfollowingKhieuSamphan’spro-craftideology.TheCPK’sFour-YearPlan

311Tyner,TheKillingofCambodia:Geography,GenocideandtheUnmakingofSpace,118.

139

documentdraftedduringthe1976standingcommitteemeetingbrieflyoutlinedmethodsof

propagandaandinformation.Theplanwastorelyon‘radiobroadcasting:organisegeneral

listeningsessionsusingloudspeakersforallimportantplacesandmobileworkbrigades’

and‘films:oftherevolutionarymovement’spresentandpast,especiallythepresent.

Organisemanygroupstoproducemanyfilmstoshowtothepeopleingeneral’.312Art

historianStephanieBenzaquenGautierarguesthatDKfilmswereusedformassinstruction

inruralareas,screenedtothepopulationtopropagatetheregime’sagricultural,industrial

andmilitaryachievements.313

This1975ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceDailyReport,transcribingKRnews,aimed

todescribeactionstowardsthedevelopmentofthedomestictextileindustry:

…whiletillingandharrowingthelandinthecampaigntogrowtherainyseasonricecrop,ourbrothershave[…]clearedseveralhundredhectaresoflandtogrowcotton andmulberry trees to feed theirsilkworms for thedevelopmentof thetextile industry. To develop the textile industry, our brothers in every village,district,andproductiongrouphavebuiltmechanicalandmanuallooms.Insomeplacestheyhavebuiltsemiautomaticlooms.314

Aneleven-minute-longblack-and-whitesilentnewsreelcalled‘NewsfromDemocratic

Kampuchea‘andproducedbytheDKgovernmentin1977promotesasimilaragenda.It

showsfieldsofcottonbeingpickedbyhand,womenworkinginmulberrytreefields

collectingleavesandfeedingsilkworms,artisanalsilkweavingandeventuallyshiftstothe

promotionofindustrialscalecottonweaving[Figs.41a-b].Despiteafewinscriptionsin

Khmerintroducingthedifferentpartsofthefilm‘Artisanalweaving’,‘Industrialweaving’

and‘End’,theonlyinformationaboutalocationisthename‘StateTextileFactory1’

indicatedatafacility’sentrance.Close-upsonwomenshowthemdressedinblackgarbwith

312DavidChandler,andal,eds,PolPotPlanstheFuture:ConfidentialLeadershipDocumentsfromDemocraticKampuchea,1976-1977(NewHaven:YaleUniversity,1989),114.313StéphanieBenzaquen-Gautier,ImagesofKhmerRougeAtrocities,1975-2015:VisualizingtheCrimesofthePolPot’sRegimeinTransnationalContextsofMemory[PhDThesis](Amsterdam:ImaginaryMuseumProjects,2016),23-24.314ForeignBroadcastInformationService,FBISIV,May7,1975:H2,AlsoinKarlD.Jackson,ed,Cambodia,1975-1978:Rendez-vouswithDeath(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1989),62.

140

akramaasaheadscarf,theKRuniformthatisdiscussedlater,andoftensmilingand

operatinginsync,whichspeakstotheconstructednatureofthefilm.Femaleweaversin

neatlinesontheflooroperatesilkspinningwheels,followedbyasequenceshowingwomen

preparingwarpthreadsfromabobbinrackinaworkshop,weavingkramascarveson

manuallooms.Withoutshowingtheikatprocess,thisendswitharangeoffinishedsampot

hol,zoomingonthediversityofgeometricandstylisedwovenmotifs.Thefinalpartfocuses

onatextilefactoryscenewhereworkersareproducingyardagesofundyedanddyedcloth

onmechanisedlooms[Figs.41c-d-e].315

Fig.41aWomencollectingcottonballsinthefields,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.

315LesActualitésCambodgiennes,Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge,January1,1977https://www.ina.fr/video/VDD06002101/tissage-artisanal-et-industriel-du-textile-sous-le-regime-khmer-rouge-video.html[AccessedSeptember16,2017].

141

Fig.41bFeedingsilkwormswithmulberrytreeleaves,LesActualitéscambodgiennes(1977).

Fig.41cWomeninKRblackgarbspinningsilkthread,LesActualitéscambodgiennes(1977).

142

Fig.41dSampotholtextilesdisplayingthediversityofgeometricandstylisedikatmotifs,LesActualitéscambodgiennes(1977).

Fig.41eWorkersenteringtheStateTextileFactory1,LesActualitéscambodgiennes(1977).

Dataabouttextileproduction,importsandhandicraftsinthisperiodislimitedandrelieson

fewtestimoniesandfragmentarysources.AsSlocombargues,‘theDKperiodremainsa

143

highlycontentiousfieldofstudy[intermsofeconomy]becausetherearenoreliable,

verifiablestatistics’.316DKrulersconsideredthatcottonwasanimportantcropandalight

industrysupportingtheregime’seffortstoclotheitspopulation:‘wewouldlikeeveryoneto

havetwosetsofclothes,thatiseightmetersofclothperannum.Toachievethis,wewill

havetoincreaseourmanufacture’.317SilkisnotdiscussedintheFour-YearPlan.Thereare

majordiscrepanciesbetweenthefilm’sdisplayofintentionsregardingtextileproductionin

1977andtherealityofartisanalandindustrialweavingundertheregime.

IndustrialisedcottonspinningandweavinghaddevelopedintheSangkumviathemain

statetextilefactory,SocieteNationaleduTextile,openedin1960inKampongChamwith

Chinesefunding,thatwassoonfollowedbyasecondspinningfactoryinBattambangin

1966.318WeavingfactoriesinPhnomPenhcontinuedtooperateduringtheDKperiod.Ina

politicalspeechin1978,PolPotclaimedthatjuteandcottonwerethriving.319Thereisno

cleardataonthemarketdistributionforthisproductionandtheeffectofgovernmental

policies.

Attemptstoincreaseproductionandself-sufficiencywerenotsuccessful.Accordingto

Kiernan,tradebetweenCambodiaandThailandwasstillcontinuingin1976asCambodia

importedmedicalsuppliesandkramascarvesthroughthebordercheckpointofPoipetin

thenorthofthecountry.320Cambodiaalsoimportedlargequantitiesofblackclothanddyes

fromChinauntil1978,followedbyshipmentsofbluecloth.InthelastyearsofDK,blue

clotheswereallegedlyusedtoidentifytheirwearersasoriginatingintheEasternzoneof

Cambodia:theywereoftendesignatedasVietnameseandpersecuted.321

316Slocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury,175.317 Chandler,andal,eds.,PolPotPlanstheFuture:ConfidentialLeadershipDocumentsfromDemocraticKampuchea,1976-1977,98,151. 318RemyPrud’homme,L'ÉconomieduCambodge(Paris:PressesUniversitairesdeFrance,1969),96;Slocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury,107.319Ibid,207.320BenKiernan,ThePolPotRegime:Race,PowerandGenocideinCambodiaUndertheKhmerRouge,1975-79(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2008),144-145.321Ibid,406.

144

CharlesH.Twining,formerUSambassadortoCambodia,assessesthatbetween1975and

1978:

TheruleofthumbinDemocraticKampucheaseemstohavebeenonesetofnewclothingperpersonperyear.Clothingnotmadeincottageindustryortakenoffpersonswhowereexecutedcamepresumablyfromtheoperatingtextilefactories.Forthosetextileworkersunabletoproducealloftheirownfoodneeds,foodfromclothing-deficientareascouldperhapsberegardedastheir‘compensation’.322

Facingamajorshortageofresources,Cambodianshadtorelyonbartering.323Twining

describesasituationofsilkbarteredin‘avillageinwhichsomepeopleraisedsilkworms,

gatheredthesilk,andwoveit,sendingittodestinationswelloutsidetheimmediateareain

exchangeforfoodstuffs’.324Whilethefilm(Figure41)fromthefirstyearsoftheregime

showssericultureandweavingasacommonpractice,silkwasascarceresourcethatwas

notinvestedupon.

Onlyafewareasofsericulturewereretained,especiallyPhnomSrokdistrictinBanteay

MeancheyprovinceinthenorthofCambodia.325Mostmulberrytreesinthecountrywere

cutdownandsold.326Inthelate1970s,the‘unmaking’ofsilkproductionandweaving

practiceswasalsolinkedtotheforceddisplacementofartisansandfarmers.327Thisis

exemplifiedbySotheap,aformerweaverinterviewedbyTerHorst,whogrewupinTakeo

provinceintheearly1960sandmovedwithherfamilytoworkinatextilefactoryin

Battambanginthelate1970s.328

322Twining,‘TheEconomy,’122.323Kiernan,‘TheCambodianGenocide,1975-1979,’365. 324Twining,‘TheEconomy,’122.325KhmerSilkVillages,OntheGoldenSilkTrails,6.;RothMeas,‘Hopefortraditionalsilkfarmers,’ThePhnomPenhPost,28December2010https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lifestyle/hope-traditional-silk-farmers[AccessedJune1,2021];MorimotobrieflymentionsKohTrenginKampongChamneartheMekongriver.Morimoto,SilkProductionandMarketinginCambodia.ResearchReportfortheRevivalofSilkWeavingProject,17.326KikuoMorimoto,‘TracesofWar:TheRevivalofSilkWeavinginCambodia,’TextileSocietyofAmericaSymposiumProceedings(2002):404-409.327IborrowtheconceptofunmakingfromgeographerJamesTynerwhoarguesthat‘beforetheKhmerRougeconstructedtheirowncommunistspaces,theydeliberatelysetouttodeconstruct,orunmake,previousspaces’.Tyner,TheKillingofCambodia,110.328TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,18.

145

TheKRpushedtheiragendafurtherbycontrollingthedressofthepopulation.Beforethe

dictatorship,women’severydaywearwascommonlyashirtwithacolourfulMalay-style

printedsarongtubeskirt,andsilkwaswornforreligiousandfestivecelebrations.Shirts

andtrouserswereeverydaywearformen,andsometimescolourfulsilkshirtsandsilk

wrappedtrousersinthechawngkbunstyleforceremonies.ImportedWesternclothingwas

popularamongstcity-dwellers,withshapesthatweremorefitted,andbold1960s

patterns.329By1976,thepopulationwasforbiddentowearclothingthatwaseither

colourfulormadeofsilk.Clotheshadtobedyedindark,mutedtones,usingmud,charcoal

ordyestuffobtainedfrommakleua(ebonyfruit).330

Thisthesissupportsthehypothesisthat,accordingtoKRideology,silkwasassociatedwith

theelite,whereascottoncarriedaproletarianconnotation.Areferencetoactsofvoluntary

destructionappearsinthedocumentaryCambodge,lecridelasoie(Cambodia,thecryof

silk)whichdescribesKRfactionsburningsilkloomsbecausetheyweresymbolsofa

decadentculture.331Theproductionandstorageofsilkwasonlypermittedinlimited

quantities,fordiplomaticgiftstoforeignofficials.Moreover,‘ministryofficialsassignedto

greetsuchvisitorswerepermittedtogotoaspecialstoreroomtoborrowsilkclothing

shirtsformenandsampotforwomentoattenddiplomaticreceptions’.332Theuseofsilkwas

onlyreclaimedbyCPKhigh-rankingcadresforpubliceventsinvolvinginternational

visitors.Inhismemoirs,YPhandararecalledattendingamusicalperformanceinPhnom

Penhfor,amongstothers,representativesoftheSweden-KampucheaFriendshipAssociation

329Muanandal.,SeamsofChange,105-106.330ChilengPaandMortland,EscapingtheKhmerRouge:ACambodianMemoir,102.Intheaftermathoftheregime,black-cladclothingstillstirredsomepainfulmemoriesassociatedwiththeKRregime,especiallyamongstelderlypeople.SeeVannChanSimen,‘BacktoBlackFashionStirsMemories,’ThePhnomPenhPost31August2001https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/back-black-fashion-stirs-memories[AccessedMarch24,2020]331Cambodge,lecridelasoie,Dir.Butta,Carmen,ArteGEIE,2005.http://international.mediatheque-numerique.com/films/360-geo-reportage-cambodge-le-cri-de-la-soie332Muanandal.,SeamsofChange,112-113.

146

andambassadorDaoudaKouroumaoftheRepublicofGuineain1978.333Usedtowearing

raggeddarkclothes,hewasastoundedthatthecrowdofattendeeswaswearingcolourful

dress:henoticeddozensofyoungwomenwearingbrightsilksampotandfittedbodices.

Theunfittedblackcottonpyjamasinspiredbycommonpeasantgarbbecamethenational

uniformasanembodimentofthenewproletarianandcollectiveorder.Men,womenand

youngpeopleenrolledinKRmilitiasbecameananonymous,homogeneousarmyinblack

uniforms.Chinesekhakiarmyfatigueswerealsocommonasmilitaryuniform.Survivorsof

theKRregime,suchasChilengPa,reactedwithterroratthesightofthem.334Theyoften

woreakadep(cap)inspiredbyChineseCommunistPartycaps,blacksandalsmadefrom

rubbertyresandakramascarf.335

KRofficialsappropriatedthewidelyusedkramainredandwhitegingham,turningitintoa

symboloftheirrule.Theredscarfhadbeenpartofthesartorialidentityofnewmovements

inpostwarcommunistcountriessuchastheSovietUnionandChina,whichmayhave

inspiredDKleaders.ThereferencetothecolourredinKhmer‘Rouge’alsoappearedin

recurringmentionsofbloodinDK’snationalanthem,asa‘metaphoriccallforrevenge’.336

ReproductionsoftheseuniformsaredisplayedinthepermanentgalleryoftheTuolSleng

GenocideMuseuminPhnomPenh.337TheKillingFieldsgenocidesiteofChoeungEkdisplays

similarreproductions,inwhichtheredofthekramaandtheblackgarmentscreateastark

visualcontrast[Fig.42].AndrewMertha,expertinCambodianpolitics,hasfoundthatthe

StateWarehousedepartmentlocatedinPhnomPenhevenhadanofficededicatedtostoring

kramaclothsfordeliveryacrossthecountrytoCPKorganisations,evidenceofthe

333YPhandara,RetouràPhnomPenh:LeCambodgeduGénocideàlaColonisation(Paris:EditionsA.-M.Métailié,1982),131-135.334ChilengPaandMortland,EscapingtheKhmerRouge:ACambodianMemoir,68.335Muanandal.,SeamsofChange,105-106. 336NicholasA.RobinsandAdamJones,GenocidesbytheOppressed:SubalternGenocideinTheoryandPractice(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress,2009),95.337TuolSlengGenocideMuseumiscurrentlyrethinkingitspermanentdisplay.In2021,themuseumwillremovethesereproductionsthatarehungnexttorealvictims’clothingwithoutlabels.Thisjuxtapositionisrecognisedasconfusingforvisitors.

147

importanceofthisclothinthedictatorship’sideologyanditsembodimentthroughdress.338

AfteronlyfouryearsoftheKRrule,thefundamentalsofCambodiansocialorganisationand

economyhadbeenshattered.The1970smarkedaradicaltransformationofsocialcodesof

dressandmodesoftextileproduction,deliberatelyerasingtraditionalcustomsand

dismantlinglocaltextilecraftsintermsofresources,workforce,skills,andspacesof

production.

Fig.42Reproductionsofwomen’sandmen’sKhmerRougeuniforms(blackgarments,krama,andrubber-tyresandals)exhibitedattheChoeungEkKillingFields,PhnomPenh.WikimediaCommons.

338AndrewMertha,BrothersinArms:ChineseAidtotheKhmerRouge,1975–1979(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,2014),50.

148

Multipleagenciesinreconstructingthesilkindustry(1980-1990)

Thissectionfocusesonthereconstructionofthepost-warsilkindustryandhowit

involvedtheagenciesofmanyorganisations,bothinternationalanddomestic,cultural

institutionsandcommunities.TheVietnamese,formerKRalliesuntil1977,invadedPhnom

PenhonJanuary7,1979,overthrowingtheCPK’sfullcontroloverCambodiaand,asthe

actinggovernment,creatingthePeople’sRepublicofKampuchea(PRK)ledbyHengSamrin.

TheaftermathofDKwasthenmarkedbyVietnameseoccupation,politicalinstabilityand

complexinternalconflictsuntil1989.Nearlytwomillionpeopleperishedbetween1975and

1979,whichfundamentallychangedCambodia’sdemography.Thesituationwas

compoundedbytherefugeecrisisattheThaiborderandamassiveexodusabroad,bothof

whichareexploredinChapterFouronthecontinuationofsilkpracticesinthecontextof

displacementanddiaspora.339CertainregionsthatwerestillunderthedominationofKR

guerrillasremainedinaccessibleuntilthemid-1990s[Fig.43].

AccordingtotheNSS,‘onlyaboutfifteenhectaresofmulberrytreeswerefoundalive’after

thecollapseofthedictatorship.340However,thisdatamostlikelydatesfromalatersurvey

producedbyPASSinthemid-1990sasdiscussedintheIntroduction.Thereisnoavailable

surveyorfulldatafocusingonthesilksectorunderthePRK,onlyfragmentedinformation.

MichaelVickeryprovidesabroadviewonthestateoftheCambodiantextileindustryinthe

mid-1980s,reportingthatthePRKMinisterofIndustryMeasSamnangacknowledgedissues

ofproductionandsupply.341TheleadingtextilefactoryofTuolKorkinPhnomPenh

producedcottonclothbutoperatedundercapacity,duetotheinsufficientsuppliesofraw

339BarbaraCrossette,‘ThaiRefugeeCamp,DoorofHope,WillbeClosed,’TheNewYorkTimes,December30,1986,https://www.nytimes.com/1986/12/30/world/thai-refugee-camp-door-of-hope-will-be-closed.html[AccessedMarch28,2020].340CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,9.341MichaelVickery,Kampuchea:Politics,Economics,andSociety(London:F.Pinter,1986),147.

149

cottonacrossthecountry.Asaresult,thecountryreliedonmajordonationsofclothfrom

theSovietUnion,VietnamandEuropeancountries.342

Fig.43MapofCambodiainthe1980sshowingtheThaiborder,regionsandzonesofKhmerRougeactivity.Author’smap.

MoneywasabolishedundertheKRandreinstatedinMarch1980.Handicraftswere

practicedbyfamiliesandindividuals,outsideofthestate’sdirectcontrol,whichloaned

themcashviathenationalbankstoencouragedomesticcommerce.343

Weavingresumedinvillageandcouldbeprofitable.Vickerydiscussestheexampleofa

womanin1984‘justoutsidePhnomPenh[…]whoworkedfulltimeonherloom,turning

outatypeofsarong;andhermonthlyincomeoverexpenditureformaterialswas1,800riel,

342Vickery,Kampuchea:Politics,Economics,andSociety,149.343Ibid,137.

150

theequivalentofthreetopsalariesandworth360kg.ofrice’.344Oralhistoriescollectedby

educatorCarolWagnerandsocialscientistsHeidiDahlesandJohnTerHorstintheearly

2000sofferseveralstoriesofdisplacedvillagersrespondingbyenactingdifferentstrategies

ofsurvival.Thaverylearnedweavingwithexperiencedfemaleweaverswhowovesilkskirts

in1979-1980whenshereturnedtoherhomevillageinTakeoafterthedictatorship

collapsed.Sheeventuallymanagedtosaveenoughmoneyto‘buythematerialstobuilda

loom’tobecomeaprofessionalweaver.345SotheapreturnedtoherhomeinVealVeangin

1979andresumedweaving,buyinganewloomoncreditfromthemiddleman,bartering

hertextilesforriceinPhnomPenhmarkets.346Otherslearnedsilkweavingasasecondary

activitywhenmovingtoasilk-producingregion.MyownfieldworkinTaPoukvillage,on

theoutskirtsofSiemReap,inJuly2017providesanexampleofthis,inChendyHeng,sixty

yearsoldandmotherofChendaandThearyfromKramaYuyuworkshop.Chendy,originally

fromPhnomPenh,hadtoevacuatetoKandalprovinceundertheKR.Sheeventuallymarried

andresettledinTakeoprovince,andshelearnedhowtoweavefromherparents-in-law.347

Asthesestoriesshow,Cambodianweaversencounteredmajoreconomicand

demographicchallengesinthepostKRera.Nevertheless,silkweavingresumedintheearly

1980srelyingespeciallyonimportedsilkyarnfromsilkspinneriesinTanChau,a

VietnamesesilkcentrelocatedsouthofTakeoacrosstheborder.ThesurveybyTerHorst,

DongelmansandSeng,citingagronomistsPujebetandPeyre,doesnotdiscusswhetherthe

VietnameseoccupationofCambodiafacilitatedtheexpansionoftraderouteswithVietnam,

butthisseemsplausibleeventhoughitinvolvedChinesesilkyarnwholesalers.348

344Vickery,Kampuchea:Politics,Economics,andSociety,134. 345CarolWagner,SoulSurvivors:StoriesofWomenandChildreninCambodia(Berkeley,CA:CreativeArtsBookCompany,2002),195;346 DahlesandTerHorst,‘WeavingintoCambodia:NegotiatedEthnicityinthe(Post-colonial)SilkIndustry,’119. 347ChendyHeng,InterviewedbyMagaliAnBerthon,TaPouk,Cambodia,2017.348BorisDongelmans,BunlySengandJohnTerHorst,SilkWeavinginCambodia.ANationalCensus(PhnomPenh:CentreforAdvancedStudies,2005),10.

151

Therefore,thereformationofthesectorintheearly1980swaslinkedtoSino-Khmer

importerswhomaintainedamonopolyonsilkfibrebysellinglargequantitiestoCambodian

wholesalerssituatedinPhnomPenharoundtheCentral,Russian,OlympicandOld

Market.349Thisdatacomplexifiestheideaoftherevitalisationofsilkasanational

traditionalproductinwhich‘Khmer’equals‘Cambodian’,aspromotedintheNSSreport.350

TerHorstandDahlesoutlinethereformationofan‘ethnicallycomplexCambodiansilk

weavingindustry’involvingcomplextradenetworkswithCambodia’sborderlandsand

involveswholesalers,middlemen,silkweaversandretailers.351

Cambodiansreturnedtoamoreprominentuseofthepatron-clientsystem,knownaskhsae

(threads),whichhadcementedCambodiansocietylongbeforeforcedcollectivisation.This

inequitablepatrimonialsystemfavoursfamiliesandorganisationswiththemostpowerand

connections.Itdisadvantagesindividualsatthemarginsorwhoaredeprivedofasolid

socialfooting.Withinpowerrelationshipsthatimplyloyaltyandobligation,onepersonis

indebtedtoanotherwithinafamilyorabusiness.Thesilkindustryhasresumedunderthis

typologyofhierarchicalrelationships,operatingaverticallineofcommandfromsilk

merchantstointermediariestoweavers.352TerHorst’sstudyemphasisesthereassertionof

oldmodels‘inwhichasmallwholesalersgroupdictatesthecross-bordersilkyarntradeand

thequantityandqualityofproductionandtradeofsampot’.353

AccordingtotheNSS,in1990therewereonlyabouttwohundredandfifty

Cambodiansilkfarmersproducingindigenousgoldensilkbyworkingindependentlyonthe

limitedagriculturallandavailable,whichnecessitatedarelianceonsilkyarnimports.354

349TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,115-116;Dongelmans,BunlySengandTerHorst,SilkWeavinginCambodia.ANationalCensus,11.350Theforewordopenswith:‘thehistoryofsilkproductionisintricatelylinkedwiththehistoryofKhmertradition,cultureandidentity.’CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,ix.351Ibid,xiv.352TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,163.353Ibid,164.354CambodiaMinistryofCommerce,andITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,14.

152

ThiswasalsoconfirmedinKikuoMorimoto’s1995reportcommissionedbytheUNESCO

officeinPhnomPenh:‘priorto1970,manyvillagesinCambodiawereraisingsilkworms,

whichwerereeledandwovenintofinetraditionalfabrics.ExceptforKampotandKampong

Speuprovinces,mostoftheweaversinCambodianowusesilkyarnimportedfrom

Vietnam’.355Thecommissioningofthisreportalsoestablishestwonewmajoractorsinthe

reconstructionofthesilkindustry:MorimotohimselfandUNESCO.Theirroleisfurther

discussedinChapterTwo.

FromJanuarytoMarch1995,Morimotoconductedfieldworktoassessthestateofsilk

weavingandsericultureinCambodia.Hecoveredthirty-sixvillagesinPhnomPenh,

Kampot,Takeo,Kandal,KampongSpeu,KampongCham,PreyVengandSiemReap

provincesandinterviewedfifty-sixweavers,withtheexceptionofBattambangandBanteay

Meancheyprovinces,whichwerestillunsafeandoccupiedbyKRfactions[Fig.44].356The

lackofstudyinBanteayMeancheyunfortunatelylimitshisassessmentofthismajor

Cambodiansericulturearea.MorimotobrieflydiscussesastyleofsilksarongsfromPhnom

SrokinBanteayMeancheythatweresoldinSiemReapshops.357Healsoliststhesponsoring

agencyUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)/UnitedNationsOfficeforProject

Services-CAREREasthemainsupporteroflocalrawsilkproductioninthisarea.358

Morimotofocusesontheexperiencesofweaversandlocatingtextiletechniquesthatwere

stillpractisedinvillages.Hisresearchconcludesthatthetopographyofpre-1970silk

makinghadbeenheavilyalteredincertainzoneswiththedisappearanceofsilkwormeggs

andsilkyarnproductioninthekeycentresofKandalandKampot,whileweavingskillshad

survivedinnumerousvillages,especiallyinTakeoprovince,inwhichweaversmostlyrelied

onimportedsilkyarnfromVietnam.359

355Morimoto,SilkProductionandMarketinginCambodia.ResearchReportfortheRevivalofSilkWeavingProject,21.356Ibid,1.357Ibid,20. 358Ibid,31.359Ibid,13.

153

TheseelementsshowthattheseveredestructionresultingfromtheKRactionswasnot

complete,whichpermittedtheslowrecoveryofthesilksector.Processesofsilkmaking,

fromthemulberrytreesandthesilkwormstothefibreandweaving,werestillknownbya

numberofweavers.TheCambodiansilklandscapeinthe1980sthusoperatesasa

palimpsest,aspacethatshowsevidenceoftheerasureandsuperimpositionofsilk

practices.Itcarriesthetracesofpastactivities,rewritingtheagrarianlandsand

demographicdistributionco-optedbytheKR,andproducinganewconfigurationofsilk

basedonrawfibreimports,tradenetworkswithVietnamviaethnicChinesewholesalers,

andforeignkeyplayers.

Fig.44ResearchmapofMorimoto’ssilksurveyforUNESCO(Source:Morimoto,1995).

ThissectionnowexploreshowtheNationalMuseumofCambodia(NMC)dealtwith

thepreservationandcollectionofsilkartefactssincethe1980sandhowitaffected

technical,culturalandvisualknowledgeonsilkpractices.IntheaftermathoftheKRregime

andthepoliticalinstabilitythatensuedthelootingofKhmerculturalartefactsincreased.

154

TheKRguerrillasretreatedintotheforestsattheThaiborderanddevelopedtrading

networkswithThailandinthelate1980s,exchanginggemsandtimberforweaponry.360It

seemshighlylikelythatsilkswerealsoexchangedthroughthesechannelsandendedupin

Thailand.Inthe1990s,significanttraffickingofantiquities,especiallystatues,carved

templelintelsandpotterypillagedfromarchaeologicalruins,tookplacedueto‘thelackof

effectivelawenforcement,weakeningofsocietalprohibitions,destructionofthe

economy’.361Artefactsweresoldinternationallytomuseumsandprivatecollectors.Tolimit

thisextensivelooting,in1991Cambodiaeventuallyratifiedthreeconventionsforthe

protectionofculturalproperty:the1954HagueConvention,theUNESCOConventionand

theWorldHeritageConvention.362

Bykeepingartifacts,expandingtheircollection,andmakingpiecesavailabletoscholarsand

thepublic,museumshaveplayedaroleintherevitalisationofsilkinthepost-conflictera.It

isexploredherethroughthelensoftheonlypubliccollectionofCambodiantextilesin

Cambodia.Whileonlyonemuseumcollectionisexploredindetail,othermuseumswere

consideredinternationally.In2017-2018,studyvisitsalsotookplaceattheQuaiBranly

Museum,theV&A,theBritishMuseum,theUCLAFowlerMuseuminLosAngeles,the

privatecollectionTillekeandGibbinsinBangkok,andtheMGCAsianTraditionalTextiles

MuseuminSiemReap.ContactswerealsotakenremotelywiththeQueenSirikitMuseumof

TextilesinBangkok,theBankofChiangMaiMuseum,theFukuokaMuseumtolearnmore

abouttheircollections.363ThesevisitsalsohelpedmapCambodiancollectionsaroundthe

worldandformulateabroaderunderstandingoftheirrangeandspecificities.

360JoshuaBirchandJulieKornfeld,PickedClean:TheLegalityandPoliticsofCambodianCulturalHeritageObjects(PhnomPenh:DocumentationCenterofCambodia,2014),7,http://www.dccam.org/Abouts/Intern/Cambodia_Cultural_Heritage_Objects_Research_Paper.pdf[AccessedMay2,2017]361Ibid,8.362UNESCO,‘TextoftheConventionfortheSafeguardingoftheIntangibleCulturalHeritage,’2003,https://ich.unesco.org/en/convention[AccessedJanuary20,2019].363In2017itwasnotpossibletoplanastudyvisitattheHornimanduetotheredisplayoftheirgalleryofWorldCultures.2018wasdedicatedtofieldworkinCambodia.

155

TheNationalMuseumofCambodia(NMC),formerlyPhnomPenhNationalMuseum,

wasabandonedandclosedfrom1975to1979.LedbyFrenchkeepersuntil,themuseum

progressivelygatheredanimportantcollectionofCambodianantiquities(stone,metal,

woodandceramics)fromthepre-AngkorandAngkorperiods.364Themuseum’scollection

alsoincludedsilktextiles,holdingabout399piecesanddancecostumeelementscollected

between1918and1951underFrenchkeepers.WeavingtoolsdatingfromtheSchoolof

CambodianArtsinthe1920swerecollectedfromtheweavingworkshop,mostlikelyby

Groslier,todocumentsilkweavingprocessesinthemannerofanearlyethnographic

museum[Fig.45].Thisincludesarichlysculptedwoodenfloorloomcarvedwithdecorative

nagaheadsandtails,alongwithsculptedwoodshuttles,pedals,ikattyingstands,fourpairs

ofloomtensiondevices,andonesilkthreadwinder,allonpermanentdisplayinthe

galleries.

Fig.45DecoratedwoodcarvedelementsofaKhmerloomcollectedinthe1920s.Photograph,January1923,NationalMuseumofCambodiaarchives.

364‘ControloftheNationalMuseumandArtsAdministrationwascededbytheFrenchtotheCambodianson9August,1951andfollowingIndependencein1953,thethenMuséeNationaldePhnom-PenhwasthesubjectofBilateralaccords(7November1956).From1956to1966,themuseumcontinuedtoflourishunderthedirectionofMadeleineGiteau,ConservatriceduMuséeNational.’http://www.cambodiamuseum.info/museum_history.html[AccessedMarch28,2020]

156

Theclosingofthemuseumkeptthecollectionsrelativelyspared,thoughtheywerelargely

storedinthebasementwhichsufferedfromfloodsandpestinfestations.Whilethemuseum

hadfacedyearsofneglect,itreopenedtothepubliconApril13,1979undertheleadership

ofKannMan.365Onlytenofthepre-1975museum’sstaffhadsurvived,resultingina

significantlossofknowledgeaboutthemuseum’shistoryandobjects.CheaThaySeng,the

firstCambodiancuratortobeappointedin1966,diedatS21prisonin1976.366Intheyears

followingthereopeningduringtheCPK,thehypothesissupportedbythemuseum’sstaff,

especiallyHabTouch,DeputyDirectorofthemuseumin2000,isthatabouttwo-thirdsof

thetextileandcostumeartefactswerestolenandresold.367

InasymposiumonCambodiantextilesorganisedbyIKTTin2003,HabTouchassessedthat

NMConlyrecoveredseventy-twoflattextilesandacostumecollectionofbetweenthirtyand

fortypieces,mostlyaccessoriesforCambodiandance(belts,necklaces,hairpieces,two

embroideredfans)andtheatrecostumessuchasshirts,trousersandshoulderpads.Whatis

leftfromtheoriginalpre-KRcollectionconsistsofmulticolouredkietplangiheadscarves

madebyCham-Malayethnicgroups,andonlytwoKhmersampothol,butnopidan.368There

arealsofiveceremonialsampotdatingfromthe1910s,suchasthisbrittlesampotsarabap,a

redsilkbrocadedwithsupplementaryweftingoldmetallicthreads,keptfoldedinastorage

boxduetoitscondition[Fig.46].

365NationalMuseumofCambodia,MuseumHistoryhttps://www.cambodiamuseum.info/museum_history.html[AccessedMarch28,2020] 366PhilippePeycam,CulturalRenewalinCambodia(Leiden:Brill,2020),35.367KhunSamen,andTouchHab,‘TextilesintheCollectionoftheNationalMuseumofCambodia.’368Ibid.

157

Fig.46SampotsarabapattheNationalMuseumofCambodiafoldedinthetextilestorageroom.ObjectnumberN.38.Author’sphotograph,April2018.

Therearemultipleagentsinvolvedinmaintainingandexpandingthiscollection,with

peoplefromFrance,Japan,theUnitedStates,andAustralia,whichhostedalargeCambodian

diasporainthe1980s.TheCollectionInventoryProject(2004-2010) wasfundedbytheUS-

basedLeonLevyFoundationincollaborationwiththeCenterforKhmerStudiestoconduct

afulldigitalinventoryandconditionreportofthemuseum’s14,000objectsineleven

categories,withstone,ceramics,andmetalasthemaincategories.369Theprojectdrewonall

‘existingregistrationmethodsusedbythemuseumatdifferenttimesinthepast,including

severalFrenchcardcataloguesystems,Khmerhandwritteninventorylistsandapre-

existingdatabase’.370TheAustralianteamofexpertsassignedtotheproject,Catherine

MillikanandDarrylCollins,alsoledatrainingprogrammeinmuseumpracticesand

369NationalMuseumofCambodia,TheLeonLevyFoundation/CKSCollectionInventoryProjectoftheNationalMuseum2004-2010https://www.cambodiamuseum.info/en_projects_activities/cip.html[AccessedMarch28,2021]370Ibid.

158

maintenancefortheNMCstaff.371Whiletheyprovidedframeworksandmethodsdeveloped

inWesterninstitutions,foreignexpertsadjustedtothesituationonsiteandactively

participatedintheinstitution’srecoveryefforts.

ThetextilesareinthecareofKongKuntheary,whostudiedarchaeologyattheCambodian

RoyalUniversityofFineArtsinthe1990s.SheworkedattheMinistryofCulturein1987

andjoinedthemuseumin1994.AfterlivinginJapanforsomeyearswithherhusband,she

returnedtothemuseumin2006andwasappointedtotheTextiledepartmentin2015.372

TextileexpertGillianGreendonatedeightyholpiecesandfourpidanin2009,followedby

twomoresampotsarabapin2010.373Thisacquisitionwashandledbyanin-houseteam

includingKuntheary,supervisedbytwoAustralianspecialistsworkingattheNMCatthe

time.In2011thenon-profitorganisationCaringforYoungKhmer(CYK),whichtrains

weaversinTakeoprovincetomastertheartofpidan,alsodonatedtwenty-sevenpieces,

someofwhichreproducedlostobjectsfromthemuseum,basedonphotographs.374The

museumorganisedseveralexhibitionsofthesepidan,suchastheshow“RevitalizingKhmer

Treasure–Pidan:PictorialIkatSilk”in2014.Sinceearly2017,theentirecollectionof235

pieceshasbeenkeptinaclimate-controlledstorageroomonthemuseum’ssecondfloor,

andpieceshavebeenfullyinventoried.Incomparison,thelargestcollectionofCambodian

silksislocatedoutsideCambodia,attheMuséeduQuaiBranlyinFrancewithnearlyfour

hundredpiecesofCambodiantextiles,fragments,andgarments,mostlyfromthelate

nineteenthcenturytothefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.375

TheNMChasallocatedalimitedspaceforCambodiannationalsandtouriststoaccesssilk-

371AustralianWarMemorial,StaffoftheNationalMuseumofCambodiaposewithAustralianNationalGalleryhttps://www.awm.gov.au/collection/C958319[AccessedJune28,2021]372KongKuntheary,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April2018,PhnomPenh,Cambodia.373GillianGreen,personalemailconversation,April1,2020.374Allthetextilesfromthecollectionwerephotographedandintegratedwiththemuseumdatabasein2016-2017andmadeavailabletothepublic.YukikoYonekura,‘AFieldSurveyfortheProtectionofEndangeredWeavingTechniqueandMotifsoftheTraditionalCambodianPictorialIkatSilkPidan,’Gakuen919(2017):38. 375MuséeduQuaiBranly,‘HistoryoftheCollections’http://www.quaibranly.fr/en/collections/all-collections/history-of-the-collections/[AccessedMay2,2019].

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relatedartefactsinthegalleriesexhibitingthecarvedloom,tools,twomodernpidan

hangings,andonebrocadedsilk[Fig.47].In2018,adisplayofKhmerclassicalballetobjects

datingfromthe1920sSisowatherawasadded,featuringembroideredelementsofamale

costumeandanembroideredsbaay,aspartofacollaborationbetweenthemuseumand

researchersfroml’EcoleFrançaised’ExtrêmeOrient[Fig.48].Theseinitiativessupportedby

multipleinternalandexternalactorspertaintocooperationprojectswithpositiveimpact,

allturnedtowardsredevelopingandsupportingtheNMCtextilecollectionandthe

museum’steaminawaythatfostersautonomyinleadershipandwaystocareaboutthe

objects.

Fig.47TwocontemporarypidanproducedanddonatedbyCYKondisplayattheNationalMuseumofCambodia,Author’sphotograph,April2018.

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Fig.48KhmerballetcostumeelementsondisplayattheNationalMuseumofCambodia.Author’sphotograph,April2018.

Incomparison,TuolSlengGenocideMuseumwasestablishedin1979andopenedtothe

publicin1980.From1979à1988,research,organisingthearchives,andmuseographyat

themuseumwasledbytheVietnamesespecialadvisorMaiLam.376Themuseumwas

establishedonthesecretS-21KRprisonsiteinPhnomPenh,whereabout18,000prisoners

werekilledduringthedictatorshipleavingbehindthousandsoftextilesandclothing

remains.Themuseumholdsthousandsofphotographicandpaperrecordsoftheprisoners

andtheprison’soperationsintheirarchives.Since2018,thetextilesandgarmentshave

beenreclaimedinanambitioustextileconservationprojectsupportedbytheUSEmbassy

anddesignedbyAmericantextileconservatorJuliaBrennan,incollaborationwithin-house

376Anne-LaurePorée,‘TuolSleng,l’histoireinachevéed’unmuséemémoire,’Moussons30(2017)http://journals.openedition.org/moussons/3961[Accessed4July2021]

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conservationspecialistKhoChenda.377Thereareonlytwosilkscarffragmentsinthethree

thousandpiecesfoundonsite,themajorityofwhichconsistofmachine-mademilitary

uniforms,caps,belts,maletrousersandshirts,andarangeofmoreunusualfragments,often

patchedandmended.WhiletheNMCcollectionconnectswithahistoryofancestraltextile

practices,royaltyandcolonialism,thepiecesatTuolSlengtellthehistoryofwar,torture,

andhardshipassociatedwiththeKRregimeandthePRK.

Conclusion

Inthischapter,silkisaninvaluablefocalpointtoinformCambodianhistoriesand

geographies,alensthroughwhichtocontemplateissuesofterritoriality,nationalidentity

andculturalinfluences.ExaminingthehistoryofCambodiansilkhashighlightedthe

successive,sometimesoverlapping,foreignagendasofChina,India,Thailand,Vietnam,and

Francethatinfluencedsilkpracticesthroughperiodsofdiplomacy,trade,wars,

colonisation,migrationandexchanges.Cambodiantextilecraftshavedevelopedinresponse

tocompetitivetradenetworksintheSoutheastAsianregion,hybridisationofdressstyles

andtextiletechniqueswithIndiainthethirteenthcenturyandSiamintheseventeenth

century,andadaptationtonewmarketswiththeFrenchcolonisation.Localsericultureand

textileproductionhavealsofacedmomentsofregressioninresponsetointernalcrisis

duringtheKRregimeandthepost-conflictVietnameseoccupationinthe1980s.Thisstudy

nuancestheideaofsilkasanancientCambodiantraditionunchangedsincetheKhmer

empire,destroyedduringtheKRregimeandrelaunchedinthe1990s.Tochallengethe

binarynotionofsilkdisappearanceandrevivalinthetwentiethcentury,thischapter

identifiesthepalimpsestasaparadigmtoqualifyandunderstandthere-formationand

377USEmbassyinCambodia,U.S.AssistanceforCambodianCulturalPreservationhttps://kh.usembassy.gov/education-culture/u-s-government-assistance-cambodian-cultural-heritage-preservation/[AccessedMarch25,2020].

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continuityofthesilksectorandweavingpractices.Italsohighlightsthesustainanceof

structuralpatternssuchasthepatron-clientrelationshipsofkhsae,majorsilkyarnimports

fromethnicChineseinVietnam,andthepositioningofthepolychromicsampotholasa

Cambodiancommodity,whichhavecontinuedtoinfusethecontemporarysilklandscape.

TextileexpertsGabrieleMentgesandLolaShamukhitdinovacontendthattextilesoccupy

theentangledpositionofmaterial,social,culturalandeconomicintermediariesinvolvinga

widerangeofactors,whichprovides‘insightintospacesofrelationsandspacesofmemory,

aswellasintothestructuresbehindestablishedculturalpatterns’.378Aftertwodecadesof

civilwar,thereopeningofthecountrytoforeigninvestmentintheearly1990sreshuffled

thecardsintermsofpoliticalandeconomicinfluences,implementingnewflowsof

population,tradeandresources.Thenextchapterhighlightsthetransnational,international

andlocalactorsinvolvedinthesilksectorsincethe1990stounravelfurtherthecultural

influencesandagenciesengagedinsilkinacontextofpost-conflictreconstruction.

378GabrieleMentgesandLolaShamukhitdinova,eds.,TextilesasNationalHeritage:Identities,PoliticsandMaterialCulture(Münster:Waxmann,2017),12.

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ChapterTwo

Keyplayersinsilkweaving:networksandnarratives(1991-2018)

Introduction

ThischapterdeepensthefocusonthegeopoliticalperspectivetakeninChapterOne

toexaminetheactorswhohaveformedtheCambodiansilknetworksincethe1990s,most

importantlytransnationalorganisations,foreignNGOsanddomesticinitiatives.Thisstudy

ofthecontemporarysilkscapeexaminestherevivalofsilkweavinginconnectionwiththe

exponentialgrowthofinternationalNGOsarrivinginCambodiaby1992,especiallyfromthe

UnitedStates,Japan,andEurope.379ThereopeningofCambodiainternationallyandthe

nationalelectionsin1993setanewparadigm.TheintroductionoftheseNGOshas

redistributedtheinfluenceofregionalcompetitorssuchasThailand,Vietnam,andChinaon

silkproductioninCambodia.Inaddition,thereturnoftouristsinconjunctionwithheritage

strategieshasalsochangedthephysiognomyofhandicraftproduction.Today,mostpeople

knowCambodiaonlyasaparadoxicalcountrywithtwohistoricalcornerstones:the

centuries-longAngkorianEmpire’sexpansion(802-1431CE)andtheshortanddestructive

near-autarkicKRregimefrom1975to1979.These‘twocontradictinghistoriesand

geographies’arematerialisedinthepresentbytheflowoftouristsseekingboththe

splendoursofthearchaeologicalruinsofAngkorWatnearSiemReapandthegenocidesites

ofTuolSlengprisonandtheKillingFieldsmassgraveinPhnomPenh.380Ofthesixmillion

379JohnBennett,MeetingNeeds:NGOCoordinationinPractice(Abingdon:Earthscan,1995),179;‘Lessthan4percentofCambodiannon-governmentorganisationswerefoundedinthe1980sorearlier’.SeeLouiseCoventry,‘‘It’sComplicated’:Cambodia'sNGOsandInternationalDonors,’TheAsiaDialogue,August7,2017,https://theasiadialogue.com/2017/08/07/its-complicated-relationships-between-cambodian-ngos-and-international-donors/[AccessedApril20,2020]380Brickell,Springer,andSokUdomDeth,TheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,17.

164

internationalvisitorsCambodiahostedin2017,about77percentcamefromAsiaandthe

Pacific,anessentialaspectofthischapter’sdiscussions.381

Threestagesinthechronologyoftherevitalisationofsilkinthepost-KReracanbe

identifiedintermsofactionsandkeyplayers.First,thischapterexploresthe1990snetwork

oftransnationalagencies,especiallyUNESCO,whoinvestedearlyinsericultureandsilk

weavingskillsdevelopment.Compensatingforthelimitednationalsupportforthe

Cambodiancraftsector,theseactiveagentshavecombinedfunding,foreignexpertiseanda

turntowardstourismtoencouragethesustainablerecoveryofsilkproduction.Second,the

chapterconsiderstheriseoftwoambitiousCambodia-basedprojectsfoundedbyFrench

andJapaneseactorsinthemid-1990s,ArtisansAngkor(AA)andtheInstituteforKhmer

TraditionalTextiles(IKTT)respectively,whichhavebecomeestablishedleadersinthe

sectortothepresentday.Finally,thechapteranalysestheemergingpresenceofCambodia-

ownedactorsinthisnetworkfromthe2000s,fromlargerconsortiatomedium-scale

initiativessuchasColorSilk,whichhavedevelopedahybridmodelofsocialenterprisein

whichforeignandlocalapproachesintersect.

WhilethischapterexpandsthepolyphonyofvoicesonCambodiansilk,itremains

centredonthesector’snetworkofstakeholdersdescribedinthischapter,whichallowsan

examinationoftheexceptionalismorinterconnectednessofeachinitiative.Thereare

numerousartisanalprojectsdedicatedtotextileproductioninCambodia.Thegoalisnotto

provideanexhaustivelist,buttofocusonthemostsignificantorganisationsexemplifying

therestructuringoftheeconomic,socialandculturallandscapeofsilkinrecentdecades

[Fig.49].Genderisalsopartofthisstudy,inconsideringtheroleofwomenwithinthe

silkscapeandtheirstrategiesascompanyowners.

AnthropologistsClareWilkinson-WeberandAliciaOryDenicolahavecalledforacritical

381MinistryofTourism,TourismStatisticsReport,March2018(PhnomPenh:MinistryofTourism,2019),https://www.tourismcambodia.com/img/resources/cambodia_tourism_statistics_2018.pdf[AccessedMay4,2019]

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stancetowardstheleadingdiscoursesoncraftproductioninthemarketplace.Theyask:

‘Whoclaimstherighttospeakaboutcraft?Insodoingdotheysuppressothervoices?[…]

Howdoesthisemergefromorevencontradicthabitualpractice?’382Byemphasisingthekey

players’monopolisticpositionandperspectivesinChapterTwo,itplacesthemakersof

Cambodiansilktextilesintheroleoftheworkforce,astherecipientsofdevelopmentand

trainingprogrammes.Whilesomeweavers’perspectivesareincludedinthischapter,their

relativeabsenceisacknowledgedandwillbeactivelybalancedinChapterThree,inwhich

weavers'voices,knowledgeandpotentialforagencyformthesolefocus.

Fig.49MaplocatingtheorganisationspresentedinChapterTwo.Author’simage.

382Wilkinson-Weber,andOryDeNicola,CriticalCraft:Technology,Globalization,andCapitalism,4.

KAMPOT

Takaor

PHNOM SROK

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ConceptualandmethodologicalapproachtoexploringtheCambodiansilkscape

ThethesisIntroductiondefinesthesilkscapeasanexpandablespacecrossedby

flowsofvariousagents,beyondthecommonbinarismbetweennatureandculture,human

andnon-human,localandglobal,andcentreandperiphery.ItbuildsonAppadurai’sconcept

of-scapesandfurthertheoriesofthenetwork,specificallyActor-NetworkTheory(ANT),to

exposeamultitudeofagencieswithinglobalencounters.

EventhoughAppaduraiandLatour’srespectivetheoriesarerootedinWesternworldviews,

theuseoftheirthinkingisjustifiedinthischapter,whichovertlyengageswithinternational

stakeholders,post-colonialhistory,andWesternperspectivesonthesilkproductionchain.

Appaduraiaimstodisruptnotionsofaglobalisedworldandcommoditiesbylookingatthe

phenomenaofflowsanddisjuncturesandthedeterritorialisationoflocalcommunities.383

ANT,developedbysociologistsJohnLaw,BrunoLatourandMichelCallon,deconstructs

socialentitiesbyrevealingtheequalimportanceofhumanandnon-humanactorsof

differentnatures(groups,actions,objects,facts,andsocialorscientificstudies)tochallenge

pre-establishedsocialpatterns.384Decolonialthinkingisusedwhenengagingwith

Cambodianconceptsofsocietytoconsiderthesilknetwork,andthechapteralsoincludes

thevoicesofsomeweavers.Thesetheoreticalapproaches,inconjunctionwith

methodologiesofhistoricalresearchandethnography,haveresultedinthecollectionof

particulardata:biographiesoftheorganisations’founders,commercialcommunicationand

marketingstrategies,interviews,officialreports,sitevisits,participantobservationand

383Appadurai,‘DisjunctureandDifferenceintheGlobalCulturalEconomy,’296.384Latour,ReassemblingtheSocial:anIntroductiontoActor-NetworkTheory,9.

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semi-structuredinterviewsgatheredduringthreeperiodsoffieldworkinCambodiain

winter2016,summer2017,andspring2018.385

Thenetworkofsilk-relatedexchangesexploredherealsoincludesmateriality,

processesandproductsaspartofthesamechain.386DesignhistorianKjetilFallanusesthe

conceptofscript,originallydevelopedbysociologistMadeleineAkrich,tounderstand‘how

aproduct'sutilitarianfunctions,aestheticsexpressions,socialmeaningandcultural

identitiesareconstructed’.387Writingthescriptofsilkweavingproductsconsistsoftracing

theproductionchainfromtherawmaterialtotheweavingstage.Itcouldalsomean

scriptingeachcompany’sstructurefromitsgenesistoitsproductionanddistribution

system.Aninvaluableexpressionofthisscriptingprocesswasfoundduringaresearchtrip

inNorthernThailandwhichIundertookin2016inparallelwiththePhD.388Thejoint

interdisciplinaryprojectbetweentheBritishCouncilinThailandandtheRoyalCollegeof

ArtfocusedondocumentingcontemporarytextilecraftsinTaiYuanandTaiLueweaving

communitiesinvillagesaroundChiangMaiandNanprovinces.Byinterviewingcraft

communityfoundersandvisitingeachsite,socialdesignerPeewaraJitsukummongkol,one

oftheresearchersco-leadingtheproject,draftedeachorganisation’sbusinessmodelin

compellingsketches.TheexamplehereshowsStudioNaenna,aChiangMai-basedprivate

enterprisefoundedbyAustraliantextileexpertPatriciaCheesman[Fig.50].Taking

385TheinterviewswithkeyrepresentativeswereallconductedinEnglish,EnglishbeingthelanguagepromotedbythecompanyfoundersandinstitutionofficialsinCambodia,withtheexceptionofChinKoeur,whospokeKhmer.Incomparison,thefollowingchapter,whichfocusesonthevoiceofthesilkmakers,willpresentaseriesofinterviewsconductedinKhmerwithatranslator.386JohnLaw,‘Actor-NetworkTheoryandMaterialSemiotics,’April25,2007,2,http://www.heterogeneities.net/publications/Law2007ANTandMaterialSemiotics.pdf[AccessedMay1,2020]387Fallan,DesignHistory:UnderstandingTheoryandMethod,9;SeealsoLatour,‘AcautiousPrometheus?,’13;Akrichengagedwithtechnicalobjectsandconsideredthemastherecipients,sums,andresultsofthedesigner'sagency,assessingthat‘likeafilmscript,technicalobjectsdefineaframeworkofactiontogetherwiththeactorsandthespaceinwhichtheyaresupposedtoact’.Akrich,‘TheDe-ScriptionofTechnicalObjects,’208.388ThisBritishCouncilresearchproject‘NewforOld:SoutheastAsiaResearchResidency'tookplaceinAsiaoverthemonthofDecember2016andledtotheexhibition'OntheLine’attheAramGallery,LondoninJune2017.

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inspirationfromthescriptingvalueofdiagrams,thischapteralsousesavarietyofgraphics

torepresent,whensuitable,thestructureofthekeysilkplayers.Asthecomingtogetherof

methodandtheory,thesediagramsilluminatethevariousinfluxesofinvestmentand

influenceacrossthesilkscape.

Fig.50DiagramofthebusinessmodelofStudioNaenna,aChiangMai-basedprivateenterprise,sketchedbyPeewaraJitsukummongkolforthe‘NewforOld’:SoutheastAsiaResearchResidency,December2016.

Domesticandtransnationalformsofkhsaeinpost-conflictCambodia

TheconceptofnetworkdevelopedbyLatour'sapproachtosocialtheorywas

appliedtotheworldofmaterialsbyanthropologistTimIngold.Hedefinedamaterialworld

madeofflows,aninfinityoflinesinbecoming,whichisapplicabletothecontextofcrafts

andweaving.Ingoldexpandedthemeaningoftheterm‘network’to‘réseau’usedinthe

Frenchtranslation,andalso’filet’,or‘net’.389Inthisunderstanding,thenetworkbecomesan

unlimitedweb,continuouslycreatingnewconnections.Coincidentally,theKhmer

389TimIngold,‘Laviedansunmondesansobjets,’Perspective,1(2016):18.

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translationfortheterm‘connections’iskhsae,whichliterallymeans‘cords’or‘threads’,and

referstothecontractuallinksestablishedbetweenpeopleandfamiliesinCambodia.This

textilemetaphorlinkingmaterialityandsemiotics,mappingthingsandconceptsalike,is

commoninothercultures.Forinstance,theFrenchlanguagealsoreliesontextile

terminologytodescribesocialconnections:thephraseliensocialmeans‘socialbond’and

tisserdesliensmeans‘toweaveconnections’.WhileChapterOnediscussedtheimportance

ofkhsaeasamajorunderlyingfeatureofCambodiansocietythatwasreactivatedinthe

post-KRera,thischapterisinterestedinexpandingthepolysemictranslationinKhmerof

theterm‘network’.Thissectionaimstoarticulatetheentanglementofkhsae–thatis,allthe

relationshipswhichformthesilksector–byjuxtaposingmultiplemicro-narrativesof

history,culturalinfluenceanddevelopment.ThisapproachfollowsWalterMignolo’s

thinkingtoprovidea‘decolonialoption,asanon-normativespace,asaspaceopentothe

pluralityofalternatives’.390Moreover,historianTrudyJacobsenhaspositionedkhsaeasa

powerrelationestablishedspatially‘betweenafamilybasedinthecentreandindividuals

inheritingtherelationshipontheperiphery’.391Theinvisiblechannels,fromoneindividual

toanothertoagroup,findmaterialexpressionintheproductionandtransferofsilk

resources.Thissectionthereforediscusseshowthesesocialtiesweremanifestedinthesilk

sectorfromalocaltoaglobalperspective,butalsothroughmaterial,knowledge,and

economictransactions.

AswehaveseeninChapterOne,silkthreadstravelledfromVietnamtoCambodia

vianetworksofethnicChinesewholesalersinthe1990s,whichhintsathownumerous

actorsandintermediarieshaveactivatedtheCambodiansilkchainlocallyandbeyond

borders.Askeyagentsofthissystemforthedomesticmarket,‘middlemen’,ageneralterm

todesignateintermediaryentrepreneurs,eithermenorwomen,haveplayedanessential

390MignoloandVazquez,‘DecolonialAestheSis:ColonialWounds/DecolonialHealings.’391Jacobsen,LostGoddesses:TheDenialofFemalePowerinCambodianHistory,5.

170

roleinruralareas.Centralfiguresinhandicraftcottageeconomies,theymakeaprofitby

connectingeachactorofthechain.Forsilk,theybuyrawmaterialsfromsuppliers,loaning

themtoweavers,towhomtheypassorders,collectandpayforthefinishedproducts,minus

thecostofmaterials,andeventuallysellthesetoretailers[Fig.51].TerHorstestablished

thatbythe2000s‘wholesalers-middlemenguildscontrol[led]closeto75percentofthe

productioninthelargesilkweavingareasofKandalandTakeo,providingyarnoncredit’.392

Healsoestablishedthatin2008,ahundredmiddlemenweredealingwithtwentythousand

subcontractedweaversoverthecountry.InANT,controlandpowerdonottricklefromthe

topdown,butareactivatedthroughthedifferentagentsofthenetwork.Theprevalenceof

middlemeninthesilkchaindemonstratesthediversityofCambodianactorsanddynamics

thatexistedbeforetheinvolvementofinternationalfundingbodies.

Moreover,ina2011evaluationofthesilksector,theITCexpertsnotedthelackof

developmentofthesilkchain,consideringthecentralroleofintermediariesasaweakness,

leadingto‘hightransactioncosts,whichisacompetitivedisadvantageoninternational

markets’.393AscraftconsultantJohnBallyncontends,the‘artisan/middlemanrelationshipis

complex'andunderscrutiny,astheyareoften‘morebeneficialtomiddlementhancrafts

producers’.394ThisrelationshipwillbefurtherexaminedinChapterThreefromthe

viewpointofindependentweavers.

392TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,164. 393InternationalTradeCentre,Report:Mid-TermExternalEvaluationCambodiaSector-WideSilkProject(PhaseII)CMB/49/05A,13.394JohnBallyn,‘ACulturalEconomicAnalysisofCrafts:AViewfromtheWorkshopoftheWorld,’inACulturalEconomicAnalysisofCraft,ed.AnnaMignosaandPriyatejKotipalli(NewYork:Springer,2019),192.

171

Fig.51Diagramofthemiddlemanbusinessmodel.Author’simage.

Theroleofmiddlemenandthepatron-clientstructureofkhsaearespecificfeatures

oftheCambodiansilknetwork.ThisthesisalignswithTerHorst'sclaimthat‘the

hierarchicalorganisationalstructureofthesilkweavingindustryjeopardisestheneo-liberal

argumentthatfree-market-basednetworkshavereplacedthecommand-basedsocialist

onesinSoutheastAsia’.395Itisthereforeimportanttooutlinethetensionsbetweenthelocal

structureofthesilksectorwhenitresumed,andmorespecificallythechangesbroughtby

foreigninterventionafterthe1990s,andtheeffectsofthisonthegeographicallimitsofhow

theCambodiansilkscapecanbeimagined.OneexampleofthisreconfigurationisKikuo

Morimoto,IKTT’sfounder,whopurchasedsilkwormeggsinSurin,Thailand,in1995to

supportthesilkfarmhehadstartedinKampotprovinceinCambodia.WhileVietnam

suppliedsilkyarnviaethnicChinesewholesalers,ThailandcontinuedtobeCambodia’s

competitorandproviderofsilk,especiallyviatheNortheasternprovinceofSurin,where

largeKhmercommunitieshadsettledattheCambodianborder[Fig.52].396Morimotoalso

sourcednaturaldyestuffsfromThailandwhichwereunavailableinCambodiaatthetime.397

395Ballyn,‘ACulturalEconomicAnalysisofCrafts:AViewfromtheWorkshopoftheWorld,’164. 396Fromtheseventhtothethirteenthcentury,theregionofIsaninpresent-dayNortheastThailandwaspartoftheKhmerEmpire.397KikuoMorimoto,BayonMoon:RevivingCambodia’sTextileTraditions(SiemReap:InstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextiles),66,69.

172

HeusedThailandasamodelforsilkproductionandreliedonKhmercommunitiesin

Thailandtolearnaboutsilktextiletechniques.

Fig.52MapofThailand,highlightingtheregionofSurinattheborderofCambodiaandThailand.WikimediaCommons.

DefiningforeignagenciesintheCambodiansilkscape

Beyonddomesticsocio-culturalparticularisms,inthepost-KRera,transnational

networksofinstitutions,NGOsandsocialenterprisessupportedbyforeigninvestments

havereshapedtheCambodiansilkscapeundernewformsofpatronage.Examiningthe

backgroundonCambodia’sgovernanceintheearly1990smayexplaintheinvolvementof

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specificcountriesandorganisationsintheculturalheritageandsilksectors.Followingthe

PeaceAgreementssignedinParisin1991,theUNtemporarilytookovertheadministration

ofCambodiawiththeUnitedNationsTransitionalAuthorityinCambodia.398Itsmandate

from1992to1993focusedonorganisingelections,restoringhumanrights,securityand

civiladministration,anddealingwiththeclosingofrefugeecampsandtherepatriationof

displacedpopulationsinCambodia.

TheUNalsosupportedtherestorationofCambodia’sculturalheritageafterthecivilwar

throughUNESCO,withthesponsoringofmultilateraldonors. In1989NorodomSihanouk,

officialchairmanoftheUN-approvedcoalitiongovernment-in-exileinChina,had

formulatedanappealwithUNESCOtoalerttheinternationalcommunitytotheneedto

safeguardAngkorWat.399ThiscampaignlinkedthepreservationofAngkorWat,its

recognitionasUNESCOWorldHeritagesiteandthepeacebuildingprocessinCambodia.At

thefirstinternationalconferenceonAngkorWat,whichtookplaceinTokyoin1993,itwas

decidedthattheInternationalCoordinatingCommitteefortheSafeguardingand

DevelopmentoftheHistoricSiteofAngkorwouldbeco-chairedbyFranceandJapan,who

wouldalsoorganisetheactivities,withUNESCOcoveringallthecostsofconservation

expertise.400

France,throughtheintermediaryoftheEcoleFrançaised'ExtrêmeOrient,fundedthe

restorationoftheAngkorThomandBaphuontemplesandimplementedmajorprojectsto

restorethesculptures,withtheNMC.Ontheotherhand,therestorationoftheBayon

templewasledbytheJapaneseGovernmentTeamforSafeguardingAngkor,incollaboration

withApsaraAuthority,theCambodianagencyinchargeoftheAngkorarchaeologicalsites

398TrevorFindlay,SIPRIResearchReportNo.9,Cambodia:TheLegacyandLessonsofUNTAC(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1995),11-12.399 JoGillespie,‘NaturalandCulturalHeritageinCambodia,’InTheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,ed.KatherineBrickellandSimonSpringer(London:Routledge,2017),401. 400UNESCO,ICC-Angkor:15years(PhnomPenh:UNESCO,2011),30-31.

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since1995.401InadditiontoFranceandJapan,astheleadingcountryintheAssociationof

SoutheastAsianNations,Thailandremainedacentralpartnerofthisconservationeffort,

alongwithAustralia.

ThesafeguardinginitiativeofAngkorWatmarkstheearlyinvestmentofFranceandJapan

intheCambodianheritagesector.KeikoMiura,aheritagestudiesscholarwhoworkedinthe

CultureUnitoftheUNESCOOfficeinCambodiafrom1992to1998,added:‘fromthisperiod

on,France(formercolonialpower)andJapan(newregionalpower)havebecomekey

playersinthereconstructionofCambodia’.402JapanandFrancehaveremainedamong

Cambodia’smaindonorsintheformofOfficialDevelopmentAssistance,atermdescribing

theflowofinternationalaidtopromote‘economicdevelopmentandwelfareofdeveloping

countriesasitsmainobjective’.403AccordingtotheOECD,uptothepresentFranceremains

Cambodia’sfourthhighestdonorviahumanitariansupporttoprivateinvestments,afterthe

AsianDevelopmentFund,Japan,andtheUnitedStates[Fig.53].404

Simultaneously,theelectionsin1993openedthewaytobilateralandmultilateraldonors’

investment,which,inturn,broughtanincreasingnumberoflocalandinternationalNGOsto

emerge.InternationalNGOsmovedfromfocusingonhumanitarianservicedelivery

programsinthe1980stothe1990s,todevelopmentworkineducation,agricultureand

health.405Thisbringstheissueofsoftpowerintoplay–thatis,accordingtointernational

401Ibid,24;WithintheUNESCO/JapaneseFunds-in-Trust,JapanledtheconservationandrestorationoftheRoyalPlaza,BayonandAngkorWatfrom1994to1999forabudgetof9,600,000USD.SeeEmbassyofJapaninCambodia,Japan’sCooperationintheFieldofPreservationofCulturalHeritageinCambodia,March,2017,https://www.kh.emb-japan.go.jp/angkor/angkor-e.htm[AccessedMay1,2020]402Miura,‘WorldHeritagemakinginAngkor.Global,Regional,NationalandLocalActors,InterplaysandImplications,’12. 403OECD,OfficialDevelopmentAssistance–DefinitionandCoverage,http://www.oecd.org/development/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm [Accessed3November2017] 404OECD,OfficialDevelopmentAssistancebydonorinUSDmillioninCambodia,2017-2018,http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data/aid-at-a-glance.htm[AccessedonOctober3,2020]405AsianDevelopmentBank,CivilSocietyBriefs:Cambodia(PhnomPenh:CambodiaResidentMission,2011)https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/28965/csb-cam.pdf[AccessedMay10,2021]

175

relationsexpertJosephNyeJr,therelationshipsbuiltaroundfosteringamutualadvantage

betweentwonations.406Thevarietyofcraftcompaniespresentedhereinterrogatessoft

powerapproachesintherevitalisationofsilkproductionsincethe1990s,revealingissues

ofauthenticityandownership.TheearlyinvolvementofFranceandJapanincultural

initiativesledtothearrivalofNGOstorevivelocalcraftprojects,suchastheFrench-owned

AAandtheJapaneseIKTTinCambodia,discussedlater.

Fig.53OfficialDevelopmentAssistancebydonorinUSDmillioninCambodia.OECD,2018.

TheUnitedStates,thirdODAtopdonor,hasinvestedheavilyinCambodia,andwas

essentialinfundingtheExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia,puttingtheKR

actionsontrialin2003withUNsupport.However,thesilksectorhasattractedfew

Americanprojects.ThemostnoticeableAmerican-ownedinitiativeisWeavesofCambodia,

anon-profitorganisationlocatedintheremotevillageofPreahVihearinStungTreng

provinceandfoundedbyBudGibbons,amemberoftheVietnamVeteransofAmerica

Foundation.Theorganisationfirstprovided‘prostheticstovictimsoflandminesand

176

wheelchairstootherhandicappedindividuals’.407Theprojectshiftedtovocationaltraining

fordisabledwomenandsilkweaving,bringinginAmericantextiledesignerCarolCassidy,

anauthorityintheSoutheastAsiantextileworld,fortrainingandguidance.Cassidyfounded

thepioneeringweavingorganisationLaoTextilesinVientiane,Laosin1990.Cassidythen

tookoverthedirectionofWeavesofCambodiain2001.408DuetothelimitedactivityofUS-

ownedprojectsintheCambodiansilksector,thereisnofullcasestudyfocusingonthe

influenceoftheUnitedStatesinthischapter.

Whatissignificant,however,intheexampleofWeavesofCambodiaisthebusiness

modelwithwhichtheprojectwasdeveloped.NGOshavebeenthemaintypeoforganisation

inthesilksectorinCambodia.FashionscholarKatalynMedvedevhasdiscussedtheir

predominanceinCambodianfashionproduction,‘occupy[ing]aspacebetweengovernment,

market,andcivilsociety’andpursuing‘along-termtransformativeandsocialjusticeagenda

thatbenefitsthelocalcivilsociety’.409Moreover,socialscientistLouiseCoventrycontends

thatNGOsareanotherexpressionoftheCambodiankhsae,whichexplains‘howandwhy

[they]havetakenupthespaceforcivilsocietyandwhysmaller,community-based

organisationshavebeenslowertoemerge’.410Thepatron-clientrelationshipsandthelack

ofgovernmentalsupporthaveencouragedtheprevalenceofforeign-fundedNGOsthatare

‘unlikelytohaveanempoweredconstituency’.411CoventrysuggeststhatthatNGOsthuslack

thecapacitytochallengeexistingpowerrelationsinCambodiaandfailtosignificantly

addressissuesofpovertyandmarginalisation.412ThecomplexroleofNGOsandtheir

impact,broadlyquestionedbyCoventryandmorespecificallybyMedvedev,animatesthis

407DeborahDeaconandPaulaCalvin,WarImageryinWomen’sTextiles:AnInternationalStudyofWeaving,Knitting,Sewing,Quilting,RugMakingandOtherFabricArts(Jefferson,NC:McFarland&Company,2014),152.408CarolCassidy,phoneinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,October2,2018. 409Medvedev,‘CambodianfashionNGOS:aretheydoinggood?,’149.410LouiseCoventry,'CivilSocietyinCambodia:ChallengesandContestations,’InTheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,ed.KatherineBrickellandSimonSpringer(London:Routledge,2017),54.411Coventry,‘‘It’sComplicated’’:Cambodia'sNGOsandInternationalDonors.’412Ibid.

177

chapterofthethesis.Italsoaskstowhatextentthesilkscapereflectstransnational

influencesoverCambodia’sgeopolitical,social,andeconomicsystem,byexamininghowit

appliestoorganisationssuchasAAandIKTT,lookingattheirfundinganddevelopment

schemes.

Theotherbusinessmodelrecurringinthischapteristhesocialenterprise,aconcept

emergingintheUnitedStatesinthe1990s,primarilydesignating‘market-oriented

economicactivitiesservingasocialgoal’andencompassingawiderangeofinitiatives‘from

for-profitbusinessengagedincorporatephilanthropytonon-profitorganisationsengaged

inmission-supportingcommercialactivity’.413TheEMESInternationalResearchNetwork

forSocialEnterprisehasprovidedaframeworkofactionandethosforthismodel.Asocial

enterpriseisaprojectwithahighdegreeofautonomy,managedindependently,producing

goodsand/orservices,withasignificantlevelofriskandaminimumlevelofpaidworkers

andpaidactivities.414Itmustbebeneficialtothecommunity,includeacollectivedimension

initsleadershipandmanagement,andimplementstrategiesoflimitedprofitdistribution.415

Withtheerosionoftheforeign-donorfundingsystemsincethemid-2000s,anumberof

NGOshaveshiftedtoahybrideconomicmodelnegotiatingbetweenanon-profitandfor-

profitstatus.TheriseinthenumberofsocialenterpriseswastheresultofCambodia’s

economicgrowthinadiverserangeoffieldsintechandenvironmentalsectors.416In

practice,inCambodiatheterm‘socialenterprise’doesnotcorrespondtoaspecificlegal

status.Forinstance,AA(theFrench-Cambodianleaderofthesector)andColorSilk(amore

recentCambodian-ownedproject)havedifferentprofiles,yettheybothclaimtofollowthe

specificguidelinesofsocialentrepreneurship.AccordingtotheAsianWomenSocial

413JacquesDefournyandMartheNyssens,'DefiningSocialEnterprise,’inSocialEnterprise:AttheCrossroadsofMarket,PublicPoliciesandCivilSociety,ed.MartheNyssens(London:Routledge,2006),4. 414Ibid,5-6.415CarloBozargaandJacquesDefourny,eds.,TheEmergenceofSocialEnterprise(London:Routledge,2001),56-57.416Inthe2010s,PhnomPenhhasseentheriseofco-workingspacesandbusinessincubators,suchasImpactHubPhnomPenh,whichfosterstart-upprojectsandsocialbusinesses.

178

EntrepreneursNetworkReport,socialenterprisesinCambodiamaybebranchesofNGOs,

registeredasassociationswithCambodia’sInteriorMinistry,orasbusinesseswiththe

MinistryofCommerce.417ThelocalSocialEnterpriseCambodiainitiative,supportedby

ImpactHubPhnomPenh,digitallymappedsocialenterprisesregisteredonthewebsite

accordingtoactivity,fromagriculture,responsibletourism,health,environmentand

fashiontohandicrafts,andincludedColorSilk.418Thisplatformrecognisedthe‘complexity

ofmodelsaimingtocombinesocialandeconomicobjective’.419Itistheowner’s

responsibilitytodeclaretheenterpriseassocialandprovidefactualelementssupporting

thisclaim.Thewidespectrumofsilkactorsbetweenmacroandmicrostructures,from

transnationalagencies,NGOsandsocialenterprisesaddstothecomplexityofdefiningthe

Cambodiansilkscapeandgraspingitslocalandglobalties.

UNESCO:generatingsilkrevitalisationinitiativesundertransnationalinput

TheUNESCOOfficeinCambodiaplayedanessentialroleinbuildingprojectsand

creatingsynergieswithlocalandinternationalactors.AUNESCOinternalreportestablished

theguidelinesforthe‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving’programmelaunchedinAugust

1992forfiveyears,brokenintothreephases:‘ResearchandAcademicInputintotheRoyal

UniversityofFineArtsandDocumentation’,‘OrganizationofSilkWeavingCourses’,and

finally‘Outreach/ExtensionServices’.420Theprojectaimed‘torevitalizetraditionalsilk

weavingandrefinetheproductasoneofthemostimportantlivingbutseriously

417TheNipponFoundation,AsianWomenSocialEntrepreneursNetworkReport(Tokyo:TheNipponFoundation,2015),22-23.418SocialEnterpriseCambodia,HandicraftsandFashionMap,http://socialenterprisecambodia.org/maps#[AccessedJanuary4,2018]419SocialEnterpriseCambodia,FAQ,https://socialenterprisecambodia.org/#faq[AccessedMarch20,2017] 420UNESCOPhnomPenh,internalreport‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving,’1993,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.

179

deterioratedculturaltraditionsinCambodia’.421Intermsofactors,theplanwasfundedby

theUNESCOWorldDecadeforCulturalDevelopment,theSokaGakkaiInternationalofJapan

andtheUKgovernment.LedbytheUNESCOOfficeofCambodia,itreceivedthesupportof

Cambodia'sMinistryofCultureandFineArts.TheUNDPandtheInternationalLabour

Organizationoversawthethirdphase,inpartnershipwithNGOsandUNvolunteersonsite,

tosupportsilkfarmersandweavers,facilitatecreditandoffertraininginmarketing.422

In1993UNESCOcommissionedacollaborativesurveyledbyscholarsfromSophia

UniversityinTokyoandcolleaguesfromtheRoyalUniversityofFineArtsinPhnomPenhon

theculturalpracticesofshadow-puppettheatre,danceandhandicraftsinvillagesaround

Angkor’stemples.423Itaimedtocollectdataandproviderecommendationsforcultural

preservationpolicies.424Fromthisfirstassessment,theUNESCOOfficeinPhnomPenh

implementedprojectsonsilk.OneofthesewasKhemara,consideredthefirstindigenous

NGO,foundedin1991;in1995itreceivedfundingfromUNDPandPrincessMarie

Ranariddhforafive-yearplantorevitalisesericultureandweavingandsupportrural

women.EstablishedviatheinternationalorganisationOxfam,Khemarabenefitedfrom

directconnectionsbetweenitsfounder,MuSochuaLeiper,andherhusband,ScottLeiper,

formerUNDPSeniorProgrammeAdvisorinCambodia.MuSochuaLeiperwasbornin

PhnomPenhin1954.ShewassenttoParistostudyintheearly1970sbeforerelocatingto

theUnitedStates,wheresheearnedabachelor'sdegreeinPsychologyfromSanFrancisco

StateUniversityandaMaster’sinSocialWorkfromtheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.425

421Ibid.422UNESCOPhnomPenh,internalreport‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving.’423UNESCOdefinedIntangibleCulturalHeritageinits2003conventionas‘thepractices,representations,expressions,knowledge,skills–aswellastheinstruments,objects,artefactsandculturalspacesassociatedtherewith–thatcommunities,groupsand,insomecases,individualsrecogniseaspartoftheirculturalheritage.’SeeUNESCO,ConventionfortheSafeguardingoftheIntangibleCulturalHeritage,2003,http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001325/132540e.pdf[AccessedDecember20,2017]424TheJapanFoundation,TheActivityReport(1997)Part2-IV.Preserving,DocumentingorIncreasingPublicAccesstoTangible,1997,https://www.jpf.go.jp/e/project/intel/archive/ac/97/con2-4.html[Accessed2November2017]425HelenO’Connell,OxfamFocusonGender:WomenandConflict(Oxford:Oxfam,1993),45-47.

180

Khemarafocusedonimprovingwomen’srightsandsupportingtheiradvancementin

leadershippositions,‘drawinguponWesternconceptsoffeminisminitsapproach’.426The

silkschemeimplementedweavingtrainingforwomenbasedintheKampongSpeuand

PhnomPenhareaswhileprovidingthemwithbasicliteracyandnumeracyeducation,

partneringwithregionalwomen'sassociations.427

Intheearly1990s,localmarketshadbeenidentifiedaslackingalocally-producedhigh-end

silkoffer,privileginginsteadimportedstylessuchasIndonesiancottonbatiksandLaosilk

sarung.428UNESCOthereforeaimedtohelpweavers,especiallywomenandphysically

disabledindividuals,learnikatandnaturaldyetechniquestoproduceelaboratemarketable

silkproducts.UNESCOfirstinvitedAmericantextilescholarLeedomLeefertstolectureat

theRoyalUniversityofFineArts,conductresearchwithstudents,andassessthe

requirementsforrevivingthefieldinJanuary1993‘inthefaceofthelackofanexperton

Cambodiantextiles’.429Thesecondstagefocusedontraininginsericulture,weavingand

marketing.LeavSaEm,arenownedsixty-year-oldmalemasterweaverwhohadsurvived

theKRregimeandwasworkingfortheRoyalCourt,wasrecruitedtoleadtheweaving

trainingprogramme.OriginallyfromPreyKabascommuneinTakeoprovince,LeavSaEm

learnedtheartofpolychromicholandpidanfromhismother,whichwasuncommonfora

boy.430Duringthedictatorshipheworkedasafarmer,akramacottonweaver,andacookin

426TrudyJacobsen,‘RidingaBuffalotoCrossaMuddyField:HeuristicApproachestoFeminisminCambodia,’inWomen’sMovementsinAsia:FeminismsandTransnationalActivism,ed.MinaRocesandLouiseEdwards(London:Routledge,2010),215-16.427HengSokChheng,'RevivingtheTraditionsofKhmerWeaving,’ThePhnomPenhPost,November3,1995,http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/reviving-traditions-khmer-weaving[AccessedJanuary1,2018];Khemarastillexistsandfocusessocialservicesandadvocacyforchildren’scareandaccesstoeducation.Silkweavingactivitieshavestopped.FounderMuSochuamovedtopolitics,becomingthefirstwomantoheadtheMinistryforWomen’sandVeterans’Affairsfrom1998to2004inHunSen’scoalitiongovernment,thenjoiningtheopposition,actingastheVicePresidentoftheCambodiaNationalRescuePartyuntil2017.428BarbaraCrossette,'AnAncientSilkTradeIsReborn,’TheNewYorkTimes,April20,1997https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/20/travel/an-ancient-silk-trade-is-reborn.html[AccessedOctober12,2019]429UNESCOPhnomPenh,internalreport‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving,’1993,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.430Bornin1933,LeavSaEmcontinuedhisweavingactivityinhisworkshopuntilhediedin2003.LonNara,‘SilkWeavingTradeofLivSaEmUnderThreat,’ThePhnomPenhPost,26October2001

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BattambangbeforereturningtoPhnomPenhin1982andopeninghisworkshop,expanding

itfromthreetotwentyloomsby1993.431ForUNESCO,LeavSaEmwelcomeduptoten

apprenticesatatimetohishouseinPhnomPenhforfivemonthsbeforetheyreturnedto

theirhometowns.432InaninterviewforThePhnomPenhPost,heexplainedthathereliedon

histrainees'motivation,hopingtoturnthemintoaccomplishedweavers.‘Iftheyhave

talent,ortheyaretrulyinterestedinthisart,thentheycanlearnveryquickly’,hesaid.433

UNESCOCambodiawouldthensupporttheweaversanddistributetheirproductsatthe

PhnomPenhoffice.Between1992and1996,seventy-twowomenfollowedthetraining.434

Inparallel,theagencypromotedsericulturebysendingtraineestotheInternationalCentre

forTrainingandResearchinTropicalSericultureinMysore,India,foreightmonths.435

Thereisnoavailableinformationthattracksthebreadthandoutcomeofthissericulture

project.

UNESCO’sweavinginitiativecontinuedinseveralformsuntiltheearly2000s.KiriSchultz,

programmeofficerfrom1995to1997,reportedthattheprojectwasintendedtobeadapted

todifferentcommunitiesandlasteduntilaround2005.Silkweavingcouldnotbeaviable

off-seasonactivityineveryprovince,duetocompetitionfromregionsspecialisingin

weavingandthescarcityofsilkyarnsupplies.Asaresult,UNESCOalsoimplementeda

duplicablecotton-weavingproject.436LeavSaEmmovedtotrainweaversinPhnomChisor

https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/silk-weaving-trade-liv-sa-em-under-threat[AccessedNovember12,2019]431KeikoMiura,UNESCOcorrespondencewithTomokoTsurumi,staffwriteratAsahiShinbun,August11,1993,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives;K'SaiChivit:ThreadsofLife,Dir.Feingold,DavidA.,DocumentaryEducationalResources,1994.432AndreaHamilton,‘TapestriesofHistory,’ThePhnomPenhPost,18June1993https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/tapestries-history[AccessedOctober30,2016];VeroniqueDauge,officialcorrespondencewithCambodia'sMinistryofCultureandFineArts,December24,1992,UNESCOPhnomPenh,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.433AndreaHamilton,‘TapestriesofHistory.’434NoellaRichard,HandicraftsandEmploymentGenerationforthePoorestYouthandWomen(Paris:UNESCO,2007),64.435VeroniqueDauge,officialcorrespondencewithCambodia'sMinistryofCultureandFineArts.436KiriSchultz,‘TraditionalArtsandCraftsfortheFuture,’MuseumInternational54,no.1-2(2002):60.

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communeinTakeoprovince,about55kilometressouthofPhnomPenh.437Oneofthese

traineeweavers,ChinKoeur,wentontobecomeasuccessfulsilkentrepreneur,whichis

whyherstoryisexploredinmoredetailbelow.UNESCOcontinuedtolettheweaverswho

werestillactiveselltheirproductsatthePhnomPenhbranchuntilthemid-2010s.438There

wasnofollow-upfromtheagencytodeterminethecontinuityofpracticeandthelong-term

successofthetraining.Today,itremainsdifficulttoassessthelong-termeconomicand

socialimpactofthe‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving’programme,

Inaddition,UNESCObecameahub,linkingprogrammeofficers,individual

consultantsandUNvolunteerswithNGOfoundersandrepresentativesfromCambodian

ministriesoftradeandculture.Inaparallelexample,GabrieleMentgeshasexploredthe

complexroleofUNESCOintheheritagisationofnationalhandicraftsinUzbekistan.Her

analysisrevealedthat,inasimilarwaytotheCambodiancontext,thistransnational

organisationhad‘providednon-financialmeans,butmostlymaterialandtechnicalsupport

instead’,basedonthe‘personalinterestsandpreferenceofUNESCOactorsinthefield’.439

UNESCOCambodiacorrespondedwithnumerousburgeoningkeycraftprojects,including

IKTTandAA,twokeystudiesinthischapter.In1993,CharlesMaisonnaveCouteroufrom

LaLigueFrançaisedel’Enseignement(TheFrenchLeagueforEducation)alsoreachedout

tobuildapartnershiptodevelopsericultureinKralanhdistrict,SiemReapprovince,

anticipatingthefutureAAproject.440UNESCO,aftercommissioningMorimotoforthesilk

surveyin1994,continuedtoexchangewithhim,alsointroducinghimtootheractorsofthe

437CheangSokha,andDuncanO'Brien,'UnescopromotesPhnomChisor,’ThePhnomPenhPost,August13,2004,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/unesco-promotes-phnom-chisor[AccessedMay1,2020] 438PromChak,informalconversation,March15,2018,PhnomPenh:UNESCOoffice.439GabrieleMentges,‘TheRoleofUNESCOandtheUzbekNationBuildingProcess,’inHeritageRegimesandtheState,ed.ReginaF.Bendix,AdityaEggert,andArnikaPeselmann(Gottingen:UniversitatsverlagGottingen,2013),216-17;Abouttheheritagisationoftextiles,seealsoAyamiNakatani,‘PoliticsofBoundariesandHeritagizationofHandwovenTextilesinIndonesia,’inFashionableTraditions:AsianHandmadeTextilesinMotion,ed.AyamiNakatani(Lanham,MD:LexingtonBooks,2020),79-97.440CharlesMaisonnave-Couterou,officialcorrespondencewithRichardEngelhardt,UNESCOPhnomPenh,Feb17,1993,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.

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sector.441UNESCOalsosupportedthePidanProject,implementedbytheJapaneseNGO

CaringforYoungKhmerin2003,whichwillbediscussedinrelationtoknowledge

transmissioninChapterThree.442

PursuingitsmissiontosupportCambodia’shandicrafts,aspartofthecountry’s

intangibleculturalheritage,UNESCO’slocalbranchtookontheroleofagovernmentalbody

byinvestingintheresearch,trainingofproducers,anddistributionofsilkproducts.Atthe

coreoftheCambodiansilkscapeearlyinthemid-1990s,UNESCO'sstrategyofassistance

reliesonvettinganddistributingendorsementstoinitiativeswhileconnectingwithforeign

fundingbodiesinterestedininvestingonsilkdevelopments.Oneexchangeoflettersinthe

UNESCOarchivesshowshowUNESCOrecommendedtheNewZealand-foundedNGORehab

CraftCambodiatoreceivefundingfromtheNewZealandgovernmentforthe

implementationofasericultureprojectin1996.443Whileplayinginto‘theactualpolitical

structures,regionalnetworkscombinedwithkinshipaffiliations’,theorganisation

contributedtobringingnewplayerswhohaveconsequentlystronglyredefinedthesectorto

thepresent.444Theeffectivenessandsuccessofthesesynergiesremaindifficulttoquantify

materially,economicallyandinthelongterm.By2005,UNESCOCambodia’sinfluencehad

declined,tothebenefitoftheITC,EU,andforeign-ownedNGOs.

BeyondthereportskeptintheUNESCOarchivesintegratedintothisthesis,itslegacylies

moreindevelopingmodelsoftrainingprogrammesrespondingtodiscoursesofpoverty

reductionandthepreservationoftraditions.UNESCOpoliciespursuedthedualobjectiveof

reclaiming‘deterioratedtraditionsofCambodia’whileimprovingthesocio-economic

441KiriSchultz,officialcorrespondencewithColinMcLennan/RehabCraftCambodiaonsericulture,April19,1996,UNESCOPhnomPenh,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.442MichelleVachon,‘GroupPromotesArtofPidanSilkWeavingPaintings,’TheCambodiaDaily,December27,2003.https://english.cambodiadaily.com/news/group-promotes-art-of-pidan-silk-weaving-paintings-849/[Accessed14December2017]443KhamlieneNhouyvanisvong,officialcorrespondencewiththeMinistryofForeignAffairsandTradeCooperationDivisionofNewZealand,July16,1996,UNESCOPhnomPenh,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives. 444Mentges,‘TheRoleofUNESCOandtheUzbekNationBuildingProcess,’222.

184

conditionsof‘disadvantagedgroupswithconfidenceanddignitywithintheirtraditional

culturalcontext’,consideringitwas‘muchneededinpresent-dayCambodia’.445This

narrativefosteredapervasiverhetoriccombiningideasaboutrevivinganationalheritage

witheconomicsurvival,whichhascontinuedtoinformthepubliccommunication

implementedbysilkcraftcompaniesinCambodia.446

BesidesUNESCO,otherUNagencies,includingtheFoodandAgricultureOrganisationand

especiallyITC,investedinsilktrainingprogrammes,parcellingupthesilkscapeand

multiplyingthenumberofactors.ITC,thejointagencybetweentheWorldTrade

OrganisationandtheUN,wasfoundedin1964withthegoalofexpandingthetrading

capacitiesofthe'leastdevelopedcountries’andsmallandmediumenterprise

competitiveness.ITCwasinvolvedintheCambodiansilksectorfrom2003whenit

implementedtheExport-ledPovertyReductionProgrammeandtheCambodiaSector-Wide

SilkProjectfrom2010to2012.ITCbridgedinternationalpartnershipsbyseekingfunding

fromtheNewZealandAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentandtheSwissState

SecretariatforEconomicAffairs.447DespitethisinternationalbrokerageperformedbyUN-

relatedagenciesinCambodia,particularnationsemergedtobecomeleadingvoicesinthe

resurrectedsilksector,especiallytheFrench,withAA,andtheJapanese,withIKTT.

ArtisansAngkor(AA):Frenchpatronageasaleadingvoiceofthesilksector

Thissectionandtheonethatfollowsexaminehowtwokeyplayers,AAandIKTT,

builttheiractivityandmaintainedtheirdominantpositionbyshapingrelationswithother

445UNESCOPhnomPenh,internalreport‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving,’1993,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.446Thisnarrativeofheritageandhybridisationhasbeenpervasiveinpost-colonialCambodia.SeeMichaelFalser,CulturalHeritageasCivilizingMission:FromDecaytoRecovery(NewYork:Springer,2015),7-8.447InternationalTradeCentre,Report:Mid-TermExternalEvaluationCambodiaSector-WideSilkProject,5.

185

actorsinthefield,emphasisingtraining,handicraftproductionandsales.Byidentifyingthe

majorstrategiestheyemployedtoenablethemtoreachthestatusofleadersinCambodia’s

artisanalsilkproducts,itispossibletodemonstratethecomplexagenciesoperatingwithin

thelocalsilkindustry.ThissectionalsoexamineshowAAandIKTT,throughtheir

leadership,positioning,productsanddiscourses,havealsocrafteddominantdiscourseson

hand-madesilkasatokenofCambodiantraditionsandnationalidentity.

AAisaFrenchinitiative,groundedininternationaldevelopmentpolicies,which

transitionedfromanNGO-ledprojectin1992toasemi-publicenterprisein2003.In1992,

LaLigueFrançaisedel’EnseignementlaunchedaprogrammecalledChantiers-Ecolesde

FormationProfessionnelleintheareaofSiemReap,nearthetouristsiteofAngkorWat,

withfundingfromtheEUandtheFrenchMinistryofForeignAffairsandFrench

Cooperation,undertheapprovaloftheCambodianMinistryofEducation.Theaimwasto

encourageyoungCambodianstoplayaroleintheircountry’sreconstructioneffortby

learningmanualskillsinconstructionandagricultureandparticipatingintherestorationof

Angkor’stemples,whichshowedpromisingtouristpotential.448

AsshowninFigure54,theChantiers-EcolesprogrammewascoordinatedbyCharles

Maisonnave-Couterou,aFrencheducatorwhotaughtinCambodiain1958andreturnedto

thecountryin1987forLaLigue,anddirectedonsitebyJean-PierreMartial,aFrench

engineer.449InspiredbytheFrenchmodelofLesCompagnonsduDevoir,amentoring

systemdatingfrom1941basedonthetransmissionofmanualknow-howfrommaster

journeymentoacommunityofapprentices,theprogrammereceivedthesupportof

volunteercompagnoninstructorswhohelpedtoimplementnineworkshopsinconstruction

448NationalPolytechnicInstituteofAngkor,AboutCEFPhttp://www.npia.info/html/whatcefp.php?p_lang=en[AccessedOctober27,2017]449CharlesMaisonnave-Couteroudiedin2009.JeanPierreMartialstayedinCambodiaandopenedtheMaisonPolankahotelwithhiswife,asilkshopowner,inSiemReap.CharlesMaisonnave-CouterouandRolandBiache,LigueFrançaisedel’enseignementetdel’EducationPermanente,Leschantiersécolesdeformationprofessionnelle,SiemReap-Cambodge,Rapportd’exécution1991/1996(Paris:Confédérationgénéraledesœuvreslaïques,1996),14.

186

andhandicrafts,includingmasonry,woodwork,metalwork,electricity,plumbing,carpentry,

andstone-cutting,ledinKhmerandFrench.Thefirstyearprovidedtrainingfor130young

people.Bytracingthecompany’shistoryrootedintwodistinctivelyFrenchassociations,

namelyLaLigueandLesCompagnonsduDevoir,andtheactivepresenceofFrenchfunders,

thisstudyarticulatestheproject’shybridnaturebetweenFranceandCambodia.

By1995,theChantiers-EcolesteamturnedtosilkwhenMaisonnave-Couterourealisedthat

oneofthedistrictsnearPuokvillageinSiemReapareahadbeen‘usedforthetraditional

productionofmulberrytrees,silkwormbreeding,cocoontreatment,dyeing,and

weaving’.450FindinginspirationintherevitalisationofsilkintheCévennes,France,inthe

1970s,Chantiers-EcolesconsultedFrenchsilkexpertMichelCostaandagronomistAlain

PeyrétocarryouttheprojectinCambodia.451ThisledtothefoundationoftheNationalSilk

CentreinPuok,tomanagesericulturetrainingandfarming.Theprojectreceivedfunding

fromtheAgenceFrançaisedeDéveloppement(FrenchDevelopmentAgency)viatheProjet

d'AppuiauSecteurdelaSoie(Silksupportprogramme).Internalreportsshowthatabout

4,320mulberryplantsweregrownontwoandahalfhectaresinPuokin1995,withaplan

toincreasethisto25,000plantsthefollowingyear.Chantiers-Ecolescontinuedtoexpand

silkweavingtraining,marketing,andproductdevelopment.Theorganisationaimedto

integrateitsapprenticesfurtherintoSiemReap’slocaleconomicfabric.452Themainfunder,

LaLigue,progressivelywithdrew.TheNationalSilkCentre,overseeingtraining,movedto

Cambodia’sMinistryofLabourandVocationalTraining,atransferpresentedinFigure55.

450Maisonnave-CouterouandBiache,Leschantiersécolesdeformationprofessionnelle,17.451NationalPolytechnicInstituteofAngkor,AboutCEFP.452Maisonnave-CouterouandBiache,Leschantiersécolesdeformationprofessionnelle,17.

187

Fig.54ChantiersEcolesdeFormationProfessionnellechartshowingstructureandnetworkoffoundersfrom1990to1995.Author’simage.

188

Fig.55TransferofleadershipofLesChantiersEcolesbetween1995and2000,fromLaLigueFrancaisedel’EducationtotheCambodiaMinistryofLabourandtheNationalSilkCenter,leadingtothefoundationofArtisansd’Angkor.Author’simage.

ThisprogressivetransfercreatedtheconditionsforChantiers-Ecoles’autonomyandthe

establishmentofanindependentcraftprojectunderthenameArtisansd'Angkor(AA).453

WithEUsupportaspartofthetwo-yearREPLICprogramme,AAexpandedhandicraft

productiontosilkgoods,metalware,woodandstonecarving.Thesilkprogrammereliedon

localnetworksinvillagesincollaborationwithvillagechiefs,asitdoestoday.Weaving

recruitsarebetweeneighteenandtwenty-fiveyearsoldwithnopriorknowledgeoftextiles,

andhaveoftenhadlittleaccesstoeducationandemployment.Afterapprenticescomplete

theirtrainingasagroup,theycontinuetopractiseindividuallyforafurtherthreemonths.

AAhasbuiltworkshopsintheselectedvillages,providinglooms,materials,andaworkshop

leadercontrollingalltheproducts,collectingthemfromtheworkshopandchecking

quality.454Whileensuringtight-knitrelationshipsinruralareas,AAalsoworkedon

453TheFrenchspellingwaslatersimplifiedinto‘ArtisansAngkor’tofacilitateitspronunciationforaforeignclientele.454PavEangKhoing,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April2,2018.

189

distribution,andopenedtwoshopsinSiemReapandPhnomPenhattractingmid-tohigh-

rangetouristandexpatconsumers.

OnceEUfundingstopped,AAtransitionedintoasemi-publiccompanywiththestatusofa

socialenterprise,keepingitstieswithFrance.In2003thefirm’ssharesweredivided

betweenfourparties:30percenttotheCambodiangovernment,20percenttothe

employees,10percenttoagroupofinvestors,and40percenttoVINCI,aleadingFrench

multinationalcompanyintheconcessionandconstructionbusinesswhichalsohandles

Cambodia’smainairports[Fig.56].Thisshowshowthebackingofpowerfulkeyplayersin

CambodiaandFranceensuredAA'sleadingpositioninthesector,brandedasaCambodian

companyinitscommunication.AA’swebsitestates:‘ArtisansAngkorisaCambodian

companythatwascreatedattheendof1990’,which‘hasbecomearealshowcaseofKhmer

handicrafts’.455Thisnarrativeisalsoprominentintourism-relatedpublicationsandinthe

CambodianpressforanEnglish-speakingaudience.In2018,CheaVannakinKhmerTimes

describesAAas‘thecountry’sbiggestselleroftraditionalartsandcultureproducts,which

arecraftedbylocalartisansinforty-eightworkshopsacrossSiemReapandPhnomPenh’.456

VINCI’sroleasmajorityshareholderhasremainedconfidentialinmostofAA’s

communication.ThisinformationonlyappearsonVINCI’swebsiteonapagededicatedtoits

involvementinCambodia.TheCambodiangovernment'spoliticalownershipofathirdof

thecompany'sshareshasbeenimportantinendorsingAAasastate-recognisedauthority

onCambodiancrafts.Withitsproductsdisplayedinthelargestretailspacesinmajor

airports,thecompanyrepresentedCambodiancultureforaninternationalcrowdofvisitors.

AAreachedfinancialequilibriumin2005,whichenabledittolaunchanin-housetraining

455ArtisansAngkor,Beliefs:OurStoryinBrief,http://dev.artisansdangkor.com/beliefs-1-77-our-story-in-brief.php[Accessed30October2017]456CheaVannak,‘ShowcasingKhmertraditionalcraftstovisitors,’KhmerTimes,December5,2018https://www.khmertimeskh.com/556095/showcasing-khmer-traditional-crafts-to-visitors/[Accessed10May2020]

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programmeonsilkweavingandtailoringwhilemaintainingapartnershipwiththeNational

SilkCentreonsericulture.PresentingitselfasthelargestprivatesectoremployerinSiem

Reapprovince,in2017thecompanywasprovidingwork‘toover1100people,including

about800artisans’,halfofwhichwereinvolvedinsilkaccessoriesandgarments.457

Fig.56ArtisansAngkor’sownershipmodelsince2003.Author’simage.

LookingatAA’sleadershipshowsfrictionsbetweenaCambodianbrandidentity,a

largeCambodianworkforce,andaFrenchmonopoleintermsofmanagementanddesign

strategies.Sinceitsfoundation,AAhasbeensupervisedbyaFrenchCEOdesignatedby

VINCI,mainlyemployingFrenchstaffinmanagingpositions.458Thesamedualsituation

existsinthedesignleadershipstrategy.Designingwithaforeignclienteleinmindhasbeen

theprerogativeofWesterndesignersandCambodianstrainedinEurope,whileproduction

457ArtisansAngkor,Beliefs:OurStoryinBrief;StatisticsonemploymentinSiemReaparenotavailable,butgeographerRobinBiddulphhasconfirmedtheinformation.RobinBiddulph,‘SocialEnterpriseandInclusiveTourism.FiveCasesinSiemReap,Cambodia,’TourismGeographies,20,no.4(2018):615.458Cambodianness,Workplace:Cambodia,January30,2020https://cambodianess.com/article/bridging-cross-cultural-gaps-in-the-workplace-cambodia[Accessed10May2021]

191

hasremainedinCambodianhands.Thisdivisionoflabourhasprevailedinforeign-owned

craftcompaniesestablishedinnon-Westerncountries.AnthropologistsSusanFallsand

JessicaSmithhavedefinedthistypeofprojectasaTransnationalArtisanPartnership,a

structurecombiningphilanthropicandartisanalpracticesimplementing‘working

relationshipsbetweenThird-Worldartisans,skilledincrafts,andorganisations(eitherfor-

profitornot-for-profit)thatarefunded,managedand/orrunbyFirst-Worlddesigners,

activistsorentrepreneurs’.459CitingtheexampleofthewayIndiancraftsrespondedto

capitalisminthe1990s,OryDeNicolaandWilkinson-Weberhavenotedtheemergenceof

designersinthecraftsectorasmediatingfigures‘rhetoricallyposition[ed]onthefulcrumof

acompellingoppositionbetweeninnovationandtradition’.460AsAAmovedprogressively

towardsthesocialenterprisemodel,thecompanyemployedin-housedesignerstrainedin

Frenchdesignschools,aswellasfashionandtextiledesignconsultants,todesign

marketablecraftproducts.ThefirstdesigneremployedtodevelophandicraftswasLimMuy

Theam,aCambodianartisttrainedininteriordesignandpaintinginParis,whowasAA’s

artisticdirectorfrom1997until2010.Duringthistime,EricRaisina,aFrench-Malagasy

fashiondesignerwhohadalsotrainedinParis,wascommissionedtocreatethesilkclothing

collection.Since2010,craftsmenfromallsectors,exceptsilk,haverespondedtodesign

guidelinesimplementedbySvaySareth,Cambodianartisticdirectorandrenowned

contemporaryartist,bornin1972andtrainedinaFrenchfineartsschool.461

Forsilk,thesuccessivedesignershaveworkedcloselywithPavEangKhoing,SilkDirector,

since2003.462OriginallyfromKampongCham,PavEangKhoingwashiredasanassistantin

silkproductionin2001andpursuedaMaster’sdegreeinmanagementin2005while

459SusanFallsandJessicaSmith,‘BrandingAuthenticity:CambodianIkatinTransnationalArtisanPartnerships(TAPS),’JournalofDesignHistory,24,no.3(2011):1.460 Wilkinson-Weber,andOryDeNicola,CriticalCraft:Technology,Globalization,andCapitalism,82.461ArtisansAngkor,OurArtisticTeam:WeCareforBeauty,http://www.artisansdangkor.com/beauty-23-114-our-artistic-team.php[Accessed30October2017]462Disclaimer:IworkedasatextileandfashionconsultantforAAin2012,developingacapsulecollection‘IntheMoodforBoheme’consistingofhandmadesilkwomenswear,menswearandchildrenswearproducts.

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workingatAA.Hehasoverseencreativecollaborations,managingtheproductionchainbuilt

aroundalargenetworkofin-houseartisans,abouttwohundredandthirtyworkersinthree

weavingandtwosewingworkshopsatthecompany’ssilkfarminPuok,withtenpeople

tyingmaterialforikatpatternsandseventeenpeopleinchargeofdyeing.Hehasalso

coordinatedtenpeopleinraisingsilkwormsandpreparingthecocoons,andtwelvemorein

spinningthread.463TheSilkDirectoralsoworkscloselywithateamofweaverstocreate

newtextiledesigns.HeisshownherewithawomanfromthetyingteamatAA’ssilkfarm,

checkingthequalityofherwork[Fig.57].Ininterview,PavEangKhoingsharedhisambition

toachievethecompany’smissiontoprovideworkforthelargestnumberofpeopleby

expandingproductivityandsales.464Hisdemeanourhereexpressestheseriousnessof

managinglargeclustersofartisanswhiledealingwithproductionimperativesforefficiency

andinnovation.Hisstanceashelooksoveraseatedweavertyingweftikatthreadsalso

illustratesthedynamicsestablishedbetweenPavEangKhoingandhisteam.Hispositionof

authorityreflectsnormativeideasofsocialhierarchiesinCambodia,whicharestill

prevalentindailyetiquette.BuddhistscholarErikDavishasstatedthat‘hierarchicaland

dependentrelationsseemnecessaryinCambodiatogetalmostanythingaccomplished’.465

Thisrequireschildrentorespecttheirparentsandstudentstorespecttheirteachers,and

appliestoworkrelationshipsaswell,betweenamanagerandhisemployee.

463PavEangKhoing,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April2,2018,SiemReap,Cambodia.464Ibid. 465ErikW.Davis,‘Imaginaryconversationswithmothersaboutdeath,’inAttheEdgeoftheForest,EssaysonCambodia,History,andNarrativeinHonorofDavidChandler,ed.AnneRuthHansenandJudyLedgerwood(Ithaca,NY:SoutheastAsiaProgramCornellUniversity,2008),226.

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Fig.57PavEangKhoingcheckingtheworkofaweavertyinganikatpatternatAAworkshop,Puok,SiemReap,Cambodia,April2,2018.Author’sphotograph.

TheFrenchcolonialeraofthe1920sandpost-conflicthumanitariandevelopmentin

the1990sdemonstratefundamentallydifferentcontexts.Thereis,however,acontinuityin

certainstrategieswhichindicateshowneocolonialmodelsarestillatplayinthesilksector,

especiallyamongstFrenchpolicymakers.Neocolonialismis‘widelyusedtorefertoaformof

globalpowerinwhichtransnationalcorporationsandglobalandmultilateralinstitutions

combinetoperpetuatecolonialformsofexploitationofdevelopingcountries’.466Inthesilk

sector,itmayrefertoschemesindirectlymaintainingtheculturalandeconomicinfluence

overlocalproductionviathemonopoleofforeigndonors,theapplicationofdevelopment

policiesandmarketingstrategies,andtheimposingofWesterntasteanddesigns.Fashion

scholarKatalinaMedvedevalsoidentifiesaformof‘benevolent,faith-basedneocolonialism’

466SandraHalperin,‘Neocolonialism,’EncyclopediaBritannica,May6,2020.https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism[Accessed10May2020]

194

promotedbyWesternChristiancraftorganisationssuchasStungTrengWomen’s

DevelopmentCenterandRajanaAssociation,‘link[ing]tomoralandculturalagendasrather

thaneconomicorstructuralones’.467InitstieswithVINCIasthemajorshareholderandthe

relianceonFrench-trainedin-housedesigners,AA’sstructureandpositioningshowsome

aspectsofFrenchpaternalism.

FallsandSmithidentifiedGeorgesGroslier’sinitiativeoftheSchoolofCambodianArtsinthe

1920sastheprimaryexampleofaTransnationalArtisanPartnershiptyingtherevitalisation

ofendangeredcraftstothereclaimingofCambodia’sAngkoriansplendour.Similarly,ina

1995report,Maisonnave-CouteroupraisedtheSiemReapareaas‘amajorsiteofKhmer

culture,alegacyofthecreativeartisticeffortoftheCambodianKingsandtheirpeople'.468

ThisjustifiedthelocalisationoftheChantiersEcolesinSiemReap,notfarfromAngkorWat

asamarketingstrategyandpositioningfocusedontourist-basedconsumerscomingtovisit

thetemples.AAalsoannouncesitslinkagewithCambodia’shistorybystating‘Proudofour

Angkorianheritage’onitswebsite.469

AA’spositionasaCambodianbrandappearsuncontested;theCambodianpresspraiseits

successandrecogniseitskeyroleinthesocio-economicdevelopmentoftheSiemReaparea.

In2019,KhmerTimesjournalistTaingRinithdescribesAAas‘theoutstandingguardianof

traditionalartsandcrafts’.470Positionedasthechampionof'traditionalCambodiancrafts’,

thesocialenterprisehasclaimedinitsrecentcommunicationthatitis‘waymorethanjusta

467Medvedev,‘CambodianFashionNGOs:AreTheyDoingGood?,’149.468Maisonnave-CouterouandBiache,Leschantiersécolesdeformationprofessionnelle,6.469ArtisansAngkor,Beliefs:MissionStatementhttp://www.artisansdangkor.com/beliefs-mission-statement.php[AccessedMay2,2021]470TaingRinith,‘ArtisansAngkortheOutstandingGuardianofTraditionalArt&Craft,’KhmerTimes,September3,2019,https://www.khmertimeskh.com/50639644/artisans-angkor-the-outstanding-guardian-of-traditional-art-craft/[AccessedMay2,2020]

195

touristattractionorsouvenirshop’,addingit‘shouldnotkeepCambodianhistoryand

traditionsasasimple‘background’tosellproducts’.471

Todescribethecommodificationofculturalartefactsasexpressionsofcolonial

nostalgia,Edwardsusedthequalifier‘memorabilia’,‘glamorised’versionsofferinga‘re-

evocationofthecontextthatproducedsuchimages’whichare‘excisedfromtheirhistorical

context’.472Merriam-Websterdefinesmemorabiliaas‘thingsthatareremarkableand

worthyofremembrance’and‘thingsthatstirrecollectionorarevaluedorcollectedfortheir

associationwithaparticularfieldorinterest’.473Intheearlytwentiethcentury,colonial

memorabiliareferredtoartefactscollectedinthecolonies,relics,andtrophiestransferred

outsidetheiroriginalcontexttoapersonalcollectionormuseum,ortothehomesofa

metropolitanclientele.

ItcouldbeproposedthatAA’sproductsaremodernformsofthiskindofmemorabilia

evokingtheAngkorianheritage.FallsandSmithhaveindeedconsideredthatTransnational

ArtisanPartnershipsappealtoWesternaestheticsensibilitieswhilealsorelyingon'the

promotionofanOrientalistlogic’.474AAchannelsdiscoursesofauthenticity,embracing

elementsthatclearlyrefertoantiqueCambodianaestheticsinthedesigns,whilemediating

Cambodianculturetoaforeignclientele.Onthecompany’swebsite,handicraftsaredirectly

associatedtoreferencestoCambodiancultureandtraditions.Inthisquotebelow,theterm

‘traditional’appearstwiceandtheterm‘crafts’intheformofcrafts,craftsmenand

craftsmanshipappearsthreetimes:

‘WearedevotedtomaintainArts&CraftsinCambodia,whichiswhyallourproductswerehandmadeintraditionalCambodianworkshopsbycraftsmenandwomenwhomastertheirancestors'craftsmanshipskills.Ourdesignsarealways

471ArtisansAngkor,WhatBeingaSocialEnterpriseReallyMeans,http://dev.artisansdangkor.com/beliefs-2-79-what-being-a-social-enterprise-really-means.php[AccessedMay2,2020]472Edwards,Cambodge:TheCultivationofaNation,1860-1945,10.473‘Memorabilia’,Merriam-Webster,https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/memorabilia[AccessedMay2,2020] 474FallsandSmith,‘BrandingAuthenticity:CambodianIkatinTransnationalArtisanPartnerships,’2.

196

deeplyrelatedtoCambodianculture(traditionalsymbols,patternsandlandscapes)’.475

Theself-declaredCambodiannessofAA'sproductsisapparentinportablesmall-scale

carvedstoneandwoodenreproductionsoftheAngkorWatstatues,scenesoftheReamker

onlacqueredpanels,andshawlsandpidaninpolychromicikatwitha‘trulyCambodian’

touch.476Dealingwith‘novelsituationsbyreferencingoldsituations’,inHobsbawm’swords,

thebrandhasproducedCambodiancraftsconnectingtothecollectiveimaginaryofthe

Khmerempire.477TheliteralmimicryofAngkorianartisevidentinthecraftcompany’s

souvenirsreproducingKingJayavarmanVII’shead,adevata,alionstatuefromBakheng

templeandjewelleryinspiredbydifferentAngkoriantemplebas-reliefsandstatuesheldat

theNMC.ThisreferencetotheKhmerEmpireismorestrikingincarvedproductsthaninthe

silkwovenproducts,asseeninthisshopdisplay[Fig.58].

In2017AAwassellingalargerangeoftextileproducts,includingaccessories,womenswear

andmenswear,wovenandprintedhometextiles,pillowsandthrows,butalsoawide

selectionofhomedecorgifts,allinsaturatedtones.Theyweremarketedashigh-quality

souvenirstargetingurbanupper-middle-classCambodians,Cambodiansfromthediaspora,

andinternationalclientsoutsidethetouristmarket.Silkaccessoriesrangefromsolid-

colouredsilkchiffonscarvesat15USDtocomplexdesignsofhandwovenshawlsin

polychromicikatfor1500USD.Thepiecesarelabelledwithnamesevocativeofthemain

Cambodianweavingtechniques,suchashol,rbaukfordamask,andsarabapforbrocade,as

describedinAppendixA3.

475ArtisansAngkor,Traditions:OurGreatLegacy,http://www.artisansdangkor.com/traditions-our-great-legacy[AccessedMay2,2021]476ArtisansAngkor,RoyalFansandUmbrellas, http://dev.artisansdangkor.com/traditions-21-106-royal-fans-umbrellas.php[AccessedMay2,2020];TheReamkerisanepictaleadaptedfromtheHinduistRamayana,whichwasdepictedonthewallsofAngkorWattempleandportrayedinKhmerdance.477HobsbawmandRanger,TheInventionofTradition,2,7.

197

Fig.58LionstatuebasedonBakhengtemplesculptureandholrbauksilkproductsondisplayattheArtisanAngkorshop,SiemReap,Cambodia,December25,2016.Author’sphotograph.

Silk,andChinesesilkinparticular,hasbeentheepitomeoforientalsophistication

fromaWesternperspective,withaperceivedpreciousnessassociatedwithluxuryand

femininity.478ChapterOnehighlightedhowCambodiansilkshavebeentradedsinceatleast

theseventeenthcenturyandrepurposedasnationalcraftsandprizedcommoditiesunder

theFrenchinthe1920s.Inthetwenty-firstcentury,AAstillplaysintothisimaginarytosell

high-endCambodianhandwovensilktextilesfortourists.479Customersareoffered

complimentaryguidedtouristtoursattheAAsilkfarminPuokvillagetosee

demonstrationsofsilkwormsbreeding,silkyarnreelingandspinning,ikattying,dyeingand

weaving[Fig.59].Thetoursellstheconceptsofauthenticityandqualitythroughthecurated

478SandraNiessen,CarlaJonesandAnnMarieLeshkowich,Re-orientingFashion:TheGlobalizationofAsianDress(Oxford:Berg,2005),10.479ArtisansAngkor,HistoryofSilkinCambodia,http://dev.artisansdangkor.com/people-16-111-history-of-silk-in-cambodia.php[AccessedMay2,2020]

198

performanceofhandmadeprocesses,showingartisansatworkanddisplayingthe

processingofindigenousgoldensilkandnaturaldyes.480

Itshouldbenotedthat,althoughallthetextileproductsarehandwoven,thedyesare

chemicalandfibreisofmixedorigin,fromCambodiaandotherAsiancountries.Only10per

centofthepiecesaremadeofCambodiangoldensilkproducedbyAAandpurchasedfrom

silkfarmersinthePhnomSrokarea.Thecompanysources80percentofitssilkof

industrialwhitequalityfromaspecificsupplierinChina;theremaining10percentisraw

silkfromVietnam.481

Fig.59ArtisansAngkorguidepresentingthetyingofholattheSilkFarm,Puok,SiemReap,Cambodia,December25,2016.Author’sphotograph.

480MagaliAnBerthon,‘CulturalAuthenticity,’BloomsburyEncyclopediaofDesign,Vol.I,2016,https://www.bloomsburydesignlibrary.com/encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9781472596178&tocid=b-9781472596178-BED-ONLINE-021&st=[AccessedMay2,2020];SeealsoLaurelKendall,‘IntangibleTracesandMaterialThings:ThePerformanceofHeritageHandicraft,’ActaKoreana,17,no.2(December2014):539.481PavEangKhoing,interviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.

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ExaminationofAA’shistory,productionanddistribution,inconjunctionwith

productdesigns,rawmaterialsourcingandthecompany'scommunication,hasrevealedthe

multi-layeredpictureoftheleadingcraftcompanyinCambodia.AA’sstrategyindicatesthe

powerrelationsbetweeninternationalfunding,FrenchinterestsandCambodian

governmentalsupportinthesilknetwork.Intwodecades,AAhastransitionedfroma

vocationaltrainingprogrammeunderFrenchpatronageintoacontemporarymodelofsocial

enterprise,integratingforeignsupportwhilecultivatingitsCambodianroots.Througha

complexwebofinstitutionalandcommercialconnections,AAhasalsoreliedonalarge

workforcetoincreaseitsproduction,departingfromthecommonmodelofsilkweavingasa

cottageindustryledbyindividualsorcommunityworkshops.AA’sdesignandmarketing

strategiesrevealthatitisanchoredinorientalistdiscoursesoftraditiontyingcontemporary

craftproductstotheKhmerempireera.

TheInstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles(IKTT):authorityunderJapanesepatronage

ComparedtoAA,theIKTTprojecthasremainedsmallerinscalewhilesimilarly

dealingwithmultiplenationalandinternationalactorssinceitsfoundationin1996,

especiallyviathepersonality,historyandleadershipofitsfounder,KikuoMorimoto.The

waysinwhichMorimotonegotiatedmultipleinfluences,especiallyhisJapaneseupbringing,

alsomatterintheshapingofhissilkprojectandoffersanothermodelofTransnational

ArtisanPartnership.Exploringtheseconnectionsopensnewperspectivesonthesilkscape

relatingtonetworks,foreigninfluence,ownershipandauthenticity.Thissectioncombines

ANTwithethnographicresearchmethodstoexploretherangeofsourcesassociatedwith

IKTTstorytelling,includingthefounder’smemoirsandpressarticles.Inthefield,I

conductedtwositevisitsinDecember2016,onetotheIKTTshopinSiemReapandoneto

theworkshop,whereIinterviewedweaversandtalkedwithMorimotobeforehisdeathin

200

July2017.InadditiontotheseperiodsofPhDresearch,IhadmetMorimotoearlierin2012

foradocumentaryfilmprojectIwasworkingon,andwhichprovidedadditionalmaterialfor

metoreflecton.482

Bornin1948inKyoto,Japan,KikuoMorimototrainedforfiveyearsasayuzen

kimonotextileartist,paintingonsilkfabricusingresist-dyemethods,anarthecontinuedin

hislateryears.HeispicturedhereshowingoneofhispiecesathishouseinChotSamvillage

[Fig.60].Thestrongestinfluenceintermsofcraftideology,economicstrategyandnetwork

ofinfluenceintheconstructionofhisprojectwasunequivocallyJapan.Inhismemoirs,he

stated:'IwaseducatedinthetextileworldinKyoto’.483Kyoto'sflourishingcraftculture

remainedanessentialmodelforMorimoto.484

Fig.60KikuoMorimotoinhishouseshowingoneofhisyuzensilks,ChotSamvillage,Cambodia,2012.Author’sphotographforTissus&ArtisansduMondeproject.

482MagaliAnBerthon,‘KikuoMorimoto,l'âmedel’ikat,’Tissus&ArtisansduMonde,2012,[AccessedMay1,2020]483KikuoMorimoto,BayonMoon:RevivingCambodia’sTextileTraditions(SiemReap:InstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextiles,2008),43.484SeeTamaraHareven’shistoricaldescriptionofNishijinsilkweavingguildsinKyoto:TamaraHareven,TheSilkWeaversofKyoto:FamilyandWorkinaChangingTraditionalIndustry(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2002)25-32.

201

Atextileartistandentrepreneur,heinitiallysettledinThailandin1983,whereheworked

asavolunteerinrefugeecampsatthenorth-eastThaiborder,trainingLaoweaversin

naturaldyes.485HewasareliefworkerfortheJapanInternationalVolunteerCenter,anNGO

establishedin1980thatsentJapanesevolunteerstoThailandtoassistdisplacedpeoplein

theregion.486ThisphotographshowsMorimotointheforegroundworkingfortheJapan

InternationalVolunteerCenteronawell-drillingprojectinAranyaprathetinEastern

Thailand,ontheCambodianborder,in1983[Fig.61].

In1977,JapaneseprimeMinisterTakeoFukudahadlaidthefoundationsofJapan’sactive

foreignpolicy,laterknownastheFukudadoctrine,whileontourwithmembercountriesof

theAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations.487Japanpledgedtosupportcooperationand

peaceinSoutheastAsia,inthecontextoftheCambodia-Vietnamconflict.Asaresult,from

theearly1980s,JapaneseNGOsprioritised'thehumanitarianaspect,thepromotionof

repatriationofrefugees,andassistanceforthereconstructionofCambodia’.488

WhenhewasinThailand,MorimotovisitedtheNortheasternprovinceofSurin,in

Isaan,attheCambodianborder,wherehemetKhmercommunitiesandstarted

collaboratingwithweavers.Afterthecampsclosed,hestayedinThailandandin1988

openedashop,BaiMai,inBangkok,wherehesoldethnicKhmersilkproductsfromSurin.In

1990,heproducedareportonnaturaldyesinNortheastThailandforTheTextileMuseum

inWashington,DCandtaughtfrom1992to1995attheKingMongkutInstituteof

Technology,Bangkok.489FromthesilkreportcommissionedbyUNESCOCambodia

485LouiseCortandLeedomLefferts,‘Foreword,’inBayonMoon,KikuoMorimoto(SiemReap:InstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextiles,2008),x.486JapanInternationalVolunteerCenter,AboutJVC,https://www.ngo-jvc.net/en/about-jvc/[AccessedMay3,2020]487SueoSudo,'ManilaSpeech,18August1977,’Appendices,inTheFukudaDoctrineandASEAN:NewDimensionsinJapaneseForeignPolicy(ISEAS–YusofIshakInstitute,1992),241–47.488DethSok,UdomSun,andSerkanBulut,eds.Cambodia'sForeignRelationsinRegionalandGlobalContexts(SanktAugustin:Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung,2018),189.489ThisinformationcomesfromMorimoto’sbiographyontheIKTTformerwebsiteEspritLibreIKTT,whichisstillactive.Ithasbeenreusedverbatiminmultiplearticles,conferencebios,andonwebsites.SeeIKTT,Morimoto,KikuoBiography,April22,2004[AccessedMay2,2020]

202

discussedinChapterOne,Morimotowasinspiredtostarthisownventure,alocalNGO

revivingsericulture,weavingandnaturaldyes.Heinstitutedasilkwormbreedingprojectin

Takaorvillage,inKampotprovince,in1995andthenopenedaworkshop,theInstitutefor

KhmerTraditionalTextiles(IKTT),inPhnomPenhinJanuary1996,receivingsupportfrom

theToyotaFoundationtoconductmorefieldresearch.490

Fig.61KikuoMorimoto(foreground)workingonawell-drillingprojectatAranyaprathetineasternThailand,1983.PhotographcourtesyofIKTT.

Morimotorecruitedfiveexperiencedfemalemasterweavers,someofwhomhehad

metthroughtheUNESCOsurveyproject,whoagreedtocommunicatetheirskillstoanew

generationofweavers.491Morimotoreferredtothesewomenas‘thesilkgrandmothers’,

490MollyHarbarger,‘SilkDyerKikuoMorimoto,ResurrectingaCulturalEcology,’KyotoJournal73(2009)https://kyotojournal.org/wp-content/uploads/newwebimages/backissues/73/Morimoto.html[AccessedApril20,2020]491Numbershavebeeninconsistentfromonesourcetoanother,IKTTwebsitementionsfiveweaversin1996,whilepressarticlesspeakofadozenweavers.

203

elevatingtheseelderstotherankofmasterweavers.492Ofawomanhemetin1995he

wrote:‘shemaybethebesttextileartistinallCambodia–indeed,ofthelevelofdeservingto

becalledLivingNationalTreasure’.493InJapan,thehighestattainmentofcraftmasteryis

thetitleof‘LivingNationalTreasure’(NingenKokuho),alsoknownasthe‘Holderof

ImportantIntangibleCulturalProperties’,whichrecognisesindividuals’masteryofartisanal

andartisticpracticesatthehighestlevel.494ArthistorianMicheleBamblinghascontended

that,despiteitstitle,thisgovernmentalprogramme,establishedin1950,isnotintendedto

venerateartistsbuttoensurethetransmissionofskillsofhighartisticquality.495

Morimoto’sacknowledgementofthegrandmothers’valuereflectshisJapanesecultural

backgroundandhisinterestinpreservingcraftskills.

Toinvitethemtoworkwithhim,Morimotorecalled:'Ibroughttheseoldpiecesofsilkfabric

andaskedthegrandmothersiftheycouldmakesomethingsimilar.ItoldthemIwouldpay

threeorfourtimeswhatthemiddlemanpaidandtopleasedothebestworktheycould’.496

Offeringmuchhigherwages,healsoconvincedthembyenrollingtheirfamilies,engaging

them,too,inkeepingthepracticealive.Someofthese‘grandmother’weaverscamefrom

Takeoprovinceandwereworkingintheirhomevillages.Forexample,ChanSot,quotedin

PBS,valuedthechancetoworkwithsilkandbroughtherdaughteralongtotheIKTT

workshop.497OmChea,whoappearedinadocumentaryfilmfeaturingtheawardeesofthe

RolexAwardsforEnterprisein2004,explainedhowshefollowedMorimotowithamission

492EmilyTaguchi,‘RoughCut:Cambodia:TheSilkGrandmothers,InterviewwithKikuoMorimoto,'PBS,2007.https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/rough/2007/06/cambodia_the_si.html[AccessedMarch2,2020]493Morimoto,BayonMoon,47.494MicheleBambling,‘Japan’sLivingNationalTreasuresProgram:TheParadoxofRemembering,’PerspectivesonSocialMemoryinJapan,eds.TsuYunHui,JanvanBremen,andEyalBen-Ari(Kent,UK:GlobalOriental),149.;KidaTakuya,CynthiaTakayama(trans.),‘TraditionalArtCrafts(DentoKogei),’inJapan:FromReproductionstoOriginalWorks,’TheJournalofModernCraft3,no.1,(2010):19-35,21.495Bambling,‘Japan’sLivingNationalTreasuresProgram:TheParadoxofRemembering,’149.496Morimoto,BayonMoon,47.497Taguchi,‘ RoughCut:Cambodia:TheSilkGrandmothers,'PBS,June28,2007.

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topassonherknowledgeofholtoweavingapprentices[Fig.62].498Morimotoalsoenrolled

silkfarmersfromPhnomSrokandKampot,suchasPanDam,whomImetinDecember

2016atIKTT.HerwholefamilywereworkinginsericultureinKampotwhenMorimoto

visitedtobuysilkwormsinthelate1990s,whichiswhereherecruitedPanDamtocome

andworkinSiemReap.Asaresult,theseweaversandsilkproducerslefttheirhometown

anddidnotcontinuetheirpracticeinatraditionalsetup.Internalmigrationisacommon

phenomenoninCambodiaformenandwomen.In201358.4percentofmigrationwas

rural-ruralmovements,24.5percentrural-urbanand12percenturban-urban.499Although

Morimotoprovidedthesesilkproducersthemeanstocontinuetheirpracticeandthe

possibilitytoincreasetheirlivelihood,onecouldarguethattheirmoveuprootedtheir

practiceanddeprivedtheirhometowncommunityfromtheirskillsandexperience.

498RAE2004:11thRolexAwardsforEnterprise-2004Laureateslongform,producedbyNationalGeographicChannel,distributedbyTVEAsiaPacific,2004. 499UnescoBangkok,OverviewofInternalMigrationinCambodia(Bangkok:Unesco,2018),3-4.http://bangkok.unesco.org/content/policy-briefs-internal-migration-southeast-asia[AccessedMay2,2021]

205

Fig.62OmChea,weaver,rightofpicture,instillfromRAE2004:11thRolexAwardsforEnterprise,NationalGeographicChannel,distributedbyTVEAsiaPacific,2004.

In2000,MorimotorelocatedhisworkshoptothetouristtownofSiemReap,

becauseofthehighrentsinPhnomPenh.HemovedIKTTtoatypicalCambodianwooden

houseonstiltswithalimitedstaffandtwolooms.500In2002,Morimotoboughtfivehectares

ofwastelandnearChotSamvillageinthenorthofSiemReaptoestablishtheWisdomfrom

theForestvillageproject,aself-sufficientfacilityguaranteeingcontroloverthelandandthe

‘wholeprocess’ofsilk-making,frommulberrytreeplantationsandsilkwormrearingto

spinning,dyeing,andweaving.501IKTTambitiouslyclaimedtorestore'thenatural

environmentwithpeople’slifetogether’withaspecificinterestinproducingnatural

resourcesofnativegoldensilk,cotton,indigotreesandnaturaldyeplants.502Ina2002

photographMorimotoposeswithateamofspecialistsinchargeofdeminingtheland,a

commonpracticethatresultedfromtheUSmassbombingoftheregionduringtheVietnam

500Morimoto,BayonMoon,91.501 Berthon,‘KikuoMorimoto,l'amedel’ikat.’ 502IKTT,Information:ActionPlan2003-7-ProjectforWisdomfromForest,April27,2004http://iktt.esprit-libre.org/en/2004/04/action-plan-20037.html[AccessedMarch13,2020]

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War,toclearitforconstructionandfacilitatereforestation[Fig.63].Thisunderlineshowthe

villagewasbuiltfromscratchunderMorimoto’ssupervision,modelledonTakaorvillagein

Kampot,withamajorityofworkersalsocomingfromthisregion,located420kilometres

fromSiemReap.503ThecompositionoftheIKTTteamofmakers,createdthroughinternal

migration,challengestheideaofasettlementinanauthenticvillagealreadypopulatedby

localskilledweavers.Itunderlinestheinherentartificialityintheproject’soriginsandthe

contingentnatureofreproducingtheconditionsoftraditionalCambodianweaving.

Fig.63KikuoMorimoto,secondright,withateamofspecialistsinchargeofdeminingthelandforthefuture‘WisdomfromtheForest’sitenearChotSam,SiemReap,2002.CourtesyofIKTT.

503Morimoto,BayonMoon,77;IKTT,ActionPlan2003,http://iktt.esprit-libre.org/en/2004/04/action-plan-20037.html[AccessedMay19,2020];seemapFigure53tolocateTakaorvillage.

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DuringthisperiodofconstructionatChotSam,productioncontinuedintheSiemReap

workshop.By2016,whenIvisited,thevillagehadexpandedandnowoccupied23hectares.

Morimoto,wholivedonsitewiththeweavers’families,toldmetheorganisationwas

financiallystable,withtwoweavingworkshopsandtwoshops,inSiemReapcityandChot

Samvillage,asshownonthismapgiventotouristsattheSiemReapshop,withdirectionsto

thevillage[Fig.64].504

Fig.64Mapshowingdirectionstoaccesstothe‘WisdomfromtheForest’projectfromtheshopinSiemReap,collectedin2016:IKTT.

504KikuoMorimoto,InformalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,December2016,ChotSam,SiemReap.

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Dataonthestructural,financialandeconomicsettingoftheIKTTcraftorganisation

isconspicuousbyitsabsence.Thereisnopublishedinformationabouttheprecisebusiness

modelunderwhichMorimotoestablishedIKTT,norhowhemanagedtofundtheproject’s

firstyears.Morimotocommunicatedextensivelywiththeforeignpress,especiallyJapanese

andAmericanreporters,andwiththeCambodianpressforanEnglish-speakingaudience.

Hismemoirsalsocommunicatehisphilosophyaboutworkingwiththeweavers,theartistry

ofsampothol,andtherevivalofindigenoussilkandnaturaldyes.505However,theIKTT

lacksthetransparentcommunicationinherenttoNGOsbackedbydonorsorsocial

enterprises.Besidespresentingitselfasanon-politicalandnon-profitCambodian

organisationinitsearlycommunicationandfirstwebsite,itdidnotspecifyitsstatus,nor

diditpublishannualreportsaboutitsrevenueandfundingschemes.506

ItispossibletoidentifyIKTT'schronology,earlydevelopmentandfuturegoalsfrom2003

to2007fromadetailedactionplanfortheWisdomfromtheForestvillageprovidedon

IKTT‘sformerwebsite,whichalsostatesthat'IKTT[did]nothavebigdonors’andreliedon

individualdonationsandsales.507Themajorformofsponsorshipthatwasevidently

receivedbyIKTTwastheprestigious11thRolexAward,receivinga100,000USDprizein

2004,whichalsomarkedaturningpointinIKTT’sinternationalrecognition,andwould

certainlyhaveenabledfurtherexpansion.508AccordingtoMorimoto,annualsalesreached

anaverageof300,000USDin2007andthebenefitsweresaidtobesharedamongthe

farmersandweavers,givingnofurtherinformationaboutthedistributionofsalaries.509Ina

505Morimoto,BayonMoon,102.506 IKTT,AboutInstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles(IKTT),http://iktt.esprit-libre.org/en/aboutus_top.shtml[AccessedMarch12,2020];Harbarger,‘SilkDyerKikuoMorimoto,ResurrectingaCulturalEcology.’ 507IKTT,Information:ActionPlan2003-7-ProjectforWisdomfromtheForest(PWF).508RolexAwards,KikuoMorimoto:AVillageDevotedtoSilk,2004,https://www.rolex.org/rolex-awards/cultural-heritage/kikuo-morimoto[AccessedMarch12,2019]509JeffKingston,‘Japan'sSaviorofKhmerSilk,’JapanTimes,Nov11,2007,https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2007/11/11/travel/japans-savior-of-khmer-silk/#.XreVoC97TOQ[AccessedMarch20,2020]

209

2012interviewforthewebsiteTheEntrepreneurs'Ship,Morimotospokeofthestruggleto

fundIKTT,andhintedathismethodforfundraising:

‘Basically,Ithoughtitcouldoperatewithoutrelyingondonations.However,sinceIwasneverfinanciallyblessed,itwasastruggletoraisethefundswehadtosomedegree.Wecameoutofthestrugglefromtemporarilyborrowingfunds,fromrelativesandfriends.Otherwaystoraisecapitalistoborrowthecapitalnecessaryforthedevelopmentofthebusinessthroughauthorities.’510

Thisquotedemonstratesaflexibleandpragmaticapproachtofunding,withoutprovidinga

clearoutlineofthesupportingpartnersformingIKTT’snetwork.

Similarchallengesareencounteredinassessingthenumberoftextileartisansworkingfor

theorganisationsinceitstarted.Thenumberofartisansisusuallyaclearindicatorofa

company’sscale,butalsoofthepositiveimpactofnon-profitprojectspursuingsocial,

cultural,andeconomicdevelopment.Hereisareviewofachronologyofconflictingkeydata

ontheworkforcethatwasfound.AccordingtotheRolexAwardsforEnterprise,in2002

Morimotobroughttwenty-threeweaverswiththeirfamiliestotheWisdomfromtheForest

village.511Incontrast,theIKTTactionplan2003-2007statedthattherewerethreehundred

traineesworkingfortheorganisationin2003,dividedinthreesections:research,silk

textileproduction,andsales.512Theemploymentgrowthappearedexponential,sinceby

2009anarticleintheKyotoJournalindicatedahighernumberoffivehundredworkers

weredividedintotwenty-fourgroupsofdifferentspecialisms,whichincludedacarpentry

groupmakingloomsandtools.513WhenIinterviewedMorimotoin2012,hesaidthatforty

familieslivedinthevillage,includingfiftychildrenwhoattendedthelocalschoolfounded

byIKTT.514WhenIvisitedagaininDecember2016,theguide,Asya,saidtherewereabout

510‘SocialEntrepreneurs@Work:KikuoMorimoto(InstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles)’,TheEntrepreneurs'Ship,October17,2012,http://www.entrepreneursship.org/blog/social-entrepreneurs-work-kikuo-morimoto-institute-for-khmer-traditional-textiles[AccessedMay3,2020];Morimoto,BayonMoon,105. 511RolexAwardsforEnterprise,ProjectUpdate:TheLongRoadtoSilkRevival,KikuoMorimoto,2004Laureate,May18,2016.512IKTT,Information:ActionPlan2003-7-ProjectforWisdomfromtheForest(PWF).513Harbarger,‘SilkDyerKikuoMorimoto,ResurrectingaCulturalEcology.’514Berthon,'KikuoMorimoto,l’âmedel’ikat.’

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seventywomenworkingonsiteandinsurroundingvillages.515Finally,theIKTTwebsite

spokeof‘two-hundredandfiftypeople,ofwhichaboutahundredhavebeenwiththe

companyfortenyears’.516Theseebbsandflowsintheworkforceandthelackof

transparencyonemploymentconditionsmayreflectstrugglestomaintainsales,aswellasa

scalingdowninthemostrecentyears.

Asawhole,thislackoffactualdatacorroboratesthefreeformoftheoriginalprojectandthe

loosepoliciescommontonumerousnon-profitorganisationswhichdevelopedorganically

inthe1990s.ThismayalsoreflectlifeinruralCambodia,wherefamilymemberswork

togetherandallbenefitinformallyfromtheboklakangkar(NGO),reproducingthekhsae

socialstructure.IKTThasfavouredinsteadaformofcommunicationemphasising

storytelling,centredaroundthepersonalityofitsfounder,undertheobjectivestocontinue

arigorousand‘authentic’artisanalproductionprocessintermsofmaterials,dyes,and

skills.

AswithAA,theIKTThasthereforestrategisedthe‘heritagising’ofCambodiansilk

handicrafts,thusopeningupanetworkofinternationalconnectionsintheacademicand

museumworld.ThepublicationofMorimoto'smemoirswasprefacedbyscholarsLeedom

Lefferts(whoconsultedforUNESCO),andLouiseCort(CuratorforCeramicsattheFreer

GalleryofArtandtheArthurM.SacklerGallery,SmithsonianInstitution,whosemuseum

shophasdistributedIKTT’sproductssince2003).

MorimotobecamearenownedadvocateforCambodiantextiles,especiallysampothol.Even

theorganisation’sabbreviatedtitle,‘IKTT’,whenreadaloud,soundsliketheword‘ikat’.He

alsoparticipatedinnumeroustalksandpanels,includingthe2002TextileSocietyof

AmericaSymposiumheldinNorthHampton,Massachusetts,andintheexhibition

‘CambodiaDyeingandWeaving’attheFukuokaCityMuseumofArtinJapanin2003.In

515Asya,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,December29,2016,ChotSamvillage,SiemReap,Cambodia.516IKTT,OurStoryhttps://www.ikttearth.org/our-story [AccessedMay2,2020]

211

December2003IKTTco-organised,withtheCenterforKhmerStudies,anAmerican-

Cambodianresearchinstitute,agroundbreakingsymposiumentitled‘‘‘Hol’theArtof

CambodianTextiles’,fundedbytheJapanFoundationAsiaCenterandHongKongTextile

Society,inSiemReap.517ThisgatheringofCambodianmuseumexpertsandinternational

scholarsexemplifiestherangeofpartnershipsestablishedbyMorimotoforIKTT,

connectingtheUnitedStates,Japan,andCambodiainparticular.

InspiredbybothPopartofthe1970sandanimism,Morimotoconsciouslyacknowledged

thattheoriginalityofhisprojectwasacombinationof‘interlockingthreads’ofinfluence.518

Atextileartist,entrepreneurandexpert,Morimotohasbeencelebratedbytheinternational

pressastheJapanese‘saviour’ofCambodia’ssilk.AJapanTimesarticlehyperbolically

states:‘hehasalmostsingle-handedlysavedthesilk-weavingindustryofCambodia,a

traditionthatwasnearlylostduringthreedecadesofwarandneglect’.519Thisdiscourse

perpetuatesaJapanesepaternalistmodelthatfailstoengagewiththenotionthat

Cambodiansthemselvescouldrebuildtheirsilkindustry.Morimoto’srelentless

commitmenttosupportingsilkandprovidingopportunitiesforhisworkersisnotin

questionhere.However,hisindividualapproachpositionedhimasaculturalbroker

appealingtoanichemarketofinternationalcustomers.Morimoto’spreservationist

approach,intertwiningsilkweaving,eco-consciousagricultureandrurality,embraces

discoursescombiningculturalheritage,nostalgiaforpasttraditionsandnaturalresources.

ThisnarrativeisclearlydescribedinMorimoto’smemoirsBayonMoon:

‘ThetraditionsofCambodiansilkweaving,onthebrinkofvanishingduringthetwentyyearsofcivilwar,haveatlastbeguntocometolifeagain.[…]Italsoamountstotherevivalofhumanknowledgeaccumulatedoverathousandyears,andtherenewaloftheforestofAngkor’.520

517InstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles,andCenterforKhmerStudies,‘‘Hol’theArtofCambodianTextiles:ABlendingofTwoAesthetics,theKhmerandtheChamSenses,'SymposiumProceedings,December12-13,2003(SiemReap:CenterforKhmerStudies,2004).518Morimoto,BayonMoon,86-88.519Kingston,‘Japan'sSaviorofKhmerSilk.’ 520Morimoto,BayonMoon,xx.

212

Itlinkstherevivalofancestraltraditionstothedangerofdisappearingduedecadesofwar

withtheAngkorianeraasahistoricalbackdrop.Thisnarrativeisrepeatedwithmild

variationsindifferentsources,includinginthereport‘TracesofWar’:

‘TheInstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextilesaimstorestoreandperpetuatethetraditionaltextilesindustriesinCambodia,withthecooperationofoldwomenwhoconservedprecioustraditionaltechniquesthroughouttheturmoilofthecountry’.521

Moreover,thisvisionofCambodiansilk‘traditions’mesheswithMorimoto’sJapanese

understandingofcraftsmanshiprootedintheenduringMingei(folkcraft)philosophy

foundedin1934byJapanesephilosopherSoetsuYanagiandpottersHamadaShōjiand

KawaiKanjirō,definingarusticaestheticoffunctionalartisanalobjectsinnaturalmaterials.

Transcendingtherealmofcrafts,Mingeiaimedtocreateaholisticmodelofmaker

communities‘inharmonywithnature’.522AsdesignhistorianYukoKikuchiargues,Yanagi

developedanorientalistdiscoursevalidatedbyOccidentaltheoriestoextracttheconceptof

Japanesenessincrafts.523

Thisrhetoricofnostalgiaforabucolic,pre-industrialerareemergedinJapaninthelate

1990s.AnthropologistAyamiNakatanihasexaminedtherisingconsumptionofSoutheast

Asianhandicraftsasanexpressionofnostalgictasteforanot-toodistantexoticism.Stories

aboutthemakingprocessesandculturalentanglementsoftheseproductswereheavily

advertisedinwomen’smagazines.524Inthismindset,artisanalobjectsfromCambodia

becamethematerialembodimentofarelatable‘otherness'andfoundtheirauthenticityin

theirtechniquesandmaterialsaswellasin'thecontextoftheirmaking’.525

521Morimoto,‘TracesofWar:TheRevivalofSilkWeavinginCambodia,’409. 522BrianMoeran,‘SocialOrganizationandtheMingeiMovement,’PacificAffairs,54,no.1(Spring,1981):47-8.;SoetsuYanagi,TheUnknownCraftsman:AJapaneseInsightintoBeauty(NewYork:KoshandaAmerica,1989)523YukoKikuchi,‘HybridityandtheOrientalOrientalismofMingeiTheory,’JournalofDesignHistory10,no.4(2007):348. 524AyamiNakatani,‘ExoticismandNostalgia:ConsumingSoutheastAsianHandicraftsinJapan,’IIASNewsletter30,March2003,20.525Ibid.

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IntheIKTTshopstheikatsaresoldaseitheruniquepiecesorlimitedrunsforbetween50

USDforthesmallestpiecestonearly1000USDforthemostelaborate.Theseartefacts

exhibitahandcraftedaesthetic,blendingthesubduedsheenofartisanally-produced

indigenousgoldensilkandthenuancedtouchofnaturallydyedhues.Theycontrastwith

other,shinier,brightersilksonthemarketthatuseindustrialsilkyarnandchemical

colours,seeninAA’sproducts[Figs.65a-b,66].

Figs.65a-bSelectionofholsilksinnaturaldyesondisplayattheIKTTshop,SiemReap,Cambodia,December2016.Author’sphotographs.

214

Fig.66ArtisansAngkor’sbrightly-colouredsilkproducts,January2017.Author’sphotograph.

Intermsofnetwork,Japanhasbeenamajoroutletfortheorganisation.Morimotoexplained

in2009thatIKTThadabranchinTokyoconsistingofbuyersandaspokesmantohelpto

’createopportunitiesforsellingthework,nottoaskforhandouts’.526Toattractalarger

internationalaudience,IKTThadalsoastutelydevelopedtwoseparatewebsites,onein

EnglishandoneinJapanese[Figs.67-68].Morimotovisitedhishomecountryeveryyearto

lectureandrepresentIKTT,forginglong-termcollaborationswithprivatecompaniessuch

asMujitodevelopprojectsonnaturalindigodyeing.527

Nakatanihasarguedthat‘AsiaisdistancedfromJapanbothtemporallyand

culturally’,intheparadoxthatJapanese‘exoticisethemselvesasAsian/Oriental,inwhich

casetheyaremergedwiththerestofAsiabut,atthesametime,theyobjectifyandpresent

526Harbarger,‘SilkDyerKikuoMorimoto,ResurrectingaCulturalEcology.’527Muji,TopExecutiveFace-to-FaceTalkwithKikuoMorimotohttps://ryohin-keikaku.jp/eng/csr/interview/002.html[AccessedMay2,2020]

215

thelatterastheirculturalother’.528ThiscouldexplaintheriseofJapanesetourismin

Cambodia.In2015,Japanesevisitorsconstitutedthesixthmostnumerousgroupintermsof

foreignarrivals:therewereabout193,000Japanesevisitors,ofwhichtwothirdscamefor

leisure.529Japanese-ledcraftorganisationssuchasIKTThaveintegratedthisclienteleinto

theirnetworkbyprovidingamediatedexperienceofruralCambodianculture.Whilethey

cametoSiemReapfortheKhmerEmpiresplendours,aregularflowofvisitors,especially

Japanese,alsoaddedIKTTasadestination,eventhoughtheweavingcentreliesofftheusual

touristroute.GroupsregularlyvisittheWisdomfromtheForestvillagetoexperiencelifein

aruralhandcraftvillage,stayingovernightinasimplehomestay,discoveringartisanal

productionprocessesandeatingwiththelocalworkers.In2016,itcost30USDtospend

onenightatthevillage,breakfastincluded,andthesamepriceforactivitiessuchasplanting

amulberrytreeandattendingatie-dyeworkshop.Untilhedied,IKTTcharged200USDfor

aone-hourlecturebyMorimotowithagroupofattendees.

Inaddition,Morimotoreceivednumerousvisitorstothevillage:textilecollectors,

scholars,businessandinstitutionalrepresentatives,photographersandfilmmakers,

volunteersandmanytourists,includingmyselfin2012andagainin2016.530Meetinghimin

2012wassimple.531Icontactedhimbyemailtodiscussmydocumentaryproject,towhich

heagreed;ImethimfirstatIKTT’sshopinSiemReap,whereheofferedtotakemetothe

WisdomfromtheForestvillagethefollowingday.532Acharismaticandamiable

spokepersonforIKTT,Morimotowasconvincinginhisadvocacyforaholisticapproachto

Cambodiangoldensilk,holweaving,andnaturaldyes.Hiseagernesstosharethevaluesand

storyofIKTT,alongwiththediscoveryoftheworkshopspacesandworkingweavers,

528Nakatani,‘ExoticismandNostalgia:ConsumingSoutheastAsianHandicraftsinJapan,’20.529PhnomPenhPost,'CambodiaPushesforMoreJapaneseTourism,’August18,2016,www.phnompenhpost.com/business/cambodia-pushes-more-japanese-tourism?[AccessedMay2,2020] 530SeethebookTreeofLife(2015)byJunjiNaitoandCambodianTextiles(2018)byUtagawaTatsuhito,thelastdocumentaryfilmbeforeMorimoto'sdeath. 531In2016,hewasquitefrailfromcancerandwasonlyabletotalkbriefly.532Berthon,'KikuoMorimoto,l’âmedel’ikat.’

216

guaranteedanengagingexperience,similartootheraccountsoftextilecolleaguesinthe

fieldwhohadmethimundersimilarcircumstances.

SinceMorimotodiedinJuly2017attheageofsixty-nine,theorganisationhasbeen

runbyMidoriIwamoto,whowastakenonin2015asaprojectmanageranddeputy

representativedealingwithdailyoperations.Shenowhasthechallengingtaskofpursuing

Morimoto'slegacywhilecontinuingtoengageandsupportthecommunityofartisans

workingforIKTT.Activesince1995,theorganisation’spositiveimpactonthepromotionof

silkweavinghasbeenundeniable.However,itsreachintermsofproductionandeconomic

impactonlocalpopulationsremainsdifficulttoassess.Thenextsectionturnsto

Cambodian-ownedinitiativesonadifferentscaleandexplorestheinvolvementofwomenas

stakeholdersinthesilkscape.

Fig.67IKTTwebsitewithKikuoMorimoto’sbiographyinEnglish,aimedataninternationalaudience,2017,http://www.ikttearth.org

217

Fig.68IKTTwebsitehomepage,Japaneseversion,2017.Morimotoisontheleftofthisundatedarchivalimage.http://www.iktt.org

Cambodianinitiatives:betweenmacro-consortiumandmicro-enterprises

Athirdwaveofdevelopmentinthesilksector,aftertheearlyinvestmentof

transnationalagenciesandtheestablishmentofleadingforeign-backedNGOs,hasbeen

Cambodian-ownedenterprises.Sincetheearly2000s,thesilksectorhasbeenmarkedby

twooverlappingmovementsofexpansionandsegmentation,dividedbetweenlarger

membershipassociations,foreign-ownedactorsandCambodian-ownedenterprisessuchas

SilkAssociationsofCambodiaandColorSilk.ShiftingthefocustoCambodianinitiatives

offersthepossibilityofexaminingtheagencyofnationalapproachesandtheirinfluencein

theglobalnetworkandadvancingtowardstheexplorationofCambodianvoicesinvolvedin

thesilkmarket.Keyconsiderationsherearetheextenttowhichthesecompaniesfitthe

generalparadigmofsilkcraftsbuiltbyforeignandtransnationalprerogatives,andwhether

theycontradictdominantdiscourses,renegotiatethem,orprovidealternativestrategies.

218

AccordingtotheNSS,themajorityoftheweavingworkforceinCambodiaoperates

inabouttwohundredandfiftysmallandmediumenterprisesandNGOs.533Thisfragmented

landscapesuffersfromalackofcooperationbetweenthesevariousactors,whooften

competeforfundingandcustomers.TheNSSalsopositionsThailandasoneofCambodia’s

majorcompetitorswithLaosandVietnamonsilkgoods,especiallydestinedtothetourist

market.Itassessesthat:‘CambodiacouldaimatcompetingwithThailandandVietNamby

pursuingadifferentiationstrategytowardshigh-endhand-madesilkproducts’.534In

response,severalgroupshaveaimedtostrengthentheindustryandestablishethical

guidelinesasawaytosupporttheproducers,asmuchasattractingadomesticandexport

market.Amongthesenationalstakeholders,ArtisansAssociationofCambodia,a

membership-basedorganisation,wasestablishedin2001throughthecoordinatedeffortsof

theWorldRehabilitationFund,theUNDevelopmentProgrammeandtheInternational

LabourOrganization.Itcurrentlyconsistsofforty-eightcompaniesinvolvedinthe

Cambodiancraftsector,representingmorethantwothousandworkers.535Someofthese

companiesareledbyFrench,JapaneseandKoreanfounders.Membersallrespondtofair-

tradeprinciplesdefinedbytheWorldFairTradeOrganization,workingtowardsavarietyof

goalssuchasempoweringpeoplewithdisabilities,preservingKhmerculture,protecting

againsthumantrafficking,fightingpovertyandsupportinglocalcommunities.Themajority

ofmembersdealwithtextileproduction,includingtheprojectsdiscussedinthischapter,

suchasAA,IKTT,andColorSilk.Otherinitiativesproducerecycledaccessories,wood

carvingsandsouvenirs.

ArtisansAssociationofCambodiahasbeenledbyMenSinoeunsince2003.Originallyfrom

PhnomPenh,hehadacareerinlawandpublicadministrationanddevelopment,fromCare

533InternationalTradeCenterandCambodiaMinistryofCommerce,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,11.534Ibid,22,48.535ArtisansAssociationofCambodia,Catalog2017-18:AACMemberProfiles[AccessedMay2,2020]

219

Internationalin1993totheDisabilityActionCouncilundertheaegisoftheCambodian

MinistryofSocialAffairsin1999.536Hisorganisationprovidestraininginmarketing,

commercialstrategy,design,trends,costingandshipping,andqualitycontrol.Italso

participatesininternationalfairssuchasMaison&ObjetinParis,NYNowinNewYorkand

BazaarBerlin,andhelpscompaniescompetewithotherSoutheastAsiancraftcountries

(principallyMyanmar,Laos,andThailand).537IinterviewedMenSinoeuninJuly2017.He

stressedthatthesilksectorwouldbenefitfrommoreinvestmentfromtheCambodian

governmentandtheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNationstosupportsilkweaversand

raisetheirwages.ArtisansAssociationofCambodiahasalsoadvocatedsimplifyingexport

proceduresandtheprocurementofcertificatesoforiginforCambodianentrepreneurs,in

ordertofacilitateexports.538

Silkproducershavebuilttheirownnetworkswithmixedresults,stillrelyingonthe

financialsupportofanumbrellaofinternationalinstitutions,especiallyITC.Amongthese

theCambodiaSilkForum,amembershiporganisationoftwentyofthemainproducersof

Cambodiansilkproducts,includingIKTT,remainedactiveuntiltheearly2010s.Itprovided

limitedsupporttolocalbusinesses,organisingregionalfairs,focusingonsilkfarmingand

gatheringfundingfromITC.539

KhmerSilkVillageAssociationdevelopedundertheaegisoftheAgenceFrançaisedu

Développementbetween2002and2005.Gatheringsilkfarmersandweavingcommunities

invillages,theassociationfocusedonincreasingsilkyarnproductiontocompetewith

536MenSinoeun,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,July2017,PhnomPenh,Cambodia. 537ArtisansAssociationofCambodia,Catalog2017-18:AACMemberProfiles.538OECD,‘AidforTradeCaseStoryWorldBank:WomenEntrepreneursinCambodia,’OECDWorldTradeOrganization,2010https://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/47803414.pdf[Accessed26December2017] 539‘HowtoBuyKhmerQualitySilk,’CambodianSilk,http://www.cambodiansilk.net[AccessedMay2,2020];‘Cambodia’sSilkRoadtoPovertyReduction,’InternationalTradeForumMagazine,2(2006),http://www.forumducommerce.org/Cambodias-Silk-Road-to-Poverty-Reduction/[AccessedMay1,2020];SeealsoChunSophal,‘SilkWeaversStruggleasCostofThreadIncreases,’ThePhnomPenhPost,6May2010https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/silk-weavers-struggle-cost-thread-increases?[AccessedMay1,2020]

220

threadimportsandenhanceweavers’capacitytocaterforexportmarkets.540Workingon

theentiretyoftheproductionchainandmanagedbyanexperiencedteam,KhmerSilk

VillageemergedasaprivilegedpartnerforthelargerfundingbodyITCtooperatethe

CambodiaSector-WideSilkProjectin2010-2012withcommunitiesinthefield,leading

trainingprogrammesinweaving,sericulture,andmarketingaswellaspurchasingand

distributingfinishedsilkproducts.However,theco-ophasnotcommunicateditsactivities

viaitsFacebookpagesince2013,andthewebsitehasbeendeactivated.

Morerecently,thefoundationoftheNationalSilkBoard,agovernment-privatesector

partnershiplaunchedin2013undertheMinistryofCommerce,withthesupportofITC,

respondedtothisneedformorecoordination,regulationandcentralisationtoboost

investorconfidenceandemphasisecompetitiveness.Issuesinsynergyandcooperation

betweenCambodianministriesdelayeditsofficialformationuntil2014.541Thegrouponly

starteditsactivityin2015,withtheredevelopmentoflocalsericultureasitsfirstpriority.

ThisledtothepublicationoftheNSS2016-2020report,whichisthemostcomprehensive

andrecentstudyofthesilkindustry,andakeysourceforthisthesis.542

540SusanFallsandJessicaSmith,‘GoodHands:SilkWeavingandTransnationalPartnershipsinCambodia,’inTextileEconomies:PowerandValuefromtheLocaltotheTransnational,ed.WalterE.Little,PatriciaA.McAnany(Lanham,MD:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,2011),216-18;InternationalTradeCentre,Report:Mid-TermExternalEvaluationCambodiaSector-WideSilkProject,38.541ChanMuyhong,‘NationalSilkBoardDelayedasMinistriesFailtoCoordinate,’ThePhnomPenhPost,June12,2014https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/national-silk-board-delayed-ministries-fail-coordinate[AccessedMay1,2020]542AnumberofprojectshaveemergedfromNSS,especiallytheopeningoftheKhmerSilkCentreattheRoyalUniversityofPhnomPenhin2019,focusingonimprovingandincreasingdomesticsericultureandengineeringinnovativeoutlets.ThisprojecthasbeenfundedbyUNDPtoprocurematerialsandequipmentinruralareasandtheJapanesegovernment.SeeVounDara,‘KhmerSilkCentreopensatRUPP,’ThePhnomPenhPost,June6,2019,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/khmer-silk-centre-opens-rupp[AccessedMay2,2020];UNDPCambodia,Cambodia’sNewSilkroute:BoostingLivelihoodsandRecapturingaRichHistory,2018https://www.kh.undp.org/content/cambodia/en/home/presscenter/articles/2018/cambodia_s-new-silk-route--boosting-livelihoods-and-recapturing-.html[AccessedMay2,2020]

221

Inparallelwiththesemacro-consortiamarkingtherecognitionofthesilksector’s

economicpotential,thesilkscapecontinuedtoexpandwithnewCambodian-owned

initiatives.Asthischapterhasshown,foreignfundingbodieshavehadamultiplyingeffect

onthesilkindustry,feedingabloomofnumerousdomesticinitiatives,withvaryingdegrees

ofsuccess.Despitetheprominenceoffemale-ledsmallandmediumenterprisesinthe

Cambodiancraftsector,womenhavestruggledtoaccessentrepreneurshipandhigherlevels

ofmanagement.543

Thisfinalsectioncomparestwoprojects,SilkAssociationsofCambodiaandColorSilk,

ownedbyCambodianwomenandestablishedinthecontinuityoftheseearlydevelopments.

Thisstudyconsidershowgenderispartofthedistributionofagenciesinthenetwork,as

wellasrespondingtoforeignmodelsofdevelopment.Moreover,discoursesongender

representationarealsolinkedtoideasofnostalgia.Jacobsenhasarguedthatfeminismin

Cambodiaemergedinthe1950sdespitethecustomarydiscoursethatkeptwomenin

inferiorpositionsfollowingChpabSrei,anineteenth-centurycodeofconductdefiningthe

idealbehaviourofsreikrupleakkhana,thevirtuouswoman.544The1980ssawthe

reassertionofthisconservativethinkingasaformofnostalgiaforpre-colonialtimes.The

re-legitimisationofthisgenderstereotypinghappenedatthesametimeastheriseofthe

firstpost-conflictwomen’sassociationsinfluencedbythereturnofexiledCambodian

womenfromrefugeecampsandWesterncountries.545Theresistantattitudetowards

womenworkinginmanagementroleshaspersistedinCambodiansociety,andisonly

slowlychangingintheyoungergeneration.546

543OECD,AidforTradeCaseStoryWorldBank:WomenEntrepreneursinCambodia,OECDWorldTradeOrganization,2010.https://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/47803414.pdf[AccessedMay2,2020]544Jacobsen,LostGoddesses:TheDenialofFemalePowerinCambodianHistory,182,231. 545Jacobsen,‘RidingaBuffalotoCrossaMuddyField:HeuristicApproachestoFeminisminCambodia,’215-16.546TheNipponFoundation,AsianWomenSocialEntrepreneursNetworkReport(Tokyo:TheNipponFoundation,2015),22-23.

222

ChinKoeurprovidesanexampleofafemaleownerwhosebusinessoriginatesfrom

theUNESCOsilkprojectinPhnomChisorpresentedatthebeginningofthischapter.This

formertrainee(forty-five-year-oldin2018)openedherowncompanyin1996asaweaver

andmiddlewomaninherhomevillageofKanhjanginTakeoProvince.WhenIinterviewed

herinMarch2018duringafieldtripinTakeoprovince,sheshowedmeherlaminated

UNESCOcertificatewhichattested,withhernameandpicture,toaseven-monthtraining

conductedfromMaytoOctober1995inPhnomPenhundermasterweaverLeavSaEm’s

apprenticeship,an‘easygoing’mastersupportiveof‘someonewhoreallywantstolearn’

[Fig.69].547Shekeptthecertificateinatranslucentplasticfolder,withotherCambodian

awardsshehadreceivedinhercareerforthebestholdesign,withinrangeofthewarehouse

whereshehadsetupherbusiness.Thespacehadadeskandafewchairs,oneloom,some

weavingandtyingsupplies,storedproductsonshelves,andmotorbikes.Thiscertificate

wasnotondisplayintheoffice,butshehadkeptitinpristineconditionformorethan

twentyyears,whichshowsthevalueandpridesheassociatedwiththisobject.ChinKoeur

hadonlyarudimentaryknowledgeofweavinglearnedatschoolin1995whenshestarted

theUNESCOtraining,whichrecruitedindividualsfromimpoverishedfamilies,uneducated

backgroundsandorphans.Itwas‘difficulttopreparethethreads,thatshehadno

experiencebefore.Andlearning[was]hardforher’.548Thisprogrammeprovidedherwith

thefoundationskillstoundertakeallthestagesofCambodiansilkweaving,especiallythe

holandpidantechniques,fromdesigningpatternstowarping,spinningsilk,tyingand

dyeingitwithnaturalandchemicaldyesandweavingontheloom.549Atthefinalceremony

markingtheendofhertraining,shewasgiventhiscertificateandasampotholkbun,which

sheeventuallysoldtobuysilkyarnatthemarketandstartherfirstorders.550Eachtimeshe

547ChinKoeur,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.PromChak,March17,2018,Kanhjang,Cambodia. 548Ibid. 549Ibid;SeeAppendixA2.550Ibid.

223

finishedanewpiece,shewouldbringittoUNESCOtosellonsite,andwouldusethemoney

tocreatearollingfund.

Fig.69ChinKoeur’scertificate,datedOctober1995,forsilkweavingtrainingundermasterweaverLeavSaEm,Kanhjangvillage,Takeo,March17,2018.Author’sphotograph.

ChinKoeur’sevolutioninthesilkbusinesshasbeenmotivatedbypragmatismand

reactivity,relyingontheresourcesavailabletoherinthe1990sandthesupportofUNESCO

Cambodia.ShepursuedadditionaltrainingonnaturaldyesatCYK,theJapanese-ledNGO

providingweavingprogrammesintheTakeoregion.Thenshestartedworkingwithher

sisterandmother,managingtobuildmorecapitalandlaunchherownbusiness,Silk

AssociationsofCambodia,inhervillageofKanhjangin1996[Figs.70-71].551Toproduce

more,shehiredotherweaversbasedinherarea,whomshepaidbythepiece.She

551KanhjangvillageispartofSlaCommune,SamraongDistrict,inTakeoProvince.Accordingtothe1998censusofCambodia,SamraŏngDistricthadapopulationof101,455.NationalInstituteofStatistics,GeneralPopulationCensusofCambodia1998,FinalCensusResults(Cambodia:MinistryofPlanning,2002),268.

224

progressedfromweavingtodesigning,training,management,anddistribution.Twenty

yearslatershewasworkingwith‘fiftylooms’,whichmeantfiftyweavers,whocould

produceaboutthreekbunperloom–aboutonehundredandfiftypiecesmonthly[Fig.72].

ChinKoeursaidthat‘shehasnownotimetoweave,justfocusondesigning[…]Shehires

likehermothertostarttodothisgrid[thetying],andthenshewillsendthisgridtoother

personstodesign,andthenshejustchecksittocorrectthedesign. Andafterthatshesends

ittothepersonwhodyes’.552

BesidesherparticipationintheUNESCOprogrammeandmyvisittoherpremises,Iwasnot

abletocross-checkanyoftheinformationprovidedbyChinKoeur.Theguidewho

introducedmetoher,PromChak,aprogrammeofficerassistantatUNESCOinPhnomPenh,

originallyfromPhnomChisor,hadknownhersincetheUNESCOproject.Theyhadbuilta

relationshipoftrust,whichvalidatestheauthenticityofChinKoeur’stestimony.Thevalue

ofherresponsesliesinherexpressionsofconfidenceandsenseofownershipinher

practiceasaweaverandentrepreneur.

552 ChinKoeur,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.

225

Fig.70SilkAssociationsofCambodiasignattheentrancetoChinKoeur’shouseandoffice,Kanhjangvillage,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince,March17,2018.Author’sphotograph.

Fig.71SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince,includingPhnomChisorandSla,Cambodia,basedonaGoogleMapsview.

Takeo

Towards Phnom Penh

226

Intermsofherpositionwithinthesilkscape,despitebearingthetitleof‘association’,Chin

Koeur’sbusinesshasreliedonhersoleownershipandcentralroleofdesignerand

middlewoman.Shehasengagedadynamicsetofrelations.ChinKoeurdevelopsthedesigns,

passesorderstoweaverswhowork‘onlyforher’,providingthemwithrawmaterialson

credit,andreceivesthefinishedproductsbeforesellingthemtoshops.Whileshehasbeen

workingonalargerproductionscale,shehascontinuedtopurchaserawmaterialsin

PhnomPenh,includingpre-dyedsilkthreads.553

Fig.72SilkAssociationsofCambodia’sbusinessmodel,basedoninterviewwithChinKoeur.Author’simage.ChinKoeur’scasedemonstratesthatcertainactorscannotbereducedtooneclearlydefined

role.Hermobilitybetweenthecountrysideandthecapitalcityindicateshowshehad

553ChinKoeur,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.

227

transformedherselffromheroriginalpositionofweaver,amorestaticroleassignedtoa

loomthatreliesonmiddlemenformaterialssourcing,orders,andsales.Inherinterview,

sheexpressedconcernaboutthepriceofimportedsilkfromVietnamorThailand,andwhat

itmeantforherbusiness.Shecouldnotunderstandwhyithaddoubledinrecentyears,

costing70USDforonekilo,despitetheCambodiangovernment’sstatement‘thattoimport

[silk]thereisnotax’.554Sheexplainedthat‘shealwayscomplainstothepeoplewhosellthe

silk.But...Andthegovernmentsaidtheydon'tchargetheimporttax,butthat'sstill

expensive’.555Thissituationhasforcedhertoraisethepriceofherproductstoaminimum

of200USDforoneholkbun.Fromothertestimoniescollectedinthefield,thesearehigh

pricesforcomplexpolychromicclothsforthelocalmarket,ifoneincludesafterthemark-up

appliedbythefinalseller.ThetextileshopsinPsaarOrusseymarketinPhnomPenhmay

offerausefulpricecomparison.InAugust2017,theshopowneratnumber33,street141,

explainedthatpricesdiffereddependingonthecomplexityofholpatternsandthenumber

ofcoloursused.Foratwo-colourpiece,itwas100USDforafullkbun(threeandahalf

metres),andhalfofthisforasampotsamloy(ahalfpiece).Foramulti-colouredpiece,the

dealercharged200USDforaholkbunandhalfofthisforasampotsamloy.

Forherproductdesigns,ChinKoeurhasmovedfromcopyingikatpatternsfromdifferent

villages,apracticecommontomiddlemenchoosingstylesandbringingthemtoweavers,to

designingnewmotifs.Inthatsenseshehaspositionedherselfasadesigner,andnotsimply

abuyer,deliveringnewmodelseachmonthandbecomingrecognisedforherstyle.She

declared‘notcopy[ing]theotherpatterns,justdesignsbyherself.[Otherwise]after,very

difficulttosell’.556Tosourceideasandcolourwaysshehasreliedonhersellers'feedbackin

PhnomPenh,whocommunicatecustomers’tasteandrequests.ChinKoeurhasfocusedon

hol,workingontyinganddyeingpatterns:sheisshownhereposingwithabundleofyarn,

554ChinKoeur,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon. 555Ibid.556Ibid.

228

nexttoherUNESCOcertificate[Fig.73].Withthehelpofhermother,shehasprovidedsets

ofpre-tiedanddyedweftyarn(kiet)toweaverswhoarepaid60USDtoweaveakbunfor

her.Inruralareas,middlemenusuallypayweaversabout90USDtomakeapiecefromstart

tofinish,includingtyinganddyeing,andtheweavershavetodeductthecostofraw

materials.557Bypayingthemonlyforweaving,withoutdyeing,ChinKoeurhasaccelerated

productionandensuredcontroloverthedesigns,amethodalsoappliedatAA,whichhas

separatedworkersintwoteams,onefortyinganddyeingandtheotherforweaving.558

Moreover,ChinKoeurhastrainedaselectionofweaversintie-dyetosecureaskilled

workforceabletofulfilhercompany'sorders.Thisspeakstohercreativemindset:shehas

positivelyutilisedherUNESCOtrainingandexpandedherskillsfromsoloweavertodesign

manager.

Thereare,however,signsthatChinKoeur’scompanyhasnotfullyevolvedfromthe

conventionalmodelofmiddleman-weaverrelationship.Bypayingbythepiece,shehas

maintainedpressureonweaverstoproducerapidly,withoutthesecurityofasalary.559She

perpetuatesthehierarchicalkhsaesystembynotincludingherfiftyweaversinleadership.

Forsales,ChinKoeurprovidesanexampleofhowthedomesticmarketworks.Shehas

workedwithshopsinPhnomPenhwhichinturnselltolocalbuyers,Cambodianswholive

abroadandCambodiansexportingtoEuropeandtheUnitedStates:‘forexamplethepeople

wholiveabroad,theylikethisstyle,theylikethiscolour,andthentheycallthesellerin

PhnomPenh.ThesellerinPhnomPenhjustsendsthephotoofthecolourtoher’560.She

worksontheseordersimmediately,subcontractingtheweavingandshippingthepieces

backtoPhnomPenh,usingtheflexibilityofartisanalproductiontoheradvantage.561Aware

557Dependingonthecomplexityofthepattern,foratwo-colorikatpiecethiswholeprocessofdyeingandweavingmaytakebetweentwotothreeweeksforaweaver.Itwouldtakeaminimumofamonthtocompleteapolychromicsilkikat.558PavEangKhoing,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.559Foradetaileddescriptionofthemiddlemen’sactivities,seeBallyn,’ACulturalEconomicAnalysisofCrafts:AViewfromtheWorkshopoftheWorld,’191.560ChinKoeur,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.561Ibid.

229

oftheneedtobypassshopsellerstoincreaseprofit,ChinKoeurhasconsideredhowto

distributeherproductsdirectlytocustomers.Shehasplanstoopenashopwithher

daughtersinahouseshehasboughtinthesouthofPhnomPenhandbysellinginpersonin

Thailand.SilkAssociationsofCambodiahasremainedorganicallyafamilybusiness,rather

thananassociation,developingfromherpracticeasanindividualweaverconcentratingon

adomesticmarket,usingtheearlyUNESCOsupporttoestablishheractivity.

Fig.73ChinKoeurworkingonatiedbundleofweftsilkyarninherworkshop,Kanhjangvillage,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince,March17,2018.Author’sphotograph.

Incomparison,ColorSilk,aCambodian-ownedsocialenterprisefoundedinPhnom

PenhbyNgornVanntha,athirty-seven-year-oldCambodianwoman,fostersadifferent

approachgroundedinsocialentrepreneurship,digitalcommunication,andexport-oriented

230

production.TherootsofthisorganisationarealsoinTakeoprovincewherethefounder

grewup,inafamilyofsilkweaversandtraders.562NgornVannthawenttohighschoolin

PhnomPenhandearnedaMastersinBusinessAdministrationattheRoyalUniversityof

LawandEconomics.SheworkedasanITanalystforaprivatecompanyuntilshewonthe

NationalBusinessPlanCompetitioninPhnomPenh,organisedbytheNationalUniversityof

ManagementinpartnershipwiththeinternationalconsultingfirmMcKinsey.Herproposal

wasbasedontheobservationthatloomsweredisappearingfromvillagers’housesdueto

ruralexodus.HerplanwastocreateemploymentopportunitiesforfemaleweaversinTakeo

byundercuttingmiddlemenandexpandingdistributionchannels.563

NgornVannthastartedColorSilkin2009withpersonalfunds.Forherfirstorder,she

recruitedtenweaversfromPreiKabasdistrictinTakeotodevelopsilksamplesdestinedfor

theUSmarket.Followingthecodesofsocialentrepreneurship,NgornVannthahasoperated

asManagingDirectorandChairmanoftheBoard.564OnekeyaspectofColorSilkisitsfemale

leadership.NgornVannthalearnedaboutweavingatayoungageandhasbenefitedfrom

highereducation.Nevertheless,sheexperiencedpressureanddoubtsfromherownfamily

andin-laws,despiteherhusband’searlyapproval.IninterviewinAugust2017she

confided:’nobodylistenedtomeinthebeginning’.565Thisillustratestheprevalenceof

genderedculturalnorms,evenamongeducatedCambodianwomen,whoarestillrelegated

toadomesticroleofhomemakerandmother.Togainrecognitionandsupport,Ngorn

VannthastrategicallyenteredaseriesofUScompetitionsforsocialinnovators,which

successfullyputColorSilkattheforefrontoftheexportmarket.In2010,NgornVanntha

washonouredbytheYouthActionNet®GlobalFellowshipprogrammelaunchedbythe

562PromChak,UNESCOofficeprogrammeassistantandoriginallyfromthesameareainTakeo,toldmethatNgornVanntha’sfamilywasknownaslocalmiddlementradingsilk.Inherinterview,NgornVannthadescribedherfamilyassilkweavers.563NgornVanntha,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,August2,2017,PhnomPenh,Cambodia.564StephenPatersonandYimKeorithy,‘DevelopinganInnovativeBusinessModel:TheCaseofColorSilkEnterpriseinCambodia,’ASEANSMECaseStudyProject,June21,2013,18-19. 565NgornVanntha,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.

231

InternationalYouthFoundation,aBaltimore-basednon-profitorganisationsupporting

globalyouthempowermentsince1990.Shewasofferedatwelve-monthfellowshipandwas

invitedtoaweek-longnetworkingprogrammeinWashington,D.C.,andreceivedagrant

acknowledgingherproject’ssocialimpactinthePhnomPenharea.In2011shereceivedthe

supportoftheInternationalYouthFoundation-StarbucksSharedPlanetYouthAction

Grant.566OneofColorSilk’sboardmembers,ReaganHudgens,isanAmericandigital

specialistactingasanadvisorforthesilkcompanyonoptimisingdistributionandclient

relationships,whichcouldexplainthecompany’sUSpositioning.567NgornVannthawas

thenhonourednationallyattheCambodianYoungEntrepreneurAwards2015,organised

byJCICambodiaandYoungEntrepreneursAssociationofCambodia.

Inparallelwithitssocialbusinessstructure,withashowroomandofficeinPhnomPenh,

ColorSilksetupafoundationin2011,providingfreetrainingworkshopsinsilkworm

farming,yarnprocessing,weavinganddyeingforvulnerabledisabledandilliterateyoung

women.Thisdevelopmenthasactivatedanotherrangeofsupportandconnectionsaround

theempowermentofwomen.TheprojectstartedwithaweavingcentreinSlacommunein

Takeo,followedbyalargerconstructionnearPhnomChisor,builtinMarch2016withthe

supportofMaybankFoundation,thephilanthropicbranchoftheMalaysianbankMaybank

[Fig.74].568ThisprojectwassupportedbytheASEANFoundationaspartofMaybank

WomenEcoWeavers’SoutheastAsianprogramme.569Thecentrewasceremoniallyopened

inAugust2017byChanSorey,SecretaryofState,MinistryofWomen’sAffairs,andDatuk

566InternationalYouthFoundation,InternationalYouthFoundation&NokiaHonor20YouthLeaders,2010,https://www.iyfnet.org/blog/international-youth-foundation-nokia-honor-20-youth-leaders[Accessed3January2018]567ChangemakersAshoka,ColorSilkEnterprise:SilkWeaving,2015https://www.changemakers.com/globalgoals2015/entries/color-silk-enterprise[AccessedMay2,2020]568MaybankFoundation,Pressrelease:LaunchingoftheMaybankSilkWeavingTrainingCentre,Cambodia,MaybankFoundationhttp://maybankfoundation.com/index.php/how-we-work/press-releases/item/launching-of-the-maybank-silk-weaving-training-centre-cambodia[Accessed12December2017];SeethemapinFigure75. 569Ibid.

232

MohaiyaniShamsudin,Maybank’sChairman.Maybank’spresentationattheopeningofthis

trainingcentreportrayedNgornVannthaasa'visionweaver’whois‘craftingfuturesona

forgottenwayoflife’,shiftingtoadiscourseofinnovationwithintradition.570

Groundednationallyandinternationallywiththistwo-partstructure,by2017ColorSilk

hadbeenabletotrainabout480weavers,integratingthemas‘members’operatingfrom

homewiththestatusofmicro-entrepreneurinsevenvillagesinTakeoprovince.Aspartof

theirnormalpractice,theorganisationprovidedtheweaverswithmaterialsatnocost,

loanedmoneytosetuplooms,andpaidpieceratesabovethemarketprices.571Theweavers

havemanagedtoearnanaverageincomeof200USDpermonth.572Theorganisationhas

alsoworkedwiththreehundredandfiftyfarmerswhogrowmulberrytreestohelpincrease

domesticsericulture.

570NgornVannthafeaturedontheMaybankSilkWeavingTrainingCentrefortheMaybankFoundationFacebookpage,July26,2017.Source:MaybankFoundation(Facebook). https://www.facebook.com/Maybank/photos/a.168159803216857/1640555265977296571‘AboutUs,’ColorSilk,https://colorsilkcommunity.wixsite.com/colorsilk-cambodia/color-silk-enterprise[AccessedMay2,2020]572RobinSpiess,‘Silktrainingcentreweavesanopportunityforruralwomen,’ThePhnomPenhPost,August2,2017https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/silk-training-centre-weaves-opportunity-rural-women[AccessedJanuary28,2021]

233

Fig.74MaybankWomenEcoWeaversprogrammeattheMaybankSilkWeavingTrainingCenter,Slacommune,Takeoprovince,n.d.PhotographColorSilkFoundation.

AsshownonColorSilk’swebsite,weaversproduceawiderangeofsilkproductssuchas

yardageinsolidcoloursandpatternedusingtheholtechnique,sarong,scarves,bagsand

clothes,creatingnewstylesthatarepresentedtocustomerseachmonth[Fig.75].

Approximately65percentofColorSilkproductsaremadetoorderforawholesalemarket

witharosterofclientswhoaremostlybasedintheEU(Germany,inparticular),Japan,

UnitedStatesandSingapore;therestissoldtoretailersinPhnomPenhandSiemReap,a

strategywhichdiffersfromthatofotherplayersinthesectorfocusedonthetouristmarket

[Fig.76].573WhilefacingstrongcompetitionfromAsianproducersfromChina,Vietnamand

Thailand,NgornVannthahas,however,succeededinexportingproductsandintegrating

internationalconsumersintothecompany’sdistributionnetwork.Clients,includingbuyers

andfashiondesigners,areabletomakecustomordersandselectstylesonline.

573SokChan,‘TraditionalSilkIndustryStrugglestoKeepitsShine,’KhmerTimes,March10,2016,http://www.khmertimeskh.com/news/22615/traditional-silk-industry-struggles-to-keep-its-shine/[AccessedonDecember15,2017]

234

Thismodel,whichcombinesCambodianleadershipandinternationalbusiness

strategies,appearsinthecompany’sapproachtoproblemsolving,goal-orienteddiagnosis,

anditsclearimpactobjectivestotackleissuesofinternalmigration,povertyreductionand

theempowermentofruralwomen.Forinstance,in2015ColorSilkprovideddetailsofits

salarylevels,businessplan,expectedgrowth,anticipatedincreaseofthenumberof

trainees,andthecontentoftheirtrainingonitsonlineapplicationforayoungsocial

entrepreneursawardonthesocialinnovationnetworkAshoka.574

Fig.75RangeofColorSilkikatfabricsinavarietyofcolourwaysandpatterns,ColorSilkwebsite,AccessedMay2,2020.

574ChangemakersAshoka,ColorSilkEnterprise:SilkWeaving,2015,AccessedMay2,2020https://www.changemakers.com/globalgoals2015/entries/color-silk-enterprise

235

Fig.76DistributionofColorSilk’sexport/wholesaleanddomesticretailproducts.Author’simage.

Thepublicisingofthisdataquantifyingimpactdiffersfromthepreviousmodelsexamined

inthischapter,especiallyinChinKoeur’sinformalmodelorIKTT’simprecisedata.Inthe

caseofColorSilk,theheritageaspectofCambodiansilkweavinghasrecededbehindthe

imperativesforquantifiablesocialimpact.Onthe'About'pageofColorSilk’swebsite,

‘preservingaCambodiansilkheritage’comeslastinthecompany’stargetobjectives.575

Furthermore,ColorSilkisactiveonsocialmedia,withaFacebookpagewith13,261

followersand410followersonInstagram,presentingdebatesaroundtheethicalfashion

movement,whichadvocatesformoretransparencyinthegarmentmanufacturingsupply

chainandsupportstextileworkers’rightsindevelopingcountries.576Foritsparticipationin

the2017iterationoftheonlineglobalcampaign‘WhoMademyClothes?’,aninitiativeofthe

575‘AboutUs,’ColorSilk.576ColorSilkCambodia,‘Story,’https://www.facebook.com/pg/colorsilkcambodia/about/?ref=page_internal[AccessedOctober8,2017]

236

London-basednon-profitorganisationFashionRevolution,ColorSilkpromotedthe

Cambodianoriginsofitsproductsanditsartisanalapproach,sharingpicturesofweavers

holdingsignsstatinginEnglish‘Imadeyourclothes’[Fig.77].

Fig.77ColorSilkweaversfortheFashionRevolution2017campaign‘Whomademyclothes?’,April2017,ColorSilkFacebookpage.

ChinKoeurandNgornVannthasharesimilarities.TheyarebothfemaleCambodian

entrepreneursworkingwithweaversinTakeoprovince.ColorSilkwaspartofthesame

2015tourthatMaoThora,SecretaryofState,madetoSilkAssociationsofCambodia.They

bothavoidcultivatingpost-colonialandpost-conflictdiscoursespraisingtherevitalisation

ofadyingcraftcommonamongforeign-ownedcompanies.Thissectionhasexploredhow,

aswomenentrepreneurs,theyhaveovercometheirmarginalisedpositionwithinthe

Cambodiangenderhierarchythroughtwodifferentapproaches.SilkAssociationsof

Cambodiahasfocusedonincreasingproductionforadomesticmarket,findingrecognition

foritscreativedesignsbypursuingamiddleman-weaverrelationshiponalargerscale

withoutinvestinginfair-tradepractices.ColorSilk,ontheotherhand,hascapitalisedona

potentmodelcultivatingasocialentrepreneurshipethostofosterinternational

partnershipsandreachglobalfashionmarkets.

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Conclusion

Bycontextualisingdiverseperspectivesthroughaseriesofcasestudies,thischapter

haslocatedCambodiansilkwithinregional,national,andglobalframeworks,

deconstructingandmappingthenetworksanddiscoursesassociatedwithsilksincethe

1990s.Neo-colonialdiscoursescombiningissuesofculturalheritage,nostalgiaforpast

traditionsandauthenticityhavesustainedtheinvolvementofforeign-ownedand

transnationalinitiatives.Thestronginfluenceofforeignvoices–FrenchandJapanesein

particular–oftenrelyonrevivalistbinarydiscoursesofpovertyreductionandcultural

revivallinkedtotheAngkorianheritageandthedestructionwroughtbythecivilwar.

ThecontemporarypoliticsoftheCambodiansilknetworkaggregatesnumerous

stakeholdersnationallyandinternationally,withoverlapping,competing,andsometimes

complementaryrolessuchasgovernmentagencies,workshopfounders,independentand

employedweavers,suppliersandlocalandforeigncustomers,includingtourists.Coming

fromdisparatebackgrounds,eachcraftcompanyexaminedinthischapterappearsasa

culturalbrokernegotiatingwithanarrayofconnectingactors,drawingfromlocaland

foreigninfluences.Silktextilesalsocarryanagency.FromtokensofCambodianculture,

theyhavebecomeproductsofrecontextualisedtraditionthatappealtonon-local

markets.577

Powerrelationsareunevenlydistributedinthenetwork:theyareconcentratedin

thehandsoftransnationalfundingbodies,NGOs,andsocialenterprisestosupport

sericultureandlargerweavingprojects,andrelyontouristconsumption.Theirprominent

positioninthesilkscapehaspartiallymimickedtheCambodianoverarchingpatron-client

dynamic.Simultaneously,thenetworkisfragmentedintosmall-scaleinitiativesinwhich

informalactivityindomesticproductionremainsdominatedbymiddlemen.

577FallsandSmith,‘BrandingAuthenticity:CambodianIkatinTransnationalArtisanPartnerships,’5.

238

DesigntheoristRajeshwariGhosestressedtheimportanceofdevelopmentalistsfostering

‘autonomousandindigenousdevelopment’inAsiandevelopingcountries,providingasense

ofequitableself-relianceinthedesignsadopted,butalsointhematerials,processes,

advertising,andproductmanufacturing.578Foranindustrythatiscentredonartisanal

practices,themakersthemselvesarekeptattheperipheryofdominantdiscoursesand

leadership.Inthefaceofhistory,successivewavesofconflict,colonisationandunbalanced

socialstructuresandeconomicmodels,theirrolehasremainedunderestimatedand

marginalisedfromthechainofcommand.

Decolonialtheoryandnon-normativespaceswillbekeyframeworksinChaptersThreeand

Fourtodirectlyengagewithweaversandweavingpractices,aswellasissuesof

embodiment,skillstransmission,andexpressionsofculturalidentity.Weavershavealso

appearedinthischapterwhenpracticeandskillstransmissionhavebeendiscussed,with

theexampleofLeavSaEm’sworkforUNESCO,thesilkgrandmothersco-optedby

Morimoto,andevenChinKoeur,whodevelopedherpositionwithinthenetwork.This

chapterhasofferedalimiteddecolonialperspectiveonthepre-existingstructureofkhsae

andhowitchallengesWesternviewsintermsofagencywithinthenetwork.

TheexamplesoftheentrepreneursChinKoeurandNgomVannthapointtothe

heterogeneityofCambodianperspectivesandtheroleofartisansnotasobjectsofeconomic

policiesbutasactivesubjectsoftheirownpractice,inchargeofthetransmissionoftheir

skillsinsilkproduction.Thefollowingchapterthereforeexploreswaystofurtherchallenge

existingnarrativesbyreinstatingsilkproducersasexpertsandpossessorsofknowledge,

givingagreaterspacewithinthepolyphonyofthesilkscapetothevoicesofweavers.

578RajeshwariGhose,‘Design,Development,Culture,andCulturalLegaciesinAsia,’DesignIssues6,no.1,DesigninAsiaandAustralia(Autumn,1989):44.

239

ChapterThree

Weavers:DynamicsofKnowledgeProductionthroughPractice,Embodiment,andMemory

Introduction

Wilkinson-WeberandOriDenicolahavepositedthat’craft,likehistory,isatoolthat

peopleusetonegotiatetheirrolesandplaceswithinthematerialandsocial

environment’.579Aftermappingthesectoronamacro-levelandidentifyingthekeyagents

whowerethearchitectsoftheCambodiansilk-scapesincethe1990sinChapterTwo,

ChapterThreeturnsitsfocusonactorsremainingatthemarginsofthesilknetwork,namely

thesilkweaverswhoarepredominantly(66to87percent)women.580Weaversarenot

oftenincontroloftheirownnarrative,relegatedtoapassiveworkforceinneedofsupport

innumerousfunders’reportsandNGO’scommunication.BesidestheextensiveNSSsurvey

whichspendsseveralpagesdescribingCambodianweavers’demography,weaversare

overwhelminglyreferredtoasagenericanonymousgroup.581Theyaremainlycalled‘the

weavers’,toalesserextent‘women’asonColorSilkwebsite,andattimes‘thebeneficiaries’

asin:‘thebeneficiariesdidwithoutexceptionsappreciatetheservicesprovidedbythe

project’.582Assessmentspointingouteithertheweavers’weaknessesorthebenefitsgained

fromspecificprogrammesarecommon.Forexample,theCambodiaSectorWideSilkProject

reportestablishesthatthe‘technicalskillsofweaversarerelativelyweakascomparedto

579Wilkinson-WeberandOriDenicola,CriticalCraft:Technology,Globalization,andCapitalism,1.580InternationalTradeCenterandCambodiaMinistryofCommerce,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,5.581CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,9-10.;ArtisansAngkor,SilkWeavinghttp://www.artisansdangkor.com/people-16-95-silk-weaving.php[June29,2021]582ColorSilk,AboutUs:ColorSilkEnterprisehttps://colorsilkcommunity.wixsite.com/colorsilk-cambodia/color-silk-enterprise[June29,2021];InternationalTradeCenter,Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProject(PhaseII)CMB/49/05A,40.

240

competitorsinneighbouringcountries‘.583Moreover,a2006articlefromtheInternational

TradeForumMagazinestressedthatweaversneedassistance:

‘The20,000weaverswillemphasizeimprovingthequalityoftheirweavingaswellastheirabilitytosupplysilkclothinsufficientquantityandinatimelymanner.Theywillbeassistedbyweavingexpertsandinternationaldesigners’.584

Whenspecificallycited,individualweaversarepresentedinresponsetothefunder’s

developmentprogramme:‘twoyearsagoHengknewlittleaboutthemarketdemandforthe

silkscarvesandsmoothfabricsheproduced.Since,ITC’ssilkprojecthashelpedherto

increasehermonthlyincometobetweenUS$800andUS$1,000’.585Thischapterdraws

insteadontheirvoicesandpracticesasprimarymaterialtoexamine,asadvocatedby

anthropologistTrevorMarchand,‘individualprocesses,strategies,andtacticsofknowing–

andnotknowing–withinbroaderenvironmental,social,andpoliticalframesof

reference’.586

Toanswerthesequestionsonknowledgeandagency,thechosenmethodologyforthis

studyisgroundedinethnographicwork,visualdocumentationandinterviewsundertaken

inruralareasofCambodiaoverthreeperiodsoffieldwork[Fig.78].InDecember2016,I

interviewedIKTTweaversinSiemReap.InAugust2017,Imetthreetraineeweaversatthe

JapaneseCaringforYoungKhmer(CYK)NGO’sweavingcentreinTrapaingKrasaing

commune,Batidistrict,Takeoprovince.IndependentweaversinPhnomChisorarea,Takeo,

werealsointerviewedinMarch2018.Alongsidetheseinterviews,theActionResearch(AR)

methodwasexploredinacollaborativeprojectwiththeCambodiantextileorganisation

KramaYuyu(KY)inTaPoukvillage,nearSiemReap,during2017.Thisprojectformsthe

583;InternationalTradeCenter,Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProject(PhaseII)CMB/49/05A,16.584InternationalTradeCentre,‘Cambodia'sSilkRoadtoPovertyReduction,’InternationalTradeForum-Issue2/2006https://www.tradeforum.org/Cambodias-Silk-Road-to-Poverty-Reduction/[June29,2021]585ITCNews,FeatureStory:ImprovingtheLivelihoodsofCambodianSilkEntrepreneurs,March1,2013https://www.intracen.org/layouts/2coltemplate.aspx?pageid=47244640256&id=73349[June29,2021]586Marchand,MakingKnowledge:ExplorationsoftheIndissolubleRelationBetweenMind,BodyandEnvironment,15.

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corefocusofthischapter,tofurtherexaminetheweavers’strategiesofknowledge

transmissionandproductionthatarepresentintheactofweavingitself,andconsiderhow

theseskillscanbevectorsofeconomicandsocialempowerment.

Fig.78Myfieldworkforthischapterisconcentratedintwoprovinces:SiemReapinthenorth,Takeointhesouth.WikimediaCommons.

ThesmallscaleandfoundingaimsofKYwerekeytotheselectionofthiscompany

fortheARproject.KYwasfoundedin2006byTomokoTakagi,aJapanesewomannowin

herlatefortieswithexperienceinlandscapearchitectureandtextilecurationinNorthern

Japan,toprovideemploymentopportunitiesforlocalweavers.TomokorecruitedChenda

Heng,firstasherassistantandthenasthemanageroftheworkshop.Between2006and

2009,KYconsistedofonlyfourmembers,Tomoko,Chenda,Theary(Chenda’ssister)and

anotherweaver.587After2010,theworkshopexpandedandChendatrainednewrecruits,

whichleftherlesstimetocreatenewdesigns.KYhasbeenregisteredasaprivate

enterpriseattheCambodianMinistryofCommercesince2013.In2017,thecompanyhada

587TomokoTakagiandChendaHeng,informalconversation,December23,2016,TaPouk,Cambodia.

242

staffofthirty-fivefemaleweaversspecialisingincottonkrama.Duetoitssmallscale,the

workshophadbeengivingprioritytoon-demandproductionforexports.Chendaand

ThearylearnedholsilkweavingasteenagersinTakeoprovincefromtheirmother.

However,theyhadnotpractisedsilkweavingformorethanadecadeandwereonly

workingwithcottonatKY.

Toexplorehowtheseweaverscouldremobilisetheirunusedskills,theARprojectfocused

fromJulytoOctober2017ontheplanningandproductionoffoursampothol,conductedby

ChendaandThearywiththesupportofco-founderTomoko.Asaresearcher,Iengagedin

identifyingtheweavers’needsandhowtheARprojectcouldsupportthem,aswellas

facilitatingthefundingandplanningoftheactionbetweenFebruaryandJune2017.A

specificperiodoffieldworkwasdevisedtoenablemetoexploreanewandveryparticular

methodology.FromJuly24toJuly30,2017,Iwaspresentonsiteandfocusedonintensive

documentationthereofhowweaversdealtwiththewarpandweftikatpreparation

processes,usingfilmandphotographyaskeymethodologicaltools,inadditiontofurther

interviews.

Thespokenandembodiednarrativesoftheseweaversareengagedtoexploretheirroles

andstrategiesinthefaceofthehistoryofCambodia’slossandrevitalisationofitssilk

production,andhowtheynegotiatewithdifferentmethodsoflearning,practisingand

passingontheseskills.Marchandhasdemonstratedthat‘knowledgenecessarilyextendsto

otherdomainsincludingemotional,sensorial,spatialandsomaticrepresentations’andis

'communicatedbetweenactors,mostevidentlywiththebody’.588Knowledgeisthus

consideredintheweavers’oraltraditions,asmuchasintheirbodiesandtestimonies

collectedinthefield,toexamineskillslearninginapprenticeshipandcommunitywork.

Presentingapaletteofdefinitionsofsilkartisansas‘knowingbodies’aimstonuanceand

588Marchand,‘Muscles,MoralsandMind:CraftApprenticeshipandtheFormationofPerson,’257.

243

expandtheoreticalconceptsofembodimentinaCambodiancontext.589Inthissense,silk

craftsmanshipbecomesthesiteof‘embodiedlearning’inadialoguebetweenmaterials,

tools,andtheweaver’sbody.Itopensupthisanalysistoarangeofconcepts,suchastacit

knowledgeandmaterialityofmaking,whichwillbeillustratedinthefollowingsections.590

ThechapterwillfirstfocusonhowtheprojectwithKYwaschosenandsetup

aroundinterviews,visualdocumentationandARmethodologies.Anexaminationofsocietal

andstructuralissuesencounteredbyindependentandstaffweaversandapprenticesacross

Cambodia,suchashierarchicaldynamics,lackofmobility,genderdistribution,and

globalisation,willcomplementthecriticalcontextualisation,leadingtoananalysisoftheAR

projectwithKYweavers.Theproject’sfindingswilltheninitiatedebatesaroundissuesof

vocationandagencyregardingknowledgeformation,buildingoncomparativeexamples

fromotherperiodsoffieldwork.

Thediversityofconversationsthatthischapterbuildson,andtherangeofprofilesofthe

femaleweavers,whetherindependentweavers,followingtrainingprogrammesinanNGO,

orhiredbyacraftcompany,aimtoformamultilayeredportrayaloftheCambodianweaving

workforce.Thisapproachusespolyphonyasastrategytowardsde-simplifyingculturaland

socialrepresentationsofthisworkforce.Theconsiderationofweavers’individualand

collectiveagenciesaimstochallengetheinequitablehierarchieswithinsilkproductionand

placemakersagainattheheartofthesilkscape.

ActionResearchandyarning:developingdialogicmethodologies

EducatorLindaTuhiwaiSmithhaspioneeredimportantdecolonisingguidelinesfor

conductingresearchwithindigenousgroupsandencouragingtheminaprocessofself-

589Ibid.590Marchand,MakingKnowledge,2.

244

determination‘expressedthroughawiderangeofpsychological,social,culturaland

economicterrains’[Fig.79].591

Fig.79‘TheIndigenousResearchAgenda’,inSmith,DecolonizingMethodologies,1999,Figure6.1,117.

WhileSmithaddressedtheperspectiveoftheMaoripeoples,theIndigenousResearch

Agendapresentedinthisfigurecouldalsobeappliedtootherethnicgroups.Inthechart,

Smithnotesfourdirectionstoaimtowards:‘decolonisation,healing,transformationand

mobilisation.Theyarenotgoalsorendsinthemselvesbutprocesseswhichconnect,inform

andclarifythetensionsbetweenthelocal,theregionalandtheglobal’.592Additionally,the

‘fourmajortidesarerepresentedinthechartassurvival,recovery,development,self-

determination’.593Thisagendaisadvancedthroughacommunity-basedapproach,which

‘assumesthatpeopleknowandcanreflectontheirownlives,havequestionsandpriorities

591Smith,DecolonizingMethodologies,116.592Ibid.593Ibid.

245

oftheirown,haveskillsandsensitivitieswhichcanenhance(orundermine)any

community-basedprojects’.594Thismodelputstheaccentonfocusingontheprocessover

theoutcomeoftheaction,asSmithbelievesthat‘processesareexpectedtoberespectful,to

enablepeople,tohealandtoeducate’.595

Themethodologiesengagedinthischapterhaveaimedtowardssimilarobjectives,

especiallythroughtheuseofparticipatoryAR,byengagingwithanon-hierarchicalwayto

recordthesensorialandmaterialexperienceoftextilepracticesandworkingwitha

communityofweavers.AccordingtoeducationscholarOrtrunZuber-Skerritt,the

researcher’sroleinARis'toknow,understand,improveorchangeaparticularsocial

situationorcontextforthebenefitofthepeoplewhoarealsothe‘participants’(notjust

‘subjects’)intheinquiryandwhoareaffectedbytheresultsandsolutions.’596The

participatoryqualityoftheprojectiscentral,involvingeachparticipant‘practically,

intellectuallyandemotionallyinthecauseforwhichtheresearchisconducted’.597This

paradigmhelpsto‘recognisethatknowledgeissociallyconstructedandcreatedfrom

within,andfor,aparticulargrouporcontext’.598Inthissense,thestudyofmakingprocesses

addsanembodiedcomponenttomyanalysis,allowingbodiestobecomeanotherofthe

‘voices’inthepolyphony.

Filmwasthereforeselectedasthebestresearchandpracticemethodforcapturingand

recordingbodilyexpressions.AsvisualanthropologistanddocumentaryfilmmakerDavid

MacDougallcontends,‘unlikeknowledgecommunicatedbywords,whatweshowinimages

hasnotransparencyandvolition–itisadifferentknowledge,stubbornandopaque,but

594Smith,DecolonizingMethodologies,125,127;SeealsoErnestT.Stringer,ActionResearch:AHandbookforPractitioners(LosAngeles:SageBooks,2014),8.595Ibid,127. 596Zuber-Skerritt,'ActionLearningandActionResearch:Paradigm,PraxisandPrograms,’7.597OrtrunZuber-SkerrittandLesleyWood,ActionLearningandActionResearch:GenresandApproaches(Bingley:EmeraldPublishing,2019),8.598Ibid.

246

withacapacityofthefinestdetail’.599MacDougallhasencouragedhistoriansand

anthropologiststoconsiderphotographyandfilm‘notasadjunctstoformulating

knowledge’butintheircapacityto‘embracetheknowledgeofbeing’.600Inthisregard,the

useoffilmintheARprojectwillbetreatedasanadditionallayerofmethodologytorecord

theperformanceofmakingandunderlinetheembodiednatureofsilkweaving.

ARisaresearchmethodologythataimsforimpactandchange,specificallydesigned

toaddresstheneedsofaparticulargroupincontext,ledindialoguewithaproject

coordinator.Itisthereforeimportanttounderstandhowtheideafortheprojectemerged

fromadiscussionIhadinDecember2016withTomokoTakagiandChendaHengatthe

workshopinTaPoukvillage.IhaveknownmembersofKYsince2014,whenIworkedon

thedevelopmentofkramascarvesasatextiledesignerfortheFrenchcompanyKrama

Krama.Wehadsinceremainedintouchandworkedonanumberofothertextiledesign

projects.WhenIvisitedinDecember2016,nowconductinginterviewsasapostgraduate

researcher,Chendaexplainedtome,withTomoko’shelpintranslating,howasteenagers

sheandhersisterThearylearnedhowtomakeholfromtheirmother,Chendy,andhow

theybothgaveupsilkweavingin2006infavourofsimplertechniquesofcottonkrama

weaving.TomokoexpressedinterestindevelopingsilkproductsatKY,basedonChenda

andTheary’sexpertise.Sheexplainedhowtheylackedthefundingandtimetoproduceikat

samplestopresenttopotentialbuyers.Chendaalsorespondedenthusiasticallytotheidea.

Fromthisstartingpoint,TomokoandIreconvenedinFebruary2017byemailtodiscuss

howthispreliminarydiscussioncouldturnintoacommonprojectcombiningresearchand

practice,inwhichKYweaverscouldbesupported.Inturn,shediscussedthefeasibility,cost

andtimetablefortheprojectwithChenda.OnceChendahadestablishedtheaveragecost

599DavidMacDougall,TheCorporealImage:Film,Ethnography,andtheSenses(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress),5-6.600MacDougall,TheCorporealImage:Film,Ethnography,andtheSenses,5-6.

247

andtime,Iappliedforandobtained750USDoffundingfromFriendsofKhmerCulture,a

US-basedfoundationwhichsupportsartisticandculturalpreservationprojectsin

Cambodia.Inreturn,FriendsofKhmerCulturerequiredafullreportontheactionand

picturesofthefinalsilksamples,whichIdeliveredinNovember2017.Thisawardcovered

thecostoffinesilkandchemicaldyestuffrawmaterialsandpaidforThearyandChenda’s

labour,followingKramaYuyu’srates,tomakefourpolychromicsilkholkbun.

AccordingtoeducatorsAltrichter,PoschandSomekh,thepurposeofActionResearch‘isnot

simplytodescribe,interpret,analyseandtheorise–thestuffoftraditionalresearch–butto

actinandonasituationtomakethingsbetterthantheywere’.601Themainparticipants

wereKYmasterweaversChendaandTheary,whowereinchargeofcreatingandproducing

thesilksamples,andco-founderTomoko,whofacilitatedthesourcingofmaterials,

organisation,costingandplanning,communicationbetweenChendaandme,translationon

site,andmyselfastheresearcherandco-convenor.Thisprojectalsoincludedfourother

staffweavers(Sarin,Salat,SreiPon,andSoKim)toassistChendaandThearywiththe

dyeingandweavingprocesses,Chendy,ChendaandTheary’smother,whoparticipatedin

aninterview,andYu,agraduatestudentfromSiemReapwhoIhiredasatranslatorforone

day’sinterviewingduringmyvisitonsite[Figs.80-81].

601HerbertAltrichter,BridgetSomekh,andPeterPosch,TeachersInvestigatetheirWork(London:Routledge),1993,4.

248

Fig.80GroupatKramaYuyu.Lefttoright,translatorYu,weaverTheary,formerweaverChendy,weaverChenda,MagaliAnBerthon,co-founderTomokoTakagi.Author’sphotograph,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia,July26,2017.

Fig.81HengChenda,centre,withSarin,Salat,SreiPon,andSoKimworkingonthewarping.Author’sphotograph,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia,July24,2017.

Thefocusoftheactionwastoenabletheparticipantstoworktogethertoexplore

theirunusedskillsinsilkweaving.Mymaininterestastheresearcherwastoobservethe

249

strategiesthattheweaverswereusingtore-engagewiththeirsilkknowledge,especially

withhol.Thistechniqueinvolvesintricatedyeingprocessesandusesuneventwillasabase

structurewovenonathree-harnessesloom.ARmethodologiesareorganisedinsuccessive

stages:planning,acting,observing,andreflecting.602Inthetimespanoftheproject,I

observedtheactionduringoneweekoffieldworkinJuly2017.Ifollowedtheplanning,

preparation,beginningoftheactionandcompletionbyreceivingregularemailupdates

fromTomokountilthecompletionoftheprojectinOctober2017.

Toexploretheweavers’discoursesasalternativevoices,interviewsareanotherkey

sourceandresearchmethodinthischapter.Overmythreeperiodsoffieldwork,Irecorded

twelveoraltestimoniesfollowingasemi-guidedqualitativeformat.Inaddition,Ihadtwelve

informaldiscussionswithfacilitators,weavers,andtranslators.603Theseinteractions

createddialogicencountersthatworktowardsmeaningfulexchanges.Thisapproach

resonateswithanAustralian-basedresearchprojectonbuildingconversationsonhealth-

relatedissuesledwithAboriginalcommunitiesin2016,offeringindigenousgroupsaself-

reflectiveplatform'tochallengethemselves,questiontheirowninternalisedpowerlessness,

anddevelopopportunitiestogainasenseofcontrolwithintheirlives(includingthe

environmentsinwhichtheyliveandwork)’.604InthecultureofAboriginalpeople,yarning

referstoaculturalformofdiscussioninarespectfulmeaningfulexchange,ofwhicheach

dialogicmomentiscalledyarn.605Textilemetaphorsarecommoninnumerousculturesto

602Zuber-Skerritt,'ActionLearningandActionResearch:Paradigm,PraxisandPrograms,7;Zuber-SkerrittandWood,ActionLearningandActionResearch:GenresandApproaches,5.603InDecember2016,IvisitedIKTTwhereIhaddiscussionswithPanDam,JokKiangandOmLai.InJuly2017IworkedwithKYweavers,especiallyChendaHeng,hersisterThearyandmotherChendy.InAugust2017,IinterviewedAmSai,NowSaraem,andPheachatCYKtrainingcentreinTrapaingKrasaing,Takeoprovince.InMarch2018,ImetwithSoAi,Kamon,Pon,andYuonSophoninPhnomChisorvillages,Takeoprovince.604BronwynL.Fredericksandal.,‘EngagingthePracticeofYarninginActionResearch,’ActionLearningandActionResearchJournal,17,no.2(2011):9.605‘Yarningismorethanjustalightexchangeofwordsandpleasantriesincasualconversation.Ayarnisbothaprocessandanexchange;itencompasseselementsofrespect,protocolandengagementinindividuals’relationshipswitheachother.’SeeFredericks,andal.,‘Engagingthe

250

describesocialdynamics.Indeed,wehaveseeninpreviouschaptershowkhsae

relationshipsinCambodia,hierarchicalsocialstrings,arestillpresentinthesilksector.

Here,yarningopensuptheideaofbuildingequitableexchangebetweenparticipants,

includingmyself,toovercomethecomplexpowerdynamicsinethnographicfieldworkand

givemorespacetomyinterlocutors’experiences.

Admittedly,itwasdifficulttoachieveinshorterencounters,whenIhadonlyadayatCYK

weavingcentreorinPhnomChisorareatomeetseveralweavers.Ihavebeenmore

successfulinimplementingthisqualityofexchangewithChendaandThearyatKY,because

Ihadmoretimetobuildtrustoveraweek’sfieldworkvisitingtheworkshop.Iarrivedearly

at8am,whentheworkshopopened,andstayeduntilitclosedat5pm,includingspending

lunchtimewithTomoko,ChendaandThearyeachtimeIvisited.Thisofferedtimetodiscuss

silk-related,butalsomorepersonal,topics,inaninformalmanner.Moreover,inviting

Chendy–ChendaandTheary’smother–toaninterviewallowedthisfamilyofweaversto

discussandaddtoeachother’sthoughts,insteadofsimplyansweringmyquestions.

Chendy,sixtyyearsoldatthetimeoftheproject,haslivedasaBuddhistnuninatemple

nearBakongvillageabout5kilometresawayfromtheworkshop.ChendyandChenda–and

Theary,toalesserextentbecausesheisshyer–alsoengagedwithYu,thetranslator,to

explaincertaindetailsofweavingtechniquesanddyeingtohim,asiftheywereteaching

himaswell.Atacertainpointeveryonewasspeakingatthesametime,andsomejokes

cametogether.Chendywastellingastoryofhowshehadsoldafewsilksampotinher

village:‘thepeoplewhoboughtthekbendidnotgiveallthemoney,theygavesomeandkept

some’.Theytoldher:‘Iwillpayyoulater’.Iasked:‘aretheystillinBakong?’;Yutranslated:

practiceofyarninginActionResearch,’8;SjharnLeeson,CatrinSmithandJohnRynne,‘YarningandAppreciativeInquiry:theUseofCulturallyAppropriateandRespectfulResearchMethodsWhenWorkingwithAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderWomeninAustralianPrisons,’MethodologicalInnovationsVol.9(January2016):1-17.

251

‘shesaysthatsheseesthemeveryday!’,atwhichwealllaughed.606Theselittlemoments

keptusallengagedandmyinterlocutorsshowedaneagernesstosharetheirexperiences.

Theextenttowhichmeaningfulandequitableexchangescouldbeachievedcannot

beassessedwithoutadiscussionontranslation.MyrelianceonKhmertranslators

presentedcertainchallengestothesharingofperspectives(bothmineandtheweavers’),

andthisshouldcounteranytendencytoconsidertheweavers’voicesasfullyunedited

sources.IhaveworkedwithmaletranslatorswhoIwasintroducedtothroughmy

professionalnetworkinCambodia:Rothmono,whohelpedattheCYKtrainingcentrein

Takeoprovince,andYuforKYatKYinTaPoukvillagenearSiemReap.ImetPromChakat

thePhnomPenhUNESCOoffice.Ihadonlyonefemaleguide,Asya,anIKTTemployeewith

rudimentaryEnglishskillswhowasassignedtoaccompanymeduringmyvisitinDecember

2016attheWisdomfromtheForestproject.

Mytranslatorssharedwithmewhattheyhadunderstoodtheweaverstosaywiththeirown

levelofEnglish,whichdifferedinfluency.IidentifiedcertaintermsinKhmer,whichI

integratedintotheinterviewtranscripts;Ialsoincludedmomentsofhesitationand

laughs.607Thisofferedawaytoincreasetherepresentationoftheweavers’voices,by

includingtheanalysisofnonverbalcommunication.Thistechniquecomprises‘kinesics(i.e.,

behaviorsreflectedbybodydisplacementsandpostures),proxemics(i.e.,behaviors

denotingspecialrelationshipsoftheinterviewees/interviewers),chronemics(i.e.,temporal

speechmarkerssuchasgaps,silences,andhesitations)’.608Toevaluatethesenseof

engagement,Iconsidermyinterlocutors’physicallanguage,theiravailability,and,forsome

weavers,thedesiretoshowmetextilestheyhadwoven.

Moreover,itisnecessarytoaddressthedifferencebetweenworkingwithatranslatorhired

606ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.YuandTomokoTakagi,July26,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.607SeeAppendixA6.608MagdalenaDenhamandAnthonyJohnOnwuegbuzie,‘BeyondWords:UsingNonverbalCommunicationDatainResearchtoEnhanceThickDescriptionandInterpretation,’InternationalJournalofQualitativeMethods,12,no.1(2013):671.

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foraspecificvisit,suchasRothmonoandYu,andanintermediarybringingmetoaspecific

placeandfacilitatingmyencounterswithweavers.WorkingwithAsyawasincidental,but

hasprovidedinvaluableinsightsintoIKTTandtheweavers.Asya,inherearlytwentiesin

2016,hadbeenworkingforIKTTforafewyears.SheworkedattheshopinSiemReapwhile

alsostitchinghandkerchiefhems.ShehadcometoSiemReapfromKandalprovincewithher

motherwhenshewasthreeyearsold.Herauntandgrandmotherbothworkedatthecentre.

Amemberofthecommunity,Asyaknewalltheweaverspersonallyandwasableto

approachtheminanappropriatelyrespectfulmannertoaskthemmyquestions.609

Thedynamicsofthistranslator-researcherrelationship,however,weremostsignificantwith

PromChak,aforty-eight-year-oldprogrammeassistantatUNESCOPhnomPenh.PromChak

hadparticipatedinthePhnomChisorweavinginitiativeintheearly2000s,asdiscussedin

ChapterTwo.Inturn,hethusconnectedme,anoutsiderforeignresearcher,toweavers,

includinghisnieceKamon,indifferentvillagesinthisarea.PromChak’slatefatherhadbeen

acommuneleaderinSamraongDistrictandhismother,fromPreyKabasdistrict,wasasilk

weaver.610Hisbackgroundintheregionwasimportantincreatingabridgeofknowledge

betweenmeandtheweaversduringtheinterviews.

PromChakoftenaddedhisownknowledgetotheconversations,sharing,forexample,that

heknewthatthepricesforsilkholwoulddecreasebeforeKhmerNewYear.611Itwasalso

apparentthathispresencewaswelcomedbytheweavers.ThemeetingwithPonprovidesa

keyexample.Immediatelyafterheintroducedustoher,PromChaksaidtome:‘shesaysshe

recognisesmefromthefaceofmyfather’.612Ponmadeherselfavailabletodiscussher

activityindetailfornearlyhalfanhour,doublethetimespentwiththethreeotherweavers

wemetintheirhomes.Itwasnotpossibleformetoreadthedifferencebetweenhavinga

609Asya,informalconversation,December26,2016,ChotSamvillage,SiemReap,Cambodia.610PromChak,informalconversation;Seemap,Figure75.611Ibid.612Pon,interviewedbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.PromChak,PhnomChisorarea,TakeoProvince,March17,2018.

253

femaleoramaletranslatorintheseexchanges.Thisdynamicwiththetranslatorisanother

waytoapproachandunderstandtheparticularkindofpolyphonyatworkinthischapter.

Theweavers’voiceswerelayeredwithotherCambodianvoices,includingmaleandfemale

translators’voices.

EstablishingtheneedsofCambodiansilkweaverstosetuptheActionResearchproject

Thissectionestablishesaseriesofkeyobservationsmadeduringthethreeperiods

offieldwork,whichoutlinetheissuesencounteredbyCambodianweaverstoinformhow

theARprojectonsilkskillstransmissionwassetupwithKYweavers,andforwhatpurpose.

Theperpetuationofsilkpracticesislinkedtorurality,accesstomarkets,globalisationand

weavingasagenderedactivity.Invillages,Cambodianwomengenerallycarrythe‘’double

duty’[of]engaginginagriculturallabororwageemployment,andtakingcareofthe

householdtasks’.613Womenarealsooftentheonlywageearnerinthehousehold.614Asthe

primarycarersfortheirchildren,theyusetheirincome,anaverageoffiftytoseventyUSD

permonth,inparticulartobuymedicalsuppliesandsendthechildrentoschool.Whenthe

familiesaretoopoor,theywillonlysendtheirboystoschoolandgirlswilltakeover

householdtasks.615Thisdataleadstoquestionsaboutthevalueofcraftactivitiesasasource

ofincomeforfemaleweavers,andhowtheygainorloseagencywithinthesilknetwork.Itis

thereforereflectedinthechoiceoftestimonies,solelyofwomen,presentedacrossthis

chapter,whoallcomefromvillageslocatedintworegions–SiemReapinthenorthand

Takeointhesouth.616

613JudyLedgerwood,‘WomeninCambodianSociety,’CenterforSoutheastAsianStudies,NorthernIllinoisUniversityhttp://www.seasite.niu.edu/khmer/ledgerwood/women.htm[AccessedNovember2,2020]614Ibid.615MaryN.Booth,‘EducationandGenderinContemporaryCambodia,’InternationalJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScience,4,no.10(August2014):44. 616SeeFigure5fortheseregions.Inthisgendereddistributionofrolesinthehousehold,mensometimesparticipateinweaving-relatedtaskstoassistwomenweaversathome.Theyworkona

254

Fromthesechallenges,thischapterconsidersthechangesandcontinuityinsilkpracticesin

contemporaryCambodia.Itexaminesthewaysinwhichweavingknowledgeisperpetuated

bypassingthroughmatrilineallineages,asprevailedbeforethecivilwar,andthemodesof

adaptationthattheweaversthemselveshaveengagedintoincreasetheiragency.

WhethertrainedinNGOsorworkingindependentlyfromhome,thewomenImetduring

fieldworksplittheirtimebetweenweavingactivityandothertaskssuchastakingcareof

thehouseholdandchildren,andsometimesfarming.Theyrecognisedthatsilkweaving

generatesinsufficientincome.However,ithasremainedoneoftheonlyactivitiesforelderly

womenandmotherswhoneedtobalancetheirtimewithotherdutiesinvillages.617Yuon

Sophon,afifty-one-year-oldweaverfromPhnomChisor,inresponsetothequestion‘would

shedosomethingelsethanweaving?’explainedthat‘nowtheoldwomen,theycanonlydo

this,weaving’[Fig.82].618Otherwomen,youngeroringoodhealth,donotusuallypursue

weavingunlesstheyhavetocarefortheirchildren.AlsobasedinPhnomChisor,Pon,sixty-

fiveyearsoldin2018,inresponsetothequestion‘howmanypiecesdoesshedoper

month?’,said‘twokbun,sometimesonlyonekbunbecausebusywiththegrandkids’

[Fig.83].619SoAi,thirty-nineyearsold,dividedhertimebetweenweaving,raisingherfour

childrenandworkinginthericefieldswhileherhusbandworkedasafarmerandin

construction[Fig.84].Inresponsetoacommentonsilkbeinganexpensivematerialtouse,

Kamon,thirty-sixyearsold,consideredthat‘she[has]nochoice,becausesheneedstotake

careofher[two]children,sothisisthejobthatshecanworkandalsotakecareofher

children[…]andcookforthem’[Fig.85].620AndChendafromKY,thirty-sevenatthetimeof

limitednumberofstages,suchastyingikatweftthreads,dyeing,andmakingtheheddlesfortheloom.617SoumhyaVenkatesan,‘RethinkingAgency:PersonsandThingsintheHeterotopiaof‘TraditionalIndianCraft,’JournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute15(2009):86.618YuonSophon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,translatedbyPromChak,PhnomChisor,Takeoprovince,March17,2018.619Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon;SoAi,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,translatedbyPromChak,PhnomChisor,Takeoprovince,March17,2018. 620Kamon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,translatedbyPromChak,PhnomChisor,Takeoprovince,March17,2018.

255

theproject,wasasinglemotherofoneteenageson,whilehersisterTheary,twenty-nine,

hadjusthadababy.Weavingandmanagingtheworkshopwastheironlyrevenue.621

Fig.82YuonSophonworkingonherloom,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.

Fig.83Poninherhouseshowingabrightbluesampotholshehaswoven,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.

621 TomokoTakagiandChendaHeng,informalconversation,December23,2016,TaPouk,Cambodia.

256

Fig.84SoAiwithoneofherwovensilks,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.

Fig.85Kamonweavingasampotholathome,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.

257

Toaccessadistributionmarket,weaversbuildcloserelationshipswithamiddleman

(jhmaunkandal),whoprovidesmaterials,orders,andsales.Whilepatronageconnections

wereexaminedinChapterTwofromamacroperspectivebetweenandinsideorganisations,

inthischaptertheexperienceofkhsaeisexaminedfromtheweavers’pointofviewto

underlineissuesofmobilityandautonomy.AnthropologistSoumhyaVenkatesan,who

carriedoutextensiveresearchwithmat-weaversinPattamadai,SouthIndia,hasstressed

thatthenatureofweavingrequiresthepractitionertobephysicallypresent‘attheloom,

whichisfirmlyfixedinspacewithinthehome’.622Duetotheirhouseholdandfamilycare

duties,ruralweavershavelittleopportunitytocirculate.SoAi,YuonSophonandKamon

fromPhnomChisorallsaidthattheyhadneverbeentoPhnomPenhtoselltheirproducts

andsimplyreliedonamiddleman.Itwasnotevenclearwhatlevelofmobilitytheyhad

withinTakeoprovince,especiallyconsideringtheextentofthedailychoresthattiedthem

tothehome.

Incontrasttothefixedlocationoftheweavers,middlemen(menandwomen)appearas

mobileagentsempoweredbytheirconnectionsbetweenthecountrysideandthe

distributioncentres.Indeed,insociologistGeorgSimmel’stheory,thefigureofthe

‘stranger’,orthe‘trader’,isdevelopedinoppositiontothehandicraft‘producersofless

mobility’,whichiswhatappliesinCambodia.623Simmel’sperspectiveremainsgroundedin

aWestern-centricviewofthesocialworldwhichconsidersmobilityasavectorofprogress,

expansion,andintelligence.624Thisnarrativeperpetuatesahierarchicalsysteminwhich

traders‘embodyingthesynthesisofnearnessanddistance’dominatecraftsmen–inthis

casecraftswomen–whoaredeniedagency.625Thisperspectiveiscounteredby

622Venkatesan,‘LearningtoWeave;WeavingtoLearn...What?,’JournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitutevol16,no.1(2010):166.623GeorgSimmelandKurtH.Wolff,TheSociologyofGeorgSimmel(Glencoe,IL:FreePress,1950),403.624Ibid;alsoreferredinVenkatesan,‘LearningtoWeave;WeavingtoLearn...What?,’166.625Simmel,TheSociologyofGeorgSimmel,404.

258

repositioningweaversaskeyholdersofknowledgewithpotentagencythroughtheir

practice.

Middlemenhaveimposedconditionsofbusinessontheweavers,communicating

informationaboutthemarketandworkingcloselywiththemwhilemaintainingtheirhold.

Whentheydiscusstheirrelationshipwithmiddlemen,theweaversIinterviewedcommonly

usedthewordpibak(difficult)toexpressdistrust,helplessness,andresignation.Yuon

Sophonexplainedshewasfreetodesignanystyleshewanted,butshealsosaidbluntly‘we

doworkwithmiddleman,sothepriceisalwayslow’.626Iasked‘whatcanshedosothe

middlemankeepsgoodprices?’.Shesaid:‘it'sdifficultbecauseit'slikeacontract’,‘it’s

difficulttoincreasetheprice’.Tothequestion‘willshecontinueweaving?’,shesaidthat

‘shewillcontinue.Nochoice.Evenifthepriceislow,shehasnochoice’.627Similarly,Chendy

Heng,aparticipantintheARproject,said:‘itisnoteasytomakeonekbun.Butthedealers

whocometobuyfromthemakersandthentheybringittothecityandthentheysellit,

theymakemoreprofitthanthemaker’.628Chendyproduceduptothirtykbunayear,which

shewouldsellforaround90USDapiecetomiddlemen,whowouldthengetabout120USD

perpieceatthemarket.

DuringhisPhDfieldresearch,TerHorstinterviewedweaverswhofelttheyfearedtheir

middleman’sjudgementontheproductstheywouldpresentforsale.629TheweaversImet

didnotexpresssuchapprehension,buttheyfullyacknowledgedtheunequalrelationship

withtheirtrader.Forexample,SoAisaid:‘yes,shedoes[haveagoodrelationshipwithher

middleman]butsometimesheincreasesthepriceofthesilkmaterialandthenitdrops’.630

Thisleftanunsustainableshrinkingmarginofprofitforweavers.ThereforeSoAi

acknowledgedthat‘shehasalreadyaskedthemiddlemannottodropthepriceotherwise

626YuonSophon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.627Ibid.628ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.YuandTomokoTakagi,July26,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.629TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,19.630SoAi,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.

259

peoplewillstopproducing’.631Weaversdidnotrefertotheirintermediariesbyname,using

insteadthegenericandanonymoustermof‘middleman’,positioningtheseindividual

merchantsasanexternalforceandfiguresofauthority.

Howcouldweaversachievemoreautonomy?Thisquestionsupportsthesettingup

oftheARprojectanditsgoaltoencouragewomentoreclaimthewholeprocessofsilkhol

making,fromsourcingtoweaving,andtoexpandandsharetheirskills,valorisingtheir

technicalandcreativeknowledge.ThewomenIinterviewedwerefullyawarethatthey

couldgetahigherpricewithdirectaccesstorawmaterialsandcustomers.YuonSophon

admitted‘ifshehadmoney,shecouldbuytheproductjustatthemarketaroundhere,

withoutgoingthroughthemiddleman.Shecouldbuy,takethematerialandthensell.’632For

thatshewouldneedworkingcapitaltobuytherawmaterialsandnegotiateprices.

Forherpart,Pon‘usedtoworkwithmiddlemenbutshedoesn'twanttoanymore...Difficult.

Youcansellahigherpricebyyourself’.633Shechoseinsteadtobuyherownmaterialsand

sellbyherself.Pondidnotexplainhowshecouldaffordit.However,herhouselooked

significantlylargerthantheotherweavers’homesIvisitedinPhnomChisor,whichstrongly

suggeststhatshehadmoreavailablemeans.Twoofherdaughterslivedinadjoininghouses,

eachwithoneloomonthegroundfloorunderthestiltedstructure.Ponhadidentified

severalstrategiestofacilitateherwork.First,shepurchasedindustriallypre-dyedsilk

threadsimportedfromVietnamatthenearbymarketinTakeoinsteadofbuyingundyed

fibreforthewarpanddyeingitherself,apracticebecomingmoreçommonamongst

weavers.634Shealsoteamedupwithherdaughters,whomshehadtrained,untiltheygot

married.Forsimpleikatpatterns,shesubcontractedthestageoftyinganddyeingtheweft

threadstootherweaversinhervillageandonlyworkedonweavingtheseweftthreadsonto

631SoAi,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.632Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.633Ibid. 634SeeAppendixA2forthedetailedprocessesofholweaving.

260

theloom.Toincreaseherrevenue,sheworkedfaster:‘thatcanbedoneinoneweek’,

adding:‘that'swhysometimesshealsoworksatnight’.635Fordistribution,sheexplained

that‘beforeshebroughttheproductsbyherselfinPhnomPenh’atthemarket,butshethen

optedinsteadtosell‘justtoanyone,peoplewhowanttobuy,peoplewhocomeor

sometimesshebringstothemarketinTakeo’.636Ponmovedawayfromthemiddleman-

weavercontracttoearnmorefromeachsale.However,thecostoftherawmaterialshas

continuedtoincrease,andherworkhasremaineddependentonmarketdemands.What

stemsfromtheweavers’experiencespointstothenecessityofchallengingexistingmodels

ofdependencytowardsmiddlementosourcemoreaffordablematerials,increasesales

pricesandreachcustomers.

Globalisationisanothermajorfactoraffectingruralpopulations–andweavers–

andislinkedtomobilityandeconomicsurvival,eithermarginalisingthemorforcingthem

tochangetheiractivities.AswasseeninChapterTwo,thesilkworkforcehasreliedon

importedrawmaterialsfromThailandandVietnamtocompensateforthelimiteddomestic

sericulture.Moreover,sincethemid-1990s,theglobalisationoffastfashionproductionhas

ledtotheexpansionofgarmentmanufacture,whichismostlycontrolledbyChinese

interestssubcontractingforEuropeanandAmericanmultinationalsonCambodian

territory,andisquicklybecoming‘thebackboneofthecountry'sexport-driveneconomy’,

responsiblefor’40percentofCambodia’sGDP’.637Benefitingfromlow-skilledcheaplabour,

about1,522siteswereregisteredinCambodiain2017.638Originallylimitedtothearea

aroundPhnomPenhandlaterslowlyspreadingtotheotherprovincesofKampongSpeu

635Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.636Ibid.637RobinSpiess,,’ASectorTooBigtoFail?,’ThePhnomPenhPost,5April2018https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/sector-too-big-fail[AccessedOctober10,2019];GillianKane,‘FactsonCambodia’sGarmentIndustry,’CleanClothesCampaign,2014,3.638ChengSokhorng,‘IndustrialSectorGrows,butStillReliantonGarmentFactories,’ThePhnomPenhPost,February26,2018https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/industrial-sector-grows-still-reliant-garment-factories[AccessedAugust8,2019]

261

andTakeo,thisindustryemployedabout847,419workersin2017,alargemajorityof

whichwerewomen,whichhasdeeplyimpactedonvillagers’lives,andchallengedthe

continuationofsilkweaving.639

TheNSSreportconsideredtheindustrialgarmentsectorseparatelyfromthesilksector,as

‘partofadifferentvaluechainwithoutanymajorlinkagestosericultureandsilkweavingin

Cambodia’.640Theworkdiffersmarkedlyfromtextilehandicraftsintermsofproductsand

production,relyingonlabour-intensiveprocessesfollowingthecut-make-trimindustrial

model.641However,tosecureamorestablerevenue,manyweaversinruralareashave

abandonedtheiractivityinfavourofjobsinsewingandtailoringinfactoriesfarfromtheir

hometowns.Thispredicamentispartofthelargerissueofrural-urbanmigrationwhichhas

affectedthecountrygenerally.642

OneexampleofthesechangesinactivityinthecountrysideisprovidedbytheJapaneseNGO

CYK,whichhasoperatedweavingtrainingprogrammesforCambodianyouthandwomenin

TrapaingKrasaingvillage,Batidistrict,Takeoprovince,since2003[Fig.86].643

639‘’Workfasterorgetout’:LaborRightsIssuesinCambodia’sGarmentIndustry’,HumanRightsWatch,March11,2015https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/03/11/work-faster-or-get-out/labor-rights-abuses-cambodias-garment-industry[AccessedonAugust8,2019]640CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,5.641NGOs,domesticandinternationalpress,andunionisedactivistsprotestingagainsttheworkconditionsandlowrevenuesofgarmentfactoryemployeesinCambodiahavepushedthegovernmenttoraiseminimumwages,whichhaveincreasedfrom61USDin2012to182USDin2018.SeeWorkersRightsConsortium,'CambodianWorkersSeekingHigherWagesMeetViolentRepression,’[pdf]March24,2014,9-15.https://www.workersrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/WRC-Report-Crackdown-in-Cambodia-3.24.14.pdf642UNESCO,UNDP,IOM,andUN-Habitat,‘OverviewofInternalMigrationinCambodia,'PolicyBriefsonInternalMigrationinSoutheastAsia,(Bangkok:UNESCOBangkok,2016),3.643Intermsofmanagement,CYKisoperatedbyaCambodianteamwithSreyChanascountrydirectorandPhengSophalasadministrator.TheorganisationreceivestheactivesupportofJapaneseadvisors,especiallyHarumiSekiguchi,whoarrivedinCambodiain1999andfirstworkedinrefugeecampsontheThaiborderbeforetakingontheroleofdirectoratCYK.SekiguchihasnowrelocatedtoJapanandvisitsCambodiaregularly.CYKreliesonsales,alongwithfundingfromJapanandadditionalsupportfromFriendsofKhmerCulturefoundation.

262

Fig.86TheCYKweavingcentreislocatedinTrapaingKrasaingcommune,Batidistrict,Takeoprovince.GoogleMaps,August25,2019.

ImetthreeparticipantsofCYKprogrammes:AmSai,NowSaraem,andPheachwhowereat

theweavingcentreinAugust2017.Theyhadregisteredfortheadvancedcourseinpidan,

weavingpictorialhangings,thatstartedinApril2017[Figs.87-88-89].644Pidanhadbeena

prominentpracticeinTakeoprovince,buthadnearlyvanishedbytheearly1990s.Pheng

Sophal,manageratCYK,explainedthatuntil2008,theNGOprovidedtentrainingclassesa

yearfocusedondifferentaspectsoftheweavingprocess,fromwarping,creatingtie-

dyepatternsforweftikat,masteringnaturaldyes,weavingandcostcalculation.These

programmesengageduptotwohundredfemaleweaversfromTakeoperyear.Afterthe

training,CYKcontinuedtosupportweaversbyplacingregularordersofsilkpidanandhol,

payingfortherawmaterialsandsellingthefinishedproductsintheNGO’sshopinPhnom

Penh.Demandfortraininghasdrasticallydecreasedsincethen,due,accordingtoSophal,to

thespreadofgarmentfactoriesthroughouttheprovince,inparticularaplantthatopenedin

644CYKsellsthesepidanasartworksanddecorativeitemsatahighprice,rangingfrom460USDforamulticolouredpieceinnaturaldyesandimportedindustrialsilkto1130USDforapidaninCambodiangoldensilkinindigo.HarumiSekiguchi,informalconversation,December29,2016,PhnomPenh,Cambodia.

263

2015neartheCYKcentre.645WhenIvisitedin2017,CYKhadonlyimplementedfour

trainingprogrammes:howtomakeakimono(whichAmSaihadfollowed),howtoweavea

holcloth,aholscarf,andpidanweaving.646Sophalhadalsonoticedthatthelastfew

independentartisansaroundTrapaingKrasaingweremostlyproducingnylonscarves,and

hadabandonedsilk.647

GlobalisationhasbroughtWesternmodesofproductiontoCambodia.Examining

contemporaryformsoflabourwithinaWesternunderstandingofmodernsociety,

sociologistRichardSennetthassuggestedthattheriseofmass-productionisamajorcause

ofsocialinequalityandprecarity,leadingtothephenomenonof‘de-skilling’:thatis,‘the

replacementofmenbymachinesinindustrialproduction,ascomplexmachinesreplaced

skilledcraftlabour’.648Inresponse,Sennettemphasisesthatcraftpracticesareinvaluable

toolstore-skillsocieties,especiallyviacommunitywork.Asdiscussedintheprevious

chapterwiththeexamplesofIKTTandAA,handicraftcompaniesinCambodiahave

sustainedtheideathathandicraftsarepracticesrespectfulofheritageandtradition.Inthis

sense,choosingtoworkatagarmentfactoryratherthanpractisinghandweavingwould

threatenthetransmissionandcontinuationofsilkpractices.

645PhengSophal,informaldiscussion,August3,2017,TrapaingKrasaing,Cambodia.646AmSai,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,trans.byRothmono,August3,2017,TrapaingKrasaing,Cambodia.647HarumiSekiguchi,informalconversation. 648RichardSennett,Togetherness:TheRituals,Pleasures&PoliticsofCooperation(London:PenguinGroup,2012),7-8;Deskillingisatermusedinthesociologyofwork,stemmingfromthestudyofindustrialisationandtechnologicalchangesintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturyinEurope.SeeFlorianBruggerandChristianGehrke,'SkillingandDeskilling:TechnologicalChangeinClassicalEconomicTheoryanditsEmpiricalEvidence,’TheoryandSociety47(2018):663–689.

264

Fig.87AmSaiweavinganindigo-dyedpidan,CYKweavingcentre,TrapaingKrasaing,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.

Fig.88NowSaraemworkingonthetyingframeforaspecialsampotholorder,CYKweavingcentre.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.

265

Fig.89Pheachsortingandcollectinggoldensilkthreads,CYKweavingcentre.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.

Incontrast,Venkatesanhascriticallyestablishedthenarrativeofcraftsversus

industrialisationasanexpressionofFoucault’sconceptofheterotopia,whicharticulates

‘utopianvisions[…]throughsocialpractices,andhowthisprocesspointstoquestionsof

powerandagency’.649Foucaulthasdescribedheterotopiaasadisruptivespace‘witha

preciseanddeterminedfunctionwithinasociety’,bringingtogetheropposingelementsor

discontinuoustimesintoonesite.650Venkatesan’scritiqueisconcernedwithnarrativesthat

promotenostalgicspacesforapre-industrialisedsociety,keepingcraftproducersina

passiveroleofperpetuatingtraditionsandpresentingthemas‘victimsofmodernisation

requiringassistance’.651

649SoumhyaVenkatesan,‘RethinkingAgency:PersonsandThingsintheheterotopiaof‘traditionalIndiancraft,’78-79;heterotopia,fromtheGreekhetero,place,andtopia,another:‘anotherplace’650MichelFoucault,“DesEspacesAutres”(OfOtherSpaces:UtopiasandHeterotopias),Architecture,Mouvement,Continuité,5(October1984):46–49;trans.JayMiskowiecinDiacritics16,no.1(Spring,1986):25-26.651Venkatesan,‘RethinkingAgency:PersonsandThingsintheHeterotopiaof‘TraditionalIndianCraft,’87.

266

LivedexperienceinCambodiahasindeedrevealedanalternativeperspectivetothatofthe

silkheterotopia.Theeconomicrationalebehindcraftmakingisapriorityformakers.My

researchinCambodiahasrevealedthattheweavershavenuancedpositions.Someofthese

womenhaveexpressedinterestinworkingattheroumtchaktakdey(garmentfactory)

insteadofweaving,despitethehealthandsafetyissuesinmanyofthosefactories.652

Chenda'sstoryillustrateshowmobilityandphysicalfactorsplayanessentialrolein

weavingactivities.ThismasterweaveratKY,whohasledtheARproject,grewupinTakeo

provinceandmovedseveraltimes.ShearrivedinPhnomPenhinherlateteens,andwhen

violenceeruptedin1997shelefttoworkbrieflyinKampongChamprovinceforacraft

organisation.653Shesaidthatat‘abouteighteenyearsold,sheworkedoneyearin

thegarmentfactory’beforereturningtoweaving.Sheadded:‘itcausedherlegpain,

numbness.[…]So,hermothertookcareofherandtookhertothehospital.Andafterthat

shegottreatedandherlegswerebetter.Andso,shecouldcontinuetoworkonweavingin

Takeo’.Sheexplainedthat‘shedidn'tlikethegarmentfactorymuchbecauseofthe

chemicalsandthesituationinwhichshewasworkingwasnotgoodforher,sheonly

workedtheretomakemoney’.654In2005shemovedwithheraunttoSiemReaptocontinue

weaving,followedshortlyafterbyheryoungersisterTheary,andjoinedKYin2006.

Chenda’stestimonyepitomisesthedirectconnectionbetweenmattersofthebody,weaving

practices,andagency.Weavingisfirstanembodiedmatter,takingphysicalabilitiesandage

askeydecidingfactors.Incidentally,tothequestion‘wassheeverinterestedinworkingina

garmentfactory’,NowSaraem,oneofthetraineesatCYKcentre,answered‘shewantedto,

652MartaKasztelan,‘Cambodia’sGarmentWorkersVulnerabletoUnsafeAbortions,’Guardian,July13,2016https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jul/13/cambodias-garment-workers-vulnerable-to-unsafe-abortions[AccessedAugust8,2019];KhouthSophakChakrya,‘Nearly300GarmentWorkersTreatedafterFaintingatTakeoFactory,’ThePhnomPenhPost,10July2018https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/nearly-300-garment-workers-treated-after-fainting-takeo-factory[AccessedAugust8,2019].653Chendacouldnotrememberthenameofthisorganisation,assumingitwasaboklakangkar(NGO). 654ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.YuandTomokoTakagi,July26,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.

267

but[…]sheisalittlebittoooldnowsosheisworkinghere’.655

ForSoAiandYuonSophonfromPhnomChisor,handicraftswerenotconsideredtobea

nobleroptionthanthefactory.656Garmentfactoriesanddomesticweavingpracticeswere

notinopposition,butsimplytwoincome-generatingoptionsforruralwomenin

contemporaryCambodia.YuonSophonhadstartedtoteachhereighteen-year-olddaughter

howtoweave.Nevertheless,forherthreechildren,shehoped‘theymightgetabetterjob

andabetterplacethanthisone’.657WhileNowSaraemwoveforCYK,hertwodaughters

workedinfactories,oneinembroideryandtheotherintailoring.658

Withoutre-evaluatingcraftpracticeswithimprovedworkconditionsandalternativesto

bypassthemonopolisticroleofthemiddleman,promotingSennett’sreskillingmodelisnot

sufficienttotakeCambodiancraftswomenoutofpoverty.Theywillcontinuetoseekhigher

wagesandleavetheirhometowns.

Thefindingspresentedinthissectionexplorefemaleweavers’agency.Thewaysinwhich

weaversexperiencehouseholdduties,economicstrain,distributionchallenges,mobilityand

factoryworkdisruptthediscoursesoftraditionthatanimatethesilkscape,asdiscussedin

ChapterTwo,emphasisingthatsilkisanancestralpractice,ashowcasefortraditional

Cambodianculture,andits‘importance[…]foreconomicdevelopmentandthecultural

heritageofCambodia,aswellasitsimportancefortourismpromotion’.659Femaleweavers

negotiatetheconstraintsoftheirdualroleofcaretakerandprovider,theirstifling

dependenceonmiddlemenandlackofaccesstosourcinganddistribution.Theyaspireto

betterwages,andiftheirphysicalconditionallowsittheymayconsiderfactorywork.

Transmittingtheirknowledgeinweavingtotheirdaughtersservestwopurposes,training

655NowSaraem,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,trans.byRothmono,August3,2017,TrapaingKrasaing,Cambodia.656NowSaraem,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon;SoAi,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon;‘Shesaysherhealthisnotgoodtoworkatthefactorysoshedoesthat,onlyweaving.Alsoherageisnotacceptabletoworkatthefactory’.InYuonSophon,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.657YuonSophon,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.658NowSaraem,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.659CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,viii.

268

someonetohelpthemandpassingonmarketableskills.Fromthisevidence,theARproject

withKYworkshopwasdevelopedaroundexpandingtheweavers’strategiestoregain

agencywithinthesilkscapethroughmaterialsourcing,skillsbuilding,collaborativework

andaformofyarningexchangefosteredbyinterviews.

PlanningtheKramaYuyu(KY)ActionResearch(AR)project

ThissectionfocusesontheplanningoftheARproject.KYworkshopwasorganised

aroundthejointleadershipofTomokoTakagi,supervisingfinances,commissionsand

administrativework,andChendaHeng,overseeingtextiletrainingandproduction.Forthe

ARproject,Tomokowasinterestedinsupportingtheweaversindevelopingsilkikat

samples,toidentifythetime,costandprocessesneededtocreateanewlineofsilkproducts

andreachpotentialnewbuyers.660

Ididnotinterveneinthesourcingofmaterials,leavingtheweaversfreetodecidewhatthey

woulduseaccordingtotheirknowledgeandexperience.Inthepreparationstage,Tomoko

workedonpurchasingrawmaterialsandorganisingtheactionwiththeweavers,including

coordinatingmyvisitforaweekinJuly.Originally,theKYteamhadthoughtaboutmaking

fiveikatsamples.InMay2017theydecidedtoreduceittothreepieces,tofittheircostand

workcapacity.661AnunplannedfourthpiecewasmadebyChendaattheendoftheproject.

Eachsilkkbun,fourmetreslongandonemetrewide,wasdeconstructedbyChendaand

Tomokoasfollows:onepieceismadeofaboutfourone-metrerepeats(bunteah)oftheikat

pattern(koem),eachbrokenintoseventeenbobbins(knar).Foronekbun,thismeant

preparingfoursetsofseventeenconsecutiveknarofweftikatthreads,followingaspecific

ordertoformthedesiredpatternduringweaving[Figs.90a-b].

660TomokoTakagi,personalemailexchangewithauthor,June11,2017.661TomokoTakagiandChendaHeng,personalemailexchangewithauthor,May26,2017.

269

Figs.90a-bDiagramofthedesignstructureofoneholpiece(kbun)asdeconstructedbyTomokoandChendafortheweavingprocess.Author’sphotographofasetofseventeenbobbins(knar)representingonerepeat(bunteah)ofonepattern(koem).

TheprojectstartedinMay2017,tobecompletedbyAugust2017.Duetoother

commissionedwork,theweaverseventuallyfinishedweavingallthepieceslaterthan

originallyplanned,inOctober2017,asshowninFigure91.DuringthephaseswhereIwas

notonsiteTomokoactedasaco-researcher,facilitatingexchangeswiththeweavers,taking

picturesandinformingmebyemailofkeyadvancesintheproject.Apreliminaryscheduling

chartfromJuly2017providesagoodexampleofherparticipation.662Sheprepareditin

EnglishandKhmertoexplaintheplanningforapproximatelyonemonth,fromearlyJulyto

mid-August,andthebudgetformaterialsandequipmentofabout200USD.Thecomplex

chartdetailseachstepoftheweavingprocess,withthenumberofdaysandweaverforeach

task.Itstartswithwarping(pteah)forsixdays’work.Then,itdescribestheworkonweft

threadsforthreekbuninseparatestages:boilingsilk,rollingsilkbundles,tyingthepatterns

(koem),dyeing,rollingintobobbinsandweaving.Theikatdesignsweredesignatedaskoem

withaletter,andunderlinedindifferentcolours:orangeforkoemA,greenforkoemB,

662SeeAppendixA5.

270

blue/brownforkoemC.Thisworkingdocument,servingseveralpurposes,helpedTomoko

andChendaplantheweavers’workload,ensurethesmoothfunctioningoftheprojectand

sharewithmetheintricateprocessofhol.

Fig.91ActionResearchprojectfullplanningfromMaytoOctober2017.

MyvisitwasplannedfromJuly24to30,sothattheprojectwasadvancedenough

formetobeabletoobserveasmanystepsaspossibleandconductinterviews.Oneofthese

processeswaspreparingthewarpthreads,whichhasoftenbeenoverlookedinthestudyof

ikattextiletechniques.Warpingconsistsinpreparingtheneededamountofyarninlength

andwidththatwillbeinstalledfirstontheloom.Thearyoversawthewindingofthewarp

dyedyarnonspools.IttookfivedaysfromJune15to21[Fig.92].Fromthesespools,yarns

271

wererewoundonawarpingframeunderaneventension,withacrossateachendofthe

frametokeepthewarpendsseparatedandinorder.ThisprocesswasconductedonJuly21.

Fig.92Thearywindingtheblackwarpthreadsonspools,TaPoukvillage,June2017.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi.

Iwasabletoseewhathappensafterthisprocessincludingtherollingofthewarpontoa

beam,itspassingthroughthereedandpartsofitsinstallationontheloom.Moreattention

hasbeenputonthetyinganddyeingprocessesoftheweftyarns,theweaving,andthestudy

ofikatmotifs,whichiswhyImadeashortdocumentaryonwhatIobservedofthewarping

processattheworkshop,inadditiontoanotherfilmonweft.663FromAugusttoOctober,I

workedontheinterviewtranscripts.IalsocollaboratedwithfilmeditorRemiBuonototurn

thefootagefrommyfieldworkintotwoshortfilms,whichareexploredfurtherinthe

observationsection.

663SeeGreen’sextensivefocusonweftdesignsinGreen,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia.

272

Intermsofequipment,onefloorloomwassetasidespecificallyfortheprojectatthe

workshop.Besidesgivingtimelyhelpinsomeofthestagesofthewarpanddyeing

processes,therestofthestaffcontinuedtoworkoncottonkramaordersontheother

looms.TheweaversinformedmeaboutmaterialsourcingonlywhenIarrivedonsiteinJuly

2017.Theyhadoptedforfinemulberrysilk,importedfromVietnam,purchasedpre-dyedin

blackforthewarpthreadsandundyedfortheweftinTakeoprovinceandshippedtoTa

Pouk.ChendaandThearywerenotfamiliarwithgoldensilk.664Inassessingthequalityof

silk,Chendaexplainedthattheywantedafibre‘tobesoft,heavy,smoothandlook

beautiful’.665ChendaalsoreliedonhermotherChendy’sadvice:sherecommendedusing

whitefinesilkfromVietnam.Discussinggoldensilk,Chendysaid:’theprocesstoobtainsilk

fromthecocoonisdifficult,andittakessolong,andnownoonedoesitanymore’[Fig.93].666

ThisstatementmirrorstheobservationinChapterOnethatCambodianweaversrely99per

centuponwhitesilkandarelessfamiliarwithindigenousgoldensilk.667

ThefastdyeswereimportedfromThailandandpurchasedfromatextileshopinTakeo

province.ChendaandThearyconsideredtheywereaninexpensiveoption,withquick

resultsandboldcolours,andbecausetheirmother,Chendy,andaunt,Somaly,had

recommendedthem[Fig.94].668

664ChendaHeng,informalconversation,July26,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.665Ibid. 666ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.667Goldensilkneedstobethoroughlydegummedtoremoveitsyellowcolourtobedyed,whileindustriallyprocessedwhitesilkissoldpre-washedandreadytobedyed.668ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.

273

Fig.93Industrially-producedfinesilkimportedfromVietnamnexttogoldensilkatKramaYuyuworkshop,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.

Fig.94EmptypacketsofpinkchemicalfastdyefromThailandfortheholtie-dyeprocess.Author’sphotograph,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia,July24,2017.

274

Chendaworkedondesigningthreesampotholwithmulticolouredpatterns.Forinspiration,

sheexplainedthatshelookedatsomebookssheownsbut‘doesn'tusuallyuse’,adding:‘in

thebookstherearesimpledesignsthatshenoticedforhol’.669Sheselectedfivedifferent

polychromicgeometrickoem(designs)withpatternsofsmallandlargescale,sayingthat

‘shecannotmakeanotherdesign,thisisaneasyoneshecando,butforananimalorabirdit

ismoredifficultforher’.670Sheisseenhere–photographedbyTomoko–drawingsections

ofthesemotifsonpaperthatdeconstructthekeymoduleforkoemBtodeterminehowshe

wouldreinterpretthemonthetyingframe[Figs.95a-b].Duringthetying,shedidnotusethe

paperbutkeptthebookopenonthesampotholpictureshehadchosen.

Figs.95a-bChendalookingatholmotifsinbooksanddraftingthetyingpatterns,TaPoukvillage,May2017.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi.

669ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon. 670Ibid.

275

ObservingweavingduringtheActionResearchprojectatKramaYuyu

ThissectionmovestotheobservationstageoftheARproject.Thisperiodof

fieldworktookplaceintheweekofJuly24,2017,atKYindoorworkshopinTaPoukvillage,

whichaccommodatesaboutthirtylooms,largestocksofcolouredcottonthreads,amini

showroomspace,andadyeingareawithpotsandvats.IwasstayinginahotelinSiemReap,

about15kmfromTaPouk,andwenttothefacilitywithatuk-tukdriver,stayingfrom8am

to5pm,includinglunch.Ispentthreefulldaysonsite,spreadacrosstheweeksothatI

couldobservedifferentkindsoftasks,aspresentedonthischart[Fig.96].Thegoalwasto

documentthekeystagesofmakingsilkholinadditiontointerviewingChenda,Theary,and

theirmotherChendy.July24wasdedicatedtothewarpingstageandJuly26tothetying

anddyeingoftwodesignskoemAandB,followedbyaninterviewsessioninwhichChendy,

whowasonlyavailabletojointhatday.July30wasspentinstartingtheweavingofkoemA

ontheloomandinterviewingChenda,Theary,andTomokoabouttheirimpressionsofthe

silkweavingproject.OnthedayswhenIwasnotpresent,weaverscontinuedtoworkon

specificstepssuchastyinganddyeingweftthreadsandmakingtheheddlesfortheloom.I

didnottakepartintheweavingprocessmyselfandusedphotographyandfilmastoolsto

transcribetheembodiedexperienceofholpracticesreclaimedbyKYweavers.

276

Fig.96ChartoftheARobservationandinterviewprogramme.

OnJuly24,Chenda,Thearyandtheirteamstartedpreparingthepre-dyedblacksilk

threadsdestinedforthewarp.ChendaandhersisterThearyhadhelpedtheirmotheras

teenagersbuttheyhadnevercompletedallthestagesofwarpingsilkbefore.Oneofthe

laterstepsofwarpingconsistsofmethodicallywindingthefullwidthofthewarpyarns,

withouttanglingthethreads,onabeamwhichwillbeplacedontheloom,keepinganeven

tensionintheprocess.671ItwasledbyChenda,Theary,Sarin,Salat,SreiPonandSoKim,

usingthewholelengthoftheworkshoptokeepthe17m-longwarpintensionbetweentwo

671SeeAppendixA2.

277

woodensticksateachendandoperatethebeamingprocess[Fig.97].672Irecordedthis

actionwithadigitalcamera,whichprovidedthefootagefortheshortfilmTheSilk

Chronicles:Warp.Whileobservingtheprocessandfilming,themainthingInoticedwasthat

insteadofgivingverbalorders,Chendaphysicallymovedeachweaveraroundthewarp

threads,betweenthedifferentstations.Shethenbroughtthewarpingboardforwinding.

Eachweavermovedinacoordinatedmanner,contributingtothestraighteningand

separatingofthewarpthreadsrunningunderandovertherodsandrollingaroundthe

warpingboard.Chenda’sinstructionsweremostlyimplicit,initiatingeachstepandletting

therestoftheteamfollowherleadinstinctively,whilealsorelyingontheirownknowledge

ofwarpingcottonthreads.

Inaddition,theprocessofeditingthefilm,andbeingabletowatchtheactionseveraltimes,

hasenabledanadditionallayerofanalysisaroundwarpingasaformofchoreography.In

thefilm,theyswapplaces,eyesrivetedonthewarp,placingtheirhandsandtouchingitwith

theirfingerstocheckthetension.Iusedthesplit-screeneffectintheeditingtoshowthe

interplaybetweenweaversandtheirmovementwithintheworkshopspace[Fig.98].

672TheSilkChronicles:Warp,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[TC02:14]

278

Fig.97Weaversinthewarpingprocesstryingtokeepthethreadsuntangled,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.

Fig.98Splitscreenshowingweaversonbothendofthewarpthreadstokeepthetensioneven.FromTheSilkChronicles:Warp,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[TC01:10].

279

Oncethewarphadbeenbeamed,theteammovedtothedrawing-instage,which

consistsofdrawingthewarpendsthroughtheharness’heddlesorthereedintheorder

requiredbythedesignoftheclothtobewoven.673Chendaselectedametallicreed(tchak

tamani)onemetrewide.674Thearysatonthefloorandmeticulouslypassedeachwarpend

througheachdentofthereed,withthehelpofanotherweaver[Fig.99].Theyfinishedthe

processduringthefollowingday.

Fig.99Oneweaverseparatingthethreadsandtheotherpassingitthroughthereed’sdentwithahook,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.

Fortheweft,theweaversworkedontyinganddyeingthefirsttwopieces,koemA

andkoemB,onJuly24-26.Toachievethedesiredeffectofpolychromicpatternsusingthe

673SatyaNarayanDash,HandloomIndustryinIndia,109.Theheddlesareusuallymadeofmetallicwireorfinecordandareattachedtotheshaftofaloom.Warpthreadsarepassedthrougheachheddletobeevenlyarranged,andfollowspecificweavestructures,whenshaftswillliftupanddown.Thewarpthreadsusuallypassthroughtheheddlesfirstandthenthroughthereed’sdents.Thisstageofpassingthewarpendsthrougheachdenttoseparatethethreadsevenlyiscalledsleying.Thereedisheldbythebeater.Theshuttleholdingweftthreadswillcrossthroughthewarpendsforthetextiletobewoven. 674SeeAppendixA2.

280

resist-dyetechniquetheweaversworkedthroughfoursuccessiveroundsoftying,dyeingin

onecolouranddryingthetiedskein.Theymanipulatedthesilkweftthreadsthrough

severalforms:onatyingframe,knottedintoabundlefordyeing,thenturnedintospools,

andfinallybeingwovenontheloom.Acrossthreedaysofobservationoveraweek,Isaw

thevariousstagesoftheweftikatprocess,includingtying,dyeingandthestepcalledbauk,

whichinvolveshittingdyedsilkskeinsinametallicbasintoallowthedyetogodeeperinto

thefibreinspiteoftheknottedareas.

Again,filmingprovidedamethodologytocapturethesegesturesandanalysethem.675

ReviewingthefootageusedtomakeWeftconfirmedthatthesesuccessiveprocesses

demandoutstandinghandskills,precisionandstrength,butalsomentalskillssuchas

anticipation,theabilitytoprojectandimagine,andadaptabilitytospatialand

environmentalconstraints.OnkoemB,Chendatiedtheweftthreadsmeticulouslywith

plasticstripstopreventthedyefromcolouringtheseareas.Sheproceededtothefirstdye

bath,abrightpink(pkaachu)chemicalfastdyefromThailandmixedwithwarmwater,

withoutgloves,whichcolouredherskin[Fig.100].Aftersuccessivelyplungingthesilk

bundleintoapinkvatoverafireandleavingittoboil,theweaversrinseditandleftittodry

outside.

675TheSilkChronicles:Weft,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[TC00:41-00:55]

281

Fig.100ChendaandTheary’shandscheckingthequalityofthepinkdyeingprocess,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.

Asstatedearlier,thisARprojectallowedtheweaverstoimplementtheirownstrategiesand

focusedondynamicsofknowledgeinsilk-making.WhileIrefrainedfromintervening,Istill

raisedmyconcernthatthistypeoffastdyeisconsideredharmfulfortheenvironmentand

toxicforthemakers’health.676Weaversdidnotwearprotectivegogglesorgloves,and

seemedunconcerned.Tomoko,forherpart,tooknoteofit.Thishealthandsafetyissuewill

beaddressedinthenextsectionontheweavers’interviewsandevaluationoftheAR

project.

OnJuly26,ThearystartedthesecondroundoftyingforkoemB,installingtheweft

threadsonanikatbambooframetounmaskcertainareasandcoverotherswiththinplastic

stripsinpreparationforthenextdyebathofyellow(luong)[Fig.101].Theary’shand

676RebeccaMoss,’MassFaintingandClothingChemicals,’HowWeGettoNexthttps://howwegettonext.com/mass-fainting-and-clothing-chemicals-c352b94bb54b[AccessedJune16,2019]

282

movementswerefastandprecise.Thefilmfootageemphasiseshoweachgestureseemsto

repeatthepreviousone,eventhoughittiesadifferentareaofthesilkweft,wrappingthe

plasticstripstightlyaroundthethreads,cuttingtheremnantswithaknife,andmoving

acrossthetyingframe.677Eachknotbuildsonthepreviousonetorepeltheyellowdyeand

formtheplannedpatternontheweft.Inthatsense,thisphaseofobservationdemonstrates

howtheikatmotifsappearingonthefinaltextilesareaproductofrepeatedgesturesof

tying,dyeing,untying.AsIngoldsuggests,incraftsmanship‘notwostrokesareidentical.

Anditisalsowhysawinghasarhythmicquality.Fortheretoberhythm,movementmustbe

felt.Rhythmicityimpliesnotjustrepetitionbutdifferenceswithinrepetition’.678Thearyset

aspecificpaceforherpracticeinadialoguebetweenherhands,theplastictiesandtheweft

threads,inanembodied‘monitoringofthetaskasitunfolds’.679

Whileshemasteredtying,Thearystruggledwithdyeing,asshewaslessexperienced.The

yellowdyewouldnottake.HersisterChendatookover,checkedthedyevat,addedmore

chemicaldyestuffandplungedthetiedbundlemorethoroughly.680Theweaverseventually

obtainedthedesiredeffect,withsomepartsoftheweftinbrightyellowandotherparts

over-dyeingthepinkareastocreateawarmreddish-orangetone[Fig.102].

677TheSilkChronicles:Weft[TC03:20-04:20]678TimIngold,‘TheTextilityofMaking,’CambridgeJournalofEconomics34(2010):98.679Ibid.680TheSilkChronicles:Weft[TC05:00-06:43]

283

Fig.101ThearyonthesecondroundoftyingkoemB,unmaskingcertainareasandcoveringotherswithplasticstrips,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July26,2017.

Fig.102SplitscreenshowingChendaandThearydyeingthetiedpinksilkskeinintheyellowvat.FromTheSilkChronicles:Weft,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[TC04:33].

284

Finally,onceshehadfinisheddyeingthesilkskeinforkoemA,Thearytransferreditto

spoolsmadeofwoodensticks(knar)forweaving.681Holdingthespoolwithherlefthand

androllingthespinningwheelwithherright,Thearywoundthethreadsontosetsof

successivespools,eachsetformingonerepeatofthemotif.Crouchingonthefloor,she

followedthecontinuousmovementofthethread,usingherhandstooperatethewheel,

feelingthethreadsrollingaroundthespoolwiththefingersofherlefthand,asshownin

thisclose-up[Fig.103].Touchinghelpedherassessandadjusttherightrhythmtowindthe

threadevenlyonthespools.

Fig.103ThearyspinningthemulticolouredweftsilkthreadsforkoemBonspools,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.

InmyabsenceonJuly28-29,ChendaandThearyinstalledthewarpontheoneloom

mobilisedfortheproject.OnmyfinalvisitinJuly30,Chendafinishedthisprocessandfixed

theedges.Shethenproceededtothreadtheheddlesonthreesetsofrodstomakethree

681TheSilkChronicles:Weft[TC06:59-09:40]SeeagainFigure90.

285

shafts[Figs.104a-b].Cambodianweaversmakenon-reusablecordheddlesbyhand,

whereasEuropeanloomshavepre-madewireheddles.Thisstepisoftenoutsourcedto

othervillagers,tomaketheprocesseasierandfaster.682

Fig.104aChendamanuallymakingtheheddlesontheloom,Author’sphotograph,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia,July30,2017.Fig.104bDiagramofwheretheheddlesarepositionedontheloom.

ResettlingintheSiemReapareahasmodifiedChenda’sandTheary’spracticewithoutthe

accesstoanetworkofsubcontractorsinneighbouringvillages.Chendaexplained:‘inTakeo

provincetheyhaveacoupleofpeople,expertsindoingthisthing[heddles][…]theywill

bringittotheirhouseandtheydoit,afterthey'redone,theybringitbacktothem[the

weavers]’.683Inthiscase,heddlesaredoneseparatelyandloopedaroundupperandlower

682ChendaandThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthonaboutChenda'svillageinTakeoProvince,trans.YuandTomokoTakagi,July30,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.;TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,130.683Ibid.

286

rods.Onceready,heddlesaredirectlyinstalledandattachedtotheloom.Theweaverthen

threadsthewarpendsthroughtheheddlesonebyoneandthentiesthewarponthefront

beamoftheloom,andthendrawsthemthroughthereed.Subcontractingthisprocessthus

changestheorderofthedifferentsteps.

Ontheloom,Chendaspenttimecoatingthewarp,usingabristlebrush(praing)dippedin

watermixedwithtapiocastarchtoprotectthefinesilkthreadsandhelptheprocess

[Fig.105].Tomoko,whowaspresent,explainedthattapiocastarchstrengthenedthefibres.

However,iftheweatheristoohot,thestarchdriestoofastanditcanmakethesilkbrittle.

Ontheotherhand,ifitisrainy,thestarchdoesnotdryandalsodamagesthesilk.Marchand

hasrightlyarguedthatitisimpossibletodenytheimpactoftheenvironmentonthe

learningexperience.Byenvironment,hemeans‘artifacts,tools-to-hand,andrawmaterials;

space,place,andarchitecture;pathsandboundaries;time-framesandtemporalrhythms;

light,darkness,andweather’.684Theweavingworkshop,operatingunderspecificweather

conditions,becameamicro-environmenttowhichtheweaversactivelyresponded.

Oncethewarpwasready,Chendawoveabout12cmofblueandblacksegmentstostart.She

thenusedthefirstspooloftheknarsetof17spoolspreparedbyhersisterintheshuttleto

composetheikatmotifrepeatontheloom[Fig.106].Bytheendoftheday,shehad

managedtoweaveasegmentof5cm(ona1mwidth)asshowninthispicture[Fig.107].Hol

textilesarewovenfromthereverse.Theexteriorsideofthefabriccanbeseenwhenthe

warpisunrolledfromtheloom.Onanuneventwill,whilebothsidesareshowingtheikat

patterns,thereverseisdarker(showingmoreofthewarpthreads)andtheexteriorsideis

brighter(showingmoreoftheweftthreads).

684Marchand,MakingKnowledge,2.

287

Fig.105Chendacoatingthewarpwithwatermixedwithtapioca,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.

Figs.106-107Left:AspooloftheknarforkoemAisputinashuttleandpassedthoughthewarp.Right:Chenda’shandshowingthemulticolouredsectionshehaswoven.Author’sphotographs,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia,July30,2017.

Thisperiodofobservationhasfocusedontheweavers’decisionsandactions.This

sectionisbasedonmemoriesofmydirectobservationsduringfieldwork,thatwerealso

capturedinnote-takingandphotography.Italsoreliedonthereviewingoffilmfootageand

theeditingofWarpandWeftasmethodologicaltoolstoexploreweavingasagestural

practice.Thefilmsprovideamaterialillustrationoftacitknowledge.Followingphilosopher

288

MichaelPolyani,IwoZmyslonydevelopedalinguisticanalysisoftheterm‘tacit’,definingit

as‘quiet’,or‘withouttheuseofspeech’,fromtheLatinadjectivetacite.Morebroadly,Ingold

hasarguedthat‘tacit’hasarangeofmeanings,‘fromthesilentthroughtheunspokentothe

implicit’.685Acknowledgingthattheweavers’voiceshavebeenmediatedbytranslation,the

useoffilmoffersamoredirectaccesstotheweavers’bodiesasproducersofknowledgeand

howsilkholprocessesareenactedinaspecificspaceandenvironment.Thetechnical

descriptionofholweavingandthevisualanalysisofaselectionoffinishedpieces(seenin

ChapterOne)areenhancedbywitnessingthecomplexityofthoughtandskillputinto

weaving,shownthroughthehandsandbodiesoftheweavers.

Handicraftproductioninherentlyinvolvestheperformanceofmaking.686InChapter

Two,theperformanceofhandicrafts,forinstanceattheAAsilkfarminPuok,wasusedto

signifytheauthenticationofCambodiansilkweavingtoatouristaudience.AtKY,weavers

performedsilkikatweavingtoimplementtheproject,butalsoformybenefit,asresearcher

andobserver.TheseideaswillbefurtherdevelopedinChapterFour,whereembodied

knowledgeisexploredthroughtheuseofsilkinceremonialevents,danceandcultural

eventsinthecontextoftheCambodianAmericandiaspora.

Weavers’interviews:agenciesinknowledgeandskillstransmissionintheActionResearch

project

AsdetailedinFigure96,theobservationphasewascomplementedbyinterviewson

July26and30.OnJuly26,theinterviewtookplaceduringthelunchbreakforaboutanhour

andahalf,andinvolvedChenda,Theary,theirmotherChendy,translatorYu,Tomoko,and

myself.OnJuly30theinterviewwasmoreinformal,takingplacethroughoutthedayand

685Ingold,Making,109.686SeeKendall,‘IntangibleTracesandMaterialThings:ThePerformanceofHeritageHandicraft,’550.

289

involvingChenda,Tomokoandmyself.Forexample,ItalkedtoChenda,withTomoko’shelp,

whileshewasworkingontheloom.

TheJuly26interviewbetweenChenda,ThearyandChendyilluminatedtheirstrategiesto

re-engageunusedknow-howandtheimportanceofskillstransmissionwithinthefamily.

Thediscussionalsorevealedthewaysinwhichreclaimedandoldknowledgewere

mobilisedinthereenactmentofholweavingpractices.Weaversusedaseriesoftacticsto

achievethesilkholproject,suchasrelyingontheirbodymemoryandtheirformertraining,

seekingadvicefromtheirfamily,discussingwitheachother,andrehearsingthesteps.

Chendyexplainedhowshelearnedsilkweaving,sayingshe‘isoriginallyfromPhnomPenh.

ButduringtheKhmerRougeperiodshewasevacuatedtoKandalprovince.Butafterthat

shegotmarriedandmovedtoTakeo.Andthenshelearned,shestartedtomaketheweaving

andthesilk’.687Tothequestion‘whyweaving’shesaid:‘Takeoprovinceistheareafor

weaving,soitwasawaytomakealiving’.688InTakeo,shelearnedwithEung,hermother-

in-law.Forayear,she‘watchedherweavingeveryday,andthensheeventuallywasableto

doit[…]Firstshestartedtodotying,thingslikethat.Andaftershestartedweaving’.689She

added‘itwascomplicatedtomakealivingwithweaving[…]besidesweaving,shewasalso

growingrice’.

Shehadsixchildrenandtrainedbothherdaughters.Chendastartedattwelve:‘itwasnot

perfect.Sheonlylearnedhowtodothis,thetying.Butaftersheturnedfourteenshelearned

toweave.Butshewastinyandshecouldnotreachthefloorwithherfeet,soitwasdifficult

toweave’.690ForThearyitwas‘whenshewasaboutsixteenorseventeenyearsoldwhen

shewasinhighschool.Aftersheleftschoolandstartedtofocusonweaving’.Chendyadded

‘it’seasytolearn.Theyjustneedanexampleandtheycandoit’.691

687Chendy,Chenda,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.688Ibid.689Ibid.690Ibid. 691Ibid.

290

ShemovedtoSiemReaptofollowherdaughtersin2005.692Shebroughtwithherfrom

Takeoarepertoireofweftikatmotifsintheformofspoolsofdyedsilkthreads,withwhich

sheposesinthispicture[Figs.108a-b].Shesaid:‘thisisthesilktheyrolltomakeaspool.

Thatbelongstoher,hercollection’.693Tothequestionofwhatthepatternsforeachwere,

sheansweredthat‘shedoesn'tremembernow.It'sallmixedup.Thisonesheknows.She

madeadiagramwiththecolourandsheremembers.Butsomeothersit'smixedup

together’.694

Duringtheinterview,theHengfamilywaseagertosharetheirknowledgeandbuildoneach

other’sthoughts,discussingtheseikatspools:‘thesecomefromTakeofromtenyearsago.

Andshe[Chendy]haskepttheminBakong.AftersheleftTakeo,shemadeacouple,three

kbunthatshehassold’.695Asikatpatternsyettobewoven,thesespoolsmaterialise

Chendy’sknowledgetotapintoandreclaim.Chendystoppedweavingsilkaround2006,

becauseher‘eyesstartedtobeblurry’andsheneededglasses.Shebecameanunin2016.

Illustratinghowsilkknowledgeisgroundedinamatrilinealrelationship,Chendy

consideredthatshehad‘transferredallofherknowledgetoherdaughters,everything

aboutweavingandthehol’.696Passingonsilkweavingskillswasdirectlypredicatedon

economicnecessity,whilealsobeingconsideredameanstogainautonomy.Chendy

admittedthatshe‘issabaychet(happy)[…],shedoesn'thavetoworry.Herdaughterscan

survivebythemselvesanddependonthemselves.Noneedtoaskherformoney’.697Chendy

wasalsopleasedtoseeChenda‘teachpeople[atKY]howtodoweaving.Somaybetheywill

teachtothenextgeneration.Sotheskillswillnotgoaway’.698

692FormoreonelderlyinternalmigrationsinCambodia,see:SabinaLawreniukandLaurieParsons,‘Mother,Grandmother,Migrant:ElderTranslocalityandtheRenegotiationofHouseholdRolesinCambodia,’EnvironmentandPlanningA49,no.7(2017):1664-1683.693Chendy,Chenda,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon. 694Ibid.695Ibid.696Ibid.697Ibid.698Ibid.

291

Figs.108a-bChendyHengshowinghercollectionofsilkikatspoolsbroughtfromTakeoprovince,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July26,2017.

MovingtoChendaandherknowledgeonhol,sherememberedhowtotieanddesign

holpatternsbecauseshe‘practisedalotfrom2006to2007’.699TopreparefortheAR

project,Chendasaid:

‘it'sdifficulttobringbackthememorytomakethehol.Forthekramashecandoit,butfortheholshehadtoresearchandlearnalot[…]whenshedidnotremember,sheaskedhermotherortheauntieinTakeoprovincetogetmoreinformationonhowtomakeit[…]sheaskedonlyaboutdyeingcolours,betweennaturaldyeingandchemicaldyes.Shewantedtoknowabouthowtodoit’.700

AboutcollaboratingwithhersisterTheary,Chendasaiditwas:

‘teamwork,forthisprojectsheisworkingwithhersister.It'sgoingwell.Sometimestheyaskeachother,learnfromeachother.BecausesometimessheforgetsandThearyremembers.Andthentheopposite.Sotheyaskeachother’.701

Chendasaidthat‘inthefutureifthisprojectworkswell,sheiswillingtocreatesomemore

anddesignmore.Notonlythispatternbutmaybeanimaldesignor...Sheisalsowillingto

699Chendy,Chenda,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.700Ibid.701Ibid.

292

learnmorealso’.702Toselectpeopletotrain,shewouldlookforqualitiesofpatienceand

perseverance,butalsoarealinterestinlearningandpractising.

Theweaverssuccessfullyproducedfourdistinctivepolychromicsilkkbuninthe

weftikattechnique,whichtheyhadnotpractisedformorethanadecade.Tomoko

communicatedwithmebyemailandsentmepicturesofChendaandThearyshowingthe

finalsamplesinOctober2017.Tomokodidnotspecificallysharetheirfeelingsaboutthese

holpieces,exceptinoneemail,inwhichChendathoughtthatmakingtheholpieceshad

gonewell,buthadtakenalongtime.ThiswasalsoexpressedintheJuly26interview.

Chendasaidthen:'Ididnothaveanyproblemwithanyofthestages,butalltakealongtime.

[…]thelongestprocessistotieanddyeandwash[thesilkthreads]’.703Onherend,when

askedwhatshethoughtaboutwhileweaving,Thearyexpressedfeelingdemotivatedat

times,statingthat‘sometimeswhileshe'sworkingshe'sthinkingit'stakingsolongandthe

costoftheholisverycheap.Soshestopsforalittle.Andafterthatshehasthedesireto

workonitagain,soshegoesbacktoit’.704Theworkisarduous.InheremailsfromAugust,

Tomokoexplainedthatthedyeingprocessofsilkweftsandthethreadingofthewarptook

longerthananticipated.ChendaandThearyalsohadtochangethereedbecauseitwas

damagingthethreads,whichdelayedtheprocessbyanotherfewdays.

However,thestudyoftheseholsamplesdesignsrevealstheagencyofweaversin

thewaystheyapproachtheirskillstoeitherfollowtraditionalstylesorinnovate.KoemA,B

andCarefinesilkholtextilesinapolychromiccombinationindeepredandorangetones

withblueandwhiteaccents,withall-overgeometricmotifsandcontrastingborders

[Figs.109-110-111].KoemCdisplaysalargerandmoreintricatedecorativeframework,

playingwithsuccessivestripesofred,yellow,purpleandorange,withadditionaltriangle

motifsandalineofwhitedots.Forthesepieces,ChendaandThearyfollowedtheprinciples

702Chendy,Chenda,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon. 703Ibid.704Ibid.

293

ofcolourandcompositionlearnedinTakeoprovinceintheiryouth.Askedwhysheuseda

blackwarp(pteahkhmao),Chendaexplainedthatshefounditbeautifulandthatit

enhancedtheothercoloursafterweaving.Shespontaneouslystatedthat‘alongtimeago

whentheymadehollikethis,theymadeitblackandred,inthetraditionalway’.705

WhatisstrikingishowthesecomparetokoemD,whichwasdevelopedinacompletely

differentstyle.Afterthethreepieceswerecompleted,anddespitetheirtime-consuming

process,Chendadecidedtousetheremainderofthesilkwarptomakeafourthkbun.In

July,Chendahadstated:‘Iwanttodomyowndesign’forthelastpiece.Tomokoemailedme

inSeptembertoseekmyopiniononthedesign.Iwantedtoletherchoose,buttohelpI

suggestedthatshecouldlookintoherearlycottonpiecesforKYinikatandnaturaldyesfor

ideas.706Intheend,Chendaexperimentedwithneutraltonesofgreyandblack,

deconstructingmotifsshehaddevelopedinthepastwithstripesandexperimentingwitha

largerscale[Fig.112].Theresultshowcasestheweaver’sversatilepersonalityandabilityto

innovate.ItwasonlyafterChendaandThearyhadcompletedthethreepiecesaccordingto

theirideaof‘traditionalhol’thatChendafeltempoweredtocreateamorepersonalstyle,

followinghertechnicalknowledgeofholwhileexpandingitwithaboldrepertoireofnew

designsandhues.

705ChendaHengandTomokoTakagi,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthonaboutmakingheddles,trans.Yu,July26,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.706Ibid.

294

Fig.109DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemA,October2020.

Fig.110DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemB,October2020.

295

Fig.111DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemC,October2020.

Fig.112Chendawiththefourthkbunshewoveinneutraltonesandmixedpatterns.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi.

296

ChendaandThearyhavere-engagedwithapracticelearnedathomeinTakeoina

reconfiguredcontext,bycollaboratingwithTomokoandfourotherweaversattheKY

workshopinTaPouk,creatingnewdynamicsofcollectiveworkandskillstransmission.The

waysinwhichweavers(ChendawithTheary,ChendyinsupportandothermembersatKY),

relyoneachotheriskeytosupporttheirlearningandpractice.AsMarchandwrites,the

‘socialnatureofknowledge[…]isrealisedon-line:incommunicationand,moregenerally,in

interaction’.707Knowledge-makingandculturaltransmissionexistinamovementbetween

individualandcollectiveexperience,inwhichembodiedknowledgereconnectssocial

interactionswithcraftspractices.

Thefruitfuldiscussionsthathappenedbetweenmeandthemakersduringtheinterviews

reinforcedtheaddedvalueofdialogue,whichisbyitselfaproducerofknowledge.By

enablingtheweaverstoarticulate,throughpracticeandinterviews,howtheymobilised

differentformsofknowledge,fromtacitknowledge,bodymemoryandfamilymemoryto

collectiveskills,theirstatusasexpertswaslegitimised.ItisclearthatthisARproject,asa

practice-ledinitiative,canbepartofaprogressiveshiftinmethodologiesofresearchwith

indigenousgroups.GoingbacktoSmith’sIndigenousResearchAgenda(seeFigure79),the

ARprojectclearlyaccompaniedtheparticipantsduringthreeoftheseprocesses:healing,in

termsofreclaimingalostpractice;transformation,byquestioningtheweavers’knowledge,

memoriesandpositionality,andmobilisation,byinvitingthemtobeactiveagentsofthe

reclamationprocess,decidingonplanning,resources,design,andthedistributionoftasks.

Inclusivitycouldbeincreasedbyengagingweavinggroupsfurtherindocumentingtheir

practicethemselves,orinteractingwithlocalresearchers,whichmypositionasoutsider

researcherdidnotallow.Forexample,incommunity-basedprojects,Smithencouragesthe

integrationof‘insider'indigenousresearchersworkingwithintheirowncommunities,

707Marchand,MakingKnowledge,11.

297

whichpresentsanewrangeofethicalchallengesaroundreflexivity,neutrality,and

objectivity.708

TheprojectwithKYrepresentedonlyonecycleofAR,whichcouldbefollowedbya

newcycleoftestingnewimplicationsandmodifiedpremisesinthefuture.Considering

issuesofhealthandsafetyaroundmaterials,theuseofThaifastchemicaldyesinparticular,

Tomokounderstoodthattoxicdyestuffscouldaffectweavers,aswellasputtingpotential

customersoff.Sheexplainedbyemailthatforasecondcycleshewaslookingatsafe

chemicaldyesfromtheGermanbrandDyStar,aswellasconsideringusingnaturaldyes,

acknowledgingthatbothoptionswouldbemorecostly.KYhasbeenconsideringdeveloping

acollectionofsilkscarves,todiversifyitsoffertoreachahigher-endmarketandattract

potentialnewbuyers.ThesecondcycleofARcouldadjusttheproductionprocessand

materialsourcingtomakeitmoretime-efficientandsustainableanduseholdesignsfor

marketablesilkproducts.Thiswouldrequireadditionalfunding,whichremainsamajor

constraintinindigenous,rural,andcommunity-basedcontexts.KYwas,itseems,hopingI

couldhelpthemwithfundingagain.TomokowrotethattheotherweaversatKYwhohad

notengagedintheprojecthadexpressedinterestinlearningsilkweaving.

However,inanemailexchangewithTomokoinJuly2019,IfoundoutthatChendaHenghad

leftKYinSpring2019.Thereasonswerenotcommunicatedtome.Thearywasexpectinga

babyandwouldonlyresumeherweavingactivitiesatthebeginningof2020.Shewouldbe

theonlyweaverwithsilkikatknowledgeattheworkshop.Thislastupdatehasundermined

thepositiveeffectsoftheARprojectinrevivingsilkknowledgeinthelongterm,limitingthe

possibilitiesoftransmittingthesetechniquestotherestoftheweaversatKY.

708Smith,DecolonizingMethodologies,127.

298

Weavers’voicesonmemory,knowledge,andtasteinsilkpractices

WiththeexamplesofChendykeepingheroldspoolsofikatyarnandChenda

rehearsingspecificstepsofholweavingshehadlearnedasateenager,theARprojecthas

highlightedhowmemoryinformstheweavers'knowledgeonsilk.709Thissectionnowturns

tomyotherperiodsoffieldworktoexaminefurthertheroleofmemoryintheformationof

knowledgeandtaste.TheinterviewswithYuonSophonandPon,theolderweaversfrom

PhnomChisor,exemplifytheconnectionbetweenweavingexperienceandpastmemories.

ThetraumaoftheKRregimewasneverdirectlyaddressedintheconversations,but

periodisationreferringtothe‘PolPotera’wasfrequentasacornerstonemarkingthenotion

ofa‘before’and‘after’theregime.710Whenaskedaboutthechronologyofherweaving

activity,Ponrepliedthatshe‘marriedjustbeforePolPotregime.Shejustlearnedatthat

time.Studiedatschoolalsoandlearnedweaving.Shewasmovedtoliveinanothercity.So

afterthePolPotregime,shemovedback,startedweavingagain[because]itwastheonly

skillthatshehad’.711Aboutsilkfibre,Ponsaid:‘whenshewasyoung,hermothersheused

todosilkbyherself,producedbythelocalworms’,aprocessPonneverreallysuccessfully

mastered,andwhichshehaschosennottopursue,bybuyingimportedindustrialsilk.712

Askedwhetherherchildrenwouldcontinueweaving,YuonSophonsaidtheywouldnot.She

talkedabout‘before’,anundeterminedpastwhichreferredinthiscasetobeforethe

expansionofgarmentfactoriesinTakeoprovince.Shesaid‘before,everyhousehadaloom,

butnotonlyoneloom,buteventhreeloomsalso,inthepast.Butnowthewomengoto

workforthefactory.’713Hercommentlackedanyformofnostalgia.Theseaccountsarelived

709CommunicationscholarSvendBrinkmann,withDortheKirkegaardThomsen,hasarguedthatthememoriessharedininterviewsaresubjective:‘rather,[theinterviewee]istalkingaboutaspecificmemoryofanexperience’.SeeSvendBrinkmann,QualitativeInterviewing(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2013),38.710Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.711Ibid.712Ibid. 713YuonSophon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.

299

experiencesofCambodia’shistory,andtheyparticipateintheformationofacollective

memory.TheelderlyweaversatPhnomChisorsituatedtheirpresentpracticeincontrastto

ideasaboutancientways.

AtCYKtrainingcentreinTrapaingKrasaingvillage,Batidistrict,Takeo,Pheach,inhermid-

thirties,hadarrivedwithheryoungestdaughtertocollectgoldensilkthreads[Fig.89].At

CYK,Pheachwasgivenfreematerials–dyesandgoldensilk–andadecentcommissionfor

pidanweaving.Besidesbeingmotivatedbythesegoodworkingconditions,Pheachwas

unusualinthewaysheexpressedadeepvocationforweaving.714Shesaidthat‘notonlyshe

likesit,butshelovesit.Becauseit'scustoms,it'sKhmer.It'sKhmercustoms.Itisthe

identityofCambodia.Shereallyreallylovesweaving’.715Tothequestion‘whatdoyoulike

aboutweaving?’sheansweredthat‘heronlyinspirationisdoingwhattheKhmerancestors

havebeendoingandshewantstocontinue’.716Shewasthefourthgenerationofweaversin

herfamily:‘upuntilhermother,thisiswhathergrandmothertoldher,hermotheristhe

thirdgenerationofweavers.Butbeforeshedoesn'tknowiftheywereweaversornot.[…]

They[thefamily]startedevenbeforetheKRregime.DuringtheKRregime,weavinghas

stoppedlikeeverywhereelse.ButaftertheKRtheybeganagain’.717Herfamilyworkedwith

goldensilkuntilabout1993andthenswitchedtoVietnamesesilk,whichexplainswhy

PheachhadnevertriedweavingwiththismaterialuntiljoiningCYK.Pheachalsorecalled

childhoodmemoriesaboutpidantextiles:

‘Whenshewasyounger,asmallchild,sheusedtoseepidaninthepagoda.Butshedoesn'tseeitanymore[…]shesawapidanonthewallsofapagoda.whenshe'smakingthesamethinglikethat,shefeelsasenseofprideinwhatsheisdoing[…]pidanwasbeautiful’.718

Pheach’sloveforsilkweavingisconnectedtoherchildhoodmemoriesandhowshehas

714Pheach,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,translatedbyRothmono,August3,2017,TrapaingKrasaing,Cambodia;CYKpaysanaverageof170USDperpidanpiecetotheweavers. 715Ibid.716Ibid.717Ibid.718Ibid.

300

establishedheridentityasaCambodianwoman.WantingtocontinueatypicallyCambodian

practiceshedeemsbeautifulhasalsobeenamotivationtoseektrainingandlearnpidanat

CYK.

Byfocusingontheproductionofholtextilesamples,theARprojecthasalsolinked

silkwithquestionsoftaste,styleandviewsonCambodianculture.Duringtheinterviews

accompanyingthefieldworkinPhnomChisorweaversalsoshowedthetextilestheymade

forCambodianfemaleconsumers.Tofindideas,theysaidtheywerediscussingwitheach

other,listeningtotheirmiddlemen’srequests,andlookingatthepopularstylesproduced

bytheirneighbours.SoAimadethisholpoarinbrightlimegreenandsalmonpinkin

chemicaldyeswithadecorativefriezeofstylisedflowersandgeometricshapes[Fig.113].

Shefoundinspirationbycopyingoldpatternsdevelopedinhervillageandbyfollowingher

middleman’srecommendation.Inherexperience,youngCambodiancustomerspreferred

lightweightpatternsandboldcolourcombinations,andwereattractedtothisstyleof

design.

Ponshowedmeatwo-toneelectricbluesilksampothol,whichsheliked,sayingitwas‘a

newstyle,morepopularfortheyoungpeople(khmeinkhmein)[…]but[that]shewould

neverwear’[Fig.114].719Toexplainherdefinitionofthetraditional‘oldstyle’ofhol,Pon

insistedonshowingmeapreciouslykeptstackofsampotfromherpersonalcollection,

includingthefirsthipwrapshehadwovenforherpersonaluse,whichshe‘worealot’for

ceremoniessuchasweddingsandBuddhistgatheringsatthepagoda[Fig.115].720Itwasa

multicolouredholinbrownishtonesandnaturaldyesthatshedeemedsuitableforawoman

ofherage.

719Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.720Ibid.

301

Fig.113SoAiandPromChakholdingherlatestpieceinabrightacidgreenandsalmonpinkmotifs,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.

Figs.114-115Left:SampotholpoarwovenbyPoninelectricblue.Right:StackofsampotfromPon'scollection,includingthefirsthipwrapskirtshewoveforherselfonthetop,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotographs,March17,2018.

ForSoAiandPontoposewiththeirtextilesinmyphotographsthusdemonstrates

theirwillingnesstoberecognisedfortheirwork,colours,andmotifs.Whilemostartisans

sellalloftheirproduction,Ponwaseagertopresentherowncollectionofsampot.She

302

expressedherappreciationforsilkasamaterial,butalsoherunderstandingofCambodian

dresscodesandthevalueofgoodqualityproducts.Tothequestion‘whydoesshelikesilk’?

sheanswered:‘it'straditional.It'slikeforpartyorwedding,it'sthestyle’.721Thissenseof

appreciationalsotranspiredinmyencounterwithKamon,thirty-sixyearsoldin2018.

WhenImether,shewasweavingaholpiece‘notforsale,becausethisisforawedding

partysoshepreparesforherself’.722Sheaddedthat‘thepattern,shecopiedfromthe

neighbours’.723Itwasafive-colourpatternofsmallflowerswithaborderofstylised

centipedes[Figs.116a-b].Kamonexplainedthatshewouldkeepthispiece‘forever,andfor

anotherparty,useagainandagain’.724Shehadalreadymadethreesilkensemblesforherself

andfourforhermother.Sheexplainedthat‘silkisbeautiful(saart)’andneededfor

‘traditionalclothes[…]intheweddinginthemorning,peopleweartubeskirtswithhol’.725

Figs.116a-bKamonworkingonhersampotholpieceforaweddingandclose-up,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotographs,March17,2018.

Listeningtotheweaverssharingmemoriesfromtheirpastexperiencesandchildhood,

721Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon. 722Kamon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.723Ibid. 724Ibid.725Ibid.

303

discussingthetextilestheyproduceandwear,showsthatweavingisnotjustmotivatedby

economicincentives.Silktextilesarelinkedtolocalcollectivecustomsandembeddedinthe

weavers’lives.TheCambodianweaversImetinthesethreeperiodsoffieldworkmostly

weavetosell,butsomeoccasionallyweavepiecesforthemselvestobewornatparties,

ceremonies,andweddings.Thesalespriceofsilktextilesalsovariesdependingonthetime

oftheyear.Forinstance,beforetheNewYearwhichisahighseasonforweddingsand

Buddhistceremonies,weaversaccepttoselltheirpiecestomiddlemenatalowerprice

becausetheyneedthemoneytoattendtheseevents.726Similarly,Chendyexplainedthat

weaversmarriedtofarmerssellholpiecesatacheaperpriceduringthericeharvesting

seasonfromNovembertoJanuary,tohelpraisefundstosupporttheharvestingeffort.727

Activatingknowledgethroughcommunity,matrilinealconnectionsandapprenticeship

TheinterviewbetweenChenda,ChendyandThearyintheARprojectalsodirectly

relatestothewayinwhichfamilydynamicsoftransmission,supportandinterdependence

areessentialactivatorsofsilkknowledge.InCambodia,weavingapprenticeshipis

embeddedinaruralfamilialenvironmentandhierarchicalrelationships,whetherittakes

placeinpeople’shousesinvillagesorincraftcompanies’facilities.

Lookingatthetransmissionofsilkskillsentailsexaminingthenatureoftherelationships

involvedinpracticeandlearning.AtKY,Chendaexplainedhowshewastrainedbyher

motherinheryouth.TopreparefortheARproject,Chendareactivatedthischainof

knowledgebycontactingheragainforguidanceonthetechniqueofikattie-dyeing.In

PhnomChisor,womenofdifferentages,suchasKamon,YuonSophonandPon,learnedsilk

practicesinthefamilywithaloominstalledonthegroundflooroftheirhousesonstilts.So

726Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon. 727HengChendy,Chenda,andTheary,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.

304

Ailearnedwithaneighbourattheageoffifteen,sincehermotherdidnotknowhowto

weave.728Shestatedthat‘sometimessheneedsthepeopleinthevillagetohelp.Forthe

tyingshedoesherself.Buttopreparetheptey[warp]thensheneedstheneighbours.At

leastsixpeopletoholdthethreads’,asdemonstratedduringtheARobservationphase.729

SoAialsotrainedherfourchildrentohelpherwithspinning.Passingontextileknowledge

tothefamilythusservesseveralgoals:itprovidesincome-generatingknow-howforthe

children’sfutureandsecuresskilledhelpatcloserangetosupportthefamilyactivity.

TheWisdomfromtheForestvillagebuiltbyIKTTinChotSamnearSiemReap,

presentedinChapterTwo,offersacomparison.Thevillagehasaccommodatedweaversand

theirfamilies,somelocalandsomefromotherprovinces.AsDerksargued,‘processesof

femalelabourmigration’inCambodiaaretheresultof‘acomplexinterplayamong

individual,household,stateandgloballevels’.730WhenMorimotorecruitedthe‘silk

grandmothers’totrainapprenticesandmovetothevillage,somebroughttheirchildrenand

grandchildrenintotheorganisation.Conversely,otherelderlywomenfollowedtheir

childrenwhowerealreadypartofIKTT.AmongthemwasOmLai,fifty-sevenyearsoldin

2016,whowasoriginallyfromTakeoandlearneddyeing,tyingandweavingfromher

mother.HerowndaughterwasalreadyworkingatIKTTwhenshejoinedin2012[Fig.117].

728SoAi,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.729Ibid.730Derks,KhmerWomenontheMove,10.

305

Fig.117OmLai(ontheright)dyeingsilkskeinswithotherweavers,IKTTvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.

JokKiang,thirty-sevenyearsold,hadbeenworkingatIKTTforfifteenyearswhenIvisited

andwasoneofthemostskilledholweaversattheworkshop[Fig.118].ShecamefromAng

RoviengvillageinTakeoprovince,movingwithhergrandmother,whoalsocametowork

forIKTT.Whilehereighty-four-year-oldgrandmotherhasnowretiredandreturnedto

Takeo,JokKianghasstartedtoteachoneofherthreechildren,herthirteen-year-old

daughter,howtodothetying.

PanDam,seventy-threeyearsoldin2016,wasmentionedinthepreviouschapter[Fig.119].

HerwholefamilywasinvolvedinsericultureinKampotwhenMorimotoconvincedherto

comeworkforhiminSiemReap.AsthemostexperiencedsericultureexpertatIKTT,she

thentrainedeveryoneinthesilkworm-rearingteam,aswellasherfourdaughters,whoalso

cametoworkwithher.731InthecaseofPanDamandherdaughters,itwasasmuchan

economicrationaleasthepossibilityofpursuingafamilyactivitywiththesupportofa

731OmLai,JokKiang,andPanDam,Informalconversations,trans.Asya,December26,2016,ChotSam,SiemReap,Cambodia.

306

widerstructure.MenarealsoinvolvedwithIKTT’soperations.Anewspaperarticle

describesin2009‘acarpentrygroupmak[ing]weavingtoolssuchasloomsandbuild[ing]

traditional-stylewoodenCambodianhouses’inwhichaseventy-five-year-oldcarpenter

trainedothermentocontinueafterhisretirement.732Asmallgroupofworkersproduced

bananaashusedasdyestuff.In2017,thehusbandofHopSam,athirty-seven-year-old

weaver,wasoverseeingtheelectricalsystematthevillage.Othermenworkedinthefields

surroundingtheworkshopsalsotendingtotinctorialplants.

Fig.118JokKiangworkingonaholtextile,IKTTvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.

732Harbarger,‘SilkDyerKikuoMorimoto,ResurrectingaCulturalEcology.’

307

Fig.119PanDamatthesilkwormnursery,IKTTvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.

AscontendedbyFallsandSmith,theWisdomfromtheForestvillagehasoperatedasa

utopiancraftsitesurroundedbylandsandforests,exploitingthecodesofrurallifeand

reproducingcommunitytiesandmatriarchallineages.733Thisself-sufficientcollaborative

societyrespondstoVenkatesan’sconceptofaheterotopiainwhichthepositionofmakersis

highlymanaged.734IKTThasthuscreatedacomplexityofagenciesfortheweaverswho

navigatedailybetweentheirrolesaswomen,mothers,daughters,craftswomen,and

membersoftheorganisation.735Newrecruitshavelearnedfrommoreexperiencedmakers,

733FallsandSmith,‘BrandingAuthenticity:CambodianIkatinTransnationalArtisanPartnerships,’5.734Venkatesan,‘RethinkingAgency:PersonsandThingsintheHeterotopiaof‘TraditionalIndianCraft,’83.735‘InaplacelikeSiemReap,wherethelinkstotraditionwereseveredcompletely,itwouldbedifficulttorevivethissortoftraining[mothertodaughtertransmission].Theroleofmotheristakenbytheoldwomenmastersoftheteachers,whiletheroleofbigsisterfallstothewomanintheexperiencedteam.’InMorimoto,BayonMoon,117.

308

progressivelyevolvingintheirapprenticeship.Thecross-generationaltransmissionhas

beenextendedtostaffmembers’children,whoarefollowingarteducationclassesand

Japaneselanguagelessons,withthepossibilityofworkingfortheorganisationinthe

future.736

AsrecipientsandparticipantsofIKTT,weaversarenotdeprivedoftheiragency.Under

Morimoto’sinput,KatalinMedvedevnotedduringhertimeoffieldworkatIKTTin2008

that‘someofthewomen[…]praised[Morimoto’s]supportfortheworkers’creativityand

abilitytoimproviseanddeveloptheirowntechniqueaswellashisencouragementofthem

asco-creators’.737Bychoosingtocometothevillageandinvitingfamilymemberstojoin,

weavershavebecomeactiveprescribersoftheirenskilment.Thedynamicsofknowledge

areenacteddifferentlybetweenKYmembersattheworkshop,villagersandneighboursin

PhnomChisorandatIKTT,whichhashybridisedNGOpracticeswithmatrilinealformsof

textileeducationcommontoCambodianvillages.Whatisnotableinallthesedifferent

contextsofweaving,whichoffervariationsoffamilyandwomen-boundapprenticeship,is

thatweaversemergeasdecisiveagentstoensurethecontinuationofsilkcraftsmanship.

Conclusion

Thefocusonknowledgetransmissioninthischapterhasrepositionedweaversat

theheartofthesilkscapebyexploringtheirexperienceinregardtolearningandsharingsilk

skillsandwaysofsustainingtheiractivity.Thecombineduseofethnography,interviewsand

ARoverseveralperiodsoffieldworkhasprovidedtheprimarymaterialforthisstudy,

736Medvedev,2015,’TheRootsofChangeintheContemporaryCambodianFashionScene,’22.MorimotodidnotexplainwhyheinsistedJapanesewouldbetaught.MyguessisthatitwouldhelpthechildrengaintransferableskillsforinteractingwithtouristsandbuyersiftheyjoinedIKTTinthefutureorworkedintourism.ItmayalsohavetodowithreproducingeducationasMorimotohadexperiencedit,asaJapanesemanwhogrewupinKyotoandtrainedasayuzenapprentice.737Ibid.

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shiftingfromamacroviewofthesilksector,asexploredinChapterTwo,toamicro-level

approach.Focusingontheactionsandvoicesoftheweavershasdevelopedfurtherthe

polyphonicperspectiveonsilkbuiltthroughoutthisthesis.Thismethodologyhashelpedto

challengestereotypicalrepresentationsofweavers,whoresistanygeneralisationasa

uniformsocialgroup.Theirsubjectiveexperiencesrevealalternativenarratives.The

weavers’prescriptivebehavioursarelinkedtoideasoffemaleCambodianselfhoodand

socialandculturalrepresentations,whilealsosummoningdifferentformsofempirical,

emotional,andrememberedstrategiesthatengagewithcollectiveandindividualformsof

memory.

Weaversfaceasystemrootedinstructuralinequity,takingpartinaproduction

landscapereformedwithinthecontextofthetremendouspost-civilwarlossofskillsand

globalisationthatcausedthespreadoftheindustrialisedgarmentindustry,theinflatedcost

ofmaterials,anddifficultaccesstomarkets.Caughtbetweentheinputofsponsoring

organisations,theconstraintsimposedbymiddlemenandtheirgenderedsocialroleas

caretakers,weavershavebeencorneredintoadependentpositiontocontinueproducing

andselling,whichautomaticallyjeopardisesthecontinuationoftheircraft.Thisresearch

hasidentifiedareasofagencyandempowermentfortheweavers,followingVenkatesan’s

argumentthatcontemporarycraftspeopleshouldbereconsidered‘asnewsocialbeings

withspecificagentivecapacities’.738

Zuber-SkerritthassuggestedthatinAR,‘variablesarenotpredeterminedandcontrolled,

butaretakenonboardastheyarisefromthedata’,whichechoesMarchand’sviewonthe

potentialinsharedactivitiesfor‘misinterpretation,ornewinterpretation’to‘carryforward

ideasandpracticesinnoveldirections’.739Byimplementinganddocumentingthe

productionoffourholtextiles,theARproject hasshownhowmemoryofpastpracticeand

738Venkatesan,‘Rethinkingagency:personsandthingsintheheterotopiaof‘traditionalIndiancraft,’93.739Ibid.;Marchand,MakingKnowledge,112.

310

embodiedknowledgearemobilisedandtransmittedduringtheprocessofre-learningsilk

weaving.Usingtheworkshopasalocusforcreativereconstruction,KYweavershave

producedsilkknowledgebyactivatingbody,memory,family,andprofessionallevers.The

projectsuccessfullyengageddifferentinterlocutorstiedbyvarioussocialbonds:thefamily

ofChendy,ChendaandTheary,co-founderTomokointhesupportiveroleoffacilitator,six

staffweaversastraineesandcollaborators,Yufortranslation,andIintheroleofresearcher

andinterviewer.Thereclaimingofsilkknowledge,neglectedformorethanadecade,and

thepossibilityofverbalisingandreflectingonthisexperiencethroughinterviews,has

shownhowweaverscanbeactorsintheirownenskilment.TheepiloguetotheARproject,

describinghowChendaeventuallyandabruptlyleftKYandhowTheary,onleaveforher

pregnancy,couldnolongerweavesilk,illustrates,however,thedifficultyofensuringthe

transmissionofthisknowledgeanditscontinuity.Itquestionstheextenttowhichwomen

cantakechargeoftheiragencyandidentityinCambodiansocietythroughweavingand

achieveself-reliance.Thesilksectorwillneedtoenactstructuralchangestosecuremore

autonomyandsupportfortheweavingworkforce.

BeyondtheinterviewscollectedinCambodia,thisstudyhasexploredhowtheweavers’

bodiesprovideanessentialsourceofknowledgebylookingattacitexchanges,the

repetitionofgesturesandthenegotiationwiththematerialityandtechniquesofholmaking.

MacDougallhasstatedthatindocumentaryfilm-making,‘thereareotherbodiestobe

considered,aswell–thoseofthespectatorandthefilmmaker,andeventhebodyofthefilm

itself’.740Theuseoffilm-makingandthereviewingoffootagehassupplementedtheoral

voices,mediatedbytranslation,toincorporatemovementandweavers’bodiesinthe

understandingofsilkknowledge.Otheraspectsofembodimentthroughsilkwillbe

exploredinChapterFour,consideringhowtheartofdressingcanbecomeatoolforidentity

740MacDougall,TheCorporealImage:Film,Ethnography,AndtheSenses,15.

311

andculturalexpression.Thisexplorationwilltakeplaceinthediasporiccommunityof

CambodiaTowninLongBeach,California.

ChapterFour

SilkEmbodiment:craftingCambodianidentityintheglobaldiaspora

Introduction

Inacontextofforcedmigrationleadingtoadramaticlossofbearings,theactof

reclaimingtextileanddressculturalpractices,acoreissueinthisthesis,takesonanother

dimension.ChapterThreeworkedtowardsanaffirmativerecentringofCambodianweavers

withinthesilkscape,especiallythroughthestudyofknowledgetransmission.Thischapter

pursuestheexaminationofembodimentandempowermentthroughsilkpracticesby

establishingitsscopeoutsidenationalborders.ConsideringtheCambodiansilkscapeasa

networkthatalsoconnectstheglobalandthelocal,Ishifttheperspectivetorefugeeand

migrantdiasporapopulationstoexplorethecultural,aestheticandmaterialroleofsilkand

considerthedynamicsof‘transformationandpersistence’necessitatedbytheaftermathof

theCambodiancivilwar.741Whathavediasporiccommunitieskeptorabandonedfrom

Cambodianculture,andhowhavetheyengagedwithsilkasawayofnegotiatingtensionsin

theformationoftheirimmigrantidentities?

Sincethelate1980s,themainCambodiancommunitiesestablishedinEuropeand

theUnitedStateshaveadjustedtotheirhostcountrywhiletryingtopreservestrong

connectionswithCambodia,andremainactiveinthepracticeofnumerousculturaland

religiouscustoms.Ebihara,MortlandandLedgerwoodhaveoutlinedhowcontemporary

Cambodianidentityisrealisedbetweenaninnateattachmenttothehomelandand

adjustmentstonewinfluences:

741Ebihara,Mortland,andLedgerwood,eds.,CambodianCulturesince1975:HomelandandExile,22.

312

‘AlthoughKhmercultureischanginginnewenvironments,thefactremainsthatfirst-generationKhmerimmigrantscontinuetoview‘reality’inthenewworldthroughthelensofpatternsofmeaningsandrelationshipslearnedintheirnatalcountry’.742

Despitethetemporalandgeographicdisconnection,thevariousexpressionsofCambodian

culturearticulatedinanewcountryalwaysseemtoexistinreferencetothehomeland,an

ideareinforcedbysociologistJeremyHein,whohasobservedthat‘amongimmigrants,

valuesandnormsemergefromthegroup’sadaptationtohistoricalandstructural

conditionsbothpriortoandaftermigration’.743Heinthuspositsthemaindichotomies

experiencedbythediasporicsubjectbetweenhereandthere,pastmemoriesandpresent

realities.Inahistoryofdisplacementandconflict,silkis,therefore,examinedinitsmaterial

andcultural,aswellasemotionalandphysical,dimensionsasembodyingdiasporicidentity.

ContinuingthefocusofChapterThreeonmakingandmakers,thisstudyfirst

considerstheextenttowhichrefugeeweavershavebeenabletosustaintheircraftinthe

circumstancesofmigrationandrelocationtotheUnitedStates.Second,itfocuseson

CambodianAmericanswhopurchase,use,andwearsilktoexploreitsperformativepower

inpublicandprivatesettingsanduncoverformsofbodilyandemotionalknowledge.This

examinationtakesplaceintheCambodiancommunityofLongBeach,California,which,at

about50,000people,isconsideredthelargestdemographicconcentrationofCambodian

immigrantsoutsideSoutheastAsia[Figs.120a-b].TwoperiodsoffieldworkintheLong

BeachneighbourhoodofCambodiaTownundertakeninApril2017ontheoccasionofthe

CambodiaTownCultureFestival(CTCF)andtheCambodianNewYear(ChoulChnam

Thmey)celebrationsandagaininFebruary2018providetheprimarymaterialforthis

ethnographicresearch.SilkclothingandaccessoriesaremainlyproducedbyCambodian

womenandaimedatfemaleconsumers,andtherelationshipbetweenfemininityandsilkis

742Ibid,26. 743JeremyHein,EthnicOrigins:theAdaptationofCambodianandHmongRefugeesinFourAmericanCities(NewYork:RusselSageFoundation,2006),33.

313

exploredthroughaseriesofencounters:withalocaltailor,aweddingdressdesignerand

planner,andagroupofyoungCambodianAmericanwomenlearningandtransmittingthe

artofKhmerclassicalballet.

Figs.120a-bGeographiclocationofCambodiaTowninLongBeach,InAdebiyiandal,TheStateofCambodiaTownReport(LosAngeles,CA:UCLA,2013),7;LocalisationofLongBeach,CA,GoogleMaps,2018.

Capturingthedisplacedexperiencethroughethnographyandembodiment

ContinuingthemethodologicalprocessadoptedinChapterThree,usinginterviews

asatoolforself-determination,myinterlocutorsareconsideredasactivemediatorsoftheir

ownculture,andthewaystheyhaveadaptedtotheirreconfiguredenvironmentand

retainedeconomicandculturalbridgeswiththeirnativecountrythroughdressare

explored.Thesubjectiveandfragmentedqualityofthetestimoniescollectedinthefield,far

fromunderminingthisself-determination,playsanimportantrole.

Thischapterdrawsonnotesandvisualdocumentationmadeduringperiodsofobservation

attheCTCF,attheChandaTailortailoringworkshop,inshopsandstreetsinCambodia

Town,andduringdanceclassesatthelocalKhmerArtsAcademy(KAA).Usingsemi-guided

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qualitativeinterviews,IhaverecordedthreeoraltestimonieswithSokChan,dressmaker,

KhanniaOk,associateinstructoratKAAandKayleneMen,founderofBridalKhmer,along

withsixinformaldiscussionswithyoungdancers,silkconsumersandfestivalattendees.

Advocatingforaninclusiveresearchapproach,Heinhasstressedthevalueofgiving

informants‘therighttospeakforthemselves’.744InacomparativestudyofCambodianand

HmongrefugeesintheUSstatesofWisconsinandMinnesota,heoutlinedthechallengesfor

sociologiststointerpretinformants’personalopinionsand‘understandasocialworldwith

whichweoftenhavelittleornopersonalexperience’.745Iapproachedmytwoperiodsof

fieldworkinCambodiaTowninasimilarmanner,guidedbymyinformants’experienceand

recommendations.

Moreover,ethnicidentityassituationalanddynamicisacentralthemeinthis

chapter.GroundingheranalysisinthecaseofFilipinoAmericansimmigrantsinSanDiego,

AsianAmericansociologistYenLeEspirituconsidersthattransnationalimmigrants‘arenot

deterritorialised,free-floatingpeople.Instead,theycontinuetoexist,interact,construct

theiridentities,andexercisetheirrightswithinnation-statesthatmonopolisepowerand

imposecategoriesofidentityonlocalresidents’.746Theconditionoftransnational

immigrantsexistsinadualmovementwhichisbothliteralandsymbolic.Espirituasked:

‘HowdoyoungFilipinoswhohaveneverbeen‘home’imaginethe'homeland'?Andhowdo

theyrecallthatwhichissomewhereelse,thatwhichwasperhapsneverknown?’747

Similarly,howdoCambodianAmericansdealwithasenseof‘home’andhowdoessilkplay

aroleinthisexperienceandthroughwhichactivities?

TofacilitatetheanalysisofidentityandculturalshiftsamongCambodianimmigrantgroups,

thisstudyreliesonHein’sgeneralisationinassociating‘Cambodian’with‘Khmer',

744Hein,EthnicOrigins:theAdaptationofCambodianandHmongRefugeesinFourAmericanCities,23.745Ibid.746YenLeEspiritu,HomeBound:FilipinoAmericanLivesacrossCultures,Communities,andCountries(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2003),11-12.747Ibid.

315

consideringthattheKhmerethnicgroupisdominantinCambodiandiasporicsociety

comparedtootherethnicminorities,suchasCham,Sino-KhmerandethnicVietnamese.748

Cambodianidentityisbothdynamicandsetaroundafullrangeofdistinctivefeaturessuch

as‘lookingKhmer,speakingKhmer,observingBuddhism,actingproperly,and

acknowledgingtheheritageofthe‘grandmothersandgrandfathers’byfollowingKhmer

customs’.749TheCambodianAmericansIhaveinterviewedinLongBeachallidentifiedas

belongingtoeitherKhmerorCambodianculturewithoutdistinguishingbetweenthem.One

ofmycontacts,MaryTan’shusband,despitebeingChineseCambodian,putonasilksuitand

attendedtheculturalfestival.750

Lookingatthetheorisationoforalsourcesasprimarymaterialinotherterritories

hashelpedtoformulateamethodologicalapproachthatisbothoriginalandrelevanttothe

Cambodiancontext.Forinstance,Testimonioisaformoforalandnarrativemethodology

rootedinLatinAmericandecolonialpedagogythatisunderpinnedbyaffirmationand

empowerment,actingfortherecoveryofacommunity’sknowledgeproduction.Chicana

andChicanostudiesscholarsJuliaE.CurryRodríguezandKathrynBlackmerReyeshave

establishedthat‘althoughatestimonioistechnicallyanaccountmadebyoneperson,it

representsthevoiceofmanywhoseliveshavebeenaffectedbyparticularsocialevents’.751

Inthissense,thespacegiventoaselectionofvoicesandstoriesinthepersonofSokChan,

KhanniaOk,KayleneMenandothers,standsfortheCambodianAmericancommunityof

LongBeach,inresonancewiththeepistemologyoffirst-persontestimonio.

Furthertothenatureofnarrativesasresearch,KamalaVisweswaran,anthropologistof

SouthAsiantransnationalanddiasporaidentities,hasarguedthat‘ethnography,likefiction,

748YenLeEspiritu,HomeBound:FilipinoAmericanLivesacrossCultures,Communities,andCountries,32.749CarolMortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates(NewYork:BerghahnBooks,2017),150.750MaryTan,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach.PicturedinFigure139.751KathrynBlackmerReyesandJuliaE.CurryRodríguez,‘Testimonio:Origins,Terms,andResources,’Equity&ExcellenceinEducation45,no.3(2012):528.

316

nomatteritspretensetopresentaself-containednarrativeorculturalwhole,remains

incompleteanddetachedfromtherealmstowhichitpoints’.752Visweswaranhas

highlightedhowthisincompletenesscouldprovideinformationinitself,playarolein

identityformation,andquestiontheessenceoftheresearcher-subjectdynamics.753

Similarly,diasporicfictionwiththewritingsofMonicaSok,autoethnographyandembodied

knowledge,inregardstosilkdressanddanceperformance,haveemergedasinvaluable

toolstoreconstructhistoriesandidentities,especiallyinthecaseofmarginalisedsubjects.

Inthischapter,CambodianAmericanimaginings,voicesandbodiesformapolyphony

indicatingthemultilayeredsignificanceofsilkonthebodyasapotentcomponentof

contemporaryCambodianheritage.

TheembodiedperspectiveonsilkuseintheCambodiandiasporaborrowsfrom

CambodianAmericanarthistorianBorethLy’sconceptofsensorium‘wherethesenses

provideacomplexlayeringofexperience’.754Lyhasarguedthat‘localSoutheastAsian

perspectivesonobjectsandvisionsaremoreembodiedandmulti-sensorial’thanin

prevailingWesternlogocentricapproaches.755Thisapproachaddressestheagendaofa

moredecolonialinquirythat‘interruptsestablishedWesternhabitsofthinkingabout,

viewing,andseeingritual’.756Thismeansthatmyinterlocutors’diverseexperienceofsilkis

alsoexaminedfromtheirintimateperspectiveslinkedtotheiremotionsandsensationsand

inconsideringculturalandfamilyeventsintheeverydaylife.

Autoethnographyisamethodologyusedtoemphasiseasubjectiveandempathetic

approach.Autoethnographydemands,asMarchandcontends,‘immersion,perceptualand

kinestheticawareness,carefulreflection,persistentquestioning,andaconstantprobingof

752KamalaVisweswaran,FictionsofFeministEthnography(Minneapolis,MN:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2008),1.753Ibid,69. 754BorethLy,‘OfScentandSensibility:EmbodiedWaysofSeeinginSoutheastAsianCultures,’SUVANNABHUMI10,no.1(June2018):81.755Ibid,68. 756Ibid,67.

317

thecomplexandmultiplefactorsthatconstituteanyfieldofpractice’.757Thewaysinwhich

thesampotfitsthebodyinmovementisexaminedbyrecordingmyautoethnographic

experienceofdressinginachawngkbunandtakingpartinaKhmerballetdanceclasstoget

closertothesensationsofmovinginsilkclothing.758

Thischapteralsoengageswiththeinvolvementofnon-Cambodianintermediaries

whohaveencouragedthecontinuityofCambodiancultureinlocalimmigrantcommunities.

SusanNeedham,anthropologistandprofessoratCaliforniaStateUniversityDominguez

Hills,exemplifiesthismediatingposition,whichdiffersfromthoseencounteredin

Cambodiancraftcompaniesinearlierchapters:KikuoMorimotoandTomokoTakagi’s

positions,forinstance.Needham’sroleappearedclosertothatofaculturalbrokerinsocial

services,thatis,anindividualpossessingknowledgeofthevaluesandnormsofdifferent

culturalgroupswith‘theabilitytounderstandcomplexinterpersonaldynamics[…]to

effectivelymaneuverandtransferinformationandresourcesfromonecultureto

another’.759NeedhamhasindeedbuiltenduringrelationshipswithCambodianAmericansof

CambodiaTownforthreedecades,producingextensiveethnographicandlinguistic

research.760In2008,sheco-foundedtheCambodianCommunityHistory&ArchiveProject

(CamCHAP),anarchivalcentreinLongBeach,withKarenQuintiliani,Professorof

AnthropologyatCaliforniaStateUniversityLongBeach.Thiscentrehascollectedovertwo

thousandphotographs,EnglishandKhmernewspapers,ephemeraproducedbyCambodian-

ledandCambodian-servingorganisations,andoralhistoriescollectedinthecommunity.761

757Marchand,MakingKnowledge,10.758SeealsoPriyaSrinivasan,SweatingSaris:IndianDanceasTransnationalLabor(Philadelphia,PA:TempleUniversityPress,2011),xi,17-18.759JacquelineRobinsonandSuzieWeng,‘Culturalbroker,’inEncyclopediaofHumanServicesandDiversity,ed.LinwoodCousins(ThousandOaks,CA:SAGEPublications,2014),303.;SeealsoMaryAnnJezewski,‘Culturebrokeringinmigrantfarmworkerhealthcare.’WesternJournalofNursingResearch,12,no.4(2010):497.Culturalbrokeringis‘theactofbridging,linkingormediatingbetweengroupsorpersonsofdifferentculturalbackgroundsforthepurposeofreducingconflictorproducingchange’. 760SusanNeedham,InformalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April11,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.761Ibid;CamCHAPFacebookpage,Abouthttps://www.facebook.com/pg/camchaplb/about/?ref=page_internal[AccessedJune2,2020]

318

NeedhamalsofoundedtheCTCF,discussedbelow.Aswellasbeingintegraltotheway

interactionswithCambodiansilkhavedevelopedatLongBeach,theintroductionofthese

CaucasianAmericanvoicesalsoprovidesanopportunityforfurtherself-reflexivityabout

myownpositionasaresearcher.

Fromrefugeecampstoresettlement:weavingpracticeindisplacement

AsdiscussedintheIntroductionandChapterOne,undertheKRregimeweaving

mostlystoppedwhenthestructureofCambodiansocietywasdismantled,andcitieswere

evacuated,familiesseparated,andvillagersdisplacedtootherruralareasandputtoforced

labour.Thissectionconsidershowrefugeeweavers,astravellingbodieswithspecificsetsof

skills,wereabletosustaintheircraftwhileresettlinginthelate1970sinrefugeecampsat

theThaiborderandabroadintheUnitedStatesbythe1980s.Itconsidersthemeaningsof

weavingforCambodiansoutsideCambodia,operatedinanewcontextasameansof

survival,butalsoasasurvivingculturalpractice.TheexampleoftheweaverEmBunwill

indicatethepotentiallyhealingpowerofweavinginreconstructingidentityandcommunity

ties.EmBun’sstoryisunusual,asfewweaversrelocatedandcontinuedtheirpracticein

theirhostcountries,andthereisalsoanabsenceofscholarlyliteratureonthistopic.

Around1978,whenVietnamesetroopsinvadedCambodiatooverthrowthe

dictatorship,anestimateof630,000CambodiansfledfortheThai-Cambodianborderand

regroupedinrefugeecamps.762Thismassiveexodusturnedintolong-termresettlementfor

mostCambodians,astheThaigovernmentrefusedtoletthemmigratetoThailand,and

mostcouldnotreturntotheirhomeland.Cambodia’schaoticsituationwasreflectedinthe

762JamesLynch,‘BorderKhmer:ADemographicStudyoftheResidentsofSite2,SiteBandSite8,’Thai/CambodiaBorderRefugeeCamps1975-1999InformationandDocumentationWebsite,1989,http://www.websitesrcg.com/border/camps/survey-1989.html[AccessedOctober15,2018,26]

319

campsscatteredalongtheborderandmaintainedbygroupswithdiversepoliticalagendas.

SitessuchasNongChamandNongSametweremanagedbytheKhmerPeople’sNational

LiberationFront,ledbyKhmerSerei,ananti-communistanti-monarchistresistancegroup.

KRfactionsdominatedBanCharat,Saronginthenorth,andSite8,BoraiandTaLuan,south

ofAranyaprathetinPrachinburiProvinceofThailand.

TheKhao-I-DangcampopenednearAranyaprathetin1979andwasmanagedbytheUN

HighCommissionerforRefugeesandtheThaigovernmentuntil1993.Ithostedupto

130,000peopleandwasthemainplatformforCambodianrefugeestryingtoemigrateto

othercountries.Site2,thelargestciviliancampmainlyinhabitedbyfollowersoftheKhmer

People'sNationalLiberation,wasbuiltin1984andcoordinatedbytheUNBorderRelief

Operation[Fig.121].Whileabout225,000Cambodiansmanagedtoemigrateabroad,

especiallytotheUnitedStates,France,AustraliaandCanada,approximately100,000

CambodiansreturnedtoCambodiaitselfduringtheVietnameseoccupation.Another

100,000refugeesremainedincampsuntiltheywererepatriatedtoCambodiainMay

1993.763

763CarolMortland,‘Khmer,’InRefugeesinAmericainthe1990s:AReferenceHandbook,ed.DavidHaines(Westport,CT:GreenwoodPress,1996),240.

320

Fig.121MapofCambodianrefugeecampsontheThai-Cambodianborder,1986.FromTonyJackson,JustWaitingtoDie?CambodianRefugeesinThailand(Oxford:OxfamResearchandEvaluationUnit,July1987),5.

JamesLynch,regionalrepresentativeoftheUNHighCommissionerforRefugeesin

the1980s,producedademographicstudyoftheSite2,SiteB,andSite8refugeecamps:of

the15,525peoplesurveyed,atleasttwothirdshadarrivedontheborderin1979-1980and

themajorityhadremainedincamps.764Camplifewasextremelychallengingintermsof

health,food,andsafety.Nevertheless,religiousceremoniesandculturalcelebrationswere

progressivelyreintroduced,especiallyintheUN-supportedcamps.Dance,musicand

vocationaltraining,includingweavingandsewing,restartedintheresettlements,showing

howquicklyCambodiansresumedculturalandreligiousactivitiesthathadbeenstopped

764Lynch,‘BorderKhmer:ADemographicStudyoftheResidentsofSite2,SiteBandSite8,’26.

321

duringtheKRregime.765Migrantworldsarenotdematerialised.766AnthropologistsPaul

BasuandSimonColemanhaveconsideredthatdisplacedpopulationsandthingsintersectin

spacesoftemporaryorpermanentrelocation,inwhich‘objects,possessions,and

performancesillustrateculturallyrichmodulationsofmobility’.767Moreover,Ebihara,

MortlandandLedgerwoodhavearguedthatincamps,Khmerrefugeeswereleftina

powerlessstateforextendedperiods,unableto‘controlthemostbasicactivitiesoftheir

lives:procuringfood,water,andfuel’.768Inthisunstableethnoscape,thepracticeofpre-KR

culturalritualsmayhavebeenattemptstosecureasenseofhome,inwhichBuddhism,

danceandmusic‘retainedtheirimportanceattachedtotheiroriginalidentificationas‘truly

Khmer’’.769

Therearerarementionsofweavingincampsintheliterature.770Aswehaveseen,Kikuo

MorimotoworkedinrefugeecampsinThailandwithLaoweavers,andtherearealsoa

handfuloftestimoniesfromDKsurvivors.OneoftheseconcernsThavery,presentedin

humanitarianCarolWagner'sSoulSurvivors.771LiketheweaversinChapterThree,Thavery

witnessedweavingpracticesathomewhenshewasachildinTakeoprovince.She

explained:‘[mymother]andmyoldersisterwovefancysilkskirts,bothhol,whichhasa

design,andphamuong,whichisplain’.772In1979,shereturnedtoherhomevillagewhere

shelearnedsilkweavingwithneighbours.In1990shemovedtoSite2tobereunitedwith

oneofhersisters.Sheadded:‘IlivedwithWanfornearlytwoyears,becauseitwaseasierto

earnmoneythaninCambodia.Wewovecottonsampot’untilthecampsclosed.773Thavery

765Inhissurveyoftherefugees’variousoccupations,Lynchidentifiedseveralweaversamongthecampresidents.766PaulBasuandSimonColeman,‘Introduction:MigrantWorlds,MaterialCultures,’Mobilities,3,no.3(2008):317.767Ibid,322.768Ebihara,Mortland,andLedgerwood,eds.,CambodianCulturesince1975,20.769Ibid,9,23.770Lynch,‘BorderKhmer:ADemographicStudyoftheResidentsofSite2,SiteBandSite8,’51-54.771Wagner,SoulSurvivors,190-201.772Ibid,192.773Ibid,196.

322

eventuallymovedtoPhnomPenhin1993toteachweavingatKhemara,theNGOdiscussed

inChapterTwo.Thaverydiscussedsilkandweaving:‘silkusedtobeproducedinmyhome

provinceinTakeo,buttheKRcutdownthemulberrytreesthatthesilkwormsfedon,so

nowIhavetobuysilkthreadfromVietnam’.774Shespecialisedinpidanweaving,explaining:

‘[it]isthemostdifficultweavingtodo.[…]Wehavetotiefourhundredtinybundlesofsilk

todothewholestoryandtheweavingissixorsevenmeterslong.I’veneverdonethewhole

storybymyself,justpartsofit’.775

Inthecamps,weaversadaptedtothecheapmaterialsavailableonsite,weaving

productssuchascottonorpolyesterkramaclothsthatrequiredsimpletechniques.The

scarfinFigure122wasmadeattheUN-backedKhaoIDangrefugeecampandwas

purchasedbyanAustralianmigrationofficerandlaterdonatedtoMuseumsVictoria,

Australia.Thisisatypicalkramahandwovenclothinabright,chemicallydyedplaidofpink,

blue,green,andyellow,contrastedwithablackstripe.Thisartefactexemplifieshow,

despitefewfirst-handaccounts,weavingwaslikelytohavebeenacommonmanualactivity

inthecamps.Weaversproduceditemsfortheirpersonaluseandtoselltootherrefugeesin

thecamps,andinthiscasetoforeignvisitingofficials.Therarematerialandtestimonial

evidenceofweavingalsodemonstratesthetransientnatureofcraftpracticesinrefugee

campsastemporaryspacesofproduction.Weavingwaspresentinthelocaleconomyof

survivalandbartering.

774Wagner,SoulSurvivors,197.775Ibid.

323

Fig.122KramawoveninKhaoIDangrefugeecamp,Thailand,1987-1989,acquisitionnumberHT31980,donatedbyJennieRobert,CourtesyofMuseumsVictoria/CCBY.

TheresettlementofCambodianrefugeeshasreshapedtheweavers’practice.More

than150,000CambodiansrelocatedtotheUnitedStatesinthreeseparatewavesbetween

1975and1993,alongwithVietnamese,Hmong,andLaotianpopulations,aspartofthe

SoutheastAsianrefugeemovement.776Thefirstwaveof4,600Cambodiansarrived

immediatelybeforeCambodiacollapsedunderKRcontrolin1975.Linguisticanthropologist

NancySmith-Hefnerstatedthat‘familiesbundledupclothing,cookware,medicine,and

sacksofrice.Theyhastilyhidgold,jewellery,familyheirlooms,andothervaluables’.777

CambodiansweredispatchedtolocationsdeterminedbytheU.S.OfficeofRefugee

Resettlement.778Thesecondimmigrationwavestartedinlate1978duringtheCambodian–

VietnameseWar,whenfactionsfromtheSocialistRepublicofVietnamwereforcingPolPot

776LanDong,‘CambodianAmericanPerformingArtsandArtists’inAsianAmericanCulture:FromAnimetoTigerMoms,126.777Smith-Hefner,KhmerAmerican:IdentityandMoralEducationinaDiasporicCommunity,8.778SuchengChan,‘CambodiansintheUnitedStates:Refugees,Immigrants,AmericanEthnicMinority,’OxfordResearchEncyclopediaofAmericanHistory,Sept2015https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-317[AccessedSeptember30,2018]

324

outofpower.Finally,thelargestwaveofabout60,000refugeesresettledbetween1980and

1982,whenDKfell,withfurtherregularinfluxesinthefollowingyears.779After1994,theUS

refugeeprogrammewasterminated.Cambodianswhoarrivedinthecountrycameas

immigrants.780AccordingtothePewResearchCenter,theCambodianpopulationinthe

UnitedStateswasapproximately300,000peoplein2015.781

CambodianAmericansintheearlyimmigrationwavesoftenreturnedtothecampsas

volunteersforinternationalagencies.Theywouldbuysilksampotandbringthembackto

theircommunitiesintheUnitedStatesasgifts.782Sincethattime,CambodianAmericans

haveoftenreturnedtoCambodia.Mortlandhasestimatedthatby‘themid-1990s’about‘20

percentofresettledKhmerhadvisitedthehomeland’.783Thesecontactsbetweenthetwo

countriesacceleratedintheearly2000swiththeavailabilityofmoreaffordableflights.

EmBun(c.1916-2010)isasarareknownexampleofaCambodianweaverwho

resumedherpracticeafteremigratingtoHarrisburg,Pennsylvaniain1981,agedsixty-five.

ShewasborninTakeoprovince,startedobservinghergrandmotherandmotherworking

ontheloomasachild,andthenlearnedweavingwithhermotherwhenshewassixteen.784

BeforetheKRregimeshewasaweaverandafarmer,andwasinchargeofraising

779Smith-Hefner,KhmerAmerican:IdentityandMoralEducationinaDiasporicCommunity,8.780SuchengChan,RemappingAsianAmericanHistory(WalnutCreek,CA:AltamiraPress,2003),202;SeealsoSuchengChan,andAudreyU.Kim,NotJustVictims:ConversationswithCambodianCommunityLeadersintheUnitedStates(Urbana,IL:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2003),20-23,31.781ArianaRodriguez-Gitler,‘CambodianpopulationintheU.S.,2000-2015,’PewSocialTrendshttp://www.pewsocialtrends.ORG/AUTHOR/ARODRIGUEZGITLER/)[AccessedJuly18,2018]782TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,117.783Mortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates,217.784TheNationalEndowmentfortheArtsstates:‘EmBunlearnedtoweavefromhermotherwhenshewasabouttenyearsold,’whileMonicaSok,EmBun’sgranddaughter,writesthatshelearnedfromhermotheratagesixteen.NationalEndowmentfortheArts,‘NEANationalHeritageFellowships’https://www.arts.gov/honors/heritage/em-bun[AccessedJune10,2021];MonicaSok,'TheWeaverinMyPoems:ARemembranceofEmBun,'NEAArtsMagazine:NationalEndowmentfortheArts,2017https://www.arts.gov/stories/magazine/2017/1/nea-jazz-mastersnea-national-heritage-fellowships-celebrating-35-years/weaver-my-poems[AccessedJune15,2021]

325

silkwormsandreelingsilkthreads.785In1979shefledwithherfourdaughtersandtwosons

toarefugeecampinThailand.786ResettledinHarrisburg,shestartedtoexperience

depressionandisolationduetothelanguagebarriersheexperienced.

CarolMortlandobservedthat‘someKhmerwomenarecommittedtopreservingtraditional

weaving.[…]Weaverstalkofweavingtheirexperiencesintotheirworkanddescribethe

comfortweavingbringsthem’,addingthat‘weavingexhibitsanddemonstrationsare

popular’.787Thisindicateshowweavingcanbeexploredasasourceofembodiedcomfort,as

wellasaculturalactivityreengagingcommunities.InHarrisburg,EmBuntried

unsuccessfullytoweaveonanAmericanloom.788Eventuallyshereceivedsupportfrom

JoannaRoe,alocalPresbyterianchurchmemberwhoobtainedagrantfromtheDauphin

CountyHistoricalSocietyandcommissionedtheconstructionofaCambodian-styleloom

fromalocalcompany,WoodloreBuilders.Theloomwasbuilt‘accordingtoplanssentfrom

theKhaw-i-DangrefugeecampviatheInternationalRescueCommittee’.789EmBun’sfamily

attestedthatthiswasaturningpointforheremotionally.Byreturningtoapracticethathad

definedhersincechildhood,withfamiliartoolsandequipment,shewasabletoreconstruct

partofheridentityandfindasenseofhealingandhome.Shestartedweavingagainonthe

loomthatwasinstalledinherbasement,usingmaterialspurchasedwiththegrantand

leftoversilkfromatiefactoryincentralPennsylvania[Fig.123].790Shewovesampotforher

familyandreceivedcommissionsfromotherCambodianwomenlivingontheEastCoast.

785JeanetteKrebs,‘WomanWeavesAnew,’PatriotNews(Harrisburg,PA.)(June19,1990,149):146;MichaelTennesen,‘SilkandCeremony,’ModernMaturity(October/November1991):17.786EmBun,MastersofTraditionalArtshttp://www.mastersoftraditionalarts.org/artists/41?selected_facets=name_initial_last_exact%3AE[AccessedSeptember14,2019]787Mortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates,234.788MonicaSok,'TheWeaverinMyPoems:ARemembranceofEmBun.'789JaniceG.Rosenthal,‘CambodianSilkWeaver,'ThreadsMagazine(December1990/January1991,32):22.790NationalEndowmentfortheArts,‘NEANationalHeritageFellowships.’

326

Fig.123EmBunweavingonherloominHarrisburg,PA.Photograph,BlairSeitz.

Inhomagetohergrandmother(lokyeay),poetandwriterMonicaSokrecalledthatEmBun

skilfullywovesilkskirtsinthephamaungstylewithashotsilkeffect:‘Shedyedtwocolors

andwovethemtogether,soathirdcolorcouldshine’.791Recognitionfromherpeershelped

herregainhersocialpositioninanewenvironment.Shesharedhersilk-weaving

knowledgewithoneofherdaughters,LynnYuos,andotherCambodianwomenin

Harrisburg.792

EmBun’sworkwasrecognisedbytheNationalEndowmentfortheArtsin1990,thehighest

distinctioninfolkandtraditionalartsintheUnitedStates[Fig.124].Shewasalso

distinguishedasamasterweaverbythePennsylvaniaCouncilontheArts.InaNational

HeritageFellowshipConcertvideoin1990,sheisinterviewedbriefly,showingagreen,red,

791Sok,‘TheWeaverinMyPoems:ARemembranceofEmBun.’792Rosenthal,‘CambodianSilkWeaver.’

327

andwhitelargecheckedpieceinthekramasautstyle,explainingwithpridethatittookher

twodaystoweaveit.793

TheNationalEndowmentfortheArtsstatedthatEmBun‘hashelpedfellowCambodian

immigrantsmaintaincontactwiththeirheritageandhasbeenacatalystforthe

preservationofCambodiantraditionalartsintheUnitedStates’.794EmBunwascommended

beyondherownpractice,andforturninghercontributionintoavehicletotransmit

Cambodianculture,echoingthesenseofvocationexpressedbyPheach,weaverinTakeofor

CYK,inChapterThree.

Fig.124EmBun(left)atthe1990NationalHeritageFellowshipConcert,Washington,D.C.PhotographcourtesyoftheNationalEndowmentfortheArts.

Sok’swritingemphasiseshergrandmother’simpactontheCambodianAmerican

community.Shemused:‘IwonderhowmanyCambodiansgotmarriedwearingmy

793SeeappendixA3onkramasaut.EmBun,1990NationalHeritageFellowshipConcert,Washington,D.C.,courtesyNationalEndowmentfortheArtshttp://mastersoftraditionalarts.org/artists/41[AccessedSeptember15,2020] 794NationalEndowmentfortheArts,‘NEANationalHeritageFellowships.’

328

grandmother’ssilk,howmanylivesshetouchedbyconnectingthemwithourculture’.795‘At

CambodianweddingsinCleveland,Ohio,whereherrelativeslived’,Sokcontinued,'she

woreherownfabrics,showingoffdarkpurplehueswhilemymotherdonnedatraditional

goldenskirt’.796TouchingEmBun’sdesigns,severalCambodianwomenwouldask,‘Where

didyougetthis?’797Throughtouch,thesewomenrelivedafamiliarsensoryexperienceof

Cambodianness.EmBunalsofoundtheemotionalrewardssheneededinhercraft,

anchoredintangiblereality.

Further,theconnectionbetweencraft,body,andfamilytransmissioniscompellingly

materialisedinSok’spoetry,evokingagaintheconceptofaSoutheastAsiansensorium.Her

grandmother’sstoryprovidedareservoirofsymbolicnarrativestiedtoSok’skinshipand

senseofself.Itinspiredherpoem‘TheWeaver’,publishedin2017,inwhichSokrecalls

sittingbyhergrandmotherandwatchingherweaveinsilenceasshemournsthelossofher

eldestsontotheKRregime:

‘[…]EverydayIsawthisoldwomanfromtheOctopusTreeweavingatherloom,riversandlakesunderneathherhair’.

Soksubtlyconnectstheideaofsilkthreadstohair,tothevisualimageoftheriver,

metaphoricallypresentedasarefugeforhergrandmothertokeepherlostson.EmBun,by

usingher‘bodyasavehicleofbeing-in-the-world’,inMerleau-Ponty’sterms,interlaces

piecesofherself,herownhair,inhertextiledesignstotranscribehowshefoundsolacein

artisanalworkthroughabodilypractice:

‘Shethreadedtheloomwithonestrandofherlongsilverhair,[…]Itmadeherhappyassheworkedonsilkdressesandherhairneverranout’.798

795Sok,‘TheWeaverinMyPoems:ARemembranceofEmBun.’796Sok,‘TheWeaverinMyPoems:ARemembranceofEmBun.’797Ibid. 798Merleau-Ponty,Phénoménologiedelaperception,71;MonicaSok,‘TheWeaver,’AdroitMagazine,24(2017)http://www.theadroitjournal.org/issue-twenty-four[AccessedSeptember15,2018];See

329

Inthispoem,thetransferenceofsilkweavingskillsoperatesonasymboliclevelfrom

grandmothertogranddaughter,oneartisttotheother.WhileEmBuncouldweavebutnot

speakEnglish,SokcouldnotweavebutusedEnglishtoreconnectwithherCambodian

lineage:‘Shewastheweaverinmyfamily,andIamthepoet’.799

Bydrawingtogetherherownmemoriesofhergrandmotherandhergrandmother’s

practice,SokexploredwhatdramascholarKetuH.Katrakhasdefinedas‘simultaneityof

geography’:thatis,‘thepossibilityoflivinghereinbodyandelsewhereinmindand

imagination’.800Katrakhasestablishedthatthissuperimpositionofgeographiesisakey

frameworkofanalysisforSouthAsiandiasporicwriting,applicableheretotheCambodian

diaspora.801PoeticlicenceallowedSoktoimagineandreconstructhergrandmother’smind-

bodyexperience,boundbygriefandresilience,andreclaimherownfamilyhistory.By

practisingsilkweaving,sharingwithherfamily,showinghersilkdesignsateventsand

disseminatingthemtootherCambodianAmericanwomen,EmBun,withnoaccessto

English,regainedapersonalandsocialrolethathelpedherliveinHarrisburg.Thepublic

appreciationofhercontributionbycontrastalsohighlightstheabsenceofawider

movementrevivingCambodiancraftsmanshipintheUnitedStates,despitethesignificant

communityofCambodianimmigrants.

EmBun’sexamplealsoemphasisestheimportanceofdemonstrationand

performanceinthepursuitofCambodiansilkcraftsanditsrecognitionindiasporic

communities.AhandfulofeventsinCaliforniainthelate1980sandearly1990sinvolving

alsoMonicaSok,‘Odetotheloom,’TheOffing,June19,2019https://theoffingmag.com/poetry/ode-to-the-loom/[AccessedJune20,2020]799MonicaSok,‘TheWeaver.’ 800KetuKatrak,‘SouthAsianAmericanLiterature,’inAnInterethnicCompaniontoAsianAmericanLiterature,ed.King-KokCheung(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1997),201.801Ibid,201-202.

330

demonstrationsofweavingconfirmsthishypothesis.Apsara:TheFeminineinCambodian

ArtisconsideredtobethefirstexhibitiondedicatedtoCambodiancultureintheUnited

States,partofLosAngeles'CityRootsFestivalthatshowcasedtheculturesofmany

immigrantgroups,includingMexicans,Koreans,Guatemalans,VietnameseandFilipinos.802

Curatedin1987byculturalbrokerAmyCatlin,ethnomusicologyprofessorattheUniversity

ofCalifornia,ittookplaceattheWoman’sBuilding,anon-profitartsandeducationcentre

supportingwomen’srightsinLosAngeles.803Asshowninafilmdocumentingtheevent,two

membersoftheKhmerWomenWeaversStudioofLongBeachofferedademonstrationfor

theguests,workingonafloorloomonkramacloths[Fig.125].Theexhibition's

accompanyingpublicationfeaturedinterviewswithCambodianAmericanwomenartists

fromSouthernCalifornia,includingasinger,adancer,afashiondesigner,analtarmaker,

andPhanIth,oneoftheweaversattheexhibition.

802SusanAuerbach,‘TheBrokeringofEthnicFolklore,’inCreativeEthnicity,SymbolsandStrategiesofContemporaryEthnicLife,ed.StephenStern,andJohnA.Cicala(Logan,UT:UtahStateUniversityPress,1991),224.803TheWoman’sBuilding,openbetween1973and2001inLosAngeles,wasco-foundedbytheAmericanfeministartistandeducatorJudyChicago.

331

Fig,125Weaverworkingonherloom,screenshotfromtheKhmerDanceandMusicProjectvideoarchive:ApsaraexhibitbyAmyCatlin,filmedonDecember6,1987duringtheopenhouseday.

OriginallyfromBattambang,PhanIthlearnedweavinginarefugeecampattheThaiborder.

IntheUnitedStates,whilemaintainingajobatanelectronicassemblyfactoryshecontinued

weavinginhersparetimetorememberherpastlifeinCambodia[Fig.126].Shestated:

‘weavingislikeamemoryofwhatmostofmylifewas,andhowwecouldtakecareof

ourselves’.804

TheKhmerWomenWeaversstudioproducedpolyesterkramascarves[Fig.127].According

totheexhibitioncatalogue,theyalsowovesilkstylessuchasphamaung,anlounh,and

kramasaut.805Besidesthe‘Apsara’event,agroupofweaversalsoparticipatedina

demonstrationattheUnitedCambodianCommunityCenterfortheopeningnightofa

vocationalandtechnicalschoolinLongBeachintheearly1990s.806Figure128showsone

804AmyCatlin,ed.,Apsara:TheFeminineinCambodianArt(LosAngeles,CA:TheWoman'sBuilding,1987),26.805Ibid,27. 806NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,66-67.Foundedin1977,UnitedCambodianCommunityisanon-profitagencywhichplaysanessentialroleinthearea,providingawiderangeofsocialservicesforthelocalcommunitywithaspecificfocusonhealthcareandcommunityengagement.

332

womaninsampotholspinningthreadonaspindle,withloomssetupforweavinginthe

background.BonnieLowenthal,whoworkedforUnitedCambodianCommunity,recalled

thattheweavingprojectreceivedagrantawardedbytheNationalEndowmentsfortheArts,

whichsupportedthepurchaseofseverallooms.807Oneoftheseloomswasinstalledatthe

LongBeachSeniorCenter,wherewomencouldcomeandproducecottonkramascarves.

AccordingtoLowenthaltheprojecthadbeeninitiatedbythelocalArtsofApsaracultural

association.Itmostlyinvolvedelderlywomenwithpriorknowledgeofweaving,andwas

shortlived.

Figs.126-127Left:PhanIthweavingatKhmerWomenWeaversstudioinLongBeach.;Right:SeriesofkramascarvesmadebytheKhmerWomenWeavers’Project,LongBeach,inAmyCatlin,Apsara:TheFeminineinCambodianArt,3,26.

BythetimeofmyfirstvisittoLongBeachin2017,neitherthisproject,northeKhmer

WomenWeavers’Studio,stillexisted.Thesetwoevents,however,pointtothesignificance

ofweavingpracticesinthelate1980s,whenCambodianrefugeesfirstsettledintheUnited

States.ContinuingtheseskillswaspartoftheprocessofreclaimingCambodianculturefor

807BonnieLowenthal,informalphoneconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,LongBeach,2017.ItisnotcleartothisdatewhetherthisprojectwasanextensionfromtheKhmerWomenWeaversStudiooraseparateprojectaltogether.

333

first-wavediasporiccommunities.Potentialexplanationsforthedifficultyofcontinuing

theseskillsinanewenvironmentincludedthecomplexityofthetechniques,andpotentially

thelackofavailabilityofyoungergenerationstotrain.Weavingwasapparentlycontinued

byelderlyCambodianwomen,anddidnotleadtothefoundationofvocationalschoolsor

trainingprogrammes.Inthediaspora,demonstratingweavingtoexemplifythevitalityof

Cambodianculturehadseeminglyoverriddenthenecessitytoadvancethecraftitself.Silk

hasmoreconsistentlycontinuedtoexistinimmigrantcommunitiesthroughitsusefor

dressandculturalceremonies.Theperformativepowerofsilkclothing,therefore,provides

thefocusoftherestofthischapter,inananalysisofCTCF,theritualsofferedbywedding

ceremoniesandthepracticeofKhmerclassicalballetinLongBeach.

Fig.128WeaverdemonstratingcottonspinningattheUnitedCambodianCommunityCenteronAnaheimStreet,LongBeach,CA,inNeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,66.

CambodiaTown:aplatformofencountersforsilkdressmakersandwearers

ThediasporicterritoryofCambodiaTowninLongBeach,Californiaisusedto

334

examinetheemotionalroleofsilkdressamongCambodianimmigrantsthroughthethemes

ofloss,memory,nostalgia,andimaginaries.Myinterlocutorsareadressmakeranda

weddingdressdesignerandtheirclients.Thisstudyisgroundedininsiderperspectivesof

CambodianslivinginCambodiaTown,withtheirshopsasmicro-sitesofresearchtoanalyse

thelocaldynamicsofsilkconsumption.

ThehistoryofaCambodianpresenceinCaliforniabeganinthe1950sand1960s,when

CambodianstudentsenrolledinengineeringandothertechnicalcoursesattheLosAngeles

andLongBeachcampusesofCaliforniaStateUniversity.808Oncetheseeducational

programmesended,themajorityreturnedtotheirhomeland,leavingonlyafew

Cambodiansintheregion.Thesefirstconnections,however,playedacriticalroleinthe

establishmentofalargerCambodiancommunityinSouthernCaliforniafollowingthemid-

1970sCambodiancivilwar.MirroringtheglobalexodusofCambodiansaroundtheworld,

thefirstCambodiansarrivinginLongBeachweremainlyrefugeeswhoescapedin1975.

Thesecondwavetookplaceintheearly1980s.809Insubsequentdecades,Cambodians

arrivedinlargenumbersintheLongBeachareatojoinfamilymembers,leadingtothe

formationofalargecommunity.810Today,LongBeachisamulticulturalcitywithofficial

statisticsrevealingalargeHispaniccommunity,about42percentofthepopulation,and

twoimportantAfricanAmericanandAsiangroups,eachrespectivelyaround13percentof

thepopulation.811Thecityhas19,998residentsofCambodiandescent,about4percentof

thecity'spopulation.However,asCambodianAmericansoftenshowareluctancetoregister

forthecensus,therealestimateisaround50,000people,makingLongBeachthe

808Chan,CambodiansintheUnitedStates:Refugees,Immigrants,AmericanEthnicMinority,13-14;NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,9.809NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,7.810Chan,CambodiansintheUnitedStates:Refugees,Immigrants,AmericanEthnicMinority,120.811UnitedStatesCensusBureau,QuickFactsLongBeachcity,California2017.https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/longbeachcitycalifornia,US/PST045217[AccessedSeptember28,2018]

335

CambodiancapitaloftheUnitedStates.812TheCambodianswhosettledinLongBeachinthe

1980shavehadasignificantimpactonthecity’spoliticallife.Thequarterintheeastsideof

thecitywascommonlycalledLittlePhnomPenh.Withthecommitmentofactivistswho

advocatedforCambodianrecognitionfrom2001,theCityCouncilagreedtodesignatethe

sectionoftheAnaheimStreetcorridorbetweenJuniperoAvenueandAtlanticBoulevard

‘CambodiaTown’in2007[Fig.129].

Fig.129CitysignforCambodiaTown,delineatingtheCambodianethnicneighbourhoodofLongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.

812Incomparison,thecityofParis,Franceanditssuburbia,especiallyTorcy,haswelcomedabout40,000Cambodianimmigrants,accordingtothecensusissuedbytheFrenchNationalInstituteofStatisticsandEconomicStudiesin1990.Theyare,howeverspreadoveralargesuburbanterritorywithoutcoalescingintoacentralisedzoneasisthecaseinLongBeach.Inabsenceofmorerecentnumbers,the2012censusonimmigrationinFranceindicatesthatonly2.8percentoftheFrenchpopulationwereborninCambodia,Laos,andVietnamcombined,representingatotalof161,000people.SeeINSEE,‘Immigrésselonlepaysdenaissanceen2012.’[AccessedonOctober1,2018]

336

Itwas‘thefirstethnicdesignationinthecity’shistoryandthefirstCambodiaTowninthe

nation’.813Asianimmigrantsasawholerepresentnearlyaquarterofthepopulationin

CambodiaTown.814Theneighbourhoodwasplaguedbyawaveofviolenceinthe1990s

betweenCambodianandMexicangangs,challengingthemythofCambodianAmericans

beingpartoftheAsianAmerican‘modelminority’.815Mirroringthemainstatisticson

CambodiansasagroupintheUnitedStates,youngpeople'seducationrateinthe

CambodiancommunityofLongBeachisverylow:about65percentofyoungadultsdonot

completehighschool.Issuesrelatingtopublicsafetyhavedecreasedsincethelate2000sin

theneighbourhood,andastrongnetworkofassociationssupportsunderprivilegedelders

andyouthinparticular.OneoftheseistheKhmerArtsAcademy(KAA),adance

organisationofferingKhmerclassicaldancetrainingtoyounglocals,foundedin2002by

masterdancerSophilineCheamShapiroandherhusbandJohnShapiro.Thisprimeexample

oftherichassociativelifeinLongBeachwillbeexploredinmoredetaillaterinthischapter.

SusanNeedhamintroducedmetoMaryTanattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival

inApril2017.Asilkenthusiast,MaryofferedtointroducemetoherdressmakerSokChanin

CambodiaTown,whomshehadknownforaboutnineyears.Avisittohertailoring

workshopChandaTailoroffersanothersituatedexaminationofthekindofsilkeconomy

operatinginthisneighbourhood.Itwasinvisiblefromthestreet,locatedinthebackroomof

anemptyofficeonAnaheimStreet.There,ImetagainwithMaryTanwhohelpedmewith

translationduringourmeeting,becauseSokdidnotspeakEnglishfluently.Thisledtoan

813NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,7.814AlimatAdebiyiandal.,TheStateofCambodiaTownReport(LosAngeles:UCLA,2013),9.815TheGangsofCambodiaTown,LatinoUSA/NPR,broadcastOctober31,2014https://www.npr.org/2014/10/31/360501617/the-gangs-of-cambodia-town[AccessedOctober1,2018]

337

informalgroupconversationratherthanaone-to-oneinterview,speakingwithMaryin

EnglishandChaninKhmer.816

Chan,fifty-sevenyearsoldin2017,hasbeeninLongBeachsince2004.Sheexplained:‘I

followedmyhusbandwhowantedtogotoLongBeach[…]livedinPhnomPenhandthen

movedhere[CambodiaTown]becauseotherCambodianslivehere.AndinCaliforniathe

weatherissimilartoCambodia’.817ShewasborninBattambangandworkedasa

dressmakerinPhnomPenh.Shewasabletoputthesehand-sewingskillstouseinCalifornia

byopeningherowntailoringserviceinLongBeach[Fig.130].818Herhusband‘worksina

school.Attheoffice,likeajanitorfixingeverythingintheschool,notasateacher’.819They

hadtwosons,whohavesincereturnedtoPhnomPenhwithnowishtocontinueher

tailoringbusiness.Shecontinued:‘whenmyhusbandretires,Iwanttoretiretoo’.820

Chanmakesgownsandtwo-pieceensemblesinsilkandlaceforweddings,Buddhist

ceremoniesandevents,withthehelpofthreeCambodianseamstresses.Chanconfidedthat

herbusinesswasstablebutnotfullyprofitable;shereceivedmostordersduringthemain

Khmercelebrationsthatareconsideredauspicioustimestogetmarried,suchasCambodian

NewYearinthespringandtheWaterFestivalandtheBuddhistholidayPchumBeninthe

autumn.Tothequestion‘howmanytimeswouldacustomercometotheshoptobuy’,Chan

answered:‘mostlyoneortwotimesayear.Sometimestheyhavedifferentoccasionsinthe

year’.821

ChansourcedhersilktextilesonceortwiceayearinCambodia,keepingactiveconnections

withherhomeland.Clientsselectafabric,costingbetween70and100USDperyard,to

whichChanaddsthecostoflabour,about150USDforalacetopandsilksampotensemble.

816Chan’scaseisnotanisolatedoneintheimmigrantcommunityencountering‘theexistenceofabilingualbarrier’,as‘overhalfoftheCambodianpopulationreportthattheyspeakEnglish‘lessthanverywell’or‘notatall’.Adebiyiandal.,TheStateofCambodiaTownReport,10.817SokChan,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.MaryTan,April6,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.818Ibid. 819SokChan,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.820Ibid. 821Ibid.

338

Afullset,includingfabricsandtailoring,rangesbetween300to400USD.Asaresult,her

clientelehasremainedmostlylimitedtobetter-offmiddle-agedCambodianAmerican

women.Itremainsunaffordableforyoungerclients.Chanexplainedthatthemajorityofher

customerswouldonlycomeonceortwiceayeartobuyanewcustom-madeoutfitfora

specialoccasion.Womenusuallychoseaclassicsilktubeskirtinphamaungorholanda

fittedbodice,eitherinanembroideredfabricorlace.MaryTan,whocheerfullyadmitted

visitingSokChanfourtofivetimesayearandorderinguptosixsilkensembles,sounded

likeanexception.Marygavemoredetailsaboutherorders:‘sometimesChanstartsfrom

hercatalogueandsometimesshedesigns.Myoutfitisonlyfromherdesigns.Only

traditionalstyle’.822

SokChan’sworkshopappearsasasmallpocketofculturalinteractionswhere

womencanmeet,communicatetheirtasteforhighqualityfabricsandCambodian-style

dress,andengagewiththeirroots.Duringmyvisit,NancyLee,forty-fouryearsold,arrived

forafitting.WediscussedinEnglish.Shehadcommissionedasilkensemblefora

fundraisingeventforDreamBeyondFoundation,anon-profitorganisationshefoundedin

SantaAna,California.823NancyLeehadoptedforasophisticatedvariationofapurple

phamaungstyle,withanasymmetricbodiceinthicktwillsilk,ruffledatthebottomand

patternedingold,andamatchingtubeskirt[Fig.131].Intermsofdesigns,SokChanoffered

arangeofstylesinacataloguetochoosefrom,fromclassictomoreinnovativeshapes.

NancyLee’sconfidentchoicedemonstratedherabilitytoreworkCambodiandresscodesin

afashionableway.IntroducingKhmerfashionstyleasformalwearforfundraisingand

professionaleventsdepartsfromthemorecommonuseofCambodiandressintraditional

ceremonies.NancypursuedthedualgoalofexpressingherdeepappreciationforKhmersilk

822Ibid. 823NancyLee,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.

339

whileovertlypromotingCambodianidentityinpubliconanyoccasionpossible,throughher

dressedbody.

Fig.130SokChaninhershopChandaTailor,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April6,2017.

340

Fig.131SokChanadjustingNancyLee’spurpledressatChandaTailorworkshop,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

Inherstudyofethnicdressindiasporicmigration,fashiontheoristMargaret

Maynarddeterminedthatmovementsofpopulationhadcreatednewformsofexpressions

ofethnicidentity,whichwould’notmirrorpreciselypracticesinthehomeland,ratherusing

arangeofsourcestoshapenewwaysofdoingthings’.824NancyLee’stestimonyindeed

showshowdiasporicsilkconsumptionisinvestedwithanewsignificancethroughtravel

andconnectionswithCambodia.Sheexplainedhowsheregularlyboughthandwovensilk

yardageinselectedmarketsinPhnomPenhregardlessofthepriceandbroughtthemback

toherseamstressinLongBeachtocreatenewoutfits.825Similarly,SokChanpurchasesa

widerangeofhandwovensilkfabrics,solid-colouredphamaungandpolychromichol

yardages,aswellaslace,duringherannualCambodiantrips,workingwithaspecificlistof

824Maynard,DressandGlobalisation,72.825Lee,infomalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon.

341

suppliersandmiddlemen[Fig.132].ShementionedSuryamarket,Olympic,O'Russeyin

PhnomPenhasherpreferredmarkets.Sheadded:‘allthefabricsIbuyareproducedin

Takeo.TheyaremadethereandbroughttoPhnomPenh’with‘TakeoandPreytownas

numberone’inquality,butshedidnotvisitweaversdirectly.826Herclientstrustedherand

didnotaskforaformalcertificationoftheoriginsofthesilktheypurchasedasCambodian.

MaryTanalsohadstrongopinionsaboutthegoodsilkshopsinCambodia,findingproducts

fromKohDachofpoorquality,withwhichSokChanagreed.

Fig.132StacksofholpoaryardagesatChandaTailor,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

Theseseeminglymundanedebatesaboutthequalityandprovenanceofsilkstemfrom

longstandingtradeexchangesbetweenCambodiaanditsdiaspora,eversincethe

establishmentofrefugeecampsattheThaiborder.TerHorstdescribesthestoryofYoun

Malis,atextiledealerbasedattheCentralMarketinPhnomPenh,interviewedin2004,who

soldsilktotourists,includingnumerousCambodianAmericans.HersisterlivinginBoston

826SokChan,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.

342

alsoorderedsilkscarvesandsampotholtosellintheUnitedStates.Inreality,YounMalis

sold‘machine-made[replicas]fromLaos,BurmaandThailand’whilepresentingthemas

Khmerproducts.827

Thisstoryofdeliberatelymisleadingpurchaserswithimportedmass-producedsilks,

comparedwiththeexampleofEmBun’speerstouchinghersilksampotatweddingsasking

whereshefoundit,suggestshowCambodianAmericanshavebeensearchingforan

authenticexperienceofCambodiansilkthatactivatesasenseofbelonging.Provenanceand

authenticityareconflatedthroughthepurchaseofsilkfromCambodiatoinitiateand

materialiseadirectconnectionwiththehomeland,withthepossibilityofelicitingan

emotional,nostalgicresponse.ChapterTwoaddressedissuesofauthenticityinthecontext

ofCambodiansilkcraftsproducedbyforeign-ownedNGOs.Herethediscussionisbrought

intothecontextoftheCambodianAmericanconsumer.TerHorsthasindeedarguedthat

duetotheconditionsoftheirexodus,Cambodianimmigrants‘framedadiasporic

consciousnessaroundthesilkindustryasauthenticKhmer’.828InourdiscussioninSok

Chan’sworkshop,NancyLeepraisedthebeautyofwhatshereferredtoas‘oursilk’,drawing

attentiontothelevelofcraftsmanship,andcomplainingthatithadbeenundervalued.The

noticeableuseofthepossessivepronounindicateshowshe,asaCambodianAmerican,

reaffirmsherKhmernessandsenseofpridethroughtheuseofcarefullysourcedartefacts.

Inhermind,thedefinitionofCambodiansilkisbroad.Itissilkpurchasedandmadein

Cambodia,tailoredinCambodiaTownbyaCambodianwomanintoaKhmerfashion

ensemble.Throughthistransaction,CambodiaTown,asanethnicneighbourhood,andits

inhabitantsaresymbolicallyincorporatedintothetransnationalmapofCambodianidentity.

Silkproductsareversatile‘evocativeobjects’,inSherryTurkle’swords,withthe

827TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,232-235. 828Ibid,232.

343

empatheticpotencytoembodyfluidandmultipleroles.829ChapterThreedocumented

weaversdemonstratingtheirattachmenttothetextilestheywove.InCambodiaTown,

testimoniesrevealthattheactofwearingsilkgarmentsalsocontributestothe

reconstructionofdiasporicimaginings.ToNancyLee,eachofherCambodiandresseswas

uniqueandsheworethemonlyonce,asopposedtoKamoninthepreviouschapterwho

wouldwearthesampotholshehadwovengainandagain.Asforthenewpurpledressshe

wasbuyingfromSokChan,shesaidthatafterwearingitforhereventshewouldthenkeep

itinhercloset,addingthatsilkskirtswere‘easytofold’.830Similarly,MaryTanconfessed:

‘SokChansaysthatIhavealotoftextilesinmyhouse!Ihavethreeclosetsofdressesfrom

Chanda.[…]Ihaveholandphamuong.Yousee,oneset,Iwearonlyonetime’.831

MarygrewupinCambodiaandhadaChineseVietnamesemotherandMalaysianfather.She

survivedtheKRregimeandarrivedinCambodiaTowninFebruary1982,thoughshehas

sincerelocatedtoOrangeCounty.LikemanyotherCambodianrefugees,shebroughtnone

ofherpreciousbelongingswhenshefledtotheUnitedStateswithherhusband,and

especiallynotextiles.Mary’spassionforsilkhasemergedfromherchildhood,asshe

rememberedseeingsilkfarmersspinningandreelingsilkthreadsintheareaofBanteay

Chmaarinthe1960s.Itseemslikelythatbecauseshesawsilkweavingasachild,inour

conversationsheoftenassertedthatthesilkgowns’mainmaterialswereinevitably

handwoven.SilkoccupiedanemotionalspaceinhermemoriesofCambodia,somuchso

thatwhenshereturnedtoherhomecountryforthefirsttimein1999sheboughtasmuch

silkasshecouldandwaspleasedtofindpreciousfabricsatanaffordableprice,bringingher

aformofsolace.

829SherryTurkle,EvocativeObjects:ThingsWeThinkWith(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,2007),5,9.830Lee,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon.831MaryTan,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.

344

ThetestimonyofCambodianAmericanweddingplanneranddesignerMenKovady

(‘Kaylene’)hasarticulatedfurthertheemotionalconnectionbetweensilk,memoryand

trauma.IfirstmetKayleneatherKhmerBridalboothatCTCF.Iwasstruckbyherdress,

oneofherdesigns,acreamwhiteandbluesilkensemblethatrevisitedthephamaungstyle

[Fig.133].Onalightweightcreamblouseprintedwithpaintedeffects,sheworea

sophisticatedpleatedsashthatasymmetricallycrossedherchest,adornedwithajewelled

brooch.Hersampotwasofthesameroyalblueandwornsimplyfoldedaroundthewaist.

SheagreedtobeinterviewedinEnglishandImetheragainathershoplocatedonPacific

HighwayinCambodiaTown.BorninPhnomPenhandsettlingintheUnitedStatesin1981

attheageoffive,Kayleneisaself-taughtdesignerwhocollaborateswithanumberof

CambodianseamstressesinLongBeachtocreatecustom-madeweddingdressesforrental

andpurchase.832Shealsoorganisesjewelleryandflowerarrangementsforherclients.Like

SokChan,MenKaylenereturnstoCambodiatwiceayeartosourcefabrics,garmentsand

accessoriesfromspecificvendorsinPhnomPenhwhichshesellsathershopinLongBeach,

fromKhmer-stylelacedaor(bodices)andsequinedphuyorsbaay(sashes)forthetopsto

polychromicsampothol,brocadedsampotsarabap,andplainsampotphamaungandchawng

kbunforskirtsandtrousers[Fig.134].

ArrivingfirstinKansaswithhermotherandsiblingstoreunitewithherfatherwhowas

alreadyintheUnitedStates,KaylenemovedtoCaliforniaafterhighschoolandsettledin

CambodiaTowninLongBeach.Afteruniversity,sheworkedasaninterpreterfortheUnited

CambodiaCommunityagencywhereshe‘Iwaslearningabout[her]ownculture’,

translatingforCambodianrefugeestellingtheirexperienceoftheKRregime.

Kaylenebecameemotionalinretellingherlifestory.Sheexplained:‘luckyIdon'tremember

muchaboutthewar.Idon'tremembermuchbecauseIwastooyoung[…]butIremember

thesadness,thecrying.Iremembersomeimagesyouknow?ButIdidn'tknowhowtoputit

832MenKaylene,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April11,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.

345

intowords’.‘Thememoryallcomesback.Itisjustthereyouknow’,shewhispered,‘andyou

don'tknowwhatitislike,whattriggersit’.833ToexplainherinterestinKhmerweddings,

KaylenetalkedaboutachildhoodmemoryofweddinginCambodiathatmarkedher:

‘Irememberthefirstweddingthatmymomrightafterthewar1979.AndIremembereverybodycriedsohard.[…]AndIwasawakenedbytheircriesbecauseIwasachild.AndIdon'tunderstandwhyuntillaterIlearnedthatthemajorityofpeoplethatweretherewereallwomenandchildren,andalltheirhusbands,theirlovedones,hadpassedaway.Andtheyrememberedtheweddingsongs’.834

Fig.133MenKayleneatherboothattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.

ShealsorecalledhowasaninterpretersheaccompaniedformerCambodianMinisterof

CultureChhengPhon(1930-2016)onhisvisittoCaliforniain1993.Sherememberedthatin

833Ibid. 834Ibid.

346

apublicspeechtotheCambodiancommunity,hecommendedtheimportanceofwedding

ceremoniesascelebrationsofallfivesenseswiththemusic,lavishclothesandflowers.835

ShewasstruckbyChhenPhon‘sreferencetotheforcedweddingsthathappenedduringthe

KRregime.Between1975and1979,hundredsofthousandsofceremonieswereorganised

invillagesbetweenwomenandmenwhowererandomlymatchedaspartofastate-

sponsoredprogramme.Suchatrocitiesnegativelyimpactedonthemeaningandthepractice

ofmaritalunionsinCambodiainthewakeofthedictatorship.836

Onamorepositivenote,herinterestinsilkwassparkedbyencounterswithhermother’s

friends:

‘Iseemymum'sfriendsthatcamesince1975andhowrefinedtheyareandthewaytheydressCambodian[…]thewaytheyputtogethertheclothes,itjustseemedsorefinedandsoelegant.[…]theytaughtme:"thisisthefinestsilk”.OrthesearethebestsilksmadefromBanteaySreiorfromKampongChamorfromKohDach,youknow.So,theyshowedmehowthethread,thesilk,howyoucancreatetheminadifferentway,howcanyoutouch,feelbythetextureofit’.837

Kayleneassistedhersisterwhoworkedasamake-upartistatweddings:‘Idiscovered[the

wedding]byaccident.Mysister,sheisinthebeautybusinessandIwasherdriver’.Tolearn

abouttheartofdressing,shealsoobserveddancetroupesperformingduringweddings:‘I

likedtowatchthedancershowtheydressed,theteacher,justfouryardofcloththeycan

makeitintobeautifulskirtsanystyletheywant’.838Sheeventuallystartedherownbusiness

835Itisnotfullyclearwherethisspeechwasgiven.KayleneMenwasmostlikelyreferringtoChhengPhon’svisittotheUniversityTheateratCalStateUniversity,LongBeachtoattendadanceperformanceinDecember1993.See‘CambodianDancerstoPerformSunday,’LATimes,December2,1993https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-12-04-ca-63781-story.html[AccessedJune1,2020]836Ina2011studyconductedwith222CambodianswhowerecivilpartiesattheExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodiaagainsttwoformerKRleadersNuonCheaandKhieuSamphan,morethanahalfoftheintervieweeswereforcedintomarriage.SeeJudithStrasserandal.,eds.,‘AStudyaboutVictims’ParticipationattheExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodiaandGender-BasedViolenceundertheKhmerRougeRegime,’TransculturalPsychosocialOrganizationCambodia(September2015):13.837Men,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.838Ibid.

347

as‘ahobby’sellingKhmerfashionandplanningweddingsinthe2010sanditthenbecamea

sustainableprofessionalendeavour.839

Fig.134EmbroideredsbaayandsolidsilksampotondisplayatKhmerBridal,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.

Inherdiscourse,KaylenelinkedthetraumaoftheKRregimetothesocialand

culturalpowerofmarriageintheimmigrantcontextofLongBeach.Hercommitmentto

creatingthemostlavishweddingceremonieshasbeencompoundedbyherpersonal

experienceofsnaam,whichmeans‘scar'inKhmeranddesignatesthemarkoftraumatic

pastmemories.Kayleneconsiderstheweddingasthebindingmomentthatbringsthe

839SeealsothewrittenportraitofMenKayleneinLongBeach’slocalpress:AnneArtley,‘LocalFemaleEntrepreneursMirrorGrowingTrendofDiversity,’LongBeachBusinessJournal,February26,2018https://lbbusinessjournal.com/local-female-entrepreneurs-mirror-growing-trend-of-diversity[AccessedDecember2,2020]

348

familyandthecommunitytogetherand‘tiesthepast,thepresent,andthefuture’.840

Similarly,Smith-HefnerhaspraisedtherichsophisticationofKhmerweddingsinthe

diasporaofBostondespitethe‘culturebeingaffected,evenhaunted,byrecenthistory’.841

Shesawthepopularityoftraditionalweddingsas‘adeliberateanddignifiedeffortby

Cambodianelderstore-createfamilies,community,andaKhmercultureintheUnited

States’.842

Dressplaysanessentialroleinthismomentofculturalreunionshapedbyfamilyloyalties.

Thevariety,careandsophisticationofthechosensilkensemblesconveyasenseofluxury

duringtheceremony.Thebridalcouple,families,andguestsshowcase(orborrowforthe

occasion)theirfinestclothes.KhmerweddingsinCambodiausuallylastthreedays,

sometimesreducedtooneday,andtakesplaceatthebride’shome.Duringthattime,the

bridalcouplechangesintodifferentstylesofsilkensembles,ofteninmatchingcolours,upto

seventimes.Thebridepicksdifferenttypesoflaceorsequinnedaorblousewithasilk

sampotcarefullyfoldedaroundthewaistandheldbyagoldbelt,whichdemandsthehelpof

afamilymembertogetdressed.OneoftheensemblesmaybeaWestern-stylewhitegown.

Thegroomwearsdifferentstylesofsilkjacketswithasilksampotchawngkbuninshantung

orbrocade.

Thebridalcouple’sfinaloutfitsareinspiredbyCambodianregalattire,inKaylene’swords,

‘whenyoudresslikethekingandqueen’.843Itisoftenwornforthefinalweddingritualin

whichstringsaretiedroundthecouple'swrists.844InKaylene’sshop,theseensemblesfor

newlywedsweredisplayedsidebysideonmannequins[Fig.135].Thebridaldress

comprisesagoldensilkphuyfittedasymmetricallyfromtheshouldertothehipanda

840Men,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.841Smith-Hefner,KhmerAmerican:IdentityandMoralEducationinaDiasporicCommunity,xii. 842Ibid.843Men,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.844EdDavies,‘Cambodiancouplefinallytietheknotwithglitteringceremonyafterpandemiccurbsease,’Reuters,February3,2021https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/cambodian-couple-finally-tie-knot-with-glittering-ceremony-after-pandemic-curbs-2021-02-04/[AccessedAugust2,2021]

349

sampotsarabaphipwrapdrapedintheka’atkbalneakpleatingstyle.Thegroom’ssuit

includesawhitesilkrbaukaorpay(long-sleevedblouse)withasilkrbaukjacket,calledaor

kotrung,withagoldensequinnedcollar.845AweddingpicturefromGillianGreen’sseminal

bookTraditionalTextilesofCambodiashowsstrikinglysimilarensembles,illustratinghow

thisspecificstyle,inspiredbyroyalty,isintendedtoevokeanunchangingceremonial

weddingtradition[Fig.136].

Fig.135GroomensembleontheleftandbridedresstherightonmannequinsatKhmerBridalshop,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.

845Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,194.

350

Fig.136Brideandgroomphotographedontheirweddingday.InGreen,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,194.

Kaylene’sworkatKhmerBridalplacesherinamediatorypositionintheCambodian

AmericancommunityofLongBeach,takingontheroleofkeeperofKhmerweddingrituals,

especiallyforyoungpeople,describingherselfas‘akeeperoftraditionshowingacertain

wayofdoingthings’.846Kaylenehaddevelopedherownstyle,slightlychangingthecodesof

Cambodianceremonialfashion.SheconsultedweddingfashiontrendsintheUnitedStates

andCambodia,lookingatsocialmediaandcelebrityweddings.Inhershopshechosewhich

textileproductstodistribute,towhichsheattachedspecificculturallyconservative

discourses.PositioningherselfasanauthorityonKhmerweddingfashion,Kaylenestated

that‘certainthingsyoushouldn'tmesswith’,criticisingthechangeoftasteinCambodiaas

muchastheAmericanisationofCambodianAmericanweddings.Sheregretteda‘lossof

846Men,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.

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culture’throughthefollowingofcertaintrendssheconsideredinappropriateforsucha

ceremony.

EventhoughKayleneacknowledgedthatinLongBeachareathemajorityofherclients

enteredintointerracialmarriages,shepraisedthe‘veryunique[Khmer]artofdressing’that

is‘veryfeminineanddoesn'trevealtoomuch’.847Inthisweddingportrait,displayedonthe

shop’swalls,thenewly-wedcoupleposinginKhmer-styleoutfitsareaCaucasianAmerican

manandaCambodianAmericanwoman[Fig.137].848

Fig.137PortraitofformerclientsinaninterracialmarriageseenatKhmerBridal,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.

847Men,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.848FashionscholarCherylSimhasstudiedethnichybridityindresspracticesinCanadaintheChinesediaspora,especiallyhowyoungbrideshaveexperiencedwearingChinesedressoramoreAmericanisedstyleattheirwedding.HerstudyshowsthewaysinwhichtheresearchonweddingdresspracticescouldbeexpandedintheCambodiandiasporainLongBeachbyconductinginterviewswithwomenabouttheirweddings.SeeCherylSim,WearingtheCheongsam:DressandCultureinaChineseDiaspora(London:Bloomsbury,2019),103-104.

352

MortlandhassuggestedthatCambodianAmericanweddingsaresituatedmomentsinwhich

genderdynamicsandreferencestoancestralwayshavebeenreinforced.Discourseson

appropriatefemaledressstemfromamorepervasiveconversationabouthowCambodian

women,especiallyasspouses,areexpectedtobehavewithobediencetotheirhusband,as

wellasintheirfamilyandthecommunity.849Despitethesocialrupturesresultingfrom

migration,thepersistenceofthesecodesofconductperpetuatingprescriptivefemaleroles

inthediasporamirrorgenderedpositionsincontemporaryCambodia.850

Throughherapproachtoweddingfashion,Kaylenehasreaffirmedandsharedheridealsof

modestyrootedintraditionalculturalrepresentationswhiledemonstratinganattachment

toaCambodiannessthatresistsAmericanisation.

StagingsilkattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival(CTCF)

ThissectionexaminessilkwearingpracticesinthecontextofCTCF2017,addressing

waysinwhichfestivalparticipantsnegotiateandperformtheirCambodianidentitythrough

silkdress.Consideringtheimpactofglobalisationonethnicrepresentations,Maynardhas

regardedethnicityasafluidprocessthatis‘flexibleindifferentplacesandatdifferent

times’,embeddedin‘day-to-dayculturaltransactionsandconnectedness’.851Ethnicdress

offerspossibilitiesofappropriationandresistance,butalsohybriditythroughexchanges

withotherminoritiesandeverydayWesternfashionstyles.Atfestivaltimes,theethnic

neighbourhoodcanbeseenasapublicspaceforthedisplayofethnicpridewhichproduces

849Mortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates,113-115.850SeeKatherineBrickell’sarticleonthepersistenceofgenderbiasinCambodia.Brickell,'Wedon’tforgettheoldricepotwhenwegetthenewone,’446-451.851Maynardhasarguedthatethnicityischangeable,referringtoanthropologistRichardJenkinswhopromotedthepotentialtransactionalnatureofethnicity.SeeMaynard,DressandGlobalisation,69;RichardJenkins,RethinkingEthnicity:ArgumentsandExplorations(ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications,1997),51.

353

specificformsofexpressionofCambodianheritage.CambodiaTownhasbecomethestage

fornumerouspubliceventssincethearrivalofthefirstwaveofrefugeesinthemid-1970s.

ThiscommunityengagementhascrystallisedaroundtheCambodianNewYearcelebrations,

whichtakeplaceinmid-April,followingtheTheravadaBuddhisttradition.InLongBeach,

thefirsteventofthiskindtookplaceinApril1976atWilsonHighSchool,gathering

Cambodiansandnon-Cambodiansaroundadanceperformance.852Quicklygaining

popularity,thiskeyeventhostedotherculturalperformancesandBuddhistritualsledby

localmonks.Itbecameanoutdooreventinthelate1980s,ultimatelymovinginthe1990s

toElDoradoRegionalPark,wherethousandsofCambodianAmericansfromCaliforniaand

allovertheUnitedStatesgathereveryyear.853CulturalheritagescholarOliviaCadaval

showedthatethnicfestivalshaveoftenbeenconsideredanextensionof‘the

neighbourhood’slong-standingtraditionofactivism’,whereindividualsfromthe

communitywouldassumeleadershiproles.854Throughthesenumerouseventspunctuating

thelifeoftheneighbourhood,CambodiaTownhasbecome‘thestageforimmigrantmodes

ofexpressionandexperimentation[letting]asenseofcommunityidentityandhistory

emerge’.855

Since2008,CambodiaTown’sprogrammeforCambodianNewYearhasincluded

CTCF.Thisopen-airfestivalhasbeencoordinatedbyCambodiaTownInc.,alocalnon-profit

organisationmanagedbyCambodianAmericansofLongBeachanddedicatedto

‘revitalizingtheneighborhoodbyattractingmorebusinesses,visitorsandtourists’and

supportingthe‘socialandeconomicwell-beingofresidentsandbusinessownersinCentral

LongBeach’.856SusanNeedham,aboardmemberofCambodiaTownInc.atthetime,

852NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,68.853Ibid,69.854OliviaCadaval,‘MakingaPlaceHome:TheLatinoFestival,’inCreativeEthnicity,SymbolsandStrategiesofContemporaryEthnicLife,ed.StephenSternandJohnA.Cicala(Logan,UT:UtahStateUniversityPress,1991),204.855Ibid,206.856‘Mission,’CambodiaTownhttp://www.cambodiatown.com/[Accessed25October2018]

354

initiatedtheprojectandremainedthemainorganiserforsevenyears.Shewasinspiredby

herexperienceattheFolkFestivalinLowell,Massachusetts,andwantedtocreateanevent

bringingtogetherthecommunityaroundCambodiaTown’smainstreetofAnaheim,where

anumberofCambodianAmerican-ownedshops,supermarkets,restaurants,andtailors

suchasChandaTailorarelocated.857CTCFhasbeenspecificallydesignedforaCambodian

AmericanaudiencecoordinatedbyCambodianTownInc.,thusavoidingthepitfallsof

‘stereotypingtraditionality’whichoftenoccursinmulti-ethnicfestivalscuratedby

folkloristsforageneralpublic.858ItattractsonaverageathousandCambodianandnon-

Cambodianvisitorseveryyear.

Inhisseminalworkonethnicgroups,anthropologistFredrikBarthhasdeconstructedthe

commonideathatethnicityshouldbecategorisedwithinstrictgeographicboundariesand

thatethnicgroupswouldonlyexistwithinlimitedsocialinteractionswithoutsideunits.859

Barthemphasisedinsteadthatethnicgroupswouldbedefinedas‘categoriesofascription

andidentificationbytheactorsthemselves’.860InthespecificityofCTCF,thefestival’s

attendeesareconsideredinthewaystheydefinetheirCambodianculturebycultivating

specificdiscourses,imaginings,andperformances,inwhichdressactivelyparticipates.

WhenIvisitedin2017,thefestivalwaslocatedonthecentralsquarenearMark

TwainLibraryonAnaheimstreet[Fig.138].Buddhistmonkswelcomedvisitorsforblessings

inashrinesetupfortheoccasion.AttendeescouldenjoyavarietyofKhmerfoodinthe

mainfoodstands,sittoeat,wanderinthealleystovisitstallshostedbylocalassociations

andshopowners,andwatchshowshappeningonthemainstage.Thefestivaldidnot

857Needham,InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon. 858Auerbach,‘TheBrokeringofEthnicFolklore,’224.859FrederickBarth,ed.,GroupsandBoundaries:TheSocialOrganizationofCultureDifference(LongGrove:WavelandPress,1998),10;AlsocitedinJenkins,RethinkingEthnicity:ArgumentsandExplorations,51.860Barth,ed.,GroupsandBoundaries:TheSocialOrganizationofCultureDifference,10.

355

includeacraftsection,ashasoftenbeenthecaseinethnicfestivals,suchastheHmong

InternationalNewYearinFresnoandtheAsianCulturalFestivalofSanDiego.861

Underabrightsun,thelibrary’sforecourtwasfilledbyanintensecrowdoffamiliesand

friendsmeeting,creatingalivelysocialfabric.Withmicro-historiescomemicro-sitesof

exploration.CTCFoffersaspecificlocationinwhichtoanalysetheintersectionofsilkwith

CambodianAmericancommunitylife.Inthiscase,thedividebetween'frontstage’and‘back

stage’performanceestablishedbyErwinGoffmantoaddressthevarietyofsocialroles

enactedinpublicandprivatearenasischallenged.862Participantsperformasagroupwhile

reclaimingtheirethnicidentityasindividualsinageographiclocationwherethese

expressionsareblurredandcrossed.Cadavalhasrightlyarguedthatculturalfestivalsin

immigrantcontextsoffer‘atemporarycentreofpower’,unifyingspaceand‘generating

action,duringwhichsymbolsandtraditionsaremanipulated,culturalformsaregiven

expression,relationshipsarenegotiatedandnewidentitiesareforged’.863

861AccordingtoNeedham,therewasanonlyoneunsuccessfulattemptin2012toinviteCambodiannationalstosellartisanalproducts,whichdidnotgarnermuchinterestfromtheattendees.NeedhambelievedthatCambodianAmericanlocalswouldrathershopinafewdedicatedstoresinLongBeachorwaittogotoCambodiathemselves.SeeNeedham,InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon.862ErvingGoffman,ThePresentationofSelfintheEverydayLife(Edinburgh:UniversityofEdinburghPress,1956),76-78. 863Cadaval,‘MakingaPlaceHome:TheLatinoFestival,’205.

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Fig.138MapofCambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA,GoogleMaps,2018.

WearingsilkforceremonialandreligiousoccasionsiscustomaryinCambodia,apractice

reactivatedinthediaspora.Bymyownestimate,onlyaminorityofmaleandfemale

attendeesdressedinsilk:shirtsinavarietyofvividhuesformen,dressesandtubeskirts

forwomen.Visitors,andnotonlyCambodianAmericans,cladinthesesophisticated

patternedandsolid-colouredsilkgarmentswere,however,veryvisibleinthecrowd,and

overtlycommunicatedtheirtiestoCambodianculturethroughdressinasocialandpublic

space.Inthispicture,MaryTanisinamatchingbrightgreenensembleshecommissioned

fromSokChan,standingwithSusanNeedham,whoisalsodressedinamoreclassic

Cambodianstyle[Fig.139].Withherwhiteaorandcolourfulsampothol,Needham,asan

anthropologistfounderoftheCTCTandCamCHAParchives,providesanexampleofanon-

Cambodianculturalbrokerfollowinglocaldressprotocols.MaryTandisplaysherpassion

forsilkwiththisensemblepickedespeciallyforthefestival.Sheworeacustom-made

bodicewithanopennecklineandlongsleevesincrispsilkwithagreenandwhitecotton

kramatiedasymmetricallyontheshoulder.Hertubeskirtfeaturedapolychromichand-

CAMBODIA TOWN

Mark Twain Library

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paintedfriezeofboldconfrontingpeacocksandstylisedfloralsonabrightacidgreen

groundwithred,yellowandgoldaccentsmimickinganikateffect.Sheexemplifiedhow

femaleattendeesintentionallyworestrikingvariationsoftheCambodianensembleofthe

fittedbodiceandtubeskirtinsolidhues,brocade,orhol,allremarkableforthecareand

playfulnessinvestedindressingupinbrightcolourcombinations,

Fig.139DrSusanNeedhamandMaryTanbothinCambodiandress,CambodiaTownCultureFestival.LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

Adozenwomen,probablyallintheirsixtiesanddressedalikewithalacyblouse,asilk

sampotholandasashwereinvitedbythefestivalasfirstgenerationofCambodianfemale

immigrantstoLongBeach[Figs.140a-b].ThemajorityofwomendressedinsilkatCTCF

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indeedappearedtobemoremature,anobservationconfirmedbySusanNeedham,who

statedthatyoungerpeopleseemedlessinterestedinCambodian-stylefashion.864

Figs.140a-bLeft:Femalefestival-goerwithamatchingsilkensembleandagreensilkensash.Right:Womendressedinthetypicalensemble:lacedaorandsilksampothol,attheCambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotographs,April2017.

Asmallernumberofmenwerewearingsilkgarments,mostlyshort-sleeveshirtsortailored

jacketsonblacktrousers.PasinChanou,onethefestival’smainorganisersandchairmanof

CambodiaTownInc.,woreagreensilkshirtboughtinCambodiaduringoneofhisannual

visits.MaryTan’shusband,aChineseCambodian,waswearingaturquoisejacketinshot

silk,matchinghiswife’soutfit[Fig.141].

864ThisgenerationaldivideaboutdressisalsoprevalentinCambodia.SeeKimSamathandYinVannithTouch,‘Whydowomenwearsexyclothesinpagodas?’

359

Fig.141MaryTan’shusbandwearingajacketinshotsilkandholdingagildedmokot,CambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

Atthefestival,dressalsoallowedtheexpressionofthepluralitiesofimmigrantlives.

Jenkinshasdemonstratedthatethnicidentityrespondstotwoprocessesofidentification.

Theexternaldefinitionisprovidedbyagrouporexternalindividual;theprocessthis

sectionhereaddressesistheinternaldefinition,when‘actorssignaltoin-orout-group

membersaself-definitionoftheirnatureoridentity’.865WhiletypicalCambodianensembles

werestillrelevantforeldersinthecommunity,alargenumberofvisitorsworeacotton

checkedkramascarfonWestern-stylecasualoutfitssuchasjeansandt-shirts.Affordable

andversatile,kramascarvesarecommonitemsintheCambodiandiaspora.866AtCTCF,this

clothhastheadditionalfunctionofsignallingthevisitors'senseofaffiliationwith

Cambodianidentity.CambodiaTownInc.hadcommissionedfromCambodiaaspecial

kramaembroideredwiththeCambodiaTownlogotosellinLongBeach.Inoticedabout

865Jenkins,RethinkingEthnicity:ArgumentsandExplorations,53.866Mortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates,233.

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fifteenpeople,mostlymembersoftheorganisingcommittee,whowerewearingthisdesign

[Fig.142].

Fig.142Dressedinred,womanparticipantwearingaCambodiaTownkramawithanembroideredlogoofCambodia,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

AtCTCF,someyoungerpeopledressedinsilkwerealsoquitevisibleinthecrowd.

TheywereeitherparticipantsintheparadeorKhmerclassicalballetdancersinvitedto

perform.OneofthemwasSokhomsanChakravatin,‘Chakra’,fourteenyearsold,whostood

outinthecrowdinhisdanceattire.Hewaswearingawhitefittedsilkshirtwithseamless

shoulders,aredshouldercloth(sbaay),andbrightorangesilkwrappedtrousersinthe

chawngkbunstyle.Hemovedslowly,holdingaredpleatedsilkfabricinhishand,akite-

shapedornamentcalledasloekpotoperformslowgestures[Fig.143].Hedancedforthe

CambodianAmericanveteranswhostoodaroundhiminablessingpostureinfrontofa

Buddhistshrine.Hethenperformedagainonthemainstagetorepresenthisdance

companyKAA(discussedbelow).

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Fig.143ChakraperforminginfrontofKhmerVeterans,CambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

BesidesChakra,youngparticipantsweredressedspecificallyfortheparade,thefestival’s

mostpopularevent,whichranonGundryAvenueneartheLibrary.Needhamand

Quintilianihaveunderlinedthatthefirstparadestemmedfrommobilising‘astronger

Cambodiancommunitythathaddevelopedpoliticaltiesaswellasthemultigenerational

andmulti-ethniccoalitionneeded’.867ParadesarenotpartofCambodianculture.Inthe

realmofpoliticalcultureintheUnitedStates,paradeshavebeendefinedinsteadby

historianMaryRyanas‘acharacteristicgenreofnineteenth-centurycivicceremony’,which

ritualisedacollectivemovementpubliclywalkingthecity’sstreets.868Throughthis

867NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,74.868ThehistoryofAmericanparadeshasgeneratedarobustcanonofscholarshiplookingatnationalism,identityformationandcivicexpressioninthepublicspheresincetheearlyRepublic.SeeMaryRyan,‘TheAmericanParade:RepresentationsoftheNineteenth-centurySocialOrder,’inTheNewCulturalHistory,ed.LynnHunt(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1989),131-154;SimonNewman,ParadesandthePoliticsoftheStreet:FestiveCultureintheEarlyAmericanRepublic(Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1997),3;DavidWaldstreicher,IntheMidstofPerpetualFetes:theMakingofAmericanNationalism,1776-1820(ChapelHill,NC:TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2012),3-14,

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gathering,theparadersclaimedtheiraffiliationtoaspecificcommunitybymarchingin

unitsanddisplayingcodifieddecoration,symbols,andclothing.Bythelate1800s,these

marchesdevelopedintogatheringsrepresentingspecificethnicgroups’rightsand

identities,‘organisingthediversepopulationofthecityintomanageablecategories’.869

Moreover,culturalhistorianVanessaAgnewhasestablishedthatinthecontextofrefugees

andgenocidethereenactmentofhistory-themedscenesisaformofreappropriationofthe

pastwhosevalueliesin‘itscapacitytofindnewandinventivemodesofhistorical

representation’.870Agnewalsoarguedthat‘body-based’testimoniescombininghistorical

references,movementanddressaremoreinformativeaboutpresentrepresentationsthan

thepast.871WhatIwitnessedmyselfwasaprocessionofpeopleofferingtheembodied

performanceofareimaginedCambodianness,inabalancingactbetweenentertainment,

self-expression,storytellingandhistoricalreenactment.

TheCambodiaTownparadeconsistedofvolunteerswhohadappliedtoparticipate.The

firstgroupwassolelymale,andperformedrobamChhayYam,aKhmerfolkdancecommon

inCambodiainreligiousprocessionsbeforepeopleenterthepagoda.Participantswalkedat

adynamicpacetothemusic,playingdrumsandcymbals.Theyworecolourfulmasksand

weredressedinshinysilk-like(mostlikelysynthetic)costumes,abrightbluesatintunic

andredsatincalf-lengthpants,tiedatthewaistbyacottonkrama[Fig.144].

869Ryan,‘TheAmericanParade:RepresentationsoftheNineteenth-centurySocialOrder,’152-153. 870VanessaAgnew,'WhatisRe-enactment?,’Criticism,46,no.3(2004):335.871Ibid,328,335.

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Fig.144RobamChhayYam,performersattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

Thesecondgroup,maleandfemale,presentedtheparade’scentrepiece,thereenactmentof

KingJayavarmanVII’sruleduringtheKhmerEmpire.Thissectionwasledbytwomainmale

andfemaleperformersasthekingandqueen,proudlysittingonathronetogetherona

majesticwoodenfloatdecoratedwithgold-paintedornamentstoppedwithaparasoland

pulledbyseveralmendressedinwhite[Fig.145].Theyweresurroundedbyacrowdof

participants,someprecedingtheconvoyholdinglargecolourfulflagsandothersdressedas

soldierscarryinghand-paintedcardboardshields.

JayavarmanVIIisconsideredthegreatbuilderofthelatetwelfth-centuryAngkorianera,

defeatinginvasionsfromKingdomofChampa,convertingthestatetoMahayanaBuddhism,

andorderingtheambitiousconstructionofreligioussitesinAngkorWat.872Hefirstmarried

Jayarajadeviandthen,aftershedied,hersisterIndradevi.Performersdidnotseekhistorical

872Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,55.ThereisasmallnumberofcarvedrepresentationsofJayavarmanVIIinarchaeologicalsitesandmuseumcollections,includingastonecarvedheadwithasmilingfaceheldattheGuimetMuseum,Paris.

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truthintheirattire,stemmingfromrepresentationsofdressdepictedonantiqueAngkorian

statues.Thevolunteerplayingthekingwasbare-chested,withametallicembroidered

collararoundhisneckandagoldsampotskirtgatheredtowardsthefrontandsecuredwith

ajewelledbelt.Heworeagoldenheadpieceandcuffsonhisupperarmsandwrists.The

queenwasdressedasanapsara,thefemaledancingdeityonAngkorianbas-relief,afamiliar

characterintheKhmerclassicaldancepantheon.Sheworeaskin-tonedfittedbodice

adornedwithalargeembroideredcollarandagreensampotsarabapinsilkandmetallic

threadwrappedaroundherwaistandpleatedintoacentralbandheldbyaredandgold

belt.Shealsoworeagoldheadpiecewithawhitefloweronherear,alongwithchunky

goldenbanglesonheranklesandwrists.

Certainparticipantshadsneakersandflip-flopsontheirfeetandsomeofthecostumes

lookedofpoorquality.Nevertheless,theoverallaestheticandenergyconveyedbyallthe

performersprevailed,turningtheprocessionintoaneffectivelivingpainting.Afterthemain

procession,theparadeclosedwithadozenofyounggirlscarefullydressedbytheirparents

insilkbustiersandmatchingsilksampotchawngkbun.WavingsmallflagsofCambodiawith

therecognisableAngkorWatsilhouette,theyweresupervisedbyahandfulofwomeninfull

Cambodianattire[Fig.146].Thegroupofearlyimmigrantelderlywomeninsampothol

closedtheparadeandthefestival-goersrejoinedthemainCTCFsquare.

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Figs.145ActorsperformingKingJayavarmanVIIandhisqueenonafloatattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,surroundedbytheircourt,April2017,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph.

Fig.146GroupofyounggirlsdressedinsilkbodicesandsampotchawngkbunattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

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ForanthropologistPennyVanEsterik,theplayfulmake-believeofurbanethnicfestival

offersparticipantsthepossibilitytoreplaymythsandassertspecificvalues.Shestatedthat

‘whenthedreamisthreatened,thereisaneedtoworkthroughthemythsagain,andplay

themoutinaritualcontext’.873ThedecisiontoreconstructtheepiclifeofKingJayavarman

VIIthroughanembodiedparticipatoryapproachviathemarchincostumesandpropsisa

strongindicationofhowCambodianAmericansofLongBeachwishtoportraythemselves

inapublicspaceandreclaimamoredesirableheritage.874

KhmerantiquityandAngkorWatareusedtocrystalliseCambodia’shistoricalheritagein

theirpersonalnarratives.875Theparadereflecteddiasporicattachmenttothisimmemorial

past,showingdifferentsubjectpositionsandagenciesinrelationtoissuesoftraditionand

imagination.AngkorWat,bothasdecorandimaginedspace,hasbecomearecurringmotif

intheCambodianimmigrants’lives,especiallyduringCambodianNewYear.This

photographfromtheCamCHAParchivesshowsahand-paintedAngkorWatpasteboard

usedasabackdropfortheApsaradanceperformanceofHengLeng,beauticianandfounder

oftheCambodianArtPreservationGroup,fortheNewYearcelebrationsinLongBeachin

1980[Fig.147].

873PennyVanEsterik,‘CelebratingEthnicity:EthnicFlavorinanUrbanFestival,’EthnicGroups4(1982):224-25.874VanEsterik'sperspectivemirrorsAgnew’scommentthat‘reenactment’semancipatorygestureistoallowparticipantstoselecttheirownpastinreactiontoaconflictedpresent’:seeAgnew,'WhatisRe-enactment?,’328.875Mortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates,151.

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Fig.147ApsaraperformanceforCambodianNewYearinLongBeachinfrontofapaintedbackdropofAngkorWat,ca.1980.PhotographcourtesyofCamCHAParchives.

HistorianMichaelFalserhasdeterminedthatthemythologyofAngkorthatprevailedunder

theFrenchprotectoratewasreactivatedinCambodia’sdecolonisingperiodafterthe1950s.

Falserstatedthat‘theseimaginationswere[…]directlyincorporatedandcontinuedas

supposedlytrue,pureandoriginalelementsintoCambodia’sHobsbawmian,andhighly

creative,self-reinventionprocessasaneo-Angkoriannation-statebuiltuponarevived,pure

andauthenticantiquity’.876In1962QueenSisowathNeyrirathKossamak,Norodom

Sihanouk’smother,createdtheApsaradance(robamApsara)forhergranddaughter

PrincessNorodomBupphaDevi,theroyaltroupe’sfirstprimaballerina.877Inspiredbythe

876FalserhasarguedthatAngkorWathasbecome‘theperformativestageforCambodia’snewly‘imagined[decolonised]community’.’MichaelFalser,‘CulturalHeritageasPerformance:Re-enactingAngkorianGrandeurinPostcolonialCambodia(1953–70),’ inCulturesofDecolonisation,TransnationalProductionsandPractices,1945–70,ed.RuthCraggsandClaireWintlein(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2016),149.877TonyPhim-ShapiroandAshleyThompson,DanceinCambodia(ImagesofAsia)(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.2001),41.

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iconographyofAngkorWatbas-reliefsshowingapsara,celestialdancers,QueenKossamak

designedthischoreographyandcostumesforthemodernstage,inwhichperformers

materialiseoutofatemple’swalltodancebeforeretreatingagaininthestone.878In2010,

BupphaDevi(1943-2019)confirmed:‘thedelicateApsaradancewaspartofthere-

constructionandrevivalprogramme;howevercontrarytopopularybelief,ithasa

comparativelyrecenthistory’.879OnFigure148sheisperformingthisdanceinthecostume

imaginedbyhergrandmother.Hertight-fittingbodiceinanudecolouraimstomimickthe

sculptedfigures’nakedupperbodies.

Fig.148PrincessBupphaDeviperforminganapsarapiece,c.1960s.PhotographcourtesyofTheNationalArchivesofCambodia.

878MichaelFalser,AngkorWat–ATransculturalHistoryofHeritage:Volume1:AngkorinFrance(Berlin:DeGruyter,2020),217.879NorodomBupphaDevi,‘RoyalDancesofCambodia—RevivalandPreservation,’inBeyondtheApsara,ed.StephanieBurridgeandFredFrumberg(London:Routledge,2010),4.

369

TheCTCFparadedoesindeedchallengetheideaofthecontinuityofanauthenticandclearly

definedKhmerculturalheritage,butitdoessobyembracingasenseofinventionand

folkloreinapublicspace.Byre-enactingaroyalscenefromtheKhmerEmpireasbotha

playfulandaseriousendeavourwithnopretenceofrealism:theparticipantsdemonstratea

creativepositiontowardstheirsenseofethnicidentityusingsilk-likecostumesasvehicles

ofexpression.Thefestivalshowshowsilkhasenteredtherealmofperformanceto

accompanyandembodydiasporicimaginings.

Ritualsinmovement:SilkembodimentinKhmerclassicalballet

Thischapter’sfinalsectionfocusesontheembodiednatureofKhmerclassicaldance

practice,itscodifiedartofdressingandcomplextypologyofsilkdressandhowithas

developedintheCambodiancommunityofLongBeach.Itisbasedonworkingspecifically

withyoungfemalemembersoftheKAAdancecompanyinApril2017andFebruary2018,

usingethnographicmethodsthatcombinedinterviews,participantobservationandauto-

ethnography,tograspsilkcostumes’shiftingculturalvalueinadiasporiccontextinrelation

toissuesofloss,memory,andidentity.Tounderstandthesignificanceofclassicaldancefor

theCambodiandiaspora,theexactnatureofthislossdeservesdetailedattention.

InCambodia,dancersareeithercivilservantswhobelongtotheRoyalBalletofCambodia

orareperformersforthetouristindustry;youngCambodianAmericanswhojoindance

classesareoftenencouragedbytheirparentsorarecuriousabouttheirheritage.Howdoes

thecombinationofperformanceandsilkembellishedgarmentsparticipateinthere-

appropriationand‘re-membering’ofaculturedisruptedbyconflict,displacementand

immigration?880

880Theterm‘re-membering’isborrowedfromanthropologistBarbaraMyerhoff,whoworkedinparticularwithelderlyJewishpopulationsofSouthernCalifornia:‘Tosignify(a)specialtypeofrecollection,theterm‘Re-membering’maybeused,callingattentiontothereaggregationofmembers,thefigureswhobelongtoone’slifestory’.SeeBarbaraMyerhoff,‘LifeHistoryAmongthe

370

ThedescriptionoftheApsaracostumeintheprevioussectionunderlinestheimportanceof

dressintheperformanceofKhmerclassicalballet.Thisartformreliesonhighlyelaborated

costumes.Garmentsaremadeofseparatehandmadepiecesincolourfulshimmeringsilk

satin,velvetorbrocadethatisheavilyadornedwithgoldthreadembroideryandstudded

withsequins.Accessories(crowns,belts,bangles,necklaces)arealsomadeofgoldorsilver.

SpecificcharactersperformingtalesfromtheReamkeralsowearpaintedmasks.Colour

schemesdependontheroles.Figures149a,bandcshowthetypologiesofdifferent

costumes(maleandfemale,giantandmonkey)aspartofapromotionalUNESCO

publicationdedicatedtoprotectedintangibleheritageartandcraftformsinCambodia.The

picturesillustratethecomplexityofthesecostumesandthelevelofcraftsmanship

necessaryforeachpiecefromsilksampotsarabap(brocadedhipwraps),silksatinbodices,

andasequinnedsilkvelvetsbaay(dancesash)wornovertherightshoulderfortheprincess

andapsararolestochawngkbuntrousersorsilkbreeches,embroideredpaddedjackets,

andpanelledbeltsfortherolesoftheprinceandthegiant.

Elderly:Performance,VisibilityandRe-membering,’inACrackintheMirror.ReflectivePerspectivesinAnthropology,ed.JayRuby(Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1982),111.

371

Figs.149a-b-cL-R:Maleandfemalerolesincostume;Giant(Yeak);Monkey(Sva)incostume.PhotographscourtesyofUNESCO,2004.

TheSiameseinfluenceonKhmerclassicalballet,includingcostumes,possiblysincethe

dominationofAyutthayaKingdomorlaterunderKingAnDuong’sruling,hasbeenadebate

inscholarshipsincetheearlytwentiethcentury.881Nonetheless,untiltheearly1900s,this

century-oldartformblossomedattheRoyalCourtofCambodia:royaldancerswereall

female,livingintheconfinesoftheroyalpalaceinPhnomPenhandperformingsolelyupon

theKing’srequest.WiththeestablishmentoftheFrenchprotectorate,theroyaltroupe

touredinFrancein1906,performingatMarseille’sColonialExposition,whichmarksthe

pointatwhichthisartform,originallysacredandprivate,becameadiplomatictoolwithin

Westerncolonialcultures.882Asstatedearlier,undertheSangkum,QueenKossamak‘re-

designedthecostumesandornaments,[…]revisitedtheoldrepertoire,aswellasengaging

innewcreations’.883SheworkedwithartistsfromtheUniversityofFineArtsofPhnom

881HideoSasagawa,‘Post/colonialDiscoursesontheCambodianCourtDance,’SoutheastAsianStudies,42,no.4(March2005):418-39;PaulCravath,EarthinFlower:theDivineMysteryofCambodianDance-Drama(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1985),150–152. 882TonyPhim-ShapiroandAshleyThompson,DanceinCambodia(ImagesofAsia)(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.2001),41;Sasagawa,‘Post/colonialDiscoursesontheCambodianCourtDance,’SoutheastAsianStudies,422.883SuppyaHeleneNut,UniversityofNottinghamAsiaResearchInstitute,TheRoyalBalletofCambodia:FromRitualtoaNationalIdentity,January9,2019https://theasiadialogue.com/2019/01/09/the-royal-ballet-of-cambodia-from-ritual-to-a-national-identity/[AccessedAugust29,2021]

372

Penh.Shesupervisedthecostumedesignandtheembroidererswholivedintheroyal

palaceandworkedonsite.884

DespitethepoliticalupheavalsinCambodiainthe1970s,danceremainedapowerful

culturalpracticeuntil1975.885Theterm‘royaldance’changedtorobamboran,whichmeans

‘ancientdance’.886In1975theKRregimeputastoptothepractice,killingabout90percent

ofthestudents,teachers,andperformers,especiallyattheRoyalBalletandtheRoyal

UniversityofFineArts.887AreportcommissionedbythePeople’sRevolutionaryTribunal

forthetrialofKRleadersPolPotandIengSaryforgenocidestatedthat‘oftheonehundred

ninetyfiveclassicaldancers,menandwomen,onlyforty-eightremainalive.Ofthefifty-four

dancersoftheballetcorps,onlyfourescapeddeathbyamiracle’.888

Dancepracticeinpost-genocideCambodiaandinthediasporaresumedinreactiontothis

massivehumandestructionandlossofknowledge,because,asformerMinisterofCulture

ChhengPhoncontended,itwas‘theonlywaytofightemotionalillness'.Thedamagewas

alsomaterial.Trainedasadancerandactor,ChhengPhonreturnedtoPhnomPenhin1981

forthefirsttime.He‘foundtheschoolofdanceinruins,theirantique,ivory-inlaidmusical

instrumentsburnedandthefabulouslyvaluableroyalcostumesandheaddressesofgold

andgemsstolen’.889InterviewedfortheKhmerDanceoralhistoryprojectproducedbythe

CenterforKhmerStudiesin2009,SimMontha,formerdancerandcostumedesignerforthe

884JeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘InterviewwithLimSylvainandSimMontha,’NewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollectionshttps://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/fe8700a0-343a-0131-b8a9-3c075448cc4b[AccessedAugust30,2021] 885Sasagawa,‘Post/colonialDiscoursesontheCambodianCourtDance,’437.886TheEnglishtranslationchangedto‘ClassicalKhmerBallet’,anappealingtitleforinternationalaudienceswhicheraseddirectallusionstoroyalty.887LanDong,‘CambodianAmericanPerformingArtsandArtists,’126.;JudithCoburn,‘DancingBack:DecimatedbytheKhmerRouge,BruisedbyPoliticalChaosandThreatenedbyaFrenzyofModernMaterialism,WilltheSoulofanAncientCultureSurvive?’LATimes,26September1993.[AccessedApril1,2019]888HowardDeNike,JohnQuigley,andKennethRobinson,eds.,GenocideinCambodia:DocumentsfromtheTrialofPolPotandIengSary(Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2012),326.889Coburn,‘DancingBack:DecimatedbytheKhmerRouge,BruisedbyPoliticalChaosandThreatenedbyaFrenzyofModernMaterialism,WilltheSoulofanAncientCultureSurvive?,’4.

373

RoyalBalletsince1990,recalledthatblockprintsmadebyartiststobepresseddirectlyon

thecostume’sfabricandoutlinethemotifswithpowderweredestroyedduringthe

dictatorshipandneverreplaced.890Sincethen,embroiderershavemostlyworkeddirectly

onthefabric,visuallycopyingthemotifs.

Theuniversityeventuallyreopened,withonedepartmentdedicatedtoclassicalandfolk

dance.891AnthropologistToniPhim-ShapiroandarthistorianAshleyThompsonfoundthat

Khmerdancerspractisedinverychallengingconditions,tryingtorecreatefromscratchthe

largetypologyofcostumesrequiredforeachrole,searchingfordiscardedgarmentsin

PhnomPenh.‘Theydancedwithtatteredbitsofclothandcardboardcrownsascostumes’,

replacingthelavishsilkensembles.892Thedesperationtokeepthepracticealiveenergised

dancerstokeeppractisinganddressingup,eveninrags.

Fromthe1990s,PrincessBupphaDeviworkedtirelesslyforthepreservationofKhmer

classicalballetandtraineddancersattheRoyalBallet.Costumeshavecontinuedtobe

producedbyhandbylocalartisansanddesignersassociatedwiththeRoyalBallet.893

UNESCOsupportedthiseffortbyinscribingtheartformintheListoftheIntangibleCultural

HeritageofHumanityin2003,ensuringitsconservationasawhole.894Itprotected

choreography,trainingtechniques,andthevariouscraftsassociatedwithcostume-making,

suchasembroidery,silkweaving,jewelleryandmask-making.895

890JeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘InterviewwithLimSylvainandSimMontha.’891In1980,theacademicinstitutionreopenedastheSchoolofFineArts.Itwasreinstatedwithuniversitystatusin1989.Thetitle‘Royal’wasreappliedin1993withthereturnofthemonarchy.892Phim-ShapiroandThompson,DanceinCambodia(ImagesofAsia),43. 893JeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘InterviewwithLimSylvain,’NewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollectionshttps://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/26f0c810-3451-0131-067b-3c075448cc4b[AccessedAugust30,2021] 894RoyalballetofCambodiaRepresentativeList(2008)Dir.UNESCOhttp://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/royal-ballet-of-cambodia-00060[AccessedJune18,2017]895UNESCOandCambodiaMinistryofCultureandFineArts,InventoryofIntangibleCulturalHeritageinCambodia(PhnomPenh,2004),11,23-25.

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DancealsoresumedinrefugeecampsattheThaiborderandinimmigrant

communitiesestablishedoutsideCambodia,illustratingthecrucialimportanceofthisart

forminKhmerculture.896Figure150,aphotogivenbyalocaldonortoCamCHAPcentre,

showsthreeyoungCambodianAmericansinLongBeachin1977dressedinmakeshift

jewelleryanddanceattireasevidenceofcreativityandresourcefulness.Thewomenare

wearingsampotchawngkbunandbodicesinabrightorangethatisnottheusualjeweltone

usedfordancetextiles,andmetallicprintedfloralfabricsfromThailand(informationfrom

SusanNeedham)tomakeupforwovensampotsarabap.Whilethegildedaccessories

(collarsandbelts)aremuchlessrefinedthanhandcraftedpiecesfromtheRoyalBallet,the

decoratedsbaaymimicksmoreadequatelytherichlythree-dimensionalembroidered

effectsseeninFigures149a-b-c.

LocaldancecompaniesplacedgreatemphasisonfindingmaterialsthatmatchedKhmer

danceaestheticsascloselyaspossible,andinthelate1970sThaitextileswereeasiestto

findandlookedsimilarenough.897TherearesubtledifferencesbetweenThaiand

Cambodianformsofdance-drama.Forinstance,SimMonthaexplainedthatsilkcoloursare

brighterandbolderinThaidancecostumescomparedtoCambodiandancewhichfavours

darkertones.Embroidereddecorationssuchastheflamemotifaresimilarinbothcultures

butplacedoncostumesinadifferentway.898Cambodiandancepractitionersremainseton

assertingtheirdistinctivestyle.899However,liketheCTCFparadeandChhengPhon’s

testimonyaboutrevivingdanceinPhnomPenh,presentingperformancecostumesevenas

imperfectreproductionsremainedessential.

896Chan,Survivors:CambodianRefugeesintheUnitedStates,59.897Needham,InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon.898JeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘InterviewwithLimSylvainandSimMontha.’899 LathReaksmeyfromKhmerArtsAcademyshowedmesampotsarabapmadeinThailanddonatedtotheorganisationfromanotherdanceassociationanddatingfromthe1980s.Thefabricswerebright,withcolours(orange,yellow)thatwereunusualforCambodiandancecostumes,brocadedwithsyntheticlaméthread.Reaksmeywasconsideringusingthemforlessformalrepresentations.

375

Fig.150DancersincostumesandaccessoriesmadefrommaterialsfromThailand,c.1977,LongBeach,CA.PhotographcourtesyofCamCHAParchives.

KhmerArtsAcademy(KAA)dancestudioinLongBeachwasfoundedbySophiline

Shapiro(néeCheam)andherhusbandJohnShapiroin2002.900Sophilinewasbornin1967

inCambodiaandwasonlyeightwhentheKRcameintopower[Fig.151].Shesurvivedthe

dictatorshipbutlostherfatherandtwoofherbrothers.901SheenrolledinthefirstKhmer

classicalballetclassofthenewlyreopenedUniversityofFineArtsunderartistProeung

Chhieng’sleadershipandstartedhercareerattheRoyalBalletin1981.Sophilinerelocated

toCaliforniain1991andbeganteachingdanceindifferentCambodiancommunitiesinthe

area.902SheworkedatArtsofApsarainLongBeachbeforefoundingherowncompany.In

900NEANationalHeritageFellowship2009:SophilineCheamShapiro,NationalEndowmentsfortheArtshttps://www.arts.gov/honors/heritage/fellows/sophiline-cheam-shapiro[AccessedJune10,2020] 901SheisalsoformerMinisterofCultureChhengPhon’sniece.902SeveralKhmerclassicalballetdancecompanieshaveexistedinLongBeach,suchastheCambodianArtPreservationGroup,whichwasactiveinthe1990s,andSpiritofKhmerAngkorTroupeinthe2000s.SeeFigure147showingHengLeng’sperformancefortheCambodianArtPreservationGroup.

376

2006sheresettledinCambodiawhereshefoundedthecompanySophilineArtsEnsemblein

Takhmao,KandalProvince.

Fig.151SophilineCheamShapiroin2009.PhotographcourtesyofAlanGovernor/MastersofTraditionalArts.

In2017,KAA'smanagementroleshavebeenpassedtoLathReaksmey,twenty-seven,and

OkKhannia,twenty-four,bothtrainedbyShapiro.TheideabehindKAAwastoprovidea

welcomingspaceforyoungCambodianAmericansandhelpthemreconnectwiththeir

parents'upbringingwhiletransmittingtheartofclassicaldance.Dancereunitesthepeople

andcultureinthehomelandwithdiasporiccommunities,linkingcommunitytocommunion.

ThisideacanalsobeseeninthewaythatProeungChhienghasspokenabouthisdance

troupecomingfromCambodiatoperformtotheUnitedStatesforthefirsttimeaftertheKR

377

attheLosAngelesFestivalin1990:‘Wemightbeseparatedbytheforest,butwecomefrom

thesamemother’.903

Aboutconnectionandcommunity,danceanthropologistJudithHameracitedthe

bittersweetexampleoftheSemfamily,aCambodiandancercouplewiththreechildrenwho

hademigratedtoLongBeachafterlivingasrefugeesontheThaiborderinSite2.Struggling

withtheiridentityandmemorylossduetoforcedexodus,thecouple’stestimonieswere

oftenapproximateandmarkedbydefiance,whichHameraarguedemphasisedtheir

fetishisationofCambodianculturethroughdance.904Shesuggestedthat‘dancewasthe

technologyBenandMay[Sem]deployedtosurvive’asapersonalritualforreassurance.905

Inherinterview,KAAinstructorOkKhanniaofferedapositivecounterparttothisaccount,

statingthatsheisteachingmorethananartisticpractice,participatinginaresilient

movementof‘healingforCambodians,movingforwardandflourishingtogether’.906Bornto

KRrefugeeparentsintheUnitedStates,Khanniabelongstothesecondgenerationof

Cambodianimmigrants.Asaninstructor,shehostschildrenofthethirdgeneration,mostly

younggirlsfromfourtoseventeenfromtheLongBeacharea,ensuringthecontinuanceof

SophilineShapiro’slegacy[Fig.152].ThemajorityofstudentsareofCambodianoriginorof

mixedheritage.KhanniabelievesthatparentswhobringtheirchildrentoKAAhopeto

increasetheirawarenessofCambodiancultureasawhole,fromthepracticeofdanceitself

tothelanguage,food,music,anddress.

903JeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘InterviewwithProeungChhieng,'NewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollections[TC22:19]http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/53cc0780-3451-0131-246e-3c075448cc4b[AccessedJuly18,2020]904Hamera,DancingCommunities:Performance,DifferenceandConnectionintheGlobalCity,150.905Ibid,168.906OkKhannia,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach,California.

378

Fig.152OkKhannia(centreleft)teachingaweeklyclassatKhmerArtsAcademy,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,February2018.

Textilesanddressplayanessentialroleindancepracticeintheirinteractionwiththe

movingbody.Fordancerehearsals,studentsarerequiredtowearapracticesuit,usuallya

silkblouse(aorlakhaoun)andadanceskirtworninakbunstyle.Itcanbeexpensivetobuy

inthefewtextileshopsinLongBeach,sotheyareallowedtobringacottonorsynthetic

sampotinstead[Fig.153].907Forperformancesonstage,silkisconsideredtheonly

appropriatematerial.DescribingthequalitiesofsilktextilesneededforCambodianclassical

dancing,instructorsKhanniaandReaksmeyexplained:‘Ithastobestrong,sturdy,flexible,

andtightlywoven’.908

Tothequestion‘whydoyouthinkthatsilkissoimportant?Whynotcottonor

linen?’,Khanniaexplained:

907AccordingtoKhannia,apracticesilksampotcancostupto60USD.908OkKhannia,andLathReaksmey,InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.

379

‘It'sjustthefeelingofthematerialputsyouinadifferentplacefromcotton,whichissomethingyouwouldprobablyweareveryday.Somethingthat'scomfortabletoyou,butsilkisthisluxuryandthiselegance.Itisveryelegant.SoIthinkthat'swhyitmakesyoufeelallsilkyandjustveryconfident’.909

Khannia’sresponsecombinestheembodiedfeelingofsilkandtheluxurystatusassociated

towearingthismaterial.Iaskediffakesilklikepolyesterwouldfeelthesame,towhichshe

answered:

‘Itwouldn'tfeelthesame.Andthewaythatthisiscateredtoyourbodycomparedtobuttonsandzippers,allofthatfeelingcomesfromgettingdressedandgettingyourselfintothatcharacterandembodimentofthatspirit.[…]Onceyou'veputonacrownorevenjustyourshirt,oryourjewelry,oryourskirt,whateveritisthatyou'reputtingonasacostumepiece,youhavetoassumetherole.[…]That'swhysilkissoamazing,becauseyouaretransformingyourselfandyoucan'tgetthatwithcottonright’?

ThisresonateswithSabrinaSun’stestimony,anineteen-year-oldadvancedstudent.She

foundgettingdressedforperformancechallengingbecauseofhowtightlyitiscorsetedto

thebody,makingitdifficulttomoveandbreathe.Sabrinaonlyassociatedsilkwith

performance,andpreferredtorehearseinacottonsampot.However,sheconcededthat

dressinginsilk‘helpedhertogetintocharacter’andfeelreadytoperformthedifferent

rolesoftherepertoire(apsara,princeorgiant).910

Theintricacyandlavishnessoftheembellishmentsappliedontothefabricsremainessential

elementsofthecostumes’aesthetic.However,Khannia’sanswersprovidesomeinsights

intotheimportanceofchoosingsilkoverothergroundmaterialsintermsoffeel,sheen,

handandprestige.Therefore,thissectioncontendsthatitisthecombinationofsilk,colours

andintricatemetallicembroideryworkthatgivescostumestheirvalue.

Moreover,inKhmerclassicalballet,thecostumeddancerre-enactsarepertoireof

dance-dramatalesfromKhmerEmpiremythology.Inthissense,itisthecombinationof

gesturesanddressthatcreatesthechoreographythroughthebody.Hamerahasindeed

909 Ok,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon. 910SunSabrina,InformalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.

380

suggestedthat‘performersweartechnique,whatevertheirgenealogicalparticulars,like

clothes–notlikecostumesorprops,thoughthismayalsobetrue–butliketheclothesof

lovedoneswhohavepassedon’.911Followingthismetaphor,itcouldthusbearguedthatin

Khmerballet,thesilkcostumesthatidentifyspecificcharactersareactivatedthrough

movement,andthusthesebecomeclothesthatlinkthedancertotheirsacredCambodian

ancestors.

Fig,153DanceclasswithstudentsinsilkgarmentsforpracticeatKhmerArtsAcademy,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

AtKAA,handwovensilkhipwraps,headpieces(mokot)andmetallicjewelleryfor

performanceonstagewereorderedbySophilineCheamShapirointheearly2000sfroma

CambodianworkshopwhichhadhistoricallyalsoworkedwiththeRoyalBallet.These

911Hamera,DancingCommunities:Performance,DifferenceandConnectionintheGlobalCity,8.

381

preciousacquisitionsincludedabouttwelvesampotsarabapwithgoldenbrocaded

geometricflowersandlatticepatterns:eachcolour(darkblue,green,purple,white,gold

andorange)isassociatedwithaspecificcharacter[Figs.154-155].Thecompanyalsoownsa

collectionofsolid-colouredsampotchawngkbun;afewsilkcollars;ahandfulofsolid-

colouredpleatedsashes(pahom)andtwofullmaleensembleswithembroideredwinged

paddedjackets[Fig.156].Thecompletesetisownedbythedancecompanyasagroupand

keptwithgreatcare,wornbystudentsfortheirshowsinlocalvenues.912Thiscollectionof

textilesoperatesasthemateriallegacyofthemasterteachertohersuccessors,becominga

repositoryoftheknowledgepassedontoanewgeneration.Onthetransmissionofclothes

intimesofmourning,Stallybrasshassuggestedthatintheprocess,‘identitiesare

transferred[…]fromamastertoanapprentice’.913ThroughthisgiftfrommasterSophiline

toKhannia,Reaskmeyandtheirstudents,dancerscarryaresponsibilitytohonourtheartof

Khmerclassicalballetandensureitssurvival.Textileartefactsbecomehere‘inalienable

possessions’–inanthropologistAnnetteWeiner’sdefinition,‘symbolicrepositoriesof

genealogiesandhistoricalevents,theirunique,subjectiveidentitygivesthemabsolutevalue

placingthemabovetheexchangeabilityofonethingforanother’.914

912AccordingtoKhanniaandReaksmey,itwouldcostabout200USDforabrocadedsilksampotandbetween300to500USDforanembroideredsbaay.OkKhanniaandLathReaksmey,InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,February17,2018,LongBeach,CA.913PeterStallybrass,'WornWorlds:Clothes,MourningandtheLifeofThings,’inCulturalMemoryandtheConstructionofIdentity,ed.DahnBen-AmosandLilianeWeissberg(Detroit,MI:WayneStateUniversityPress,1999),38.914AnnetteB.Weiner,InalienablePossessions:TheParadoxofKeeping-While-Giving(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1992),33.

382

Figs.154-155Left:SetofsilksarabaptextilesbelongingtoKhmerArtsAcademypurchasedinCambodiabySophilineCheamShapiro,2017;Right:Close-upofashimmeringsilksarabappatternedwithscale-likegoldmotifs,February2018.Author’sphotographs.

Fig.156Prince’sfullcostumeinsilkpurchasedinCambodiabySophilineCheamShapiro.Author’sphotograph,April2017.

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Stallybrassaddedthatinmourning,thepersonhasgonebut‘theclothesare

preserved;theyremain.Itisthebodiesthatinhabitthemwhichchange’.915Thisnotioncan

becompellinglyappliedtotheKhmerballet,forwhicheachgarmentisproducedina

genericsize,followingtheprincipleof‘onesizefitsall’.916Eachpieceisusedandreused

throughtimeuntilitwearsout,indefinitelyattributedtoonedanceraccordingtohisorher

levelofskillsandmerit,andeachtimespecificallyfittedtothedancer’sbodybeforethe

performance.

Thetransformativequalityofsilkisparticularlysignificantinthepreparationprocessprior

totheperformance.Thedancersneedatleastoneortwopeopletohelpthemdress.Fora

femaleperformer,thesilkbodiceisfittedandtightlystitchedonthedancer’sbodyona

cottonundershirtwithwhitethread.Theembroideredsashisthenstitchedoverthebodice,

asshownhereintheimageofKhanniapreparingforarepresentation[Fig.157].Partofthe

KhmerDanceoralhistoryprojectin2009,thispictureisastillfromafilmshowingthe

dressingprocessforadanceperformanceinSiemReap.Here,thesilksampotfabricis

foldedintoaskirt,pleated,drapedaroundthewaistandsewnontothebodicetokeepitin

place[Fig.158].917Takinguptoseveralhours,costumingisanintegralpartofthedancer’s

physicalandmentalmetamorphosisintomythicalfiguresoftheKhmerEmpirepantheon.918

Onstage,thesuccessionofshimmering,colourful,lavishsilkensemblesprovidesasensorial

experienceofotherwordlybeauty[Fig.159].

915Stallybrass,'WornWorlds:Clothes,MourningandtheLifeofThings,’38.916Ok,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.917EileenBlumenthal,‘TheCourtBallet:Cambodia’sLoveliestJewel.’CulturalSurvivalQuarterly14,no.3(September1990):35-38.https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/court-ballet-cambodias-loveliest-jewel[AccessedonJuly12,2018]918Ok,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.;SeealsoJeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘Make-upandcostumes,2009-01-13/15,’NewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollections.http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/3ef7d750-0381-0131-9fd1-3c075448cc4b[AccessedJuly20,2020]

384

Fig.157OkKhanniagettingdressedforaperformance,2016.PhotographcourtesyofKhmerArtsAcademy.

Fig.158Pleatingofthesilkskirtonadancerbeforeaperformance,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary.‘Make-upandcostumes,2009-01-13/15’.CourtesyofNewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollections.

385

Fig.159KhmerArtsAcademystudentsandinstructorsperformingSeasonsofMigrationattheTuTuFoundation,Torrance,CA,2017.PhotographcourtesyofKhmerArtsAcademy.

Thethemeofidentityandbodilymetamorphosisthroughdresshasalsobeenpartof

diasporicdanceproductions.919ForthepieceSeasonsofMigration,createdin2005,

SophilineCheamShapiroaddressedtheimmigrantexperienceofculturalclashinfour

movements:euphoria,rejection,adjustmentandequilibrium.For‘Rejection’,Sophiline

reimaginedtheusualcombinationofthefittedbodice,pleatedsampotsarabapandthehip-

lengthdrapedsbaaytorepresentthecharacterNeangNeak,theprincess-snake.Shecreated

anexaggeratedlylongsbaay,aboutthreetimeslongeritwouldtypicallybe,to‘symbolise

theserpent’stailandallshecarrieswithherfromthepast’.920Thiscustom-madesashwas

madetoexacerbateafeelingofothernessandmirrorastoryoftheimmigrantexperience.

Byplayingwithitsunusuallengthasatailslidingontheground,steppingonitandtryingto

tearit,thedancerconveyssensationsofdistortionandexaggerationintheperformance,

919SeeAmandaRogers,‘AdvancingtheGeographiesofthePerformingArts:InterculturalAesthetics,MigratoryMobilityandGeopolitics,’ProgressinHumanGeography,Vol.42,4(2018):558-560.920ToniPhim-Shapiro,‘Cambodia’s‘SeasonsofMigration,’DanceResearchJournal40,no.2(Winter,2008):61.

386

embodyinghercharacter'sstruggleswithhernewenvironment[Figs.160a-b].Thishybrid

‘sbaay-tail’materialisesthewayinwhichdressisusedtotranscendthedancer’sidentity

andbody.

Fig.160aNeangNeakpiecefromSeasonsofMigration,performedbyKeoKunthearomdancingwithherextendedsbaay,choreographedbySophilineCheamShapiro,Jakarta,August2009.

Fig.160bDetailofthelongsbaay,SeasonsofMigrationbySophilineCheamShapiro,Jakarta,August2009.

387

Whatdoeswearingsilkfeellikefromtheinside?Thissectionconcludesby

discussingthematerialandexperientialnatureofsilkfromthedancers’perspective.

AnthropologistsMukulikaBanerjeeandDanielMillerhaveofferedamodelofanembedded

ethnographicdescriptionofawomandrapingaroundherbodyapallu–theupperhalfofa

sarithatcoversthechest,andfallsovertheshoulder,thatisoftenhighlydecorated.921

Drapingrequiresskilltokeeptheclothinplace.Negotiatingmodestyandfemininity,Indian

womenusetextilesasaninterfacebetweenthebodyandtheoutsideworld.922

TheCambodiansampotandIndiansariarebothuncutclothsarrangedaroundthebody

withdrapingtechniques.IrecordedmyautoethnographicexperienceofaCambodiandance

classinwhichImyselfputonasampotchawngkbun.IwasdressedbyKhannia,who

wrappedafulllengthofsturdyredsilkfabricaroundmywaist,firmlyholdingeachside.She

steppedbackafewfeettocreatetensioninhergrasp.Shethenstartedtorolltheedgesof

theclothfromtoptobottomintoalongrodshape,passingitbetweenmylegstowardsmy

back.Thehipwrapwassecuredwithacordandametallicbeltpassedaroundmywaist,

holdingthedrapedelementsofthetrousers.Thetopofthehipwrapwasthentuckedin

closertomybelly.Mybodyfeltcontainedinthefabric,whichsimultaneouslyallowedand

restrainedmymovements.Thetextilecoversthebodywhilefocusingattentiononthehead,

arms,hands,legs,andfeet,whicharethemostimportanttothechoreography[Fig.161].923

Beingtightlyheldinthesilktrousersmodifiedmyposture,pushedmetoarchmyback,

keepmybellytuckedinandmychestopen.Iamnodancer,soIstruggledtositonthefloor,

getbackonmyfeet,turnandtwistgracefullywithmylegsandhipsinthesampotchawng

kbun.Iperformedeachgestureaspreciselyaspossible,followingmasterdancer

921MillerandBanerjee,TheSari,23-44.922Ibid,25.;SeealsoSuzanneKüchlerandDanielMiller,ClothingasMaterialCulture(London:BloomsburyAcademic,2005),15.923IamposinginthispicturewithLathReaksmey,myinstructorfortheday.SeealsoHamera,DancingCommunities:Performance,DifferenceandConnectionintheGlobalCity,154.‘Toreproduceclassicalstories,thebodyofthedancerbecomesacomplexintertextastheeyes,head,fingers,wrists,torso,legsandfeetallspeakthroughtheirspecific,fixedrepertoryofposesatthesametime’.

388

Reaksmey’slead,feelingthestrainonmyjointsandhearingtherustlingsoundofsilk.Itwas

surprisingtosweatwhileperformingremarkablyslowmovements.

Ialsoobservedthestudentsgettingdressedintheirpracticesampot.Khanniaemphasised

‘thesenseofprideinKhmerness’,and‘thejoyandexcitement’shehadnoticedinher

youngeststudentswhentheydresstodance.924Forexample,Sabrinarecognisedfeeling

proudofbeingCambodianandmoreconnectedtoherfamilywhenshedances.Sheadded:

‘especiallywhenIperformformyelders,itcanbeemotional’.925Byreshapingnew

dynamicsofculturalidentificationandtransmission,danceprovidesaperformativespace

whereyoungstudentsmaterialiseadirectconnectiontothecultureoftheirparentsand

exploretheirownidentitythroughdressandmovement.

Fig.161MagaliAnBerthondressedinasampotchawngkbunfordancepracticewithinstructorLathReaksmey.Author’sphotograph,February2018.

924Ok,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon. 925Sun,InformalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.

389

Conclusion

PerformingartsscholarDianaTaylorhasstressedthatthestudyof‘embodied

practiceasanepistemeandapraxis’offers‘awayofknowingaswellasawayofstoringand

transmittingculturalknowledgeandidentity’.926Thischapterhasdemonstratedhow

diasporiccommunitieshaveusedsilktextilessparingly,butwithgreatintent,asatoolof

expressionandsignifierofCambodianidentity,especiallyduringpublicevents.In

importantculturalmomentssuchastheCTCFparade,celebratingtheNewYear,wedding

ceremoniesanddance,thewearingofsilkdressoffersanintimateexpressionofnational

identity,tangiblyengagingintheimaginingofatransnationalversionofCambodiathat

wouldbehealed,powerful,andreconciled.Movingawayfromnostalgicreenactments,

Cambodianimmigrantshavenonethelessfigurativelyconflatedpastandpresentby

embodyingkeyfiguresfromthegloriousKhmerpast,fromapsaratokingsandqueens,and

referringtotheemblematictempleofAngkorWat.

Hameraarguesthat‘performativitybecomesallatonceaculturalconvention,value,and

signifierthatisinscribedonthebody–performerthroughthebody–tomarkidentities’.927

Khmerclassicalballetdancersindeednegotiatewithaseriesofcomplexworldsthrough

theirbodies.Symbolically,theyaremediatorsbetweenearthandheaven,betweenapre-KR

gloriouspastandapost-civilwarpresentthatismarkedbytrauma,globalisationand

transnationality.InLongBeach,dancersalsonegotiatebetweentheirAmericanand

Cambodianidentity.Dressisatooltoreinforcenotionsofculturalprideandbelonging,used

toremodelthedancers’relationshiptotheircommunity.Silkmaterialismorethana

surfaceorashellenvelopingthebodies.Thefabricplaystheroleofinterfacebetweenthe

926DianaTaylor,TheArchiveandtheRepertoire:PerformingCulturalMemoryintheAmericas(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2003),278.927Madison,Soyini,andJudithHamera,TheSAGEHandbookofPerformanceStudies(ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,2013),xviii.

390

performers’innerselfandtheoutsideworld,acontactzonetoreconnecttotheircultureof

originwhilesimultaneouslyperformingwhatisconsideredtheepitomeofCambodianness

foranaudience.

OperatingthroughthelensofCambodiandiasporicgroupshasallowedmetoexaminethe

destructivepatternsthathaveaffectedCambodianculture,butalsotoconsideritspotential

reconstruction.CambodianAmericanhistorianSuchengChanpraises‘thestrengthofthe

Cambodianpeople’,whichshines‘despitetheunremittingassaultsontheirautonomy,the

people,culture,andsocietyofCambodia’.928Additionally,ethnicidentityscholarVichet

Chhuon,whohaslivedinLongBeach,underlinedthat‘beingCambodianmeansbeinga

survivor,anactivist,comingfromanincrediblyresilienttraditionofpeople’.929Thetermhas

appearedonseveraloccasionsintheinterviewsIconductedinCambodiaTown,especially

inthosebyKhanniaOkandSusanNeedham.Interestingly,theterm‘resilience’also

designatesamechanicalpropertyoftextiles,theircapacitytospringbacktotheiroriginal

shape.Inthediasporicrealm,silkweavingintheearlydaysofdisplacementandthe

continuationofdresspracticeshavebeendynamictoolstoembodymomentsofcollective

resilience,inadualmovementofaffirmationandresistance.

928Chan,Survivors:CambodianRefugeesintheUnitedStates,1.929PatriciaLeighBrown,‘TraumaRootedinGenocide,CambodianYouthConfront‘HistoricalForgetting,’’KPCC-NPR,March28,2013https://www.scpr.org/news/2013/03/28/36565/embargoed-trauma-rooted-in-genocide-cambodian-yout/[AccessedSeptember21,2018]

391

Conclusion

Thisthesishasestablishedthehistoriographyandgeographyofsilkproductionand

thewaythesehaveinformedthecontemporaryCambodiansilkscape.Settingupthis

metageographicalframeworkinChapterOneallowedmetotracehowmaterialresources,

tradeanddistribution,aswellasweavingskills,humanexperienceandsocialidentities,

havebeenreshapedthroughtimeandspaceuptothepost-conflictera.Toaddressa

globalisedcontemporarycontext,thethesishasidentifiedthreefieldsofexplorationto

outlinedynamicsofloss,exchanges,andrevitalisationofsilkpractices,weavingknowledge,

andmodesofdress.Theseare:themajorforeign-backedNGOsandcraftcompanies

involvedinthesectorandtheirfounders,weaversworkingintheseorganisationsandas

independent,andCambodianrefugeesandmembersoftheCambodianAmericandiaspora

inLongBeach,California.Silkwasalsoexaminedunderseveralforms:asanetworkof

actorsandchainofproduction,afibrecomingfrombombyxmorigoldencocoons,afabric

wovenanddyedfollowingancestraltechniques,especiallywiththepolychromichol,and

finallyagarmentoraccessorypurchasedinCambodiabyCambodians,foreigntourists,and

indiasporiccommunities.Themacroandmicroperspectivesonsilkanditsroleinthe

craftingofdiscoursesonCambodia’sculturalheritageallowedthechallengingofbinaries,

suchasauthentictraditionversusinnovation,lossandrecovery,theglobalandthelocal,

craftsmanshipandindustrialisationandthecolonialandpost-colonial.Thisthesisdirectly

andcriticallyengageswithawiderangeoforganisationsandhumanandmaterialactorsof

theCambodiansilkscape,inacomprehensiveefforttohighlighttheiragencyinthe

revitalisationoftheCambodiansilkinthepost-conflictera.

392

Keyconclusionsandoriginalcontributions

TheoverarchingconceptualargumentdevelopedinthisthesisisthattheCambodian

silksectorisregardedasasilkscape,thatis,anetworkofexchanges,funding,goods,

materialsandactorsthatexceedsthebordersofCambodia.ExpandingAppadurai’s

theorisationofflowsand-scapesanimatingandformingglobalinteractions,the

examinationofCambodiansilkproductionunderatransnationaldynamicperspectiveisa

newcontributionthatprovidestheadequateframeworktoexplorethepost-conflictera.

Thedestructiveyearsofcivilwarandgenocideinthe1970sindeedcreatedavoidin

nationalleadershipwhenCambodiarestartedtheprocessoftherestorationofpeaceinthe

early1990s.Thereopeningofthecountrytoforeigninvestmentandhumanitarianaid,

whichfoundinterestandvalueinrelaunchingthesilksector,createdamajordisjuncturein

thecontinuationofthepracticeandsignificanceofsilk.Therefore,asmyresearch

demonstrates,theCambodiansilkscapeprovidesacommonplatformtolocatenumerous

stakeholders–Cambodianweavers,middlemen,craftcompanies,internationalNGOs,

sponsoringagenciesandconsumers(locals,touristsandCambodiansindiasporic

communities).Duetoaheavilydeclinedworkforceandthehighshare(99percent)of

importedsilkusedtosupportthenationalproduction'sneeds,localsilkfarmerswerenot

exploredindepthinthisstudy.

Sincethe1990s,internationalfundershaveemergedasessentialstakeholdersofthe

Cambodiansilkscape.OrganisationsunderUNESCO’spioneeringinput,followedshortlyby

amajorityofEuropeanandJapanese-sponsoredNGOs,wereabletoaccessneweconomic

venturesbysecuringfundingandimplementingambitiouscapacity-buildingtraining

programmeswithruralcommunities.ThecasesoftheInstituteforKhmerTraditional

Textiles(IKTT)andArtisansAngkor(AA),foundedrespectivelybyMorimoto(Japanese)

393

andMaisonnave-Couterou(French),forLaLiguepourl’Enseignement,haveshowndifferent

responsestothesepoliticalandeconomicchanges.WhileIKTThasfosteredhigh-end

artisanalproductionthatemphasisesthepreservationoftheholtechnique,locallyproduced

silkfibre,andnaturaldyes,AAhasflourishedinasocialentrepreneurshipmodel,providing

qualitysouvenirgoodsmadeofimportedsilk,brightcoloursandcontemporarydesigns.

Thedevelopmentofsilkproductsbybothcompanieshasbenefitedfromtouristsarrivingto

visitAngkorWat.

Ontheotherhand,thisthesishasshownexamplesofCambodian-ownedcraftprojects–

ChinKoeurofSilkAssociationsofCambodiaandNgornVannthaofColorSilk–which

benefitedindifferentwaysfromthetransnational,governmentalandhumanitarian

investmentsdiscussedabove.Thatsaid,thesetwoCambodianwomen,bothoperatingfrom

Takeoprovince,havesuccessfullydevelopedbusinessesstandingatoppositeendsofthe

silkscape.ChinKoeurbuiltaprojectfromtheearlyUNESCOtrainingshereceivedin1995,

embracingthepositionofweaverturnedmiddlemanandsourcingsuppliesofraw

materials,commissioningotherweaversinsurroundingareasandpayingthembythepiece.

Herorganisationhasexpanded,yetperpetuatedthehierarchicalrelationshipbetween

middlemanandweaverscreatingproductsforaCambodiandomesticmarket.Ngorn

Vanntha,notamakerbutfromafamilyofsilkweaversandtraders,hasincorporatednew

globaldynamicsbyemphasisingsocialentrepreneurship,socialmediaandexportmarkets,

combinedwithweavingandsericulturetrainingprogrammesinTakeo,sponsoredbythe

MaybankFoundation,aMalaybenefactor.

Theexplorationofaselectionofthesevariousstakeholders’perspectiveshasalso

exposedwiderdiscoursesofheritage,culture,anddevelopmentthatlocatesilktextiles

withinCambodianandglobalframes,thusreevaluatingthenarrativeofsilkproduction

revivalasalinearsuccess.TheheritagisationofCambodia’smainarchaeologicalsiteswas

394

linkedtothepeacerestorationeffort,withtheinvolvementofUNESCOandpartnering

countries,especiallyFranceandJapan.SupportforCambodianartsandcraftsfollowedin

the1990s.Thedeclineofsilkfibreproductionandweavingworkforceinthe1970-80s

encouragedtheinterventionofforeigninvestorsandsponsorsand,toalesserdegree,the

Cambodiangovernment.Thenecessitytorevitalisesilkpracticeswasreinforcedby

discoursesemphasisingsilkasanancienttraditiondatingfromthegloriousKhmerEmpire

era.WhilethegoalwastosupportlocalCambodiansilkweavers,linkinghumanitarian

effortsandpovertyreductiontothediscoursesoftraditionandheritagepreservation

(supportedbyorganisationssuchasAAandIKTT)openedthewaytoaproductiondestined

toelitecustomersandforeigntourists.Theattemptsatrevitalisinglocalsericultureand

weavingwithinthisreconfiguredparadigmchangedthemakers’strategiesofrawmaterial

sourcingandsales,relyingonthemediatingroleofNGOsandcraftcompanies.Independent

weaverswhodidnotjointheseschemeswouldcontinuetoworkintheirvillageswith

middlemen.

Moreover,thismonolithicnarrativeofpreservingtraditionsfromextinctionmayalsobe

disputedinrelationtonotionsoftraditionalcrafts,authenticityandownershipwhichwere

outlinedearlyinthethesisinChapterOne.Thevariousmaterialfactorsandprocessesof

silk-making,fromfibresourcingtoweaving,skillstransmissionandproductdistribution,

haveshownotherrealitiesofthecontemporaryCambodiansilkscape.Forinstance,local

sericulturehasbeensupersededbyextensivefibreimportsfromChina,Vietnamand

Thailand.Moreover,despitemajorinvestmentbycraftNGOsandtransnationalagencies,

ruralweavershavefacedthefastexpansionofthegarmentindustry,whichhasencouraged

themtoabandontheirtraditionalactivitytobecomefactoryworkers.

ThereformationoftheCambodiansilkscapeinthepost-KReramaterialisesthecomplex

dynamicsofstrategiesthatcombineheritageandpreservationpoliciestobuildpeaceand

development.Silksectorpolicymakershavetargeted‘underprivilegedpopulationgroups–

395

mainlywomenlivinginfarmhouseholds–withfewalternatives’,consideringthatweaving

cangenerateinvaluableincomethroughtheproductionofhighvalue-addedtextile

products.930Discoursesadvocatingfortheemancipationofnon-Westernpeoplefitinto

whatMignolohasidentifiedasthe‘rhetoricofmodernity’thatisarticulatedfroma

Eurocentricperspective.Itperpetuatespatternsofcoloniality;andtraditionandmodernity

areinfactconflatednotions.931TheexampleofAAshowcasesthewaysinwhichthese

discoursesmaterialisedintospecificcrafttrainingprogrammes,productdesign,and

marketingstrategiestoproducesilkgoodsappealingtoaninternationalclientele.This

approachresonateswiththecolonialmethodsemployedduringtheFrenchprotectorate,by

GeorgesGroslierwiththeSchoolofCambodianArtsinthe1920s.

TheCambodiancraftheteropia(asanalysedinChapterThree),undertheauthorityof

internationalstakeholders,solidifiedthedefinitionofsilkasanationalandtraditionalcraft;

andweaversarethesuppliersofsuchtraditionalartefacts.Thereconfiguredparadigmof

thesilkscapeappearsasatransnationaliterationofkhsae,thepatron-clientsocialstructure

thatanimatesCambodiansocietythatresumedaftertheKRregime.Inthishierarchical

socialstructure,weaversremainatthemarginsofleadershipandentrepreneurship,trading

theirdependenceonmiddlementoattachthemselvestocraftorganisations.

Thesesocio-economicdevelopmentprogrammesoftenfailtooffersustainablealternatives

toinequitablepatronisingrelationshipsthataredetrimentaltothemakers.Despite

importantinternationalinvestmentsinthesector,bythe2010ssystemicissueswerestill

plaguingitsexpansion,withfragiledomesticsericulture,ahighlevelofrelianceon

importedsilkfibreandunevenstandardsinthequalityofproducts.The2016NationalSilk

Strategyobservedafragmentedandpoorlycoordinatedsectorthatreliedsolelyonsmall

andmediumenterpriseswithlittlegovernmentalsupport,preventing‘theemergenceof

930CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,5. 931Mignolo,‘Delinking,’456,472.

396

well-definedvaluechainstagesfromsericulturetoweavinganddesign’.932The2014census

recordedthat,caughtbetweenthemiddlemenandcraftcompanies’monopolisiticroles,low

incomeandthetemptationofruralexodus,thenumberofweaversdeclinedfrom20,000in

2005tolessthan5,000.

Whathasappearedhereisthattopromotespecificdiscoursesistoestablishpower

dynamicsunderwhichspecificrepresentationsandactionsoperate.Despitebeingthe

bearersofknowledge,thesepopulationsremainvoicelessandspokenfor.Thisthesishas

demonstratedthatitisessentialtocriticallyconsiderthespacegiventoindigenous

perspectivesandrecentrethedebateonmarginalvoices.Themethodologicalapproachto

achieveapolyvocal,morebalanced,representationofthedifferentactorsanimatingthe

Cambodiansilkscapewasmultifold.First,theuseoforaltestimoniesandethnographic

researchhashelpedrevealthesimilaritiesbetweenweaversasasocialgroup,asmuchas

theirdifferences,inthewaystheydealwithgenderandfamilydynamicsandeconomicand

educationalchallenges,aswellastheirdependenceontheangkar(organisationorNGO)or

themiddleman.Inthereversalofestablishedhierarchies,agencymaytakedifferentforms

inresistance,butalsoinadaptation.TheinterviewsandfieldworkdescribedinChapter

Three,especiallyinTakeoprovince,offerastudyoffemaleweavers’negotiationwiththe

stereotypedgenderednormsimposedonthem,whichresonateswithDerksandBrickell’s

keyfindingsonconditionsforCambodianruralwomen.Weavingknowledgewaspassedon

towomenfromtheirmother,grandmotheroranotherfemininefigureintheirvillage.Inthe

interviews,weavingappearsasoneofthefewoptionsavailablewithfarmingandworking

atthegarmentfactory.MostoftheweaversIinterviewedinTakeoandSiemReapprovinces

consideredthatweavingalsoofferedthemthepossibilityofworkingfromhomeand

continuingtocarefortheirchildren–orgrandchildren,inthecaseofPon,inPhnomChisor.

932CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.

397

Beyonddiscussingtheireconomicandfamilyconstraints,theseweavershaveshownagency

viasubtlesignsofcontestationagainstthecostofrawmaterialsortherelationshipwiththe

middlemen,empowermentandresistancethroughtheirdesignchoices,expressionsoftaste,

asenseofvocation,andstrategiestoincreasetheirincome.Theoraltestimonieshavebeena

usefulresearchmethodtopursuesubjectivitiesgroundedinlivedexperiences,ratherthan

factualhistoricalevidence,tosupplementmyobservationsonthefield.Amongthe

unexpectedoralsourcesIrecordedinCambodia,Pheach,atraineeattheCaringforYoung

Khmer(CYK)trainingcentreinTrapaingKrasainginTakeo,stoodoutforhergenuine

passionforsilkconnectedwithherchildhoodmemoriesofdiscoveringpidanhangingsat

thelocalpagoda.Shefeltshewashonouringherupbringingbycontinuingtoweaveand

receivingfurthertraining.ChendafromKramaYuyu(KY)wastheonlyonetodiscussthe

physicalpainofworkingatthefactory,andhowitaffectedherlegs,whichpromptedherto

movetoSiemReaptoreturntoherweavingactivities.Thesestoriesmayseemanecdotal,

buttheinterlacingofmultiplerealities,expectationsandself-reflectivestatements

deliveredbytheseweavershaveprovidedanessentialalternativetothestakeholders’

reductivediscourses.

Second,whiletheCambodiansilkscapeisamajorconceptualcontributioninthis

thesis,theuseofActionResearch(AR)isamethodologicalcontributionwhichprovides

novelwaysofexploringweavers’agenciesintermsofpraxis.TheARexperimentwasa

majorcatalystinmyresearchtoarticulatetacit,embodied,memory-based,and

collaborativeformsofknowledgetakingplaceinholweavingintheconfinesoftheKrama

Yuyu(KY)workshop.AppliedtoCambodiansilkpractices,thismethodologyaimedtoinvert

thecommonhierarchyofknowledgethatplacesscholars,NGOs,andgovernmentalbodies

asexpertstoconsiderhowknowledgeinitsdifferentformsisowned,inherited,and

disseminatedbytheweavers.TheprojectdirectlyengagedwithChenda,Thearyand

TomokofromKY,toconsiderthewaysinwhichtheycouldtogetherremobilisetheirskills

398

andproduceaseriesofsampothol.WhiletheARprojectfocusesonasmall-scaleendeavour

whichshoulddirectlybenefitaselectedgroupofparticipants,italsoprovidedrichmaterial

forresearchsuchasdescriptionsofmakingprocesses,photographs,filmfootage,

interviews,andfoursampothol.PeriodsofobservationanddocumentationwithChenda,

Thearyandtheirteamattheirworkshopshowedtheleveloftechnicalskillsandartistry

necessarytocompleteeverystepofhol,fromwarpingsilkthreadstotyinganddyeingweft

threadsinsuccessivedyebathstoweavingontheloom.Thepreciseandlengthy

descriptionsofthesestepsinChapterThreehaveprovidedawrittentranscriptofthe

gesturesandunspokendynamicsbetweentheweaversattheworkshop.Moreover,

interviewsbetweenChenda,ThearyandtheirmotherChendyhaveilluminatedthe

mechanismsofsilkweavingapprenticeship,whichstartsatayoungageinfamilies.These

informalmethodsofskillstransmissioninthehouseholdorvillagecommunityhavebeen

thefoundationofsilkweavingasacottageactivity.Acloseexaminationoftheseexchanges

revealsthatChendaandChendy,inparticular,positionedthemselvesfromaplaceof

authority,clearlyarticulatingtheirrelationshiptomaterials,textileprocesses,andskills

learning.Weavingisalsocollectiveworkinwhichweaversareinterdependent.Thiswas

demonstratedintheteamworkbetweensistersChendaandTheary,inhowThearyreached

outforadvicetoChendy,andintheirrelianceonotherweaversintheworkshopforthe

warpingprocess.Exploringacontextofdrasticcultural,social,andeconomicchallengesin

silkproduction,thisthesishasaddressedthere-orientingofthissenseoflosstowardsa

positivefutureformaking.ThedocumentationandcreationoffoursampotholbyChenda

andThearyatKYparticipatesdirectlyinthiscreativeoutput.

Thestudyoftheweavers’handskillsandbodymemoryhasofferedanotherlayerof

knowledgeaboutsilkasanembodiedpracticethatincludesCambodiansfromdiasporic

communities,beyondtheirpositionofconsumers.Embodimentisathemerunningacross

399

thisthesistoexploreculturethroughidentity,makinganddress,andthelinkingoftheseto

social,physicalandmaterialrealms.InChapterThree,embodimentemergedthroughthe

physicalexperienceofweaving.FilmwasusedinthevideosWarpandWeftasa

methodologytospecificallycapturethisexperienceofsilkweavinginmovement,showing

bodiesandgestures–forexample,untanglingandfoldingthewarpthreads,ordyesstaining

theweavers’hands.InChapterFour,issuesofembodimentinformedthewaysinwhich

CambodianimmigrantsofLongBeach,Californiahaveconsideredandre-evaluatedsilk

clothesasametonymforCambodianculturalidentity.Wearingthesegarmentssparkeda

senseofculturalidentificationandbelonging,playingintoCambodianAmericanimaginings

ofthehomeland.Here,silkclothesareusedastoolsforembellishment,representation,self-

expression,andpride.IntheemotionscommunicatedbyweddingdressmakerMenKaylene

andavidbuyerMaryTan,silkhasappearedasanostalgicdevicetoovercomethetraumaof

displacementandloss.

ChapterFourdemonstratedhowinteractionsbetweensilktextilesandthebody–the

femalebodyinparticular–areexperiencedonanindividualandsensorylevel,asmuchas

onasociallevelwiththecommunity.Onekeyexampleoftheseinteractionsisthemoments

ofperformanceanddanceduringtheannualculturalfestivalinLongBeachthatreinforce

theembodimentofthehistoryandculturalvaluesthattiethelocalCambodianAmerican

communitytogether.InthereenactingofthehistoricalmythsoftheKhmerEmpire,

performancehelpstoreconnectCambodianculturetothecountry’simaginedlegendary

past.Thesereenactmentshaveshownthecrucialimportanceofdress,evenwiththe

shortageofsilkfabrics,aswasthecaseinthepost-KRera,toembodythesemomentsina

waythatisbothinventiveandrespectfulofancientbeliefsandrepresentations.By

embodyingcelestialfiguresfromtheKhmerpantheon,theballetdancersandstudentsfrom

theKhmerArtsAcademyfurtherthissymboliccontinuitybetweenCambodianhistoryand

thepresent,throughtheirbody,movement,andthesilkfabric.Followinganapprenticeship

400

deliveredfromamastertostudents,dancerspursuethelegacyofthosewhodisappeared

duringtheKRregime.Asasecondskin,silkgarmentsbecomeintimatedevicesactivatedby

thebodythroughperformance.Theywrap,modelandholdthedancingbodiesinadialogue

betweenthedancersthemselvesandtheiraudience,reconnectingCambodianAmericans

withfamilyandcommunityroots.

Challengesandreflections

Aselectionoftheoriessuchasmetageography,Actor-Network-Theory,Hobsbawm’s

inventedtraditionsandcraftsassitesofembodiedlearningwerehelpfulinthisthesisto

analysehowthreadsofsilkknowledgeandCambodianculturalidentityhavebeen

sustainedthroughouthistory.TheintegrationofCambodiansilkpracticesinto

contemporarydebatesonglobalisation,decoloniality,knowledgeandidentityformation

demandedtobeputindialoguewithprimarymaterialscollectedduringperiodsofin-depth

fieldresearch.ThiscriticalapproachaimedtoexpandthestudyofCambodiantextiles

beyondwhatalreadyexistedinliteraturewhichrevolvedinparticulararoundCambodian

silkasatraditionalpractice,thesignificanceofmotifs,andweavingandnaturaldyes

techniques.

Mignolohasarguedthatdelinkingthemodernity/colonialityparadigm‘meanstochangethe

termsandnotjustthecontentoftheconversation’.933Forme,thishasalsoinvolvedcreating

thespacetoreflectonmypositionasaresearcherintermsofvoiceandapproach.Ifounda

tremendous–andhumbling–valueinworkingwithresearchquestionsthatmaintaina

positionofopennessinacknowledgingandemphasisingformsofknowledgeaboutsilkthat

areembeddedinpractice,thebody,memory,andculturalandfamilydynamics.My

approach,therefore,hasbeenaboutdevelopinganepistemologicalmodelthatcombinesa

933Mignolo,Walter,'DELINKING',CulturalStudies21,no.2(March2007),459.

401

pluralityofperspectivesbyfirstaddressingthedominanthistoric,geo-politicalnarratives

onsilkandpost-conflictCambodia,movingintowhatMignolodefinesasthe‘geo-politicsof

knowledgeemergingfromdifferenthistoricallocationsoftheworldthatenduredtheeffects

andconsequencesofWesternimperialandcapitalistexpansion’.934Thispolyphonyof

material,human,andhistoricvoiceshasrevealedpocketsofagencyandknowledgefor

weaversandwearersintheactsofmakingandperforming,aswellasindiasporicliterature

andmoreinformalformsofexchangesinthecommunity.

Withperiodsofobservation,recordingoraltestimoniesinCambodiaandLongBeach,

California,andcollaboratingwithsilkweaversatKY,thisthesishasbroughtadiversityof

perspectivestotheforefront.Thetaskdidnotcomewithoutchallenges.Ikeptinmind

Hamera’srecordofherincompleteandunsatisfyingcollaborationwiththeSemfamilyin

LongBeach,whichprovidedaninvaluableexampleofethnographicresearchasan

imperfectbalancingactofacceptanceandadaptability.Bearinganethicalresponsibilityto

respectthelivingcommunitieswithwhomIhaveworked,workingintheKhmerlanguage

withdifferenttranslatorsaddedtothisdifficultyintheinterviewstoclarifyanddevelop

someofmyinterlocutors’answers.

ThisthesishasdiscussedmyroleasaresearcherandthedifferentpositionsIhave

embraced,suchasparticipantobserver,interviewer,co-convenoroftheARproject,and

autoethnographerthroughtakingadancelesson.IntheARproject,Ihadtofindthe

appropriatepositiontoaccompanyweaverswithoutsubstitutingmyownexperienceto

theirs.ThiswasachievednotbybeingtrainedinholweavingbyChendaandTheary,but

instead,byfosteringtheirpracticeandfindingtherequiredfundingtoproducefoursampot.

Moreimportantly,thethesishasintentionallyopenedsubstantialspacesfortheaccountsof

weavers,wearersanddancersgatheredinthefieldinCambodiaandtheUnitedStatesto

illuminatethemultiplelayersthatformtheCambodiansilklandscape.Attheintersectionof

934Ibid,460.

402

historyandgeography,andinresponsetothecolonialityofknowledgeprevalentin

Cambodianscholarship,thisstudyaddressestheremembranceandrecoveryofdifferent

andfragmentedformsofknowledgeaboutCambodiansilkproduction,andintegratesthe

CambodianAmericandiasporaterritory.

Futureresearch

ThisstudyofcontemporaryCambodiansilkheritageandpracticeshasopenedrich

avenuesforfurtherresearch.Intermsofmethods,autoethnographyandfilmcouldbe

amplifiedasresearchpracticestohighlightfurthertheembodiedandphysicalaspectsof

dyeingandweavingsilkcloths.Intermsofactorsofthesilkscape,thethesis’corefocushas

beentransnationalsponsors,craftcompaniesandtheirfoundersinChapterTwo,silk

weaversinChapterThree,andCambodianAmericanconsumersinChapterFour.

ConsumersinCambodia,bothlocalsandtourists,offerscopeforfurtherstudybecausethey

areactiveagentsinthesilkscape.Exploringtheirroleswouldcomplementtheknowledgeof

thedynamicsoperatingintheCambodiansilknetworkthathavebeenexposedinthis

thesis.Foreign-ownedorganisationsmostlytargettheexportandtouristmarkets.

Examiningthelocalmarketfurtherwouldprovideadditionaldataonthemiddlemen’s

relationshipswithretailersandthehabits,tasteandprofileofdomesticconsumers.

Whilethethesishasdiscussedkeynumbersaboutsilkfibreproductioninthetwentiethand

twenty-firstcenturiesintheIntroductionandprovidedgroundknowledgeonthe

specificitiesofCambodiansilk,sericulturecouldbeanotherareaforfutureresearch.

FollowingterHorst’sextensiveworkonhowCambodianintermediariesofChineseethnic

descentsourcedsilkfibreinVietnam,moreresearchcouldbededicatedtothegeopolitical,

ethnographicandembodiedstudyofsericulturepracticesinCambodia.Inthelastcensus,

datingfrom2016,therewerelessthanahundredsilkproducersleftinCambodia,mostly

403

locatedinBanteayMeanchey,OddarMeancheyandSiemReapprovinces.935Sericultureisa

family-basedcottageindustrywhichmostlyinvolvesmen,incontrastwithfemale-

dominatedsilkweavingactivities,andoftenledinadditiontootherfarmingactivities.936

Moreover,thesesilkfarmingprovincesaregeographicallyclosetoThailand,whichisbotha

majorsilkcompetitorofCambodia,withmoredevelopedindigenoussericultureintheSurin

area,andakeydestinationforCambodianruralexodusandimmigration.

Furtherresearchontheseterritorialtensionsandthedifferentgenderdistribution,aswell

asissuesofskillstransmissioninsericulturethroughkinship,embodiedknowledge,and

bodymemory,couldrevealfurtherimportantfacetsoftheCambodiansilkscapebybuilding

onthisthesis’newapproachestosilkhistoriesandgeographies.

935CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,5.936TauchAtakama,‘Rencontrerdesproducteursdeversàsoie/cocons,identifierdespersonnesàinterviewer,faireunétatdeslieuxdelasituationsurplace,’unpublishedreport,25May2018.

404

Appendices

A1.Khmer[phonetic]-Englishglossaryofterms

andan:warping

angkar:organisation,NGO

anlounh:stripedsampot

aor:tunic,shirt

aorlakhaoun:silkblousefordancepractice

baitung:green

boklakangkar:NGO

bunthea:skeinofikatsilk

champoo:anatoseeds,naturaldyestuffgivingabrightorangecolour

chongkiet:weftikatsilk(seealsohol)

chorchung:patternedhemofasampot

ChoulChnamThmey:NewYear

con:child

dokdua:silkcocoon

garuda:eagle-headedmythicalcreature

hol:weftikatsilk

jhmaunkandal:middleman

kabbas:cotton

kadep:cap

kbun:fourmetresofwovenfabric,wrappedtrousers(seesampotchawngkbun)

kemi:chemical

khai:loom(alsotbanhkraneat)

khaimacin:semi-automaticsteppingweavingmachine

khieu:blue

405

khmeikhieu:BlueKhmers;referstoCambodianslivinginthediaspora(alsoanekachun

khmer)

khmeinkhmein:youngster,youth

khsae:cords,threads;alsoreferstonetworkofpatron-clientrelationships

khum:commune

kinnari:wingedhumanmythicalcreature

kiri:unitofweightequallingtwokilograms

kiet:totie,alsotodesignateatypeoftie-dyetextileproducedbyMalaycommunities

knar:onebobbinrepresentingoneportionofanikatpattern,spool

koem:patterndesign/weavestructure(onlyappliestosilk)

komnat:cloth

kraham:red

krola:pattern

krama/kroma/kramar:cottonplaidscarf

kramasaut:silkscarf

kansaengdai:handkerchief

khmau:black

krom:rough

kromsamaki:solidaritygroup,ruralcooperativeduringthe1980sVietnameseoccupation

krusaa:family

leakkhmer:cochinealred

loeung:yellow

makleua:ebonyfruit,naturaldyestuffgivingablackcolour

nak-naga:mythicaldragonorsnakefigure

nat:cloth

406

nylon:nylon,fishingwire

pdai:husband

phamaung:sampotinsolid-colouredsilk

phuy:longembroideredscarfforwedding

phum:village

pibaak:difficult

pibaakchet:unhappy

pidan:pictorialikathangingrepresentingthelivesoftheBuddha

pkachuu:pink

poar:colour

praing:bristlebrush

proh:man

prohut:garciniatreebark,naturaldyestuffgivingabrightyellowcolour

prolung:smooth

propun:wife

ptean:lengthunit

ptey:warp

robam:dance

roumtchak:factory

saamyok:synthetic

saart:beautiful

sabaychet:happy

sampot:hipwrap,tubeskirt

sampotchawngkbun:longlengthofsampotwornaswrappedtrousers

sampotsarabap:silkhipwrapbrocadedwithgoldorsilverthreads

407

sampotrbauk:hipwrapinapatterneddamask

sampotsamloy:onelengthofsampotwornasahipwrap

sau:white

saut:silk

sbaay:embellishedasymmetricalsilksashwornforweddingceremoniesandKhmer

classicalballet

sbekcheung:shoe

sdoegkiet:frametotieweftyarnintheholprocess

slaaksnaam:mark,trace,signoftrauma

sliekpeak:dress

srei:woman

srok:district

srouel:easy

tangkartauch:florallattice

taksmin:ironmordant

tchaktamani:reed

thkor:weavingharnessthroughwhichthewarpisthreaded

umba:sewingthread

yantra:ritualisticsymbolwhichincorporatesSanskritwriting

yeay:grandmother;elderlywoman(alsolokyeay)

wat:temple

408

A2.Technicalglossaryofweaving

-Beam:Abeamisanyofthehorizontalrollersonwhichthewarpyarnorfinishedclothis

woundandsecured.Themainbeamisfittedontothebackoftheloom,andtheclothbeam

isfitteddirectlyunderwheretheweaverissitting.

-Beaming:Methodicallywindingthefullwidthofthewarpyarnswithoutentanglingthe

threadsonabeamplacedontheloom,keepinganeventensionintheprocess.

-Brocade:Richlydecoratedwoventextilepatternedwithsupplementaryweftthreads,often

madeofsilverorgold,tocreatetheillusionthatsectionshavebeenembossedintothe

fabric.

-Brocatelle:Ajacquardweavefabricrelatedtobrocade,brocatelleispatternedinhigher

reliefwithathickerandheavierhand.

-Heddle:Usuallymadeofmetallicwireorfinecords,heddlesareloopsattachedtotheshaft

ofaloominwhichwarpthreadsarepassedthroughtofollowspecificweavestructures,

whenshaftswillliftupanddown.

-Ikat:DerivingfromtheMalaywordmengikat,or‘totie’,ikatisatextiletechniqueinwhich

thewarporweftthreads,orbothforthedoubleikat,aretie-dyedincomplexmotifsbefore

weaving.

Theweftikattechniqueisrealisedinsuccessivestages:theweftthreadsaretiedfollowinga

pre-determinedmotiftoallowcertainsectionstotakethedyeandotherstorepelit.After

oneroundoftyinganddyeing,theprocessisrepeatedwithadifferentcolourtocreatein

theendapolychromicpatternontheweftthreads.Oncethisstepiscompleted,theweft

threadsaretransferredtosetsofspoolsandwoventhroughthewarpthreadsontheloom

tocreatetheweftikattextile.

ForthepolychromicCambodianhol,someareasareleftinwhiteundyedsilkandthenthe

weavertypicallyproceedstothedyeinginthisorder:red,yellow,andblue.Redoverdyed

withbluegivesdarkpurple,blueoveryellowgivesgreen.

409

-Lacdye:DeepredcolorantindigenoustoSoutheastAsia,obtainedfromthecrudeshellac

resinexcretedbythelacinsectLacciferlacca.

-Mordant:Achemicalormetalliccompoundusedindyeingtofixthecoloringmatterin

naturaldyes.

-Mulberry:Treefromthemorusspecieswhichprovidesleavesuponwhichbombyxmori

silkwormsfeed.

-Polyvoltine:SpeciesofBombyxmorisilkmothwhichproducesmorethanonebroodof

eggsinayear.

-Reed:Securedbythebeatertothefrontoftheloom,areedisaframewithverticalnarrow

openingsthatresemblesalargecomb.Itspacesthewarpthreadsevenly,createsaguidefor

theshuttle,andhelpspackthewovenweftthreadstogether.

-Sericulture:Cultivationofsilkcaterpillarsintendedtoproducesilkthreads,especially

fromthedomesticatedspeciesofBombyxmori.

-Shotsilk:Alsocalledchangeantorchangeablesilk,ataffetasilkfabricmadefromwarpand

weftyarnsoftwocomplementaryorcontrastingcolours,producinganiridescent

appearance.

-Silk:Aprotein-basedfibre,silkisacontinuousfilamentobtainedfromthecocoonsof

differentspeciesofmothsandarachnids.Incommercialuse,themostcommontypeofsilk

comesfromthedomesticatedbreedofBombyxmorispecies.

-Skein:Bundleofsilkthreads

-Sleying:Passingwarpendsthrougheachdentofthereedtoseparatethethreadsevenly

-Twill:Weavestructurecarriedoutonminimumthreeshaftscharacterisedbydiagonal

linesrunningatanglesbetween15°and75°,interlacingthewarpstocreateadiagonalridge

acrossthefabric.

-2-1twill:Irregulartwillweavestructuremadebyliftingtwowarpendsverticallyover

410

weftpicksandbyfloatingoneweftpickhorizontallyoverwarpendsonthreeshaftsonthe

loom.

-Warp:Alsocalled‘ends’,thethreadswhichliealongthelengthofthefabric.Warpmustbe

preparedinadvanceandputontheloom.

-Warping:Preparingthewarp,thefirststageofweaving,consistsofarrangingapredefined

numberofwarpthreadsfollowingthedesiredlengthoftheweaving.

-Weft:alsocalled‘filling’,thethreadswhicharepassedhorizontallyontheloomtocreate

theinterlacingoftheyarnswithwarp.

-Wefttying:Stepoftheikatprocesswhichconsistsofplacingweftthreadsflatonaframeto

proceedtothetyingstage,followingpre-definedpatternsbeforeproceedingtothedyeing

stage.

411

A3.VisuallexiconofCambodiantextiles

Batiksarung:hipwrapskirtmadeincottondecoratedwithIndonesianbatik-stylemotifs.

Chorchung:supplementaryweftpatternslocatedatthebottomofasampotphamaung.

412

Kiet:tie-dyedsilktextilewornasaheadscarfbyChamMalayMuslimcommunities.

Kramasaut:plaid-patternedsilkhipwrap,ofteningreen,red,andwhite,sometimes

combiningasilkwarpandacottonweft.

413

Krama:cottonorpolyesterginghamwovenscarf.

Sampotphamaung:solid-colouredweft-facedtwill(ortaffeta)fabric,whichsometimes

incorporatesashotsilkeffectwithweftandwarpthreadsincontrastingcolours.

414

Sampotanlounh:stripedsilkorcottontextile.

Sampothol:polychromicweftikatsilkhipwrap,usuallyinsixcolourswhite,yellow,red,

blue,green,andpurple.

415

Sampotholpoar:two-toneweftikatsilkinbrightchemicaldyes.

Sampotsarabap:supplementaryweftpatternedsilkbrocadedwithmetallicthreads

featuringgeometricandstylisedfloralelements.

416

Sampotrbauk:patternedsilkwithsupplementaryweftthreadsincontrastingcolours.

Holpidan:figurativepolychromicsilkweftikatusedasadecorativeandauspiciouswall

hangingoftenfeaturingBuddhistscenesandsymbols.

417

A4a.Informationsheetandconsentformsfortheinterviews

INFORMATION SHEET

STUDY OF THE SILK SECTOR IN CONTEMPORARY CAMBODIA

We are sending you this information sheet because we would like to invite you to take part in our study.

Please take time to read this information and ask us any questions you may have or if anything is unclear.

What is the purpose of the study?

In today’s Cambodia, local artisans produce silk according to traditional knowledges and skills while mass-

produced garments represent eighty percent of total exports. This culturally-valued practice faces the

challenge of a fast-industrializing economy. How to mobilize this living knowledge and examine it in

regards to Cambodia’s historiography? This study aims to fill a gap in current knowledge about Cambodian silk in terms of production, craft, and use from the point of view of the producers and the main actors involved in the field. Along with the analysis of contemporary craft production we hope to provide a fuller picture of the history of silk and its importance in Southeast Asia. The study will also provide an analytical model that can be applied to the study of other craft communities.

Who is organising and funding the research?

The project is a major component of the PhD research being undertaken by Magali An Berthon under the supervision of Dr Sarah Cheang and Dr Martina Margetts. The research is based in the History of Design Department at the School of Humanities, Royal College of Art, London. The research is partially self-funded and supported by Techne / AHRC scholarship. It will result in a written thesis that will be examined for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Magali An Berthon has a wide experience of interview-based research in the field of textiles and crafts in Southeast Asia. This study has been approved by the Royal College of Art Research Ethics Committee.

Why have I been asked to take part?

We aim to interview different actors contributing to sericulture and the preservation of silk craftsmanship in Cambodia today: makers (mulberry tree farmers, silk farmers, textile dyers, weavers, and seamstresses), stakeholders involved in the field (business owners, manufacturers, governmental officials, and NGOs project managers), textile experts (museum curators, conservators, and historians). We hope to interview a wide variety of men and women: some still active and others who are retired. We will select participants according to their profession, their background, their geographic location in different parts of Cambodia, their motivation to take part in this project and upon recommandation.

Your participation

We believe that you have something important to say that will contribute to our study. We trust that the interview will provide you with an opportunity to share your experience, of the difficulties and the pleasures of your working in the field of silk. We will arrange an interview with you and will audio record / and or film the interview. It may last between one and two hours.

If you agree to take part, please sign a consent form.

418

INTERVIEW CONSENT AND DATA PROCESSING STATEMENT

If you consent to being interviewed and to any data gathered being processed as outlined below, please print and sign your name, and date the form, in the spaces provided.

• This project STUDY OF THE SILK SECTOR IN CONTEMPORARY CAMBODIA is being conducted by Magali An Berthon, research student at the Royal College of Art, London. It is partially self-funded and supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council Techne scholarship. The project is a major component of the PhD research under the supervision of Dr Sarah Cheang and Dr Martina Margetts.

• All data will be treated as personal under the 1998 Data Protection Act, and will be stored securely in a password protected area on my desktop computer.

• Interviews will be recorded by the researcher and transcribed by an independent transcriber who has signed a confidentiality agreement.

• Copies of interview tapes and transcripts used for the PhD will be offered to the Royal College of Art Data History of Design Archive under the same secured conditions. Data will be stored in Google Drive, for which the department has a security agreement.

• A copy of your interview transcript will be provided electronically/hard copy, free of charge, on any written request.

• Data collected may be processed manually and with the aid of computer software.

• Your personal details such as phone number and address will not be revealed to people outside the project.

• You will still be free to withdraw at any time and we will not ask you to give any reasons if you choose to do so.

• Participation consent: Please tick the appropriate boxes. □ YES I agree to be interviewed. □ NO I refuse to be interviewed.

• Confidentiality and publication consent: Please tick the appropriate boxes.

• □ I may be identified in reports made available outside the research team and the AHRC, and in publications. Your words and image may be used in publications, reports, web pages, videos, and other research outputs.

• □ My words and image may be used provided that they are anonymised.

• □ I may not be identified in reports made available outside the research team and the AHRC, nor in any publications. My words and image may not be used.

Please print your name:........................................................................

Signature:.................................................... Date:........................

Contact for further Information: Magali An Berthon 00447494290993magali.berthon@network.rca.ac.uk

Dr. Sarah CheangSarah Cheang sarah.cheang@rca.ac.uk

Royal College of Art Kensington Gore, London SW7 2EU

419

CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT STUDY OF THE SILK SECTOR IN CONTEMPORARY CAMBODIA

I ____________________________, an interpreter working with Magali An Berthon, agree to the following:

a) I will take all possible steps to protect the information I receive during the process of interpreting during the researching, interviewing and filming with the makers, manufacturers, and experts in the silk industry in Cambodia.

This means that I will not disclose any personally identifying information to anyone, unless: compelled to disclose specific information under a court order or competent of court.

b) I will not talk about or write about any of the individuals’ names in any meetings or in any documentation including emails about the research project.

Interpreter_______________________________________

Signature

Name: Date: Place:

Witness/second signature (Magali An Berthon, project coordinator)

Signature

Name: Date: Place:

420

A4b.InformationsheetfortheinterviewsinKhmer

421

422

423

424

A5.ChartprovidedbyTomokoTakagiwiththetentativecostandtimetablefortheActionResearchholproject,July20,2017.

Update20July2017Sampot Hol Project2017ⅠMaterial / Equipment

Iron Comb for Hol used $30Stand for making small bundle $15Fine silk Mok3 (3thread) for Warp 1kg $60/kg=$60Fine silk Mok8 (8thread) for Weft (2kg=1kiri) 1.5kg for 3kbun$55/kg=$82.5

Dye MaterialNatural Dye and Chemical Dyeetc warp dying in Takeo $7 / 1kgChemical dye powder $0.125×27packs=$3.375String for tie $5

ⅡProcess around 1month? for 1kbun 3hole for this project1.Preparing Warp about 6days for 3 kbun

1. Dying and Boiling Fine Silk Mok3 with ash water for warp done ( black : $7 /kg)2. Rolling silk bundle to spool 5days/1person(Theary) done 1-3. Arrange 1day/2persons 21July(fri.)1-4. Rolling warp beam/ comb 0.5day/6persons / 0.5day/2persons 24July 8:30-9:00am1-5. Making heddle 3days/1person (Chenda or Theary) 25-27July

Warp: Chemical dyeWeft: chemical dye onlyғA/ chemical and natural dye mix

2. Preparing Weft Koem(about 20 knar)/kbun*3kbun 17.5-23.5days? Before tying 4days?

2-1. Boild Fine Silk Mok8 with ash water 0.5days/2persons/3kbun done (Kim,Chamroen)2-2. Rolling silk bundle to spool 3day/1person /3kbun 0.5kg(Theary)done,0.5kg(Kim) done 2-3. Making small bundles 2.5day/1person/3kbun 171knar/done (Chenda)

A:Koem217Knar=1Bunteah(=1pattern), 4Bunteah=1Kbun(=1hol)1Kanar=100thread=200weavings, 4weaving/1kanar

※100thread/knar*3bunteah+140thread/knar1bunteah36knar=3.5hr-40knar

B:Koem513Knar=1Bunteah(=1pattern), 4Bunteah=1Kbun(=1hol)1Kanar=140thread=280weavings, 4weaving/1kanar

C:Original 17Knar=1Bunteah(=1pattern), 3Bunteah=1Kbun(=1hol)1Kanar=140thread=280weavings, 4weaving/1kanar

Koem(about 20 knar/bunteah*3-4bunteah=1kbun) 4.5-6.5days*3kbun=13.5-19.5days2-4. 1St Tying pattern 8days/1person/kbun Koem-A(2)

1st bunteah=17knar (Chenda done) 2nd-4th bunteah (Theary done) 2days/bunteah※2nd-4th bunteah are followed 1st.bunteah.

1St Tying pattern 8days/1person/kbun Koem-B(5)1st bunteah=13knar (Chenda done) 2nd-4th bunteah (Theary done) 2days/bunteah※2nd-4th bunteah are followed 1st.bunteah.

1St Tying pattern 2-3days/1person/kbun Koem-C(original) 25-27July1st bunteah=17knar (Chenda doing) 2nd-3rd bunteah (Theary doing) 2days/bunteah

2-5. 1st. Dying 0.5days/1person/kbun Koem-C 25-27July (Natural Dye and Chemical Dye both) Koem-A (Chenda,Chantra pink chemical done) o.5days2-6. 2nd . Dying 0.5days/1person/kbun Koem-B25-27July (Natural Dye and Chemical Dye both) Koem-A (Chenda,Chantra yellow chemical done) 2hr ※before 2nd. Dye cut some tied peaces (Chenda done) 1.5hr2-7. Tying 2nd then 3rd. Dying . 6days/1person/kbun Koem-B,A 25-27July (Natural ye and Chemical Dye both) 2nd.tying Chenda 2bunteah (done 2.5days)+Theary 2buntheah(done3days)

Koem-A (Chenda,Chantra green chemical done) o.5daysafter dry cut string (Chenda done) 0.5days

2-8. Rolling to Knar 0.5days/1person/kbun Koem-A 25-27July ※Depend on design3. Weaving Koem(about 20 knar)/kbun 10-15days/kbun 28Julyӗ

KoemA=17Knar*4bunteahKoemB=13Knar*4bunteah KoemC=17Knar*3bunteah

425

A6.ExcerptsfromtheinterviewsconductedinCambodiaandtheUnitedStates

Tobenoted:M.standsforMagali.Iusetheinitialsofthetranslatorinthetranscripts.Khmer

termsthatIwasabletoidentifyappearinitalics.

1. AtCaringforYoungKhmercentre,translatedbyRothmono,TrapaingKasaing,

Takeoprovince,August3,2017.

AmSai:

‘M:Andhowdifficultisittolearnpidan?

[Rothmonotranslates]

A:Pibaakpibaak.

R:Shesaysthatlearningpidanisthemostdifficult,therearearesomanypictures.

M:Motifs?

R:Yes,motifs.

M:Andso,itwashardforhertolearnthat?

[Rothmonotranslates]

R:Pibaak.

M:Itwasherfirsttimetomakepidan?

[Rothmonotranslates]

R:Yes,itisherfirsttime.Shesaysthatshehasdonemanyprogrammesalready,butthisis

thefirstonewhereshestartedlearningpidan’.

NowSaraem:

‘M:So,whatwasshedoingbefore?

R:Shesaysthatoneofthereasonsshedecidedtolearnweavingisbecauseshehasnever

learneditbeforeandwantedtoexperienceit.Shethendecidedtocome.

426

[Rothmonotranslates]

R:Shehasdonemanykindsofsmallbusiness:rearingchicken,cows,doingfarming,selling

thingsatthemarket.

M:OK,sofarmingandselling.Andisshestilldoingthatorissheaweaverfulltime?

[Rothmonotranslates]

R:Shesaysshestoppedallexceptdoingfarm.Shehasstoppeddoingeverythingelse,the

selling.Andnowsheisdoingthisfulltime’.

Pheach:

‘M:Anddoesshelikeweaving,doessheenjoythepractice?15:44

[Rothmonotranslates]

R:Shesaidthatnotonlyshelikesit,butshelovesit.Becauseit'scustoms,it'sKhmer.It's

Khmercustoms.ItistheidentityofCambodia.Shereallyreallylovesweaving.

M:Ohok,doesshewearhol,doessheownsampotkbunthatshehaswovenherself?16:38

[Rothmonotranslates]

R:No,shedoesn't.Whenevershefinishesonepiece,shejustsellsit.

M:So,sheisproudtobeaweaver.

[Rothmonotranslates]

R:Yes,sheis.

M:Doyouthinkshewillteachherdaughters,herchildren?

[Rothmonotranslates]

R:Shewillteachthemeventhoughtheymightwanttowork.Butshewillteachthemthis

becauseshelovesit!’

427

2. InterviewsofChenda,ThearyandChendy,translatedbyYu,atKramaYuyu,Ta

Poukvillage,SiemReapprovince,July26,2017.

Chendy:

‘Y:Yes,sheisdisappointedthatwearelosingthehol,thetraditionalCambodianhol.Soit

comesonlyfromThailand,importedfromThailandbutdifferentdesignanddifferent

quality.ShesaysthatyouhavetoconservethistobringupabouttheCambodianholorsilk

sothatthenewgenerationwillknowaboutit.Becausenowtheyounggenerationtheydon't

knowmuchaboutit.

M:Yes.Andwheredidshegetthesilkfibre?

[Yutranslates]

Y:TheygetthesilkfromTakeobutalsosomefromVietnam.Shesaystheymakeitfrom

China.

M:So,didsheeverusethelocalsilk,thegoldensilk?

[Yutranslates]

Chendy:Otmien.

Y:Theydidn'thavesome.Shesaysthatbeforetheyusedtohavebutnownomore,because

theprocesstoobtainsilkfromthecocoonisdifficult,andittakessolong.Nownoonedoes

itanymore’.

Chenda:

‘Y:Shesaysit'salsodifficulttobringbackthememorytomakethehol.Forthekramashe

candoit,butfortheholshehadtoresearchandlearnalot.

M:So,whatdidshehavetodo?

[Yutranslates]

Y:Forthehol,tolearnagainhowtomake,whenshedidnotremember,sheaskedher

motherortheauntieinTakeoprovincetogetmoreinformationonhowtomakeit.

428

M:Andwhatdidsheask,whatwerethequestions?

[Yutranslates]

Y:Sheaskedonlyaboutdyeingcolours,betweennaturaldyeingandchemicaldyes.She

wantedtoknowabouthowtodoit.

M:Andforthetyingpartsheremembered.

[Yutranslates]

Chenda:Tchaa.

Y:Yes,tyingsheremembered’.

Theary:

‘M:Doyoutheythinkaboutanythingwhentheypracticeweaving?Dotheydream,dothey

thinkaboutgroceryshopping,or...?

[Yutranslates][Everyonelaughs]Thearysaysthatsometimesshethinksaboutotherthings,

butIdon'tknowwhatshe'sthinkingabout.So,Itoldher,maybeshe'sthinkingabouther

boyfriend.

[Thearyexplains]Shesaysthatsometimeswhileshe'sworkingshe'sthinkingit'stakingso

longandthecostoftheholisverycheap.So,thensheputsitdownandjustwalksaway.And

afterthatshehasthedesiretoworkonitagain,soshegoesbacktoit’.

3. InterviewsofSoAi,YuonSophon,Kamon,Pon,andChinKoeurtranslatedby

PromChak,invillagesinPhnomChisor,Takeoprovince,March17,2018.

SoAi:

‘Anddoessheenjoyweaving,isitsomethingsheenjoysdoingorisithard?

[P:inKhmer]cholchet?

[Interviewee:inKhmer]

429

P:Shelikesthatjobbecausethisisthejobshehaslearnedalongtimeagoandisstilldoing

that.Buttheproblemnowisthatherhealthisnotsogood.

M:AndhasshebeentoPhnomPenhtoseetheshops?

[P:inKhmer]

[Interviewee:inKhmer]

P:Never.Onlysellstheproductiontothemiddleman’.

YuonSophon:

‘P:Shesaid:before,likeeveryhousehadaloom,butnotonlyoneloom,buteventhree

loomsalso,inthepast.

M:Really?Inthehouses,likehermomhadthreelooms?

P:Butnowthewomengotoworkforthefactory.

M:Wouldsheworkforthefactory?

[P:inKhmer]

[Interviewee:inKhmer]

P:TheChinesefactory.

M:Butifshehadajobthere...?

[P:inKhmer]

[Interviewee:inKhmer]

P:No,shewouldn't’.

Kamon:

‘M:Andso,forexamplethispiece,whoorderedthispiece?

[P:inKhmer]

[Interviewee:inKhmer]

430

P:Thisisapieceforher.Notforsale,becausethisisforaweddingpartysoshepreparesfor

herself.

M:Oh,notforsale!

[Interviewee:inKhmer]

P:Butthepattern,shecopiedfromtheneighbors.Butthisisjustforhertowearfora

wedding’.

Pon:

‘P:ShemarriedjustbeforePolPotregime.

M:BeforePolPot.AndshewasaweaverbeforePolPot?

[P:inKhmer]

[Interviewee:inKhmer]

P:Shejustlearnedatthattime.Studyatschoolalsoandlearnedweaving.

M:AndthenPolPotarrivedanditstopped.SonobodyinthisvillagewasweavingduringPol

Pot.

P:No’.

ChinKoeur:

‘M:Andanotherquestionis,wheredoesshegetthematerials?

[P:inKhmer]

[Interviewee:inKhmer]

P:ShesaysshegoestoPhnomPenhandbuysinPhnomPenh.Andalsothedyeingalsofrom

PhnomPenh.ButsheknowsthattheproductscomefromVietnamandThailand.

M:FromVietnamandThailand.Howmuchwouldbesautkilo?

[P:inKhmer]

[Interviewee:inKhmer]

431

P:Onekilogramisseventydollars’.

4. InterviewsofOkKhannia,SokChan,andKayleneMen,CambodiaTown,Long

Beach,California,April2017.

OkKhannia(April6,2017):

‘K:Asakid,whenIwasgettingdressed,myveryfirstcostume...Iwasscaredbecauseitwas

myveryfirstperformance.Butitfeltreally...Mymomwastheredressingmeformyfirst

performance.That'stheonlytime,right!Itjust...Havingyourmomknowingwhatsheis

doing,andthisissomethingthatyourmomisteachingyou,andyou'renotteachingyour

mumhowtohandlethingsorwhatacashierissaying,youknow,itwasadifferent,a

reversal,arolereversal.AndthatwasformeCambodianAmerican,myparentsdon'tspeak

alotofEnglish.Itwasnice,becauseitwaslike:“OhI'mbeingtaughtsomethingbymy

parents.”[…]Toseeherhelpingmyfriendsanddressingthem,itwasawonderfulfeeling.It

mademefeelbeautiful,Iwasreallyexcited.Ijustfeltso:‚ThisisCambodianclothes!Thisis

myclothes!’.Ilovedit,Ifellinlovewithit.SometimesI'dbewalkingaroundinthestreetsto

thestoreinmykbun’.

SokChan,translatedbyMaryTan(April6,2017):

‘Mary:Sometimesshestartsfromhercatalogueandsometimesshedesigns.Myoutfitis

onlyfromherdesigns.Onlytraditionalstyle.

M:Doyouthinksheisgoingtocontinuesellingsilk?

SokChan:Idon'tknow.(Otdonte).Iwanttoretire!

M:When?

S:Infiveyears.Pramchnaam.

M:Andafteryouwillclosethebusiness?

432

S:Ithinkso.

M:Nobodywilltakeoverthebusiness?

S:Idon'tknow(Otdonte).Whenmyhusband(pday)retires,Iwanttoretiretoo.

M:Andshehasnooneinthefamilywhowantstocontinue?

S:Ote.Allofmykidsareworking,butnotintextiles’.

MenKaylene(April11,2017):

‘K:Iseesomeoftheweddingplanners,inCambodiainmajority,goforthetrends,goforthe

money.Andsomeofthemtheydon’t,culture,value,theylostitbecausetheywanttokeep

themoney,thetrendsandfindawaytomakeitmoretrendy.ButIseethatit’salossin

culturetoo.Trendsandmixandmatch,andalmostmakethebridelikeadragqueenand

that’stome,notappropriate,especiallyfortheonethatdoesn’tknow.Itoldthem:Icando

thisbutthisisnotme.Youcantaketheclothesanddothatbutifyouwantittobe

Cambodian,thisisthetraditionalway.AndthenIamvery,howdoyoucallthat…not

uptight...

M:Veryspecific?

K:Veryspecific!’

433

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Pon.InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.Trans.PromChak.March17,2018.PhnomChisor,Cambodia.

Prom,Chak.Informalconversation.March15,2018.PhnomPenh,Cambodia.

Sekiguchi,Haruki.InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon.December29,2016.PhnomPenh,Cambodia.

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