SilkandPost-ConflictCambodia:EmbodiedPracticesandGlobal
andLocalDynamicsofHeritageandKnowledgeTransference
(1991-2018)
MAGALIANBERTHON
Athesissubmittedinpartialfulfilmentoftherequirements
oftheRoyalCollegeofArtforthedegreeof
DoctorofPhilosophyinHistoryofDesign
October2021
TheRoyalCollegeofArt
ThisresearchissupportedbyTECHNE–ArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil
2
CopyrightStatement
ThistextrepresentsthepartialsubmissionforthedegreeofDoctorofPhilosophyatthe
RoyalCollegeofArt.Thiscopyhasbeensuppliedforthepurposeofresearchforprivate
study,ontheunderstandingthatitiscopyrightmaterial,andthatnoquotationfromthe
thesismaybepublishedwithoutproperacknowledgement.
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Abstract
Mythesisexaminessilkintermsofcraft,heritageanduseincontemporaryCambodiaunder
theperspectiveofahistoryoftrade,conflict,loss,andforeigninfluence.InCambodia,silk
weavingdevelopedintoacottageactivitysincethetwelfthcentury,producingceremonial
textilesforthedomesticmarketandtrade.TheKhmerRougeregime,whichclaimedcloseto
twomillionlivesbetween1975and1979,heavilyimpactedthisancestralcraftbyimpeding
silkyarnproduction,weaving,andskillstransmission.Thecountry’sslowreconstruction
boostedbythereopeningofforeigninvestmentinthe1990shasdeeplymodifiedits
culturallandscape.Howtosustainthreadsofknowledgeandculturalidentityinapost-
conflictcontext?Inthisthesis,thedynamicsofruptureandrevivalofculturalpracticesand
knowledgeredefinedunderlocalandglobaltensionsareinvestigatedthroughthescopeof
silk.
Indoingso,thepositionofsilkinCambodiaanditsglobaldiasporasincethefallofthe
destructiveKhmerRougeregimeopensthewaytoapolyvocalexploration.Anglesof
analysisincludelookingattheenmeshmentofsilkinCambodia’shistory,geographyand
geopoliticsandthestructurationofthesilksectorviaitsmainforeignanddomesticactors
sincethe1990s.Recentringontheweavers’keyroleinskillstransmission,thecraftof
Cambodiansilkweavingandthemeaningoftextilesanddressarelensesthroughwhichthis
studyexplorethemesofembodiment,tacitknowledge,culturalmemory,identity,and
empowerment.
ThroughseveralperiodsoffieldworkinCambodiaandLongBeach,California,combining
ethnographicmethodologies,interviewsandActionResearch,thisthesisproducesitsown
baseofprimaryoralandvisualresources.Thisprimematerialoncontemporarysilk
practicesinpost-conflictCambodiaareputindialoguewitharchivalandobject-based
studiestorevealanupdatedcriticalperspectiveonthemultilayerednatureofsilk.
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Ultimately,thepolyphonyofthehumangeographyformingthesilksectoraimstodelink
monolithicnarrativesonCambodianculturalidentityandheritage.
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Tableofcontents
Copyrightstatement 2
Abstract 3
Tableofcontents 5
Listoffigures 9
Acknowledgements 21
Author’sdeclaration 23
Abbreviations 24
Notesabouttranslationandtransliteration 25
Introduction 26
AshorthistoryofCambodiaandimpactoftheKhmerRougeregimeonsilk 33
SpecificitiesofCambodiansilk 41
Keyactorsofthesilksector 44
Literaturereview 47
Theoreticalframeworks:fromglobalsilknetworkstoindividualformsofembodiedand
tacitknowledge 58
Polyphonicandmultidisciplinarymethodology 68
Sources 74
Chaptersummary 77
ChapterOne Cambodiansilkpolyphonies:historiography,geography,and
materiality(1200-1990)
Introduction 80
Crossingtheoreticalterritories:metageography,designhistory,andvoices 84
Silkfibreandfabricationprocess 86
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GeopoliticalandmaterialjuncturesintheKhmerEmpire(802-1431CE) 93
TheThaiinfluenceoverCambodia(1430-1860) 104
FrenchcolonisationandthecraftingofaCambodiannationalculture(1863-1950) 119
MaterialityofthesilklandscapeduringIndependence(1950-69) 128
Dismantlementofthesilkterritory(1970-1979) 135
Multipleagenciesinreconstructingthesilkindustry(1980-1990) 146
Conclusion 159
ChapterTwo Keyplayersinsilkweaving:networksandnarratives(1991-2018)
Introduction 160
ConceptualandmethodologicalapproachtoexploringtheCambodiansilkscape 164
Domesticandtransnationalformsofkhsaeinpost-conflictCambodia 166
DefiningforeignagenciesintheCambodiansilkscape 170
UNESCO:generatingsilkrevitalisationinitiativesundertransnationalinput 176
ArtisansAngkor(AA):Frenchpatronageasaleadingvoiceofthesilksector 182
TheInstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles(IKTT):authority
underJapanesepatronage 197
Cambodianinitiatives:betweenmacro-consortiumandmicro-enterprises 215
Conclusion 234
ChapterThreeWeavers:dynamicsofknowledgeproductionthroughpractice,
embodiment,andmemory
Introduction 237
ActionResearchandyarning:developingdialogicmethodologies 241
EstablishingtheneedsofCambodiansilkweaverstosetuptheActionResearch
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project 251
PlanningtheKramaYuyuActionResearchproject 266
ObservingweavingduringtheActionResearchprojectatKramaYuyu 273
Weavers’interviews:agenciesinknowledgeandskillstransmissionintheActionResearch
project 286
Weavers’voicesonmemory,knowledge,andtasteinsilkpractices 296
Activatingknowledgethroughcommunity,matrilinealconnectionsand
apprenticeship 301
Conclusion 306
ChapterFour Silkembodiment:craftingCambodianidentityintheglobaldiaspora
Introduction 309
Capturingthedisplacedexperiencethroughethnographyandembodiment 311
Fromrefugeecampstoresettlement:weavingpracticeindisplacement 316
CambodiaTown:aplatformofencountersforsilkdressmakersandwearers 331
StagingsilkattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival(CTCF) 350
Ritualsinmovement:silkembodimentinKhmerclassicalballet 367
Conclusion 387
Conclusion
Keyconclusionsandoriginalcontributions 390
Challengesandreflections 398
Futureresearch 400
Appendices
A1.Khmer[phonetic]-Englishglossaryofterms 402
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A2.Technicalglossaryofweaving 406
A3.VisuallexiconofCambodiantextiles 409
A4.EthicsinformationandconsentformsforinterviewsinEnglishandKhmer 415
A5.Preliminaryschedulingchartfortheholproject,fromTomokoTakagi,2017 422
A6.Interviewexcerpts 423
Bibliography
Oralsources 431
Archivalsources 433
Primarysources 433
Newspaperarticles 443
Secondarysources 447
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ListoffiguresBesteffortshavebeenmadetocontactthecopyrightholdersofthefiguresbelow:Introduction:Fig.6Chapter1:Fig.26,38a,39a-b-c,41a-b-c-d-2Chapter2:Fig.62Chapter3:Fig.79,Chapter4:Fig.120a,128,147,150,151,160a-bIntroductionFigure1KohDachislandlocatedinKandalprovinceatthenorthofPhnomPenh,WikimediaCommons,2019.Figure2Pheap,formerweaver,showingagreensilkphamaungshehadwoven,KohDach,Kandal.Author’sphotograph,2017.Figure3ProductionofsilkyarninCambodiacitingtheCambodianSericultureStocktakingReport(Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProjectPhaseII),64.Figure4CambodiangoldensilkyarnandcocoonsondisplayattheInstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextilesshop,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,December2016.Figure5MapofthemainsericultureandweavingareasinCambodiain2016,basedondatafromtheNationalSilkStrategy2016-2020,bytheauthor.Figure6CambodiansilkvaluechainchartfromtheNationalSilkStrategy2016-2010,14.Figure7BuddhisthangingpidanshowingtheGreatDepartureofBuddha,early20thc.,silkikat,collectedbySuzanneKarpelès.acquisition71.1933.111.258,MuséeduQuaiBranly,Paris.Figure8PidanhangingsoldatCaringforYoungKhmershopinPhnomPenh.Author’sphotograph,December28,2016.Figure9Processionofwomendressedinsampothol,aor,andkramaforaBuddhistceremonyinTakeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.ChapterOneFigure10WomanwearingakramaclotharoundherchestinAngkorVat,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,2012.Figure11ThearyandChendaHeng,weaversatKramaYuyushowingasampotholfromtheirpersonalcollection,TaPouk,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,2017.Figure12Speciesofpolyvoltinebombyxmoricocoonsproducinggoldensilk,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016.Figure13Artisanalextractionprocessofthesilkthreadsfromthecocoonsinboiledwater,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016.
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Figure14EntangledsilkfilamentsonagoldensilkcocoonfromSiemReap,microscopeview.Author’sphotograph,October2017.CourtesyofQuaiBranlyMuseum.Figure15DegummedfinesilkfromSiemReap,microscopeview.Author’sphotograph,October2017.CourtesyofQuaiBranlyMuseum.Figure16Differentqualitiesofsilkyarn:rawsilkontheleftandfinesilkontherightbeforedegumming,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016.Figure17Unwindingsilkcocoons,BatiCommune,Takeoprovince,1968.PhotographcourtesyofBernardDupaigne.Figure18MapofSoutheastAsiankeypowersin900.WikimediaCommons.Figure19Pairofcarvedlotusesunderalintel,AngkorWat.PhotographbyGillianGreen,2005.Figure20CanopyfromTheSteinCollection,Dunhuang(discovered),7thcenturyto9thcentury(made),Plainwovenhemp,painted,OnloanfromtheGovernmentofIndiaandtheArchaeologicalSurveyofIndia.Copyright:GovernmentofIndia,Victoria&AlbertMuseum.Figure21Devata(celestialbeing)wearinglightweightpatternedsilkonabas-reliefinAngkorWat,SiemReap,12thcentury.Author’sphotograph,2012.Figure22Cashmedallions,PreahKhan,Cambodia.PhotographbyGillianGreen,2006.Figure23Block-printedcottontextileproducedinIndiafromFustat,Egyptfromalaterperiod(18thcentury)showingsimilarpatterns,Acquisitionnumber1973-76-16-b.CooperHewitt,SmithsonianDesignMuseum.Figure24MapofAsiaandSoutheastAsiainthe18thcentury.WikimediaCommons.Figure25EngravingplatefromDuRoyaumedeSiambySimondeLaLoubère(1642-1729),illustratorunknown,pp72-76.Figure26DetailofapaintedpageoftheTenBirthTalesfromtheThaimanuscriptOr14068;f3v,Paperfoldingbook,late18thcentury,BritishLibrary.Figure27DetailofapaintingaboutthelifeofGautamaBuddha,Cambodia,18thcentury.Cataloguenumber961.3.305,AsianArtMuseumofToulon,France.Figure28aClose-upofanirregulartwillweave2-1structureonasampothol,acquisition71.1962.22.118,QuaiBranlyMuseum.Author’sphotograph,January2017.Figure28bDiagramofthe2-1twillweave(twoweftsup,oneweftdown)formingdiagonallines,bytheauthor.Figures29a-bSampotchawngkbunholgiftedtotheIndiaMuseumbyKingMongkut;detailofbordersofyantra,c.1855,Accessionnumber:5640(IS).Victoria&AlbertMuseum.
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Figures30a-bSampotholinsaudagiristyle;detailofthecentralfield.CatalogNumber:E83,fromKingMongkut,ca.1856,NationalMuseumofNaturalHistory,SmithsonianInstitution.Figure31Textileinthesaudagiristyle,printedandresist-dyed,India,19thcentury,Accessionnumber:IPN.960,Victoria&AlbertMuseum.Figures32a-bSampotholwithconfrontednagainthecentralfield,fromViceroyPrahPinKlao,c.1856inLisaMcQuail,TreasuresofTwoNations:ThaiRoyalGiftstotheUnitedStatesofAmerica(Washington,DC: SmithsonianInstitution,1997),Figure100,96.Figure33Saputsongketwithconfrontednaga,early19thcenturyfromSingaraja,Bali,TONYRAKAArtGalleryTwitter,2019.https://twitter.com/tonyrakagallery/status/1200583237669511168[AccessedJune10,2021] Figure34MapofcountriesformingFrenchIndochinain1900.WikimediaCommons/Author’simage.Figure35GeorgeGroslierinhisofficeinPhnomPenh,Cambodia,1926.PhotographbyMartinHurlimann.WikimediaCommons.Figure36PostcardofaphotographshowingthesilkspinningandweavingworkshopattheSchoolofCambodianArts,c.1924.Figure37SilkpictorialpidaninweftikatwovenattheSchoolofCambodianArtsproducedforMaisonRodier,Vogue,1January1927,44.Figures38a-bLeft:Carte‘7.Industriesrurales’showingcottonandsericulture,inconjunctionwithweaving,matweaving,metalwork,makleuadyeing,basketry,andceramics,inJeanDelvert,Lepaysancambodgien,Paris:L’Harmattan,1994.Right:locationoftheareastudiedbyDelvertinCambodia.WikimediaCommons/Author’simage.Figure39aWomenwearingakramascarfgrowingrice,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959),Dir.SamdechNorodomSihanouk,ProducedbyKhemaraPictures,Cambodia,CNC.Figure39bWeaverwearingasampotphamaungwarpingwhitesilkthreadonawoodenwarpingdevice,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959),Dir.SamdechNorodomSihanouk,ProducedbyKhemaraPictures,Cambodia,CNC.Figure39cWomanweavingasampotrbauk,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959),Dir.SamdechNorodomSihanouk,ProducedbyKhemaraPictures,Cambodia,CNC.Figure40AdministrativezonesofDemocraticKampuchea1975-78,LibraryofCongress.FederalResearchDivision.Cambodia:ACountryStudy,c.1990,PublicDomain.Figure41aWomencollectingcottonballsinthefields,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.AccessedonSeptember16,2017.https://www.ina.fr/video/VDD06002101/tissage-artisanal-et-industriel-du-textile-sous-le-regime-khmer-rouge-video.html
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Figure41bFeedingsilkwormswithmulberrytreeleaves,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.Figure41cWomeninaKhmerRougegarbspinningsilkthread,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.Figure41dSampotholclothsdisplayingthediversityofgeometricandstylizedikatmotifs,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.Figure41eWorkersenteringtheStateTextileFactory1,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.Figure42Reproductionsofwomen’sandmen’sKhmerRougeuniforms(blackgarments,krama,andrubber-tyresandals)exhibitedattheChoeungEkKillingFields,PhnomPenh.WikimediaCommons.Figure43MapofCambodiainthe1980sshowingtheThaiborder,regionsandzonesofKhmerRougeactivity.Author’smap.Figure44ResearchmapofthesurveyconductedbyKikuoMorimotofortheUNESCO.Morimoto,UNESCOreport,1995.Figure45DecoratedwoodcarvedelementsofaKhmerloomcollectedinthe1920s.Photograph,January1923,NationalMuseumofCambodiaarchives.Figure46SampotsarabapattheNationalMuseumofCambodiafoldedinthetextilestorageroom,objectnumberN.38.Author’sphotograph,April2018.Figure47TwocontemporarypidanhangingsproducedanddonatedbyCYKondisplayattheNationalMuseumofCambodia.Author’sphotograph,April2018.Figure48KhmerballetcostumeelementsondisplayattheNationalMuseumofCambodia.Author’sphotograph,April2018.ChapterTwoFigure49MaplocatingtheorganisationspresentedinChapterTwo.Author’simage.Figure50DiagramofthebusinessmodelofStudioNaenna,aChiangMai-basedprivateenterprise,sketchedbyPeewaraJitsukummongkolforthe‘NewforOld’:SoutheastAsiaResearchResidency,December2016.Figure51Diagramofthemiddlemanbusinessmodel.Author’simage.Figure52MapofThailandhighlightingtheregionofSurinattheborderofThailand.WikimediaCommons.Figure53OfficialDevelopmentAssistancebydonorinUSDmillioninCambodia.OECD,2018.
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Figure54ChartofLesChantiersEcolesdeFormationProfessionnellestructureandnetworkoffoundersfrom1990to1995.Author’simage.Figure55Chartshowingthetransferofleadershipbetween1995and2000fromLaLigueFrancaisedel’EducationcedingLesChantiersEcolesdeFormationProfessionnelletotheCambodiaMinistryofLabourandVocationalTrainingandtheNationalSilkCentertakingchargeoftraining,andthefoundationofArtisansd’AngkorsupportedbytheEUReplicfundingprogramme.Author’simage.Figure56DiagramshowingArtisansAngkorownershipmodelsince2003.Author’simage.Figure57PavEangKhoing,SilkDirectoratArtisansAngkorworkshop,checkingtheworkofaweavertyinganikatpatternonsilkweftthreads,Puok,SiemReap,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,April2,2018.Figure58LionstatueinspiredbyBakhengtempleandsilkproductsholrbaukondisplayattheArtisanAngkorshop,SiemReap,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,December25,2016.Figure59ArtisansAngkorguidepresentingthetyingworkofholduringavisitattheSilkFarm,Puok,SiemReap,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,December25,2016.Figure60KikuoMorimotoinhishouseshowingoneofhisyuzensilks,ChotSamvillage,Cambodia,2012.Author’sphotographforTissus&ArtisansduMondeproject.Figure61KikuoMorimoto(foreground)workingonawell-drillingprojectatAranyaprathetineasternThailand,1983.PhotographcourtesyofIKTT,fromthebookKikuoMorimoto,ThemanwhobuiltavillageinCambodia(Tokyo:Hakusuisha,2015).Figure62OmCheaweaver,rightofpicture,instillfromRAE2004:11thRolexAwardsforEnterprise-2004Laureateslongform,producedbyNationalGeographicChannel,distributedbyTVEAsiaPacific,2004.Figure63KikuoMorimotoisstandingsecondontherightwithateamofspecialistsinchargeofdeminingthelandnearChotSamvillage,futureWisdomfromtheForestsite,SiemReap,2002.CourtesyofIKTT.Figure64Mapshowingdirectionstoaccesstothe‘WisdomfromtheForest’projectfromtheshopinSiemReap,collectedin2016.CourtesyofIKTT.Figures65a-bSelectionofholsilksinnaturaldyesandproductsondisplaysoldattheIKTTshop,SiemReap,Cambodia,December2016.Author’sphotographs.Figure66ArtisansAngkorbrightly-colouredsilkproducts.Author’sphotograph,January2017.Figure67ScreenshotoftheIKTTWebsitewithKikuoMorimoto’sbiopageintheEnglishversiondestinedtoaninternationalaudience.AccessedonMay10,2017.http://www.ikttearth.org
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Figure68ScreenshotoftheIKTTWebsitehomepageintheJapaneseversion.Morimotoappearsontheleftsideofthisarchivalimage.AccessedonMay10,2017.http://www.iktt.orgFigure69ChinKoeur’scertificateforhertraininginsilkweavingundermasterweaverLeavSaEm’sapprenticeship,datedOctober1995deliveredbyUNESCOPhnomPenh,SilkAssociationsofCambodiainKanhjangvillage,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure70SignforSilkAssociationsofCambodia,attheentranceofChinKoeur’shouseandoffice,Kanhjangvillage,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure71MapofSamraongDistrictinTakeoprovince,Cambodia,encompassingSlaCommuneandPhnomChisor,bytheauthorbasedonaGooglemapsview.Figure72DiagramofSilkAssociationsofCambodiabusinessmodel,basedonChinKoeur’sinterview,bytheauthor.Figure73ChinKoeurworkingonatiedbundleofweftsilkyarninherworkshop,Kanhjangvillage,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure74MaybankWomenEcoWeaversprogrammeattheMaybankSilkWeavingTrainingCenter,Slacommune,Takeoprovince,n.d.PhotographColorSilkFoundation.Figure75RangeofColorSilkikatfabricsinavarietyofcolourwaysandpatterns,ColorSilkwebsite.AccessedMay2,2020.https://colorsilkcommunity.wixsite.com/colorsilk-cambodia/fabricsFigure76DistributionofColorSilk’sexport/wholesaleanddomesticretailproducts.Author’simage.Figure77ColorSilkweaversfortheFashionRevolution2017campaign‘Imadeyourclothes’,April2017,ColorSilkFacebookpage.ChapterThreeFigure78Myfieldworkforthischapterisconcentratedintwoprovinces:SiemReapinthenorth,Takeointhesouth.WikimediaCommons.Figure79‘TheIndigenousResearchAgenda’,inLindaTuhiwaiSmith,DecolonizingMethodologies(London:ZedBooksLtd.,1999),Figure6.1,117.Figure80GroupatKramaYuyu.Lefttoright,translatorYu,weaverHengTheary,formerweaverHengChendy,weaverHengChenda,MagaliAnBerthon,co-founderTomokoTakagi,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July26,2017.
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Figure81HengChenda,centre,withSarin,Salat,SreiPon,andSoKimworkingonthewarping,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.Figure82YuonSophonworkingonherloom,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure83Poninherhouseshowingabrightbluesampotholshehaswoven,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure84SoAiwithoneofherwovensilks,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure85Kamonweavingasampotholathome,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure86TheCaringforYoungKhmerweavingcentreislocatedinTrapaingKrasaingcommune,Batidistrict,Takeoprovince.GoogleMaps,August25,2019.Figure87AmSaiweavinganindigo-dyedpidan,CYKweavingcentre,TrapaingKrasaing,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.Figure88NowSaraemworkingonthetyingframeforaspecialsampotholorder,CYKweavingcentre.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.
Figure89Pheachsortingandcollectinggoldensilkthreads,CYKweavingcentre.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.Figures90a-bDiagramofthedesignstructureofoneholpiece(kbun)asdeconstructedbyTomokoandChendafortheweavingprocess.Author’sphotographofasetofseventeenbobbins(knar)representingonerepeat(bunteah)ofonepattern(koem).Figure91ActionResearchprojectfullplanningfromMaytoOctober2017,bytheauthor.Figure92Thearywindingtheblackwarpthreadsonspools,TaPoukvillage,June2017.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi.Figure93Industrially-producedfinesilkimportedfromVietnamnexttogoldensilkthreadsatKramaYuyuworkshop,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.Figure94EmptypacketsofpinkchemicalfastdyefromThailandfortheholtie-dyeprocess,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.
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Figures95a-bChendalookingatholmotifsinbooksandtakingnotestodeterminethedesigns,TaPoukvillage,May2017.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi.Figure96ChartoftheActionResearchobservationandinterviewprogrammefromJuly24to30,2017,bytheauthor.Figure97Weaversinthewarpingprocesstryingtokeepthethreadsuntangled,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.Figure98Splitscreenshowingweaversonbothendofthewarpthreadstokeepthetensioneven.FromTheSilkChronicles:Warp,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[TimeCode01:10].Figure99Oneweaverseparatingthethreadsandtheotherpassingitthroughthereed’sdentwithahook,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.Figure100ChendaandTheary’shandscheckingthequalityofthepinkdyeingprocess,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.Figure101ThearyonthesecondroundoftyingkoemB,unmaskingcertainareasandcoveringotherswithplasticstrips,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July26,2017.Figure102SplitscreenofChendaandThearydyeingthetiedpinksilkskeinintheyellowvat.FromTheSilkChronicles:Weft,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[Timecode04:33].Figure103ThearyspinningthemulticolouredweftsilkthreadsforkoemBonspools,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.Figure104aChendamanuallymakingtheheddlesontheloom,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.
Figure104bDiagramofwheretheheddlesarepositionedontheloom.WikimediaCommons.
Figure105Chendacoatingthewarpwithwatermixedwithtapioca,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.Figure106AspooloftheknarforkoemAisputinashuttleandpassedthoughthewarp,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.Figure107Chenda’shandshowingthemulticolouredsectionshehadwoven,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.Figures108a-bChendyHengshowinghercollectionofsilkikatspoolsbroughtfromTakeoprovince,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July26,2017.
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Figure109DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemA,October2020.Figure110DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemB,October2020.Figure111DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemC,October2020.Figure112Chendawiththefourthkbunshewoveinneutraltonesandmixedpatterns,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi,October2017.Figure113SoAiandPromChakholdingherlatestpieceinabrightacidgreenandsalmonpinkmotifs,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure114SampotholpoarwovenbyPoninelectricblue,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figure115StackofsampotfromPon'scollection,includingthefirsthipwrapperskirtshehadwovenforherselfonthetop,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.Figures116a-bKamonworkingonhersampotholpieceforaweddingandclose-up,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotographs,March17,2018.Figure117OmLai(ontheright)workingwithotherweaversondyeingsilkskeins,IKTTWisdomfromtheForestvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.Figure118JokKiangworkingonaholtextile,IKTTWisdomfromtheForestvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.Figure119PanDamatthesilkwormnursery,IKTTWisdomfromtheForestvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.ChapterFourFigures120a-bGeographiclocationofCambodiaTowninLongBeach,InAdebiyiandal.,TheStateofCambodiaTownReport(LosAngeles,CA:UCLA,2013),7;LocalisationofLongBeach,CA,GoogleMaps,2018.Figure121MapofCambodianrefugeecampsontheThai-Cambodianborder,1986.FromTonyJackson,JustWaitingtoDie?CambodianRefugeesinThailand(Oxford:OxfamResearchandEvaluationUnit,July1987),5.
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Figure122HandwovenkramawoveninKhaoIDangrefugeecamp,Thailand,1987-1989,AcquisitionnumberHT31980,donatedbyJennieRobert,CourtesyofMuseumsVictoria/CCBY.Figure123EmBunweavingonherloominHarrisburg,PA.Photograph,BlairSeitz.Figure124EmBun(left)atthe1990NationalHeritageFellowshipConcert,Washington,D.C.PhotographcourtesyoftheNationalEndowmentfortheArts.AccessedJune3,2020.http://mastersoftraditionalarts.org/artists/41Figure125Weaverworkingonherloom,screenshotfromtheKhmerDanceandMusicProjectvideoarchive:ApsaraexhibitbyAmyCatlin-Jairazbhoy,filmedonDecember6,1987duringtheopenhouseday.AccessedJune3,2020.https://archive.org/details/calauem_000240Figure126PhanIthweavingatKhmerWomenWeaversstudioinLongBeach,inAmyCatlin,Apsara:TheFeminineinCambodianArt(LosAngeles:TheWoman'sBuilding,1987),26.Figure137SeriesofkramascarvesmadebytheKhmerWomenWeavers’sProject,LongBeach,inCatlin,Apsara:TheFeminineinCambodianArt,3.Figure128WeaverdemonstratingcottonspinningattheUnitedCambodianCommunityCenteronAnaheimStreet,LongBeach,CA,inSusanNeedham,andKarenQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach(Charleston:ArcadiaPublishing,2008),66.Figure129CitysignCambodiaTowndelineatingtheCambodianethnicneighbourhoodofLongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.Figure130SokChaninhershopChandaTailor,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April6,2017.Figure131SokChanadjustingNancyLee’spurpledressatChandaTailorworkshop,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure132StacksofholpoaryardagesatChandaTailor,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure133MenKayleneatherboothattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival(CTCF),LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.Figure134EmbroideredsbaayandsolidsilksampotondisplayatKhmerBridal,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
19
Figure135GroomensembleontheleftandbridedresstherightonmannequinsatKhmerBridalshop,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure136Brideandgroomphotographedontheirweddingday.InGreen,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,194.PhotographcourtesyofGillianGreen.Figure137PortraitofformerclientsinaninterracialmarriageseenatKhmerBridal,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.Figure138MapofCambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA,GoogleMaps,2018.Figure139DrSusanNeedhamandMaryTanbothinKhmerdress,CambodiaTownCultureFestival.LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017,Figure140aFemalefestival-goerwithamatchingsilkensembleandagreensilkensash,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure140bWomendressedinthetypicalensemble:lacedaorandsilksampotholattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017,Figure141MaryTan’shusbandwearingajacketinshotsilkandholdingthecrownfortheparade,CambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure142Dressedinred,womanparticipantwearingaCambodiaTownkramawiththeembroideredlogoofCambodia,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure143ChakraperforminginfrontoftheKhmerVeterans,CambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure144RobamChhayYam,performersattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure145ActorsperformingKingJayavarmanVIIandhisqueenonafloatattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure146GroupofyounggirlsdressedinsilkbodicesandsampotchawngkbunattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure147KhmerclassicalballetperformanceforCambodianNewYearinLongBeachinfrontofapaintedbackdropofAngkorWat,ca.1980.PhotographcourtesyofCamCHAParchives.Figure148TheyoungPrincessNorodomBupphaDeviperforminganapsarapiece,c.1960s.PhotographcourtesyofTheNationalArchivesofCambodia.Figures149a-b-cMaleandfemalerolesincostume;Giant(Yeak);Monkey(Sva)incostume.PhotographscourtesyofUNESCO,2004.AccessedJune3,2020.https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000135258?posInSet=18&queryId=N-EXPLORE-6611dc0c-8034-4f37-ac53-7a9fe951e4de
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Figure150DancersincostumesandaccessoriesmadefrommaterialsfromThailand,c.1977,LongBeach,CA.PhotographcourtesyofCamCHAParchives.Figure151SophilineCheamShapiroin2009.PhotographcourtesyofAlanGovernor/MastersofTraditionalArts.AccessedJune20,2018.http://www.mastersoftraditionalarts.org/artists/300 Figure152OkKhannia(centreleft)teachingaweeklyclassatKhmerArtsAcademy,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,February2018.Figure153DanceclasswithstudentsinsilkgarmentsforpracticeatKhmerArtsAcademy,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure154SetofsilksarabaptextilesbelongingtoKhmerArtsAcademypurchasedinCambodiabySophilineCheamShapiro,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure155Close-upofashimmeringsilksarabappatternedwithscale-likegoldmotifs,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,February2018.Figure156Prince’sfullcostumeinsilkpurchasedinCambodiabySophilineCheamShapiro.Author’sphotograph,April2017.Figure157OkKhanniagettingdressedforaperformance,2016.PhotographcourtesyofKhmerArtsAcademy.Figure158Pleatingofthesilkskirtonadancerbeforeaperformance,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary.‘Make-upandcostumes,2009-01-13/15’.CourtesyofNewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollections.AccessedSeptember20,2020.http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/3ef7d750-0381-0131-9fd1-3c075448cc4b Figure159KhmerArtsAcademystudentsandinstructorsperformingSeasonsofMigrationattheTuTuFoundation,Torrance,CA,2017,CourtesyofKhmerArtsAcademy.Figure160aNeangNeakpiecefromSeasonsofMigration,performedbyKeoKunthearomdancingwithherextendedsbaay,choreographedbySophilineCheamShapiro,Jakarta,August2009.Figure160bDetailofthelongsbaay,SeasonsofMigrationbySophilineCheamShapiro,Jakarta,August2009.Figure161MagaliAnBerthondressedinasampotchawngkbunfordancepracticewithinstructorLathReaksmey.Author’sphotograph,February2018.
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AcknowledgementsCompletingthisthesishasbeenaneventful,exciting,andchallengingjourneymarkedby
preciousencountersandsupport.Firstly,Iwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetomy
supervisorsSarahCheangandMartinaMargettsforbeingsogenerouswiththeirknowledge
andexperience.Theycreatedinvaluablespacesofdiscussionfosteringcriticalthinking
whilepushingmetofollowmyideasandintuitions.Ithashelpedmeshapeandproducea
projectthathasfeltsimultaneouslypersonal,innovative,andambitious.
ThisresearchwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutadoctoralawardfromtheTechne
consortiumhelmedundertheArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil.Otherresearchbodies
havegenerouslycontributedtothefundingofmyfieldwork:TheRoyalCollegeofArt;
l’EcoleFrançaised’ExtrêmeOrient;thePasoldFoundation;andFriendsofKhmerCulture
Foundation.AttendingconferenceswasmadepossiblewiththesupportoftheDesign
HistorySociety,theBritishCouncil,andtheTextileSocietyofAmerica.
Iwouldalsoliketohighlighttheprincipalinstitutionsthatwelcomedmeandhelped
advancemyresearch:theNationalMuseumofCambodia;TuolSlengGenocideMuseum;
BophanaFilmCenter;theNationalArchivesofCambodia;MuséeduQuaiBranlyJacques
Chirac;Victoria&AlbertMuseum;BritishMuseum;l’EcoleFrançaised’ExtrêmeOrient
branchinCambodia;UNESCOPhnomPenh;andtheCambodianCommunityHistory&
ArchiveProject.Ifeltluckytoengageinrichandinsightfulconversationswithpassionate
expertsinsomeoftheseinstitutions;inparticular,ChristopheMoulhérat,SueNeedham,
BertrandPorte,BernardDupaigne,HelenWang,andJennySpancake.
IwouldalsoliketothankmyfellowPhDstudentsattheRCA,withintheTechneconsortium,
andinotheruniversitieswithwhomIgladlydiscussedthemundanerealitiesandchallenges
oftacklingathesis,asmuchasthenuancedtrappingsandcomplexitiesofspecifictheories
22
andmethodologies;inparticular,ArtunOzguner,PathittaNirunpornputta,HuhRowlands,
RebeccaBell,RuthClifford,Anne-LaurePorée,KatieIrani,andVeraMey.Iamalsograteful
toCathyJohns,ResearchLibrarianattheRCA.
IwouldliketoacknowledgeallthecontactsImadeinCambodiaandLongBeach,California:
silkfarmers,weavers,shopowners,academics,students,anddancers...Thereisnotenough
roomtocreditthemallhere,buttheseessentialencountersweredeeplyaffectingand
nourishedmyunderstandingofCambodiancultureinsideandoutsideitsborders.In
Cambodia,IwillmentionTomokoTagaki,HengChendy,ChendaandTheary,PromChak,
PavEangKhoing,SophilineCheamShapiro,SengSonetra,withaspecialthoughtforKikuo
MorimotowhomImetin2012andsadlypassedawayin2017.InLongBeach,California,I
amthinkingofOkKhannia,LathReaksmey,allthestudentsatKhmerArtsAcademy,Mary
Tan,SokChan,andKayleneMen.
Finally,Iwouldliketoacknowledgeandthankmyfamily,especiallymyparentsTuyetAnh
TranandPierreBerthonfortheirunwaveringsupport,theirpatiencetoactasmysounding
boardandfirstreaders,andtheirconstantencouragementsandcare.Iamalsogratefulto
myloveBrettandmyfriends,especiallyEmilyOrr(whoinspiredmetostartaPhD),Eloise
Larochelle,NicholasCalcott,Anne-LaureRoussille,andMyrtilleOdichelidze,whoweremy
supportsysteminthisjourney.IhavealsoathoughtformycolleaguesattheFashion
InstituteofTechnologyandNewYorkUniversitywhoneverstoppedencouragingme,and
formystudents.
IdedicatethisthesistomygrandfatherJosephBerthon,whosecommitmenttoteachingand
learningallhislifehasbeenanever-endingsourceofstrengthandinspiration.
23
Author’sdeclaration
Duringtheperiodofregisteredstudyinwhichthisthesiswaspreparedtheauthorhasnot
beenregisteredforanyotheracademicawardorqualification.Thematerialincludedinthis
thesishasnotbeensubmittedwhollyorinpartforanyacademicawardorqualification
otherthanthatforwhichitisnowsubmitted.
MagaliAnBerthon
October2021
24
Abbreviations
Note:Thefulltitlesoftheseacronymsbelowaregivenontheirfirstappearanceinthis
thesisandinthetitles.Onallfurtherreferencesonlytheacronymisemployed,exceptwhen
itisdeemednecessarytoremindthereaderoftheabbreviation’sfullwords.
AA:ArtisansAngkor
AAC:ArtisansAssociationCambodia
ANT:ActorNetworkTheory
AR:ActionResearch
CamCHAP:CambodianCommunityHistory&ArchiveProject
CPK:CommunistPartyofKampuchea
CTCF:CambodiaTownCultureFestival
CYK:CaringforYoungKhmer
DK:DemocraticKampuchea
EU:EuropeanUnion
IKTT:InstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles
ITC:InternationalTradeCenter
KAA:KhmerArtsAcademy
KR:KhmerRouge
KY:KramaYuyu
NSS:NationalSilkStrategy
OECD:OrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment
PRK:People’sRepublicofKampuchea
UN:UnitedNations
UNDP:UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme
UNESCO:UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation
V&A:Victoria&AlbertMuseum
25
NotesonKhmertranslationandtransliteration
Inthisthesis,wordsintheKhmerlanguageareromanisedwithaconsistenttransliteration
systeminspiredbytheALA-LCRomanizationTablesdevelopedbytheLibraryofCongress
availableatthislinkhttps://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/khmer.pdf
ThereisnouniformtransliterationsystemfortheKhmerlanguage.Theresultspresented
heredonotalwaysreflectstandardpronunciationinspokenKhmer.Itaimstoapproachit
theclosestpossibleandtoremainconsistentwithinthetext.Forthetextiletechnical
terminology,thisthesisreferstothetransliterationmodelusedinGillianGreen’sreference
bookTraditionalTextilesofCambodia(2003).
Herearesomeindicationsofpronunciationbelow:
au=asin‘rot’
ay=asin‘tie’
ea=asin‘fleet’
u=asin‘June’
oo=asin‘loot’
j=asin‘cheat’
hafterp,t,andk=indicatesinspiration
ph=asin‘pat’
r=asin‘l’
nh=asin‘line’
26
Introduction
AbouttwelvekilometresnorthofPhnomPenh,KohDach,anislandlocatedinthe
middleoftheMekongRiverinKandalprovince,hasbeennicknamed‘SilkIsland’byforeign
visitors,inreferencetothelocalindustryofartisanalsilkweaving,essentialuntilthe2000s
[Fig.1].1In2006,about70percentofthe2,887familieslivingontheislandworkedinsilk
weaving.2Textileproductionhasdeclinedinthepasttenyears,mainlyduetothesteeprise
insilkfibreprices,whichhasreducedtheweavers’profitsandpushedthemtoabandon
textileactivityformorelucrativejobs.3KohDachbenefitsfromrichandfertilesoils,andits
estimated20,000inhabitantsarenowmostlyfishermenandfarmersworkingonlarge
agriculturalareasofbanana,corn,papaya,coconut,taroandcassavaplantationsandrice
paddies.4Withitsdustyroads,housesonstiltsgatheredinsmallphum(villages)andlush
landscapes,thesiteoffersaglimpseofaCambodianrurallifethatappearstohavebeen
protectedfromtherapid,widespreadurbanisationthathasaffectedPhnomPenh’s
surroundings,inparticular,sincethemid-2000s,offeringsightseeingopportunitiesfor
touristsforadaytripoutofthecity.
1MangChanno,’SilkSarongWeavingSupportsIslandFolk’,ThePhnomPenhPost,May6,1994https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/silk-sarong-weaving-supports-island-folk[Accessed30October2016].2SamRith,’BusinessDrop-offHits'SilkIsland’,’ThePhnomPenhPost,29October2008https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/business-drop-hits-silk-island[AccessedSeptember20,2019].3‘TheSilkRoadtoKohDach,’KhmerTimes,July29,2016https://www.khmertimeskh.com/26250/the-silk-road-to-koh-dach/[AccessedSeptember20,2019].4SteveNoble,’Aquick-fixbreakonKohDach,’AsiaLifeMagazine,March6,2016https://www.asialifemagazine.com/cambodia/quick-fix-break-koh-dach/[AccessedSeptember20,2019].
27
Fig.1KohDachislandinKandalprovince,northofPhnomPenh.WikimediaCommons,2019.
IwenttothisrenownedcentreofCambodiansaut(silk)productioninDecember2016to
examinethestateoflossorsurvivalofsilkpracticesandproduction.Severalloomsonthe
groundfloorsofthehouseswerevisible,butwithfewweaversworkingatthem.The
evidenceofashopwithwoodworkersbuildingandsellingnewloomsindicatedongoing
textileactivity.Theclatterofmanualloomshadbeenreplacedbyloudernoiseof
mechanicalloomsprocessingyardagesofcheckeredclothinsyntheticfibres.Discussions
witharetiredsilkweavingcouple,PheapandLim,throughtheintermediaryofChomnit,
theirnephew,whospokeEnglish,revealedahistoryofdomesticproductiondestinedforthe
localmarketandshopsinPhnomPenh.PheapandLimspecialisedintheisland’stypical
sampotphamaung,solid-colouredhipwrapsthatareusuallyadornedwithagilded
THAILAND
VIETNAM
LAOS
28
brocadedbandofdiamondsandstylisedfloralmotifs.5Pheaptookupweavingafter
marryingLimandmovingtoKohDachattheageoftwenty-five.Shepulledafewpieces
fromherwardrobe,especiallythefirsttwotubeskirtssheeverproducedasaweaverand
hadkeptcarefullyaspreciousitems.Thefirstpiecewasablacktubeskirtinmixedsilk
material,possiblyablendwithrayon,featuringanall-overpatternofsmalldiamondmotifs
insevencolours,eachcolourassociatedwithoneofthedaysoftheweekinCambodian
culture.6Thesecondpiecewasasoliddarkgreenphamaungwithahemborderofbrocaded
gildedgeometricpatterns,whichPheapoftenworeforweddingceremonies[Fig.2].7
KoOkhnaTey,asmallislandconnectedtoKohDach,alsoaccommodatedtheChiangkasnaey
silkfarmandworkshop,whichhasattractedstudentsfromschoolsfromPhnomPenhand
foreigntouristssince2013.LocalguidePichVangexplainedthattheweavingcentre,
advertisedasacommunity-basedproject,actuallybelongedtoaprivateCambodianowner,
whosenamewasnotdisclosed.8Onaquicktour,visitorscouldwalkaroundaseriesof
outdoorspacesshowcasingthewholeprocessofsilkmaking,fromthesilkwormnurseryto
thespinningsectionandtheweavingareawithseveralfloorlooms,eventuallyendingatthe
shopsection.ThedifferencebetweenPheap’sstoryandthedevelopmentofthissilkfacility
illustratestheshiftfromdomestictotouristactivity,inwhichtheareaisturnedintoa
repositoryofpastpractices,aswellasacentrefortradebetweenislanders,foreigntourists,
andurbantextiledealers.
5PheapandLim,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,December30,2016,KohDach,Cambodia.6BasedonaKhmeradaptationofHinducosmology,eachcolourislinkedtoonedayoftheweek.RedisforSunday,orangeforMonday,purpleforTuesday,greenforWednesday,yellowforThursday,blueforFriday,andpurpleforSaturday.ThisisalsoprevalentinThailand,withaslightvariationintones.SeeSusanConway,ThaiTextiles(London:BritishMuseumPress,1992),55-56.7SeeappendicesA1-A2-A3fortheglossaryoftermsinKhmerandtextiletechnicaldefinitions. 8PichVang,informaldiscussionwithMagaliAnBerthon,December30,2016,KohDach,Cambodia;Seealso:BernardDupaigne,‘L’élevagedesversàsoieauCambodge,’Revued’ethnoécologie14(2018):24.https://journals.openedition.org/ethnoecologie/3697[Accessed5November2020]
29
Fig.2Pheapshowingthegreensilkphamaungshehadwoven,KohDach,Kandal.Author’sphotograph,2017.
ThesitevisittoKohDachrevealsacontextthatconsistedofmultiplelayersofhistory,
geography,trade,andtourism,butalsoofmemory,fibreproductionknownassericulture,
weavingpracticesandfamilyrelationships.Beforethewarperiod,silkweavingwas
commonlyafemaleruralactivityledonthesideoffarming.Sericulturewasalsopractised
byfarmersinthecountrysideonasmallscale.Silkclothsweremainlyusedforclothingto
makehipwraps,shawls,andshirts.Brocadedsilktextilesorembroideredwithgoldthreads
wereintegraltotheroyalcourt’sregaliaforofficial,diplomaticandreligiousceremoniesand
fortheperformanceofKhmerclassicalballet.Cambodiansinthecountrysideandcitiesalso
favouredsilkinshantungorikatforspecificoccasionssuchasweddingceremoniesandto
30
attendreligiousceremoniesatthepagoda.Therefore,theoverarchingaimofthisthesisisto
identifyhowthreadsofknowledgeandculturalidentityhavebeenreclaimedandsustained
throughsilkpracticesintheCambodianpost-warcontext.
SociologistArjunAppaduraidescribesa‘-scape’asa‘perspectivallandscapeoffluid,
irregularshapes’which‘do[es]notlookthesamefromeveryangle’.9Accordingtothis
definition,KohDachisacircumscribedportionofthecomplexCambodiancontemporary
‘silkscape’boundby‘historical,linguisticandpoliticalsituatednessofdifferentsortsof
actors’.10Itiswithinthiscontextthatthisthesisexploresthecomplexnatureofsilkin
contemporaryCambodiaandthediasporicterritoryofLongBeach,California.Itdoessoby
examiningtheconditionsofsericultureandweavingintheaftermathofdecadesofconflict,
fromthe1970scivilwar,theKhmerRouge(KR)regime(1975-1979)anditsdownfall.What
aretheareasoflossandreclamationinsilkculturalheritage,production,knowledgeand
use,astheyhavebeenredefinedundernewlocalandglobaltensions?Bysilkcultural
heritage,itmeansthewaysinwhichsilkpracticesareessentialaspectsofCambodiansocial
andculturalfabric:inruralareaswhereskillstransmissionhappensatayoungageina
matrilinealsystem;intheeconomicandsocialinteractionsbetweenweavers,middlemen,
andmerchantslinkingruralareastourbanmarkets;finallyintheconductofculturalrituals
inwhichsilkisinvolvedsuchasdanceandweddingceremonies,especiallyinadiasporic
context.Andhowhavethemainactorsofthesepractices,suchasweavers,traders,and
companyfounders,respondedto,encouraged,orresistedthesechanges?Thisparticular
contextofreconstructionalsoaskswho,amongthemainstakeholdersandsilkweavers,has
beenabletoaccessneweconomicventures,andwhichgroupshaveremainedatthemargins
oftheseopportunities.
StudyingtherecentandcontemporaryhistoryofCambodiaandthecountry’sreturnto
9 ArjunAppadurai,‘DisjunctureandDifferenceintheGlobalCulturalEconomy,’TheoryCultureSociety7(1990):296-297. 10Ibid.
31
independenceandaglobalisedeconomysincethe1990salsorequirestheconsiderationof
Cambodia’smainhistoricalantecedents,especiallyinthecontextofforeignrelations,
culturallossanddisplacement.HistoriansEricHobsbawmandTerenceRangerpioneered
theconceptof‘inventedtraditions’asritualisedconstructsinperpetualreinvention,in
whichaspecifichistoricpastisformulated‘toinculcatecertainvaluesandnormsof
behaviourbyrepetition’.11HobsbawmandRangersuggestthattraditionsaremostly
responsestonewsituations,andhaveideological,politicalandculturalpurposes.12This
paradigmhasimplicationsforanexaminationofhowsilk,acottageindustry,was
reestablishedasanexpressionofnationalpost-conflictheritage,entailingtheperpetuation
of‘inventedtraditions’andinformingcontemporaryCambodianculturalidentity.By
locatingsilktextilesinacontemporaryandhistoricalcontextofproductionand
consumption,thisthesisaimstohighlightpotentialconnectionswiththepastwithout
confirmingthemastraditional.Insteadofconsideringtherevitalisationofsilkproductionin
Cambodiaasanostalgicreenactment,itaskshowCambodiansilkcanbeconsideredin
discontinuousandfragmentaryformsthatcrossoverlappingnarrativesofloss,reclamation,
changeandinnovation.
Thesuccessivewavesofconflictandforcedmigrationinthe1970sand1980sandthesocio-
economictransformationsinthe1990shavealsoredefinedthesignificanceofsilkfor
Cambodianconsumers.In2015,thedomesticmarket(individualconsumptionandlocal
businesses)representedanestimated50percentoftheoverallsalesvolumeofCambodian
silkproducts.Localconsumersfavouredikattextiles,scarves,bags,garmentsandsilkfabric
fromretailandwholesaleshopsinurbanmarkets.13Withmorethan6.2million
internationaltouristsvisitingCambodiain2018,salesofsilkproductsforthetouristand
11EricHobsbawmandTerenceRanger,TheInventionofTradition(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1983),4.12Ibid. 13CambodiaMinistryofCommerce,andITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy(PhnomPenh:CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,2016),46.
32
exportmarket(scarves,clothing,fashionaccessoriesandhomedecoritems)wentupto30
percentofthetotalvolume,silkbeingespeciallypopularwithAsianvisitors.14Exports
madefortheremaining20percent.Moreover,ascontendedbyanthropologistsJudy
Ledgerwood,MayEbiharaandCarolMortland,myresearchexaminestheworkingsof
'transformationandpersistence,lossandcontinuity’whichprevailparticularlyindiasporic
communities.15Takingaccountofimmigrantexperiences,thisthesisreflectsontheroleof
silkdressinovercomingasenseofculturaldisconnectiontoreclaimnewidentitiesthrough
performance,memory,andimagination.
Thisstudythusbringstogetherapolyphonyofvoicesandactorsthatformamultilayered
landscapeofsilk,emphasisingthevoicesofsilkweaversinCambodiaandconsumersinthe
diasporatoidentifytheirindividualstrategiesoftransmittingandperpetuatingspecificsets
ofskillsandcustoms.Howdovariousmaterialrealities,skillsandexperienceinlearning,
sourcing,making,andsellingsilkinformtheunderstandingofCambodiansilkthatis
presentedbydominantinstitutionaldiscoursesandstakeholders?Fiveperiodsoffieldwork
inCambodiaandLongBeachprovidedataforanexaminationofthevalueofsilktextilesas
tokensofCambodianculturalidentity,andhowskillshavebeenreclaimedthroughvarious
formsoforal,embodied,andtacitknowledge.Visualdocumentationandinterviewswere
obtainedthroughethnographicmethodologies,qualitativeinterviewsandparticipatory
ActionResearch(AR).Thedialoguebetweentheseprimaryfindingsandvisualarchives,
textilematerialsandobjectsofferanoriginalcontributiontotheunderstandingofsilkin
post-conflictCambodiaasatextileproduction,craftandculturalpractice.
14CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,47;SokChan,‘AncientSilkFarmingRegainsGrowthwithProperEcosystem’,CapitalCambodia,March4,2019,https://capitalcambodia.com/ancient-silk-farming-regains-growth-with-proper-ecosystem/[Accessed24September2019] 15MayEbihara,CarolMortlandandJudyLedgerwood,eds.,CambodianCulturesince1975:HomelandandExile(NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,1994),22.
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AshorthistoryofCambodiaandimpactoftheKhmerRougeregimeonsilk
LocatedinmainlandSoutheastAsia,Cambodiapossessesadistinctiveartistic
heritagethatisrootedinarichregionalhistorymarkedbylocalparticularismandreligious
beliefs.Italsoembracesethnicdiversity,colonialinfluences,regionalconflictsandcultural
exchangewiththeneighbouringcountriesofThailandtothewest,Vietnamtotheeast,and
Laostothenorth.Thiswiderhistoricalandgeopoliticalperspectiveneedstobeunderstood
intoordertorecognisethereenactmentofcertainposturesandpoliciesincontemporary
Cambodiancrafts.Furthermore,itisimportanttopositionCambodiawithinitsSoutheast
Asianregionalcontextandbeyond,lookingattheemergenceofotherpowerfulkeyplayers,
suchasSiamandFranceinthenineteenthcenturyfollowedbyJapanandtheUnitedStates
inthetwentiethcentury.Highlightingtheseconnectionsisessentialinthisresearch,asthey
informpatternsoftrade,culturalinfluencesandsubordination,allofwhichhavecontinued
toframeCambodiansilkinthetwenty-firstcenturywithinapost-colonial,post-conflict
context.
Cambodia’shistoryismarkedbythelongruleoftheKhmerempirefrom802CEto
1431CE,apowerfulstatewhichconqueredalargepartoftheSoutheastAsianmainland
region,coveringtheterritoriesofpresent-dayThailand,LaosandSouthernVietnam.Bythe
latetwelfthcentury,theKhmerroyalcourthadsettledinthemonumentalarchitecturalsite
ofAngkorWat.OriginallydevotedtotheHindugodVishnu,itwastransformedintoa
BuddhistsiteofworshipunderKingJayavarmanVII(c.1122-1218)markingtheshiftinthe
wholeregiontowardsTheravadaBuddhism.Thesecenturiesofconquestanddominationin
theearlymodernerahaveremainedapillarofCambodia’shistoryandcultureinscholarly
literature,aswellasinCambodiandiscoursesandimaginariestothepresentday.16
16SeeDavidChandler,AHistoryofCambodia(Boulder,Co.:WestviewPress,2000);JohnA.Tully,AShortHistoryofCambodia(CrowsNest:Allen&Unwin,2005).
34
However,bythenineteenthcenturythekingdomhadlonglostitsregionaloutreachandwas
reducedtoamarginalstate,itsindependenceendangeredbyVietnamandThailand(then
Siam),whichhadbeencompetingovertheMekongRiverareasincethefifteenthcentury.
Thelossandreclamationofsovereigntyhavebeenarepeatedpatternintheformationofthe
Cambodiannation.Inthe1840sCambodiawasapooragriculturalcountrysufferingfrom
majorinternaldissent,withapopulationoflessthanamillion.17Untilhisdeathin1860,
KingAngDuong(1796-1860)restoredrelativestabilityforafewdecades,thatwasheavily
dependentonajointvassalagebetweenSiamandVietnam.
Insearchofprotection,CambodiareachedouttoFrancetoguaranteeitsmonarchical
regimeandterritorialintegrity.CambodiabecameaFrenchcolonialprotectoratein1863,
withalimitedformofautonomy,retainingthekingasthefigureheadoftheregime.18France
expandeditspowerovertheSoutheastAsianpeninsula.By1887,theFrenchcolonieshad
gatheredtheVietnameseregionsofTonkin,Annam,CochinchinaandCambodiaintothe
IndochineseUnion,furtheraddingLaos(formerlyattachedtoSiam)in1893.
WorldWarIIpermanentlydisruptedtheFrenchcolonialempireandopenedanewand
difficultprocessofdecolonisationinSoutheastAsia.PrinceNorodomSihanoukwaschosen
bytheFrenchasthesuccessortomonarchSisowathMonivong,whodiedin1941.Backedby
theJapanese,whooccupiedterritoriesofIndochina,Sihanoukstartedpromotinganagenda
forthecountry'sindependence.19Thepost-warperiodbroughtthecontestationofFrench
colonialpowertotheforefrontacrosstheCambodianpoliticalchessboard,fromtheKhmer
Issaraks(FreeKhmer)independencemovementtoFrench-educatedgraduatessuchas
SalothSar,laterknownasPolPot,andKhieuSamphan,whohadstudiedatuniversitiesin
17Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,120.18JohnTully,‘CambodiaintheNineteenthCentury:OutoftheSiameseFryingPanandintotheFrenchFire?’inCambodiaandtheWest,1500-2000,ed.T.O.Smith(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2018),37-63;LawrencePalmerBriggs,‘TheTreatyofMarch23,1907:BetweenFranceandSiamandtheReturnofBattambangandAngkortoCambodia,’TheFarEasternQuarterly5:4(1946):439-54.19GeoffreyGunn,‘ThePassingofSihanouk:MonarchicManipulationandtheSearchforAutonomyintheKingdomofCambodia,’TheAsia-PacificJournal,10:50(1)(Dec09,2012):.1).
35
FranceanddiscoveredtheMarxistideologieswhichwouldinformthefuturenationalistKR
regime.20Inparallel,theVietnameserebellionledbyHoChiMinhandbackedbythenewly
establishedPeople’sRepublicofChinaengagedintheFirstIndochinaWar,whichledtothe
defeatoftheFrenchin1954.BoggeddownintheconflictwithVietnam,andfacinggrowing
resistance,theFrenchagreedtoCambodia’sindependencein1954.
SihanoukfoundedtheSangkumReastrNiyum(People’sSocialistCommunity)in
January1955,takingthetitleofHeadofStatein1960andleadingthecountryasan
absoluteruleruntil1970.Duringthisperiodofstability,Cambodiasawsomesocial
reform.21However,Sihanouk’srepressiveregimegeneratedanalarmingdividebetween
‘urbanconsumerism,corruption,andthedeepeningofpeasantpauperisation.’22Asaresult,
thegovernmentexperiencedinternalconflictsinthe1950swiththeriseoftheCommunist
party,theprogressivedistrustoftheeliteclassesandoppositionfromtheCommunistParty
ofKampuchea(CPK)led,amongstothers,byPolPot.23IntheColdWarera,Cambodiawas
stuckbetweenpro-AmericanregimesinSouthVietnamandThailandandCommunistChina.
Themonarch’sfearofgettingsuckedintotheVietnamWareventuallyledhimtosever
diplomaticrelationswiththeUnitedStatesin1965.24Despitethesetensions,theSangkum
erahasalsobeenconsideredthegoldenageofmodernCambodianculture.Journalist
RobertTurnbullsuggeststhatbypromotingdance,musicandtheatre,‘theregime
supersededethnic,racial,andclassdivisionsbymergingCambodia’sverydifferentstrands
20JamesTyner,TheKillingofCambodia:Geography,GenocideandtheUnmakingofSpace(Abingdon:Routledge,2008),40-50. 21Amongthesesocialreforms,in1955,womenweregiventherighttovote.Withthefoundationofelectedprovincialassemblies,ordinaryCambodianswereencouragedtotakepartinnationalpolitics.Sihanouk’sgovernmentalsoinvestedineducationbydoublingthenumberofschoolsfrom1953to1968.BrigitteBouhoursandRodericG.Broadhurst,ViolenceandtheCivilisingProcessinCambodia(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2015),151.22Ibid,164.23TheCPKwasfoundedbyagroupofCambodianswhohadstudiedinParisinthecolonialperiod,amongthemPolPot,IengSary,KhieuSamphanandDuch.24SeeDavidChandler,TheTragedyofCambodianHistory,Politics,War,andRevolutionsince1945(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1991),150-165;BouhoursandBroadhurst,ViolenceandtheCivilisingProcessinCambodia,149-165.
36
ofperformanceculture,suchasthetraditionsoftemple,court,andvillage.’25Thesecultural
forms,thatreinforcedafetishisationofCambodianness,remainedthepreserveofanurban
eliteandassociatedwithdiplomaticevents,thusexcludingthecommonpeople,especiallyin
ruralareas.
By1970,Cambodiaplungedintocivilwar.Sihanoukwasoustedinabloodlesscoup
byLonNol,theCambodianarmycommanderandmemberofhisadministration.Pro-
American,LonNolbecameHeadofStateoftheKhmerRepublicuntil1975,rulingovera
countryincreasinglyfragmentedintopoliticalfactionsandcaughtinthecrossfireofthe
Vietnamwar.SihanoukretreatedtoChinaandremainedtheleaderofthegovernment-in-
exile.TheCPK,alsoknownastheKR,gainedmorepowerduringthefollowingyears,and
eventuallymarchedintoPhnomPenhinApril1975,forcingthepopulationtoabandon
urbancentresforthecountryside,spellingtheadventofYearZeroandtheformationof
DemocraticKampuchea(DK).Thisregimequicklyturnedthecountryintoacommunist
peasantdictatorship,ruledwitheconomicquasi-autarky.26Between1975and1979,DK
institutedmasscollectivisation,separatingfamilies,displacingpeopleacrossthecountry
andengagingtheminforcedwork,particularlyricefarming.TheCPKalsoorchestrated
severalwavesofbloodypurges,firsteliminatingalltheirpoliticalopponents,civilservants,
intellectuals,andartists,andthenaggressivelypersecutingethnicminoritiesinthenameof
nationalpurification,inparticulartheethnicChamandVietnameselivinginCambodia.This
revolutionaryutopiaturnedintoahumanitariandisaster,leavingstarvingpopulations
facingpenuryandamajorsanitarycrisisthatclaimedanestimated1.7millionvictims,
aboutaquarterofthepopulationatthetime.
25RobertTurnbull,‘ABurned-OutTheater’,inExpressionsofCambodia:ThePoliticsofTradition,IdentityandChange,eds.LeakthinaChau-PechOllierandTimWinter(London:Routledge,2012),143-4. 26CharlesTwining,UScareerdiplomatinCambodia,statedaboutself-relianceinDKthat‘therehadtobesomemovementofgoodswithinthecountry.Noteveryonehadasupplyofoldtiresorhadclothandgarmentmakers.’SeeCharlesH.Twining,‘TheEconomy,’inCambodia,1975-1978:Rendez-vouswithDeath,KarlD.Jackson,ed.(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1989),121.
37
TherelationshipswiththeSocialistRepublicofVietnamhadworsenedby1978.
MilitarytroopscomposedoftheVietnamesearmyandCambodianswhohaddefected
invadedCambodia’sbordersin1979,overthrowingDKandestablishingtheVietnam-backed
People’sRepublicofKampuchea.HistorianMargaretSlocombstatesthatinthelastyearsof
DK,morethan600,000Cambodians,includingethnicVietnameseandChinesepopulations,
fledthecountry.27About350,000peoplerelocatedtorefugeecampsattheThaiborder,or
managedtocrossthebordertoThailandandVietnam.28Morethan240,000Cambodians
relocatedoutsideSoutheastAsiapermanently,including152,000peopleintheUnited
Statesandanother90,000inEuropeandAustralia.ThisforcedmigrationofCambodians
hasradicallytransformedthedefinitionofcontemporaryCambodia,andthusissuesof
diasporaandculturalidentityareimportantelementsofthisstudy.Thecountrywasleft
witharavagedeconomythatreliedoninefficientagriculturalpolicies,inadequatetechnical
andindustrialexpertiseandunderdevelopedinfrastructures.Inthe1980s,economic
recoverywasheavilysupportedbyotherCommunistnations,especiallytheSovietUnion
andVietnam,andwashinderedbyKRguerrillainsurgencyuntilthemid-1990s.
InOctober1991,theParisPeaceAgreementsallowedCambodiatotransitionfromits
VietnamesetutelagetotheUnitedNationsTransitionalAuthorityinCambodia,whichwasin
chargeoforganisingfairelectionsinMay1993.Thiskeymomentopenedthecountryto
foreignaidpresence.ThisrecentringofCambodiaontheglobalmapsignificantlymodified
thecountry’ssocio-economiclandscape.Between1997andthe2009worldfinancialcrisis,
Cambodiaexperiencedrapideconomicgrowthfacilitatedbyincreasinginternationaltrade
andthemassiveexpansionoftelecommunicationsacrosstheterritory.Thismovement
towardsglobalisationwasfurtherencouragedbyitsregionalincorporationintothe
27MargaretSlocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury(Singapore:NUSPress,2010),195. 28UnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOffice,NationalSecurityandInternationalAffairsDivision,ReliefEffortsforCambodianCampsFactSheet(Washington:UnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOffice,1991),2.
38
AssociationofSoutheastAsianNationsin1999andtheWorldTradeOrganisationin2004,
‘provid[ing]aninstitutionalframeworkthat[has]arguablyimprove[d]thecountry’s
prospectsfordevelopment’.29
Thesedecadesofpoliticalunrestinformtheunderlyingstructuralimbalancesof
Cambodia’ssilksectorattheturnofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inthelate1940s,mulberry
treeplantationswhoseleavesfeedbombyxmorisilkwormscoveredabout6,000hectaresof
theCambodianterritory,withPhnomSrokdistrictinBanteayMeancheyprovinceasthe
mainproducingarea.30Inthe1960s,silkfarmersyieldedbetweentwentytofiftymetric
tonnesofyarnayearforanationalconsumptionofeightytonnes.AnthropologistBernard
DupaignewasthelastresearchertoconductfieldworkonsilkinCambodiabeforethecivil
war.Hisstudyrevealedthatuntilthe1970ssericulturewasstructuredasacottageindustry
thatwasalmostexclusivelyrunbywomeninruralareasanddestinedfordomestic
consumption.31Bythelate1970s,silkproductionandweavingpracticesweremassively
impactedbythedestructionofmulberrytreefields,thesackingofvillages,andthe
displacementofcraftspeople.
Mostofthedataonsilkfarminginthetwentiethcenturymustbeconsideredasestimates.32
TheofficialnumberpresentedintheNationalSilkStrategy2016-2020(NSS)forsilk
productioninthepost-warerais0.8metrictonnesofsilkyarnannually,withoutindicating
theexactyearforthelowestleveleverrecordedinthetwentiethcentury.33Thisreportalso
29SokUdomDeth,KairatMoldashevandSerkanBulut,‘TheContemporaryGeopoliticsofCambodia:AlignmentinRegionalandGlobalContexts,’inTheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,eds.KatherineBrickellandSimonSpringer(London:Routledge,2017),21. 30JeanDelvert,Lepaysancambodgien(Paris:L’Harmattan,1994),282-3.31Dupaigne,‘L’élevagedesversàsoieauCambodge,’Revued’ethnoécologie14(2018):4.32Duetothelackofofficialsurveys,estimatesonsericulturehaveremainedapproximate,differingfromonereporttotheother.JeanDelvertspokeof25tonnesofsilkfibreintheearly1950s.MeyKalyan,founderoftheRoyalUniversityofPhnomPenh'sSilkResearchCentrein2018withthesupportoftheUNDPandJapan,statesthatinthe1960s,only20tonnesofsilkfibrewereproduced.The2016NationalSilkStrategymentions50tonnesinthe1960s.SeeMeyKalyan,‘FinalReport:EffortstoRevivetheSilkSectorinCambodia,’13February2013,2;JeanDelvert,Lepaysancambodgien(Paris:L’Harmattan,1994),282-3;CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.33CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.
39
mentionsthatonlyfifteenhectaresofmulberrytreefieldswererecordedintheBanteay
Meancheyareaafterthewarwithoutprovidingacleardateorsource.34Boththesenumbers
werepresented–thistimedatingfrom1995–inthepamphletOntheGoldenSilkTrails
publishedbyKhmerSilkVillagein2006,whichisreferencedintheNSS.KhmerSilkVillage
wasanassociationfoundedin2005withthesupportofPASS(Projetd’AppuiauSecteurde
laSoie)tosupportsericultureandsilkweavinginBanteayMeanchey.35Thepublicationwas
illustratedandtoneddownforageneralaudience.Itisnotfootnotedwithprecisesources
butacknowledgesitsrelianceonapreliminarystudypublishedbyPASSin2004.36
PublishedbyCambodia’sMinistryofCommercewiththetechnicalsupportofthe
UnitedNationsInternationalTradeCenter(ITC),theNSSreportis98pages,combininga
comprehensivesurvey(pp.1-43)andanactionplanonthesilksector(pp.44-73).Itsdata
mainlyreliesonpriorITC-ledprojects:afirstsilksectorstrategyontheCambodianvalue
chainin2005,followedbytheSector-wideSilkProjectlaunchedin2007intwophasesuntil
2012,implementedbyITCandfundedbytheSwissStateSecretariatforEconomicAffairs
andtheNewZealandAgencyforInternationalDevelopment.37
ThesecondphaseofthisSector-wideSilkProjectwasevaluatedinternallyin2011.The
reportexplainsthatthedatausedinthestudyisbasedondiscussionswithkeyactorsofthe
silksectorandontworeportsTheSilkIndustryinCambodiain2005andCambodian
SericultureStocktakingReportin2008.38InternalevaluatorArturDillmanstates:‘the
validityofthedatautilizedinthereportsisrepeatedlyquestionedinthosereports
themselves;forthepurposeofthiselaborationtheavailabledataseemstoprovide
overwhelmingevidenceforthebelowinterpretation,moreprecisedatawouldpossiblegive
34CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.35PASSwasattheinitiativeoftheCambodianMinistryofAgriculturewiththefundingoftheFrenchDevelopmentAgency.KhmerSilkVillages,OntheGoldenSilkTrails(Cambodia:2006),6.36PASS,CambodianSilkSector,2004.37InternationalTradeCenter,Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProject(PhaseII)CMB/49/05A(Geneva:ITC,2011),5.38Jalin,H.,PASS,BDPA,TheSilkIndustryinCambodia,2005;BuddGibbonsandJoseVahl,CambodianSericultureStocktakingReport:ForCambodianSector-WideSilkProject(Geneva:ITC,2008).
40
moredetails,butcertainlywouldnotsignificantlychangethegeneralperspective’.39Dillman
underlines‘theunknownlevelofcredibility’ofthecollecteddata,adding:‘dataon
perceptionofprojectactivitiescanbeutilizedforinterpretations,butitismorefor
qualitativepurposes’.40InthischartfromtheCambodianSericultureStocktakingReport
presentedintheITCMid-TermExternalEvaluation,onecanseethereisnodatacollectedfor
theproductionofsilkyarnbetween1960and1990,whichreflectsthedestructiveyearsof
thecivilwar,theKRregimeandtheVietnameseoccupation[Fig.3].Theseissuesofdata
credibilityillustratethechallengesofstudyingsilkproductioninCambodia.However,while
thedataisnotfullyreliable,itstillprovidesusefulestimatesthathaveinformedthe
strategicdecisionsandinvestmentsofthestakeholdersinvolvedinthesilksectorsincethe
1990s.
Fig.3ProductionofsilkyarninCambodiacitingtheCambodianSericultureStocktakingReport(Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProjectPhaseII),64.
Moreover,thenumberofweaverswhoperished,quitorescapedduringthecivilwarfrom
1970to1979remainsunknown.Untilsilkproductionbecameamoresalientconcernfor
officialsintheearly2000s,therewasnodataavailableaboutthenumberofweaversstill
39InternationalTradeCenter,Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProject(PhaseII)CMB/49/05A,11.40Ibid,41.
41
activeafterKRregime.
SpecificitiesofCambodiansilk
Thestudyofsilkincorporatesthegeographicalcharacteristicswhichallowthe
growthofmulberrytreefieldsandsilkworms.Cambodia’sclimatefollowsmonsoonwinds,
withawetseasonfrommid-MaytoearlyOctoberandadryseasonfromearlyNovemberto
mid-March.Itssoilsaremostlysandyanddonoteasilyretainnutrients.However,they
benefitfromthefloodingoftheMekongonceayearduringtherainyseason,which
generouslyfertilisesthecentralplainwithalluvialsediments,creatingasuitableecosystem
forrice-growing.Asapredominantlyagriculturalcountry,about80percentofthetotal
populationof16millionliveinruralareas,i.e.12,047million,accordingtothe2017
census.41Silkwormrearingandweavinghavebeensideactivitiesgroundedinvillagers’
lives.Withitswarmtropicalclimate,Cambodiasupportstheindigenousspeciesofbombyx
morisilkworms,whichproduceatypeofsilkcommonlycalledCambodiangoldensilk,
recognisableforitsbrightyellowcolourwhichwashesawayatthedegummingstageto
revealacreamywhitetone[Fig.4].Cocoonsareprocessedbyhand.Onecocoongivesan
averageoffourhundredmetresoffilaments,comparedtoaminimumofonethousand
metresfromthewhitemulberrysilkcocooninotherpartsofAsia.42ThenativeCambodian
silkhasbeenvaluedforitspropertiesofabsorbencyanddurability,withaheaviertexture
thanwhitemulberrysilk,andasoftersheen.
TheNSSreportstatedthatby2005subsidisedsericulturefarminghadeffectivelyresumed
andpeakedattentonnesofannualsilkyarnproductionin2008.However,bythe2010s,
41CambodiaNationalInstituteofStatistics,CambodiaSocio-EconomicSurvey(PhnomPenh:MinistryofPlanning:2018),5.Since2019,theCambodianpopulationhasexceeded16million.42Thefirstsemi-automatedsilkreelingmachinewasdevelopedin2019byAoralSilkCommunity.SokChan,‘AncientSilkFarmingRegainsGrowthwithProperEcosystem.’
42
withfewersponsoringprogrammes,sericulturehaddeclinedagaintoanaverageofoneto
threetonnesofyarnannually,returningtoitslowestlevelssince1990.43Tocompensatefor
thislowindigenoussilkproduction,about400tonnesoffibreannually–oftenoflower
quality–isimportedfromVietnamandChina.44Thesecontrastingfactsaboutsericulture
delineateacontextofruptureandrecoveryinwhichtherevitalisation,continuityand
declineofsilkoverlap.In2016,theCambodianMinistryofCommerceaskedtheEuropean
Union(EU)tograntgeographicalindicationstatustosilkyarnfromPhnomSrok,Banteay
Meancheyprovince,thelargestareaforsericulture.45Obtainingthistrademarkwould
encouragelocalproductionandreachexportmarkets,sellingtheconceptofaquality
locally-producedfibretoexportbuyersandtouristconsumers.Theconjunctionbetween
naturalresources,land,nationalproduction,andtradeisadeterminantspecificityof
Cambodiasericulture,whichjustifiesthematerialandgeographicapproachinthisthesis.
43CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.44RannReuy,’ImportedRawSilkGetsCheaper,’ThePhnomPenhPost,September11,2012,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/imported-raw-silk-gets-cheaper[AccessedSeptember10,2019];CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,37. 45Thisinitiativehasnotyetbeengranted.KampotpepperhasbeenrecognisedasGIin2016andKampongSpeupalmsugarin2019.SokChan,‘GIStatusSoonfor4Products,’KhmerTimes,November2,2016,https://www.khmertimeskh.com/61763/gi-status-soon-for-4-products/[Accessed10September2019]
43
Fig.4CambodiangoldensilkyarnandcocoonsattheInstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextilesshop,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,December2016.AnthropologistJohnTerHorst,whohasproducedthemostextensiveandrecentresearchon
silk,identifiedtheprovincesofKandal,Takeo,PreyVeng,KampongCham,andSiemReapas
themainareasforsilkweavingactivitiesinCambodia[Fig.5].46Eachareaisknownfora
specifictypeofproduction.Thelargestsilkweavingworkforce,isconcentratedinTakeo,
aboutfortykilometressouthofPhnomPenh,especiallyinthePreyKabasandBatidistricts,
whereabouttenthousandweaverswereactiveintheareain2005.47Silkweaversfrom
Takeoareexperiencedintheartofhol,theCambodiantermforpolychromicweftikatsilk.48
Asstatedearlier,KohDachweaversinKandalproducesampotphamaung,theplainsilk
clothoftenpatternedwithabrocadedbandatthehemthatissoldtotextiledealersin
PhnomPenhforthedomesticmarket.SiemReap,whereAngkorWatislocated,thathosts
morethantwomillionvisitorseveryyear,benefitsfromthelargepresenceofNGOsand
craftcompaniesdrawnbytourism.PreyVengandKampongChamaresecondarycentresof
activitywithfewerweavers,about2,500in2005.49TheweavingcommunitiesofPreyVeng,
locatedalongtheMekong,makevariouskindsofsilks,includingorganzaandsilksoldbythe
metreinPhnomPenhtextileshops.50TheChamethnicgroupsofKampongChamprovince
mostlyweavecottonkrama,thecheckedCambodianscarf.Highqualitysilks,especially
sampothol,arestillproducedinthevillageofPrekChangkran,SithorKandalDistrictinPrey
Veng.51
Fromthe1990s,theoverallnumberofsilkweaversgrewexponentiallyto20,000in2005,
decliningagainatanalarmingratefromthe2010stoanestimateof5,000in2016.52Silk
46TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia:TradeandIdentityPoliticsinthe(post)-ColonialCambodianSilkWeavingIndustry(Amsterdam:EigenBeheer,2008),131.47Ibid,133.48SeeappendicesA1-A2-A3. 49TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia:TradeandIdentityPoliticsinthe(post)-ColonialCambodianSilkWeavingIndustry,140. 50Ibid,138.51Ibid,139.52Ibid,131;CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.
44
fibreproducershavedecreasedtoonlyahundredpeople.Thediscrepancybetweensales,
tourism,andadecliningworkforceprovidesakeyparadoxtostartwithinthestudyofsilk
weaving.Thispointstotheneedtoreevaluatethenotionofthe‘revival’ofsilkproductionas
alinearconstructionandconsiderwhichaspectsofCambodiansilkhaveindeedbeen
revived,lost,andtransformedinthecontemporaryera.Thisalsomotivatesthefocusonthe
twomainsilk-producingregionsofTakeoandSiemReap,whichbothhostnumerouscraft
organisationsandgroupsofindependentweavers,toarticulatetheconnectionsand
differencesinweavingpractices,productsandmarketsbetweenTakeoasthehistorical
regionofsilkikatproductionandSiemReapastheleadingtouristcentre.
Fig.5MapofthemainsericultureandweavingareasinCambodiain2016,basedondatafromtheNationalSilkStrategy2016-2020,bytheauthor.
45
Keyactorsofthesilksector
Theconceptofasilkscapeenablesanapproachtothedisjuncturesandmovementsinthe
sectorbysimultaneouslyconnectingandchallengingthelocalandtheglobalworlds.Ina
dynamicviewofgeography,Appaduraihasidentifiedfiveoverlapping‘-scapes’:the
ethnoscape,themediascape,thetechnoscape,thefinancescape,andtheideoscape,which
areterritoriesorflowsformingtheglobal,thataremediatedthroughhistorical,linguistic,
cultural,andpoliticalcontexts.53Theseflowsinvolvenumerousactorssuchasnation-states,
transnationalinstitutions,diasporiccommunitiesandsub-nationalgroupsofdifferent
scales.Underthispremise,silkbecomesadynamicmatteranimatedbythecirculationof
people,discourses,skills,variousformsofknowledge,andimaginaries.
Since1991,whenthecountry’seconomywasreopenedtoliberalism,Cambodiahas
welcomednewactorstothesilksector,supportedbyforeigninvestorsfromtheEU,Japan,
andtheUnitedStates.54Withthepotentialtocontributetopovertyreduction,rural
developmentandculturalpreservation,silkhasgeneratedinterestfrominternational
developmentinstitutionssuchastheITC,theUNFoodandAgricultureOrganisationandthe
EU.OneinstitutionalrepresentationofthesilkscapeisthisdiagramfromtheNSSreport
[Fig.6].ThisperspectiveontheCambodiansilksectorisinvaluablebecauseitoffersavisual
materialisationofthenumerousflows–includingtransnationalexchanges–ofagents,raw
materials,andsilkproducts.Theinternationalkeyplayersareinblueandthedomesticones
inorange.Arrowsshowcontractsandmaterialinputsbetweendifferentactorsofthechain.
Thisdiagramexemplifiesanattemptinencapsulatingascomprehensivelyaspossiblethe
complexsystemofCambodiansilkproduction.Thisthesiswillprovideadditionaldiagrams
tolocateandvisualisespecificaspectsofthesilkscape.Also,thisthesiswillfocusspecifically
53ArjunAppadurai,ModernityatLarge(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2003),33.54Deth,MoldashevandBulut,‘TheContemporaryGeopoliticsofCambodia:AlignmentinRegionalandGlobalContexts,’24.
46
onthecentralsectionofwhatisrepresentedintheNSSdiagram:theweavers,SMEs,NGOs
andmiddlemen,intermediariesandnationalinstitutionsinvolvedthesector.
48
Literaturereview
Thisthesisisconcernedwiththetopicofknowledgeandskillstransmissionin
contemporarysilkpractices.Thisliteraturereviewisbuiltwiththeideathatknowledgeis
powerandthatproducersofknowledgehaveaspecificagencyinconveyingdominantor
marginaldiscoursesaboutCambodia.Inadditiontopresentingkeycanonsofscholarshipon
history,Frenchcolonialisation,theKRregime,immigration,ruralityandtextilepractices,all
ofwhichhaveprovedusefulinmythesis,itisessentialtocriticallyconsiderthespacegiven
toindigenousperspectivestoemphasisethemfurtherinthisresearch.Fromtheearlytravel
writingsonCambodiabythethirteenth-centuryChineseenvoyZhouDaguantothe
extensivescholarshipontheFrenchcolonialperiod,thescholarlyliteratureonCambodia
wasmostlywrittenbyforeignvoicesuntilWorldWarII.55TheKRtyrannywasapivotaltime
inthetwentiethcentury,whichimpededfurthertheriseofCambodianacademic
scholarship.Itbroughtavastarrayofinternationalscholarstofocusonthepolitical,human
andsocialcostofthisdictatorialregimeanditsoutcome,includingtherefugeecrisis.
Cambodianscholarsslowlyemergedinthe1980swiththecontributionsofanthropologist
AngChoulean,linguistSaverosPouandbotanistPaulineDyPhon,whichsignificantly
expandedanddisseminatedexpertknowledgeonpre-modernCambodiaanditsritesand
religiousbeliefs,aswellasonlocalflora.Forinstance,AngChouleanoffersanethnological
viewwhichexpandsmorecommonarthistoryperspectivesontheKhmerEmpire.His
examinationofthedevatastatuescarvedonAngkorWat’swallsshiftsitsfocustothe
psychologyandsensibilitiesoftheKhmerartisanswhoaimedto‘representtheseprecious
womeninalltheirphysicaldiversityandpersonalities’.56
55ZhouDaguan,PeterHarris,trans.,ARecordofCambodia:TheLandandItsPeople(Bangkok:SilkwormBooks,2007),75-76.56AngChoulean,‘Psychologiedel’artisankhmer:unepetitepièceàverserdanslegranddossier’,Udaya,JournalofKhmerStudies6(2005),188.
49
InaspeechdeliveredinFebruary1998,SaverosPoucoinedtheterm‘Khmerology’to
designateadiachronicapproachofKhmerlanguageandancienttextsrelyingonepigraphic
sourcesandthethoroughtrainingofCambodianstudents.Shearguedthat‘thehistoryofa
countryis[…]thatofhumanbeings,oftheirthoughts,theiraction,theirwayoflife,
individualsandasmembersofthecommunity’.57
PaulineDyPhonlisted1,254extantplantspeciesinCambodgewiththeirnamesinLatin,
Khmer,EnglishandFrench,includingplantsfornaturaldyesandspeciesofmulberrytrees
monthom(Morusalba)andmontoch(Morusaustralis).58Alltheseperspectivesprovide
importantformsofinsiderknowledgeconnectedtoCambodia’sland,cultureandlanguage.
ArchaeologyhaddevelopedasafieldinCambodiabythemid-1990swiththeparticipation
oftheRoyalUniversityofFineArtsincollaborationwithinternationalpartners.59Moreover,
withtheprominenceoftheUN-backedExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia
inthelate1990s,genocidestudieshaveexpanded,eventuallybecomingthemosthospitable
fieldforCambodianexpertise.TheInternationalAssociationofGenocideScholars
conferenceheldinPhnomPenhin2019exemplifiestheriseofearly-careerCambodian
researcherssuchasHangNisayandSeangSopheak,artistsKimHakandNeangKavichand
performerPhloeunPrim,allofwhomareactivelyengagedwithCambodia’shistoryof
genocide.60
TheFrenchdominanceofthehistoriographyofCambodianartanddesignbegan
withtheFrenchrediscoveryoftheruinsofAngkorWatin1907,cededbytheThais,andthe
establishmentofL’EcoleFrançaised’ExtremeOrient,theFrenchSchoolofFarEastStudies.
57SaverosPou,‘WhatisKhmerology?(inKhmer),’trans.bySothearaVong(MinistryofCultureandFineArtsandtheBuddhistInstitute,PhnomPenh,1998).58PaulineDyPhon,PlantesutiliséesauCambodge=RukkhajātiproeprâsknuṅpradesKambujā(PhnomPenh,2000),894. 59LowerMekongArchaeologicalProject,DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofHawaiihttp://www2.hawaii.edu/~miriams/lomap/index.html[AccessedAugust20,2020] 60InternationalAssociationofGenocideScholars14thconvention,‘'TheMissingPicture’:RethinkingGenocideStudies&Prevention,’PhnomPenh,July14-19,2019.
50
FocusedontheconservationofthemonumentalsiteofAngkorWat,theorganisation
fosteredresearchinarchaeology,arthistory,andreligiousstudies,mainlyconcentratedon
theKhmerEmpireandthewealthofarchaeologicaltemplesfoundinthecountry.This
FrenchcolonialideologyhasleftanenduringmarkonthehistoriographyofCambodian
crafts.CraftsbecameconcreteexpressionsoftheCambodiannationbuiltontheglorious
pastoftheKhmerEmpire.
ThiswasepitomisedbythewritingsofarthistorianandarchitectHenriMarchalandartist
andeducatorGeorgeGroslierinthe1910s.61BothpraisedtheuniqueaestheticofKhmer
ornamentalartwhiledeclaringtheimpendingdecadenceofCambodiancrafts.62Sincethe
2000s,Groslier’slegacyhasbeenthesubjectofmanycriticalstudies.Thepioneeringwork
ofIngridMuan,andsubsequentlythatofhistorianGabrielleAbbe,evaluatedGroslier’s
promotionofKhmerartsandcraftsaspartofthe‘civilisingmission’oftheFrench
Protectorate,to‘craftanationaldiscourse[…]andtheconstructionofaKhmercultural
identity,especiallyforaWesternaudience’.63
Inrelationtotextilesinparticular,PennyEdwardshasexploredtheconnectedissues
ofterritoriality,nationalism,colonialismandindigenousartisticproductioninCambodia
from1850to1950.64Shehighlightshowdressstylesinthecolonialeraredefinedsocial
normsofgenderidentityandethnicity,separatingmenfromwomenandKhmerpeople
fromethnicVietnameseandChineselivinginthecountry.Edwardsdemonstrateshowthe
sampotbecamethecentralelementofwomen’sattireandtheepitomeoftheCambodian
nationaldress,notonlydomesticallybutalsoinmainlandFrancethroughcolonial
61HenriMarchal,‘L’artcambodgienmoderne,’BulletindelaSociétédesEtudesindochinoises65(1913):69.62GeorgesGroslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’LaRevuedeParis,6(Nov-Dec1899):398-402.63IngridMuan,‘CitingAngkor:The‘CambodianArts’intheAgeofRestoration1918-2000’,(unpublishedPhDthesis,ColumbiaUniversity,2001),19;GabrielleAbbe,‘LedéveloppementdesartsauCambodgeàl’époquecoloniale:GeorgeGroslieretl’ÉcoledesArtscambodgiens(1917-1945),’Udaya,JournalofKhmerStudies12(2014):35.64PennyEdwards,Cambodge:TheCultivationofaNation,1860-1945(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,2008),144-150.
51
exhibitions.65EdwardsdidnotdirectlyincorporateCambodiansubjectivities,instead
groundingheranalysisinearlyFrenchcommentators’writingsandrarearticulationsby
voicesfromtheCambodianelite.
TocounterthewaysinwhichCambodianculturalhistoryhadbeendominatedbyforeign
perspectives,IngridMuanandDaravuthLyinvitedfourCambodianresearchers,Chea
Narin,CheaSopheary,KemSonine,andPreapChanmara,tocollecttestimoniesfromelderly
Cambodiansondressandbeautycustomsfrom2001to2003.Thisarchive,entitled‘The
MemoryBank’reconstructed‘individualmemoriesofhistoricaleventsassociatedwith
colonialismandindependence;localbeliefsofgeographyandlanduse;conceptionsof
genderandtheexperiencesofwomenandeverydayaccountsofmodernisationandchange’
outsideoftheofficialhistoriesoftwentieth-centuryCambodia’.66Thisthesisbuildsonthis
approachoflookingatthevernacularandembracingthenarrativesofinsidersthathave
beenmarginalisedintheexistingEnglish-andFrench-languagescholarship.
Ethnographicapproaches,however,arenotnew.Inthe1960s,thefocusofstudies
shiftedfromarchaeologyandhistorytotheanthropologicalstudyofrurality.MayEbihara,
consideredthefirstAmericananthropologisttocarryoutethnographicresearchin
Cambodia,withMiladaKalab,recognisedkinshipwithFrenchgeographerJeanDelvert’s
pioneeringsurveyofCambodia’scountryintermsofclimate,territory,ruraleconomyand
peasantlife.67In1968Ebiharapublishedatwo-volumedissertationonarice-producing
villageofsevenhundredinhabitantsinKandalprovincetodiscussthesocial,familyand
religiouspatternsofruralCambodia.68Herworkdemonstratedthevalidityofasmall-scale
materialistandhumanisticfocus,followingFranzBoas’advocacyofsynchronicstudiesto
65PennyEdwards,‘RestylingColonialCambodia(1860–1954):FrenchDressing,IndigenousCustomandNationalCostume,’FashionTheory5:4(2001):393-416. 66IngridMuanandal.,SeamsofChange:ClothingandtheCareoftheSelfinlate19thand20thcenturyCambodia(PhnomPenh:ReyumPublishing,2003),i.67MayEbihara,‘BookReview,'AmericanAnthropologist,65(1963):1155-1157;Delvert,Lepaysancambodgien,282-283.68MayEbihara,AndrewC.Mertha,andJudyLedgerwood,Svay:aKhmerVillageinCambodia(1971)(NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,2018).
52
understandlocalhistoriesandadiversityofcultures.69Thismethodisappropriatetothe
prevalenceoforalityinCambodianculture,especiallyinthecountryside.Bernard
Dupaigne’skeyethnographicstudyofsericultureandweavinginthesameperiodfitsthis
model,exploringsilk-makingprocessesinvillagesthroughobservation,description,and
conversationswithsilkfarmersandweavers.70
InadditiontoDavidChandler,whohasremainedtheauthorityonCambodianpolitical
studiesandtheKRinparticular,scholarssuchashistorianBenKiernanhaveused
interviewingmethodsbyintroducingtestimoniesofsurvivorstounderstandtheextreme
violenceexertedontheCambodianpopulation.71Intheearly1980s,Kiernaninterviewed
hundredsofCambodianrefugeesintheThaibordercampsaboutthemasskillingsand
ethnicpurges.
Withitsrangeofethnographicmethods,anthropologyhasprovidedsomeofthemost
potentstudiesonsocialissuesincontemporaryCambodia–inChandler’swords,‘neither
orientalistnorcondescending’but‘displayinganextraordinaryopennessandsensitivityto
Cambodianculture’.72Inthe2000s,anthropologistsfocusedonabroaderspectrumof
crucialtopics,includingtheKRgenocide,thecivilwaraftermath,Buddhism,ethnicityand
diaspora.73StudiesontherefugeecrisisandtheCambodiandiasporahavefolloweda
similarhuman-centricpath,exploringthereconstructionofKhmeridentityinthepost-civil
warperiod.AnthropologistNancySmith-Hefnerinterviewed175Khmerimmigrantsto
69Ledgerwood,‘Introduction,’inAKhmerVillageinCambodia,xii.70Dupaigne,‘L’élevagedesversàsoieauCambodge,’1-29.71DavidChandler,TheTragedyofCambodianHistory:Politics,War,andRevolutionsince1945(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2010);BenKiernan,ThePolPotRegime:Race,PowerandGenocideinCambodiaUndertheKhmerRouge,1975-79(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2008).72DavidChandler,‘Preface,’inCambodianCulturesince1975:HomelandandExile,eds.MayEbihara,CarolMortland,andJudyLedgerwood,(NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,1994),xii-xiii.73NoteworthyinthisanthropologicalliteratureareAlexanderHinton,WhyDidTheyKill?CambodiaintheShadowofGenocide(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2004);ElizabethGuthrieandJohnAmosMarston,History,Buddhism,andNewReligiousMovementsinCambodia(ChiangMai:SilkwormBooks,2006);JoachimSchliesinger,EthnicGroupsofCambodia,Volume3:ProfileoftheAustro-Thai-andSinitic-SpeakingPeoples(Bangkok:WhiteLotusCoLtd,2011).
53
documenttheirconditionsofresettlementintheUnitedStatesandtherenegotiatedsocial
bondswiththeirfamiliesandcommunities.
Studiesfocusedonimmigrantcommunitieshaveexpandedthedebateaboutthe
reformationofCambodianculturesincethe1990s.LedgerwoodandMortland,who
originallyspentextensiveperiodsinrefugeecampsattheThaiborder,examinedthe
mechanismsoflossinritualandartisticpractices.Theyinvitedthemuch-needed
perspectiveofCambodianexpertssuchKhingHocDyonliteratureandSam-AngSamon
music.74Similarly,researcherssuchasSusanNeedhamandKarenQuintilianihavetakenon
theroleofculturalbrokers,workingcloselywithcommunities,collectingphotographsand
testimoniesoverdecadestoreconstructtheformationoftheethnicneighbourhoodof
CambodiaTowninLongBeach,California.75DancescholarJudithHamerafollowedand
interviewedafamilyofformerKhmerballetdancersinLongBeach,showinghowthe
traumaofmigrationandwaraffectsCambodianrefugeesinhowtheyprojectandreclaim
theirmemoriesandsenseofidentity,especiallythroughculturalartisticpractices.76
Cambodiansurvivorsthemselves,especiallythoseresettledinthediasporainthe2000s,
havealsoreclaimedtheirvoicesbypublishingtheirmemoirs.77Thesediverseandessential
contributions,providingasituatedandembodiedscholarshipofCambodian-Americanand
refugeeexperience,informtheapproachandpositioningofthisthesis.
AswomenmakeupthemajorityofthesilkproductionworkforceinCambodia,and
arealsothemainconsumersofsilktextiles,italsoneedstobepointedoutthatmyresearch
integratesastrongerfocusonfemaleviewpointswithoutframingitasagenderedstudyof
74Sam-AngSam,‘KhmerTraditionalMusicToday,’InCambodianCulturesince1975:HomelandandExile,eds.Ebihara,MortlandandLedgerwood(NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,1994),39-46.75SusanNeedham,andKarenQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach(Charleston:ArcadiaPublishing,2008).76JudithHamera,DancingCommunities:Performance,DifferenceandConnectionintheGlobalCity(Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan,2006),7.77KatharyaUm,‘RefractionsofHome:Exile,MemoryandDiasporicLonging’,inExpressionsofCambodia:ThePoliticsofTradition,IdentityandChange,eds.LeakthinaTollierandTimothyWinter(London:Routledge,2006),86-101;LoungUng,FirstTheyKilledMyFather:ADaughterofCambodiaRemembers(NewYork:HarperCollins,2006);ChilengPaandCarolMortland,EscapingtheKhmerRouge:ACambodianMemoir(Jefferson:McFarland,2005).
54
silkunderafeministframework.ThisthesisexaminessocialpatternsanimatingCambodian
societyandtheformationofculturalidentities,includingtherolethatsilkplaysindefining
femininity.Women’sperspectiveshavebeenmarginalisedindominanthistoricalnarratives
ofCambodia.FemalesocialscholarssuchasTrudyJacobsenandAnnuskaDerkshave
pioneeredscholarshiponwomen’shistory,internalmigrationsandgenderinequalitiesin
Cambodia.78GeographerKatherineBrickellhasalsoexaminedthehistoriographyofideals
placedonwomeninCambodiansociety,bringingdisruptivenarrativesofgenderbiastothe
forefrontandrepositioningwomenas‘vocalsubjects’.79Lookingatgenderedsocialcodesin
Cambodiainregardstoissuesofmobilityandeducation,Brickellprovidesaninvaluable
modelof‘microlevelresearch’combininghistoricalstudywith‘empiricalmaterial’taken
fromgroupdiscussionsandinterviews.80
OtherareasofresearchdealingwithcontemporaryaspectsofCambodia,suchassocial
justice,geopoliticsinruralandurbancontextsandenvironmentalstudies,havereceived
broadcoverageintherecentHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,whichnotablyoffersa
panelofCambodianscholars.81Thebookalsodealstoalesserdegreewithculturaland
artisticexpression.
SoutheastAsiantextilestudieshavenoticeablycentredonIndonesia,Myanmarand
ThailandratherthanCambodiaandLaos,lookingatmaterials,thread-making,weavingand
dyeingprocesses,alongwithdresstypologiesasethnicmarkers,representativeofthewide
78TrudyJacobsen,LostGoddesses:TheDenialofFemalePowerinCambodianHistory(Copenhagen:NIASPress,2008);Similarly,anthropologistAnnuskaDerkshasexploredthestoryofCambodianwomenresettlingandmigratinginurbanareastoprovide‘acomprehensiveunderstandingoftheinterplaybetweenindividualexperiencesandstructuresofinequity.’AnnuskaDerks,KhmerWomenontheMove:ExploringWorkandLifeinUrbanCambodia(Honolulu:UniversityofHawai'iPress,2008),20.79KatherineBrickell,‘WeDon’tForgettheOldRicePotWhenWeGettheNewOne,’Signs,36:2(Winter2011):441.80Ibid,443-444.81KatherineBrickellandSimonSpringer,eds.,TheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia(London:Routledge,2017),1-13.
55
diversityofminoritiesbasedintheregion.82ScholarshiponCambodiantextilesanddress
hasremainedfocusedontechnicalandiconographicdevelopmentsinsericulture,weaving
anddyeingwhileoverlookingpoliticalandtheoreticalaspects.Ithasofferedthestudyof
notableexamplesfrommuseumcollectionssuchasthispidan(pictorialikat)collectedby
SuzanneKarpelès,founderoftheBuddhistInstituteofCambodiain1930[Fig.7].Todate,
textileexpertGillianGreenremainstheleadingreferenceforherextensivehistoricalstudy
ofCambodiantextilespreandpostKR.83Greenhastreatedcontemporarytextiletechniques
as‘traditional’,praisingtheir‘enduringimportance’andlinkingthemtotextile
developmentsdatingfromtheAngkorianperiod.84Herworkhasbeencomplementedbya
handfulofstudiesonthematerialcultureofsilkartefacts,notablySophearithSiyonn’swork
onthepictorialikathangingpidanandKikuoMorimoto’sresearchandadvocacyonthe
productionofhol(ikat).85Green,Morimoto,andaUNESCOpublicationhavefocusedonsilk
andnaturaldyestechniquesasessentialformsofculturalheritage,stressingtheimportance
ofrevitalisingtheseancientpractices.86Thisthesisacknowledgesthisbodyofliteratureasa
foundationalsourceofknowledgeonCambodiantextilesandtechniques,tobe
complementedbyotherformsofknowledgecarriedbycontemporarysilkpractitionersand
consumers.
82SeeSylviaFraser-Lu,HandwovenTextilesofSouth-EastAsia(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1992);JasleenDhamija,ed.BergEncyclopediaofWorldDressandFashion:SouthAsiaandSoutheastAsia(Oxford:BloomsburyAcademic,2010),https://www.bloomsburyfashioncentral.com/products/berg-fashion-library/encyclopedia/berg-encyclopedia-of-world-dress-and-fashion-south-asia-and-southeast-asia[AccessedNovember22,2019];FionaKerlogue,RudolfG.Smend,FulvioZanettini,andLeoHaks,BatikDesign,Style&History(London:Thames&Hudson,2004).83GillianGreen,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia:CulturalThreadsandMaterialHeritage(Bangkok:RiverBooks,2003);GillianGreen,PictorialCambodianTextiles(Bangkok:RiverBooks,2008).84GillianGreen,‘TextilesattheKhmerCourtofAngkor,’inThroughtheThreadofTime:SoutheastAsianTextiles:theJamesH.W.ThompsonFoundationSymposiumPapers,ed.JanePuranananda(Bangkok:RiverBooks,2004),24;Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia:CulturalThreadsandMaterialHeritage,107.85SeeappendicesA1-A2-A3.SopearithSiyonn,Pidan(Bitān)inKhmerCulture(PhnomPenh:ReyumPublishing,2008);InstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextiles(IKTT)andCentreforKhmerStudies(CKS),eds.,‘Hol’TheArtofCambodianTextiles,SeminarProceedings12-13Dec.2003(SiemReap:CentreforKhmerStudies,2003).86SeethisBuddhistInstitutepublicationcommissionedbyUNESCO:SorSokny,PhatChanmony,andSomVannak,TechniqueofNaturalDyeingandTraditionalPatternofSilkProductioninCambodia(PhnomPenh:UNESCO&TheBuddhistInstitute,2008).
56
ThisideaofcontinuityandtraditioninCambodianculturehasbeenarecurring
patterninthediscourseoncraftsduringtheFrenchcolonialperiod.Theindependence
yearsoftheSangkumbrieflydepartedfromthecrystallised‘notionofthe‘CambodianArts’
ashandmade,traditional,andunchanging’.87Thenarrativereturnedstronglyinthe1990s
inthefaceofthetremendousdamageinflictedonCambodiancultureaftertheKRregime.
CraftstheoristssuchasClareM.Wilkinson-WeberandAliciaOriDenicolahaveused
Hobsbawm’sperspectiveoninventedtraditionstocritique‘thenotionsofcraftaseithera
relicorrevival’.88Similarly,thisthesisarguesfortheneedtosituatecontemporarycrafts
withinshiftingsocialandhistoricalcontexts.
Fig.7BuddhisthangingpidanshowingtheGreatDepartureofBuddha,early20thc.,silkikat,collectedbySuzanneKarpelès.acquisition71.1933.111.258,MuséeduQuaiBranly,Paris.
Addressingholpidan,silkhangingsoriginallydonatedtomonksandexhibitedinBuddhist
temples,producedbytheJapaneseNGOCaringforYoungKhmer,arthistorianJoanna
87IngridMuan,'PlayingwithPowers:ThePoliticsofArtinNewlyIndependentCambodia,’Udaya,JournalofKhmerStudies6,(2005):44. 88ClareM.Wilkinson-WeberandAliciaOriDenicola,eds.‘TakingStockofCraft’,inCriticalCraft:Technology,Globalization,andCapitalism(London:Bloomsbury,2016),2.
57
Wolfhartquestionedthe‘familiardiscursivedichotomyof'traditional’against‘modern’or
‘contemporary’[Fig.8].89Shearguedthat‘theprocessesusedtoproducethesetextiles’were
traditional,whilethecontextoftheirproduction‘undertheauspicesofaforeign
organisation’differedsignificantlyfrompastpractices.Mythesisexploresthesetensionsto
overcome‘thestaticconnotationsimpliedbytheideaofa‘traditional’artform’.90Forthese
reasons,thisthesisinsteadreferencesancient,ancestralandartisanaltechniques,usingthe
terms‘heritage’,‘legacy’,‘practices’,‘customs’,‘usage’,and‘habits’.
Fig.8PidanhangingsoldatCaringforYoungKhmershopinPhnomPenh.Author’sphotograph,December28,2016.
Finally,afewkeycontributionshavebroughtcontemporaryperspectivesonCambodian
silk.GreenreliedontestimoniesoftheCambodiandiasporainAustraliatorecover
89JoannaWolfarth,‘HolPidan:CambodianTraditionalPictorialSilkTextile:PreservationandDevelopment,attheNationalMuseumofCambodia,2016,’SoutheastofNow1:1(March2017):207.90Wilkinson-WeberandOriDenicola,eds.‘TakingStockofCraft,’6.
58
knowledgeofclothingstylesstillprevalentinthe2000s,andincorporatedthisdataina
generalchapteronCambodiandress.91Mythesisexpandsonsilkpracticesreclaimedinthe
contextofculturaldisplacementbyconsideringhowthemajormigrationwavesofthe
1980shaveimpactedonandmodifiedCambodiandress-relatedculturalpracticesinthe
UnitedStates.
FashionscholarKatalinMedvedevhastakenintoaccountthesector’snewordersincethe
1990sbyfocusingonNGOsinvolvedintheindustry’seffortstowardsrevitalisation,suchas
IKTTinSiemReapandBlueMekonginStungStrengprovince.92Basedonperiodsof
fieldworkcarriedoutin2008,Medvedevinvestigatedtheimpactofthesesilk-producing
organisations'aspositivechangeagent,especiallyinfashionperipheries’.93Lookingatthe
genesisandstructureoftheNGOs,andtheirfounders’history,andmostlyleavingasidethe
vantagepointsoftheweavers,MedvedevintegratessilkhandicraftsproducedbylocalNGOs
intotheCambodianfashionindustryalongwiththegarmentfactoriessubcontractingfor
multinationals.WhileMedvedev’sfocusonNGOsisvalid,thisthesisarguesthatthe
artisanalsilksectorisseparatedfromtheindustrialgarmentsectorforexport,aviewpoint
alsosupportedbyCambodiansilkprofessionals.94
Lastly,TerHorst,whohasproducedthemostrecentandextensiveworkonCambodiansilk
weavers,hasconsideredthesilkchainbeyondCambodianbordersbystudyingtheroleof
ethnicChinesecommunitiesinsilkfibretrade,sales,andweaving.95TerHorstaimedto
91Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,194.92KatalinMedvedevandBrittanyReef,‘PickingUptheThreads:ModelApproachHelpsCambodiaDesignaNewFashionImage,’Women'sStudiesQuarterly,41:1-2(2013):131-149;KatalinMedvedev,‘TheRootsofChangeintheContemporaryCambodianFashionScene’,InternationalJournalofFashionStudies,2:1,(2015):9-37;KatalinMedvedev,‘CambodianFashionNGOs:AreTheyDoingGood?’JournalofTextileEngineering&FashionTechnology,1:4(2017):148-151.93MedvedevandReef,‘PickingUptheThreads:ModelApproachHelpsCambodiaDesignaNewFashionImage,’135.94‘TheindustrialgarmentsectorispartofadifferentvaluechainwithoutanymajorlinkagestosericultureandsilkweavinginCambodia’,CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,5.95JohnTerHorst,IkatWeavingandtheEthnicChineseInfluencesinCambodia(Bangkok:WhiteLotusPress,2011),xiv.;SeealsoHeidiDahlesandJohnTerHorst,‘WeavingintoCambodia:NegotiatedEthnicityinthe(Post)colonialSilkIndustry’,inExpressionsofCambodia:ThePoliticsofTradition,Identity,andChange,eds.Ollier,LeakthinaChan-Pech,andTimWinter(London:Routledge,2006),119-132.
59
contestthediscourseselevatingsilkasaCambodiannationalproduct,whichheargues
conflatethenotionofCambodianwiththedominantKhmerethnicityandignoretheagency
ofotherminoritiesinvolvedinthesector.Hisresearchdeconstructingthedynamicsofsilk
fromthe1990s,showingmultipleactorsfromsilkyarnproducerstoweavers,
intermediariesandtraders,especiallyfromdiverseethnicities,hasbeenanessentialsource
forthisthesis.TerHorst,however,largelyignoredthematerialityofsilkasobjectsandsilk
practicesasaformofknowledgeandagencyfortheweavers,whichisakeyfocusof
ChapterThreeinthisthesis.
Theoreticalframeworks:fromglobalsilknetworkstoindividualformsofembodiedandtacit
knowledge
Theliteraturereviewhasdemonstratedtheeffectivenessandnecessityof
ethnographicandcriticalapproachesinestablishingamultifacetedunderstandingof
Cambodia’sculturalhistoryanditspeoples.Italsoconfirmsthevalidityofapolyvocalstudy
thatincludesotherformsofknowledgerespondingtoepistemologiesgroundedinorality,
tacitness,thebody,andmemory.SociologistBoaventuradeSousaSantoscoinedtheterm
‘theepistemologiesoftheSouth’todefinetheseformsofknowledgethatdepartfrom
Eurocentricfieldsofresearch.96Hequalifiedthemas‘popular,lay,plebeian,peasant,or
indigenousknowledgesontheothersideoftheline’,engagingscholarsincrossing
boundariesandlookingfurther.97
First,thisthesispositionsCambodiandressandtextilepracticeswithinthetheoretical
argumentsupportedbyfashionscholarsJenniferCraikandAngelaJansenthatis‘disputing
misassumptionsconcerningnon-Europeanfashionasbeingstatic,authenticand
96BoaventuradeSousaSantos,‘BeyondAbyssalThinking:FromGlobalLinestoEcologiesofKnowledges’,Eurozine,29June2007,2,https://www.eurozine.com/beyond-abyssal-thinking/[AccessedJune1,2020]97Ibid.
60
symbolic’.98Cambodiandresshasitsownfashionsystemrespondingtochange,taste,
economicandculturalexchanges,andincludingclothingstyles,hairstylesandcosmetics–
thathasbeenwelldemonstratedbyinterviewsonCambodianclothinganddailylife
documentedinthebookSeamsofChange.99However,narrativesonCambodianfashionhave
notdepartedfromthecommonpolarisedtropesthatCraikandJansenalsochallenge,
separatingWestfromnon-West,marginsfromcentre,traditionfrommodernity,andlocal
fromglobal.ThemostcommondiscourseonCambodianfashionhistorylinksdresschanges
totheriseofforeigninfluencesoftheSiamkingdomandespeciallyFrenchcolonialpower,
thusreinforcingtheconstructionofCambodianfashionunderaWestern-centricscope.For
instance,Edwardshasexplainedhowinthemid-nineteenthcenturytheestablishmentofa
specificCambodianstylerespondedtothecolonialrule’sattempttodeterminecodified
representationoftheCambodiannationalidentity.Inthe1900s,KingSisowath,malecourt
andgovernmentalofficialsworesampotchawngkbun(wrappedtrousers)withtailored
jackets.100Ontheotherhand,thesampothol,asilkhipwrapperoflavishpolychromicweft
ikat,becameacommodityinmainlandFrance.Intheyearsofindependence,theideaof
fashionwastiedtothearrivalofmass-producedWestern-styleclothingwithfittedshapes
andcolourfulpatternsbecomingpopularamongCambodianurbanites.Thedictatorshipin
the1970sforbidtheCambodiansocietytowearanysortoffashion.Afteritscollapse,from
the1980stheCambodianwardrobehasincludedacombinationofmass-producedclothing
andhandmadetextiles.Silktextilesarestillworntothepresentdayonspecialoccasions.
Forwomen,themainceremonialattireconsistsofasilkpleatedsampot(hipwrap)anda
cottonorlacyaor(blouse),oftenwithakramasaut(silkscarf)wornasymmetricallyonthe
shoulder[Fig.9].
98AngelaJansenandJenniferCraik,ModernFashionTraditions:NegotiatingTraditionandModernitythroughFashion(London:Bloomsbury,2016),1. 99Muanandal, SeamsofChange:ClothingandtheCareoftheSelfinlate19thand20thcenturyCambodia. 100LindaWeltersandAbbyLillethun,FashionHistory:AGlobalView(London:BloomsburyVisualArts,2019),183-184.
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FashionscholarsJoanneEicherandSandraLeeEvensonhavearguedthat‘tocounter
Eurocentrism,wemustrecognizethatcontemporarystylesofdressaretheconsequenceof
ahistoryinwhichinternalandexternalforcesofchangehaveselectivelyshapedthe
form’.101ThisthesisacknowledgesthatCambodianclothinghasoscillatedbetweenbeing
consideredfashionandtraditionalthroughhistory,andthatchangesindresshavelargely
beendiscussedinconnectionwithexternalinfluences.Thatsaid,thisthesisalsoaimsto
counterEurocentricassumptionsinherentintheterminologiesoffashionscholarship.
Therefore,thisthesiswillnotusetermsthatpromoteastereotypedviewofCambodian
dressastraditional,regionalorunderthe‘rigidlyprescribedcostumeformwithfew
variations’.102Itemphasisestheuseoftheterm‘dress’,whichencompassesclothingand
bodymodifications,and‘fashion’.Theterm‘costume’isemployedsolelytodesignate
garmentsusedindanceandtheatre,followingJoanneEicher’sdefinitionthat‘costume
primarilydesignatesdresspracticesthatconcealortransformtheindividual’sidentity
whenperformingindance,theater,andmasqueradesacrosstheworld’.103
101JoanneB.EicherandSandraLeeEvenson,TheVisibleSelf:GlobalPerspectivesonDress,Culture,andSociety(London:Bloomsbury,2015),101.102Ibid.103JoanneB.Eicher,‘IntroductiontoGlobalPerspectives,’BergEncyclopediaofWorldDressandFashion,eds.JoanneB.EicherandPhyllisG.Tortora(Oxford:Berg,2010)InBloomsburyFashionCentral.https://www.bloomsburyfashioncentral.com/products/berg-fashion-library/encyclopedia/berg-encyclopedia-of-world-dress-and-fashion-global-perspectives/introduction-to-global-perspectives[AccessedDec.8,2020]
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Fig.9Processionofwomeninsampothol,aor,andkramaataBuddhistceremonyinTakeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.
DuringfieldworkinCambodiainDecember2017,themajorityoftheCambodiansIsaw
woreWestern-styletrousers,sarong,shirts,andt-shirts.Krama(plaidwovenscarf)isworn
asadailyaccessorybyallCambodians,menandwomen.Onlyasmallnumberofwomen
woretubeskirts,rarelyinsilk,inthephamaungandholstyles.Theseobservationsmirrored
aseriesofarticlesinThePhnomPenhPostin2011,whichblamedWesternfashionand‘sexy
dresses’forcausingthedisappearanceofthetraditionalattire,especiallywhenattending
BuddhistceremoniesatthetemplesuchasPchumBenorKhmerNewYearcelebrations.104
104‘KhmerCulture,’ThePhnomPenhPost,September21,2011,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lift/khmer-culture[AccessedMay16,2018];KimSamathandTouchYinVannith,‘WhydoWomenWearSexyClothesinPagodas?,’ThePhnomPenhPost,21September2011,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lift/why-do-women-wear-sexy-clothes-pagodas[AccessedMay16,2019].
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Inthesearticles,Cambodianofficialsandmedialinkedwhattheyconsideredsignsof
culturaldeclinetoglobalisationandliberalism,whileyoungpeopleexpressedadesireto
wearcomfortableclothes,andcitedthehighcostandmaintenanceofsilkgarments.Fashion
scholarMargaretMaynardhasstressedthatglobalisationanditsrealmofdisjunctions,as
developedbyAppadurai,havecreatedtensionsinthewaypeopledress,between
homogenisationandheterogenisation.105Thisthesisaddressesthissetofdebatesaround
changesandadaptationindressuseinthefaceofglobalisation,firstinChapterOneonthe
historiographyofsilkanddressinCambodiathatshiftsbetweenlocalandforeign
influences,andinChapterFourontheCambodianAmericandiasporaandtheirclothing
practices.Similarly,thefieldofglobaldesignhistoryhasencouragedsitedapproaches
‘privilegingtheinteractivemovementofthingsandideas,andtheprocessofcross-
fertilisationoftaste’.106SarahTeasley,GiorgioRielloandGlennAdamsonareconcernedwith
‘themultiplicitiesandfragmentedconditioninwhichweexperienceandenactdesign’,
whichisasuitablecontextwithinwhichtoexaminetheCambodiansilksectorwhile
acknowledgingitshistoricties,geographicpositioningandcontemporary
reconfiguration.107
ThisthesisconsidersthewaysinwhichtheCambodiansilksectoroperatesasa
complexnetworkwhichintegrateswhatanthropologistAnnaLowenhauptTsingwouldcall
globalandlocalfrictionsboundbyhistoricalandgeographicencounters.108Tsingargues
thatethnographicanalysiscanhelpunpacklocalisedareasoffrictionandexposetheir
significance.Therefore,theculturalspecificityoftheseglobalinteractionsisexploredto
revealtheirramifyingeffectsonsilk.109TheseeminglyisolatedrealitiesofCambodiansilk
105MargaretMaynard,DressandGlobalisation,(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2004),21-22.106SarahTeasley,GiorgioRielloandGlennAdamson,eds.,GlobalDesignHistory(NewYork:Routledge,2011),3.107Ibid,4.108AnnaLowenhauptTsing,Friction:AnEthnographyofGlobalConnection(Princeton:UniversityPress,2004),3. 109Ibid,3.
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weaversarereintegratedinthecontextofanationalandglobalproductionchain.Global
designhistoryalsorelieson‘networktheory[which]helpsustounderstandhow
knowledgeistransmittedacrosscultures’.110WiththeconceptofActor-NetworkTheory
(ANT),BrunoLatour,MichaelFallonandJohnLaw,partoftheScienceandTechnology
Studiesfield,havecontributedtothestudyofproductionflowsandthecirculationof
commoditiesintechnosocialandtechnoscientificcontexts.Latourarguesthatpowerisa
forcecirculatingbetweenvarioushumanandnon-humanagents.111Networksmayinclude
objects,materialsandorganisations.In2008Latourbroughtthisphilosophicaland
anthropologicalperspectivetodesignstudies,emphasisingitspotentialtoconnectmaterials
tothingstoforcesand‘carryingwithitanewattentionofmeaning’.112Thetransformative
andmultidimensionalqualityofANTprovidesausefulmethodologicallensthroughwhich
toconsiderthemultiplenatureofthesilknetwork,‘aparliamentofthings[to]be
assembled’,whichrespondstotheagencyofspecificplayersthat,inturn,resorttoaseries
ofprocesses,tools,andmaterialstoproducesilkobjects.113
ANThasalsoshownlimitations.Latourhimselfhasacknowledgedthenon-hierarchical,
flatteningnatureofANT,inwhich‘bothmicroandmacroarelocaleffectsofhookingupto
circulatingentities’.114SociologistTomMillshasarguedthat‘itshorizontalist,symmetrical
approachisill-suitedbothtothedevelopmentofscientificknowledgeaboutsocial
structures,andtotheinterrogation,empiricalornormative,ofthecentresofcontemporary
socialpower’.115Moreover,severalScienceandTechnologyStudiesscholarshavecritically
110Teasley,RielloandAdamson,eds.,GlobalDesignHistory,3.111BrunoLatour,ReassemblingtheSocial:AnIntroductiontoActor-NetworkTheory(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2005),72.112BrunoLatour,‘ACautiousPrometheus?AFewStepsTowardaPhilosophyofDesign(withspecialattentiontoPeterSloterdijk)’,inNetworksofDesign:Proceedingsofthe2008AnnualInternationalConferenceoftheDesignHistorySociety,UniversityCollegeFalmouth,3-6September,ed.JonathanGlynne,FionaHackneyandVivMinton(BocaRaton:Universal-Publishers,2009),2-4.113Ibid,5.114BrunoLatour,‘OnRecallingANT’,TheSociologicalReview47:1(May1999):19.115 TomMills,‘Whathasbecomeofcritique?ReassemblingsociologyafterLatour’,TheBritishJournalofSociology,69(2018):298-9.
65
addressedtheWestern-centricuniversalistthinkingbehindANT,comparingthisparadigm
topost-colonialperspectivesandEastAsianlocalpractices.116Wen-YuanLinandJohnLaw
stressedthattheheterogeneityofworldsis‘contextual’,meaningthat‘whatcountsasgood
knowledgeinonelocationmayormaynotcountasknowledgeanywhereelse’.117They
arguedthat‘theobjectistohighlightunderprivilegedlocalperspectivesandsituations
withoutessentialisinglocality’.118SociologistsDavidDumouilinKevran,MinaKleiche-Dray
andMathieuQuetrecommendpursuingtheenergisingcrossingbetweenscienceand
technologyandpostcolonialculturalcriticismtoquestion‘themultiplenatureofpower
(thatweknowonlyfromsitesofobservationthataredifferent)andtheinterplayofforms
ofotherness’,andexplorealternativeempiricalformsofmodernity.119
Inadditiontotheseinvaluableinterpretations,mythesisalsoreliesonthescripting
approach,derivedfromANT,toexamineartefacts,makingprocessesandmaterials.
DevelopedbysociologistoftechnologyMadeleineAkrich,scriptingconsidershowtechnical
objectsaretherecipients,sums,andresultsoftheirdesigners'agency,builtfromtheir
interactionswiththeusers,whetherimaginedorreal.120KjetilFallanvalidatesthis
approachfordesignhistorianswhoarelookingat‘howaproduct'sutilitarianfunctions,
aestheticsexpressions,socialmeaningandculturalidentitiesareconstructed’.121
ScholarsofceramicsLouiseAllisonCortandLeedomLeffertsproducedacomparativestudy
ofmakingprocessesinthemid-1990sinmainlandSoutheastAsia,includingCambodia.122
116DavidDumouilinKevran,MinaKleiche-Dray,andMathieuQuet,'LesSTSont-ellesunSud?Penserlessciencesdans/aveclesSuds’,Revued’anthropologiedesconnaissances11:3(2017):423–454;Wen-yuanLinandJohnLaw,‘WeHaveNeverBeenLatecomers!?MakingKnowledgeSpacesforEastAsianTechnosocialPractices',EastAsianScience,TechnologyandSociety:AnInternationalJournal9(2015):117–126.117LinandLaw,‘WeHaveNeverBeenLatecomers!?MakingKnowledgeSpacesforEastAsianTechnosocialPractices,'120-21.118Ibid.119DumouilinKevran,Kleiche-Dray,andQuet,'LesSTSont-ellesunSud?Penserlessciencesdans/aveclesSuds,’297.120MadeleineAkrich,‘TheDe-ScriptionofTechnicalObjects,’inShapingTechnology/BuildingSociety,editedbyW.BijkerandJ.Law(Cambridge:MITPress,1992),208.121KjetilFallan,DesignHistory:UnderstandingTheoryandMethod(Oxford:Berg,2010),13.122LouiseAllisonCourtandLeedomLeffertshaveappliedPierreLemonnier’smethodof‘chaînesopératoires’.TakingtheexampleofankavedrumsinPapuaNewGuinea,Lemonnierhasarguedthat
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Followingtheconceptofchaînesopératoirescommontoarchaeologyandcultural
anthropology,theydeconstructedthedifferentstepsofpotterymaking,lookingat
‘technologyasanembodiedbehaviour’–thatis,theposturesandactionsadoptedby
artisanstoachievearangeofspecifictasks.SimilarlytoAkrich,theyconsidered‘the
behavioralpatternsinvolvedinproductionandtheirimpactontheitemproduced’which
helpstoidentifytheinteractionsbetweentheartisans,theirgesturesandthematerials.123
Informedbytheseexamplesofscriptingandpost-colonialANT,thisthesisaimstomapthe
silksector,navigatingfrommacro-geopoliticalsystemstomicro-processesofproduction.
Conversely,itnavigatesfromthefibretotheeconomyofsilkandtrade,whileintegrating
makersandconsumersaskeyagentsandproducersofknowledge.
Inadditiontonetworktheory,thisthesisusesculturalgeographytoestablisha
strongsenseofplace,tofullysituatetheresearchgeographicallyandhistoricallyinthe
specificterritoriesofsilkproductionandconsumptioninCambodiaandLongBeach,
California.GeographerDavidDelaneyhasestablishedthatterritoriesfind‘their
manifestationsintheirhistoricspecificity'.124Inotherwords,territoriesareinterdependent
withtheprocessesofcultural,socialandpoliticaltransformationsthatcrossthemandaffect
theirnature.125Asexemplifiedatthebeginningofthischapter,indiscussingKohDach
island,thisthesisoptsforalocatedethnographicanalysisgroundedinmapsand
descriptions,treatingthespacesofsilkweavingas‘humansocialcreations’,and‘significant
culturalartefacts’.126Moreover,Delaneyfocusesonmacro-andmicro-territorialstructures,
eachstepoftheproductionsequencemustbedetailedtoperceivethe‘materialdimensionoftechnicalbehaviours’.SeePierreLemonnier,‘Mythiqueschaînesopératoires,’Techniques&Culture,43-44:1(2004):1-2;LouiseAllisonCortandLeedomLefferts,‘AnApproachtotheStudyofContemporaryEarthenwareTechnologyinMainlandSoutheastAsia,’JournaloftheSiamSociety88:1&2(2000):205. 123CortandLefferts,‘AnApproachtotheStudyofContemporaryEarthenwareTechnologyinMainlandSoutheastAsia,’205.124DavidDelaney,Territory,AShortIntroduction(Malden,MA:Blackwell,2005),20.125Ibid,23.126Ibid,10.
67
‘whereindividualhumansasembodiedbeingsorganisethemselveswithrespecttothe
socialandmaterialworld’.127Inthissituatedframework,thisthesisisparticularlyconcerned
withtherelationshipbetweenmaterialityandthepeopleformingthesilkscape,starting
withweaversaskeyagentsofknowledge.
Cambodiansilkweaversworkinruralareas,eitherindependently,withintheirownfamily
orneighbouringvillagers,oraspartofcraftNGOs,whichcreatesadiversityofsituationsin
termsoffamilydynamics,socialandmaterialinterrelationsandeconomictransactions.
However,weavinginCambodiaisalsoapracticecommonlypassedonfrommotherto
daughteratayoungagethroughobservation,oralinstruction,copying,andrepetition.
Lookingat‘themakers’individualprocesses,strategies,andtacticsofknowing',Trevor
Marchandhasdevelopedarichcanonofscholarshiponthedifferentformsofknowledge
producedthroughcraftpractices.128ToMarchand,‘makingthingsisthereforemaking
knowledge.Bycarefullystudyingthesemicro-processes,westandabetterchanceof
describingthemechanismsofsocialandculturalchange’.129Thisstrongemphasison
engagingcloselywithweavers’workprovidesauniquelensintotherevitalisationand
survivalofCambodianculturalpracticesinthecontextofpost-conflicteconomicandsocial
reconstruction.
Marchand’seditedvolumeMakingKnowledgeemphasisesnon-Westernethnographic
studiessuchasthoseofIndianmatweaversandKhazakfemaleembroidererstofocuson
themechanismsofskillslearningandhowthisiscommunicatedbytheartisansfromverbal
tophysicalformsofcommunication.130Alongwithdiscoursesonweaversthemselves,this
thesisthereforeexaminestheroleoftheembodiedandthetacitinmakingandwearingsilk.
Marchandsuggeststhat‘thebodyplaysamorecrucialroleinthemakingofallformsof
127Delaney,Territory,AShortIntroduction,10. 128TrevorMarchand,ed.MakingKnowledge:ExplorationsoftheIndissolubleRelationBetweenMind,BodyandEnvironment(Chichester:WileyBlackwell,2010),15.129Ibid,112.130Ibid,15.
68
knowledgethanwhatcanberevealedthroughethnographicobservationalone’.131
Embodimentisalsoakeyconceptwhenconsideringwearingsilkandhowitdirectly
mediatestheimmigrantexperienceinthecontextofdisplacement.AnthropologistDaniel
Millerstatedpowerfullythat‘astudyofclothshouldnotbecold;ithastoinvokethetactile,
emotional,intimateworldoffeelings’.132Inthisregard,Millerandco-authorMukulika
BanerjeeevocativelydescribedtheexperienceofwearingasariforanIndianwoman:where
thefabricholdsanddrapes,andhowtheclothisnegotiatedasaninterfacebetweenthe
woman’sbodyandidentityandtheoutsideworld.133Similartothesari,wearingasilk
sampotoffersaspecificexperienceofdrapingonKhmerwomen’sbodies,tiedaroundtheir
waistandwornforspecialoccasions.
TheanalysisofintimateexpressionsofCambodianculturalidentitythroughdresscouldbe
deepenedthroughautoethnography‘toproduceaestheticandevocativethickdescriptions
ofpersonalandinterpersonalexperience’.134Forinstance,dancescholarPriyaSrinivasan
usesherexperienceasadancertoexploreIndiandanceintransnationalcontexts,
suggestingthat‘thesweatingsariisametonymforthedancingbodyaslabor’.135Citing
dancerSusanFoster,Srinivasanadvocatesfor‘anexaminationofdiscoursesbyandthrough
thebodybyfocusingonitscorporealities,wherebodilyrealityisseennotasa‘naturalor
absolutegivenbutasatangibleandsubstantialcategoryofculturalexperience’.136This
approachiskeyinconsideringtheunspokenintimaciesbetweenthewearer,thebodyand
silkinthecontextofdisplacementandculturalloss.AsarguedbyEbihara,Ledgerwoodand
131Marchand,MakingKnowledge:ExplorationsoftheIndissolubleRelationBetweenMind,BodyandEnvironment,17.132DanielMiller,Stuff(Cambridge:PolityPress,2010),41.133DanielMillerandMukulikaBanerjee,TheSari(Oxford:Berg,2003),23-44.134CarolynEllis,TonyE.Adams,andArthurP.Bochner,‘Autoethnography:AnOverview,’Forum:QualitativeSocialResearch12:1(January2011),Article10http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1589/3095[AccessedJune29,2020]135PriyaSrinivasan,SweatingSaris:IndianDanceasTransnationalLabor(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2011),xi.136Srinivasan,SweatingSaris,71;SusanFoster,‘Introduction,’inCorporealities:DancingKnowledge,Culture,andPower,ed.SusanFoster(NewYork:Routledge,1995),x.
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Mortland,embracingculturalsymbolsofCambodiannessinthediasporatakesaspecific
meaning.Thiscentralpremisecreatesthepossibilityofconsideringsilkclothasametonym
forCambodianidentityandembodimentoffamilyattachments,memories,andtrauma.137
Polyphonicandmultidisciplinarymethodology
Thisthesisseekstoengagewithsubjectivitiesproducedfromapluralityofvantage
points.Toengageadiversityofvoices,fromCambodiantoforeign,organisationstopeople,
textileartefactstomaterials,polyphonyhasbeentheleadingdiscursivemethodacross
everychapterofthisthesis.Inmusic,thetermpolyphonydescribesamusicalpiece
comprisedoftwoormorelinesofmelody.Inliterature,linguisticscholarMikhailBakhtin
usedtheterm‘heteroglossia’todescribe‘aseriesofcomplexinterrelationships,
consonancesanddissonances’,asystemusedtocreatepolyphonicnovelsenrichedby
multiplelayersofsemantics.138HistorianJamesCliffordreclaimedBakhtin’stheoryto
conceptualisetheideaofapolyvocalethnographicapproachtovocaliseculturesas‘an
open-ended,creativedialogueofsubcultures,ofinsidersandoutsiders,ofdiverse
factions’.139
Moreover,thisapproachalignswiththedecolonialworkdevisedbysemioticianWalter
MignoloandsociologistRolandoVazquez.Theyhaveencouragedthehumanitiesto
repositionWestern-centricclaimshistoricallyandchallengepatternsofcoloniality.140To
137Ebihara,Ledgerwood,andMortland,CambodianCulturesince1975:HomelandandExile,9.138MikhailBakhtin,‘DiscourseintheNovel,’inTheDialogicImagination:FourEssays(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1981),276-282.139JamesClifford,ThePredicamentofCulture:Twentieth-CenturyEthnography,Literature,andArt(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1988),46-54;JamesClifford,'OnEthnographicAuthority,’Representations,2(Spring,1983):136).140WalterMignoloandRolandoVazquez,‘DecolonialAestheSis:ColonialWounds/DecolonialHealings,’SocialTextOnline,July15,2013,https://socialtextjournal.org/periscope_article/decolonial-aesthesis-colonial-woundsdecolonial-healings/[AccessedNovember3,2019]
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thisend,Mignoloarguesfor’arelocationofthethinkingandacriticalawarenessofthe
geopoliticsofknowledge’.141Foradesignhistorianworkingwithoralsourcesand
Cambodiancommunities,polyphonyprovidesaframeworkthatrebalancesinequitable
agenciesandcreatesinvaluablespaceforindigenousvoices.Combinedwiththe
deconstructingmethodsofscriptandANT,polyphonyenablesthereevaluationofthe
discoursesconveyedbystakeholdersinthesilkindustrythatmirrorthelegaciesof
colonialismandforeigninfluences.Oncepolyphonyisengaged,marginalvoices–inthis
case,thoseofCambodiansilkpractitionersandCambodianAmericanwearers–canregain
space.
Workinginter-culturallyinanon-Westerncontextwithcommunitiesrequiresa
productionofaknowledgethatisrepresentativeofthelocalcontextandthepeoplewhoare
participatingintheresearch.EducatorLindaTuhiwaiSmith’spioneeringcontributionto
decolonisingmethodologiesadvocatesforapositionofreciprocalrespecttoovercomethe
waythat‘thecollectivememoryofimperialismhasbeenperpetuatedthroughthewaysin
whichknowledgeaboutindigenouspeopleswascollected,classifiedandthenrepresented
invariouswaysbacktotheWest’.142Asaresearcher,workingwithinthisethicalframework
presentsitsownchallengesandopportunities.Artist,filmmakerandscholarTrinhT.Minh-
hahasstated:‘Idonotwishtospeakabout,onlytospeaknearby’.143Bythis,shemeant‘a
speakingthatdoesnotobjectify,doesnotpointtoanobjectasifitisdistantfromthe
speakingsubjectorabsentfromthespeakingplace’.144SpeakingnearCambodianvoices,not
overthem,withweaversandwearershasbeenaconstantconcern.
IamnotCambodian,butofFrenchandVietnameseorigin,withprofessionalexperiencein
141WalterMignolo,'TheGeopoliticsofKnowledgeandtheColonialDifference,’TheSouthAtlanticQuarterly101:0(Winter2002):67. 142LindaTuhiwaiSmith,DecolonizingMethodologies:ResearchandIndigenousPeoples(London:ZedBooks,1999),1-2.143NancyChen,‘‘SpeakingNearby’:ADiscussionwithTrinhT.Minh-Ha,’VisualAnthropologyReview,8:1,(Spring1992):86-87. 144Ibid.;TrinhT.Minh-Ha,Woman,Native,Other:WritingPostcolonialityandFeminism(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1989),6.
71
textiledesignanddocumentary.Thispersonaltrajectoryhasstronglyinformedmy
methodologicalandstrategicchoicesintheconductofthisproject.Since2005Ihavevisited
Cambodiaonseveraloccasions,bothasadesignerworkingonlocaltextileartisanalprojects
withcraftcompaniesandasareporteronculturalandwomen’sstoriesin2012-13.This
thesisbuildsonthispriorengagementandfamiliaritywithCambodiansilkpracticesand
expandsmypositionasinsider/outsider,byaddingthespecificsetofanalyticaland
researchtoolsofdesignhistoryandethnography.
Intermsofadvantages,havingtrainedinweavingduringmyMFAinTextileDesignfrom
2004to2006hashelpedmeunderstandthetechniquesoftheweaversinCambodia,
especiallyinrelationtothetie-dyeprocessinvolvedinholmaking.Theyhavebeenableto
demonstratetheirskillsinsteadofhavingtodescribeeveryaction.Myprofessional
experienceasadesignerinCambodiafacilitatedmyaccesstocertainworkshops,asthis
benefitedfrompre-establishedrelationshipsoftrust.
Therewerestillchallengesinfosteringequitablerelationshipsandcollectingdata,
especiallyinrelationtotheissuesofKhmerlanguageandtranslation.Simplyput,‘the
translationisaninterpretation’that‘mustmaintainitslinktotheoriginal’.145
Anthropologistshavelongdiscussedthecomplexitiesandpowerrelationshipsinvolvedin
workinginterculturally,acknowledgingtranslationasitsinterculturalsubdiscipline.146
CatherineTihanyipointedto‘theoppositepullofthenecessityofbeingfaithfultothe
originalandtheriskofbeingunintelligibletotheirtargetreadership,andofbeingfaithfulto
theirreadershipandtheriskofsymbolicallyannihilatingtheirinformants’.147
Inthisthesis,EnglishisusedbytheownersofcraftcompaniesandKhmerbyweavers.I
tookoneyearofKhmerclassestolearnthebasicsofthelanguage,tohelpmyunderstanding
145CatherineTihanyi,‘EthnographicandTranslationPractices’,AnthropologyNews43:6(2002):5-6.146TullioPersiodeAlbuquerqueMaranhao,andBernhardStreck,TranslationandEthnography:TheAnthropologicalChallengeofInterculturalUnderstanding(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2003),xv.147Tihanyi,‘EthnographicandTranslationPractices.’
72
ofspecificvocabularyandbuildtrustduringtheinterviews.Itdidnotreplaceworkingwith
localinterpreterstoensureaclearandnuancedunderstandingoftheseinteractions.
Dealingwithtwokindsoftranslators(insidersinthecommunitiesoroutsidershiredforthe
task)bringsitsownsetofbenefitsanddisadvantages.Insidersknowthepeoplebutoften
addinformationtocontextualisetheanswers.Outsidersmaystrugglemoretounderstand
theirinterlocutor’srealitieswhileofferingadistancedpositionthatishelpfulinfocusingon
people’swords.Ineachcase,ensuringaprocessoftranslatingthatbridgedgapsbetween
Englishandtheweavers’answersinKhmerhasbeencrucialinordertomaintainthe
authenticityoftheirvoicesandworktowardspolyvocality.
Differentformsofinter-subjectivityarealsoexploredinthisthesisviaa
multidisciplinaryapproach,usinghistoricalresearch,ethnography,participatorymethods
suchasActionResearch,whichIexplainfurther,andinterviewsinconjunctionwithobject-
basedandmaterialstudies.Indesignhistory,fieldworkisunderstoodasashort-term
researchtripfollowingspecificobjectives,whichdiffersfromformsoflong-termimmersion
specifictootherfieldssuchasanthropology.Fiveseparateperiodsoffieldworkwerecarried
outbetween2016and2018,threephasesinCambodiaforatotaloftwelveweeksandtwo
inLongBeachforthreeweeks.InJanuary2017,July2017andMarch2018inCambodiaI
observedtheday-to-dayoperationsofseveralweavingworkshopsbasedinSiemReapand
Takeoprovinces.ResearchinvillagesinKohDachinKandalprovinceandindifferent
communesinTakeoprovincewasalsoconductedtomeetindividualweaversworkingfrom
home.Ididnotfocusonsericultureandsilkfarmers.InApril2017andFebruary2018in
LongBeach,theCambodiaTownCultureFestivalprovidedadynamicsettinginwhichto
observeCambodianAmericanswearingsilk.Interviewswithsilkconsumers,dressmakers
andKhmerclassicalballetdancersexploredtheroleofsilkintheexpressionofcultural
identitiesinanimmigrantcontext.
Ethnographicworkwasanchoredinparticipantobservationcombiningtimesofimmersion
73
andanalysis,describedbyanthropologistTimIngoldasapositionwhere‘theresearchers
standboth‘inside’and‘outside’thefieldofinquiryatoneandthesametime’.148Ireliedon
differentmethodsofqualitativeresearchsuchasinformalconversationswithweaversand
silkshopowners,meetingwithlocalinformantsasawayoflearnaboutthesectorandits
mainplayers,anddirectobservationinweavingworkshops,markets,andshops.Onspecific
sitevisits,Icombineddiscussionsandtheexaminationofpersonalitemsbelongingtomy
informants.Alongwithperiodsspentinobservation,visualdocumentationthrough
photographyandfilmhaveprovidedadditionallayersofmethodologytoexaminethe
materialityofsilkandmakingprocessesbeyondinterviews.Tocontinueunpackingthe
complexitiesofthesilknetwork,thisthesisusesvisualdiagramsandchartstotranslatedata
ontheevolutionoffibreproduction,distributionnetworks,andthedifferentbusiness
modelsofcraftNGOs.AworkshoponfibreanalysisattheQuaiBranlyMuseuminParison
October11and12,2017informedthestudyofsilkfromaphysicalperspectivepresentedin
ChapterOne.149Theuseofahigh-definitionmicroscopetocapturedigitalphotographyat
differentdegreesofmagnificationrevealedthedifferencesbetweenasinglethreadoffine
silkbeforedegummingandoneafterdegummingunderthepolarisingmicroscope.
InCambodia,atotalofeighteenweaverswereinterviewed(elevenwithrecordedand
transcribedinterviews,seveninformally)andsevencraftcompanyrepresentatives(one
witharecordedandtranscribedinterview,sixinformally).InLongBeach,eightwomen
wearingsilkwereinterviewed(twodressmakersandonedancer,producingrecordedand
transcribedinterviews;twosilkclients,twodancersandaLong-Beachbasedanthropologist
informally).150Researchcarriedoutduringperiodsoffieldworkhascarefullyrespectedthe
‘Donoharm’ethicalprinciplesofethnographicwork,ensuringthatthedifferent
148TimIngold,Making:Anthropology,Archaeology,ArtandArchitecture(London:Routledge,2013),5.149SeeElenaPhippsdiscussingthevalueofmicroscopeexaminationfortextileanalysisinPhipps,LookingatTextiles:aGuidetoTechnicalTerms(LosAngeles:J.PaulGettyMuseum,2012),11-12.150SeethelistofinterviewsinthebibliographyunderOralSources.
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communitiesandindividualsinvolvedinthisresearchwereproperlyinformedand
protected.ThisprojectreceivedclearancefromtheRCAResearchEthicsCommittee.
Recordingsoftheinterviews,alongwiththeirtranscription,arekeptsafelyinafolder
securedbyanencryptedpassword.Noneofthepeopleinterviewedrequestedtoremain
anonymousbuttheoptionwasofferedtothem.Inseveralcases,weaversonlygavetheir
firstname.Theinformationsheetandconsentanddataprocessingstatementwereboth
translatedintoKhmerbyVathanakSok,aLondon-basedKhmerinstructor,andgiventothe
Khmer-speakingparticipants.151Whenintervieweeswereilliterate,interpretersexplained
theproject’sobjectivesandaskedforconsentatthebeginningoftherecording.The
procedurehasalsoincludedobtainingasignedconfidentialityagreementfromthe
interpreters.
Inthepastdecade,takingacuefromexperimentalarchaeologyandanthropology,
thefieldsofhistoryanddesignhistoryhaveexploredtheintersectionsoftheoryand
practiceinthestudyofmakingprocesses.152Howcanskillsthatarelostormissingbe
accountedfor?TheWeavingKnowledgeprojectdevelopedbyPamelaSmithinThailandfor
PhDstudentsinthehumanitiesexemplifiestheuseofapprenticeshipandautoethnography
toapproachtextilecrafttechniquesfromtheinside.153However,thesemethodswerenot
suitedtoengagingwithcontemporaryCambodiansilkweavingunderadecolonialagenda.
Thegoalisnottosubstitutemyselffortheweavers’existingexpertise,buttorecentre
subjectsasproducersofknowledgeandimplementarelationshipwhichwouldbenefitthem
directlyandsupporttheircommunity.Thishasencouragedmetochooseparticipatory
formsofresearchsuchasActionResearch.ActionResearchisconcernedwith
151SeethemodelsofconsentformsinAppendixA4.152Fordesignhistory,seeGlennAdamson,ThinkingThroughCraft(London:BloomsburyPublishing,2007),TheDesignHistoryjournalspecialissue‘DangerousLiaisons:RelationshipsbetweenDesign,CraftandArt,’17:3(September2004).153WeavingKnowledge,https://weavingknowledge.org[AccessedOctober5,2020]
75
‘understanding,creatingandadvancingknowledge’.154Itisemphasisedasaprocessof
problem-solvingdefinedbycyclesofactionandreflection,‘bringingtogethertheoryand
practice,inparticipationwithothers,inthepursuitofpracticalsolutionstoissuesof
pressingconcerntopeople’.155TheActionResearchprojectpresentedinChapterThree
focusesontheplanninganddocumentingoftheproductionoffouroriginalsampotholby
KramaYuyu,asmall-scaleweavingworkshoplocatedinthevillageofTaPoukinSiemReap
province.TheleadingweaversatKramaYuyulearnedtheartofweftikatasteenagersand
hadstoppedpractisingforadecade,duetoalackofopportunity,andthenmovedtocotton
weaving.Coveringthecostsofsilkmaterialsandlabour,theprojecthasgivenweaversthe
timetorehabilitatetheseunusedskills.Astheconvenor,Isupportedtheplanningofthe
action,documentedthemakingprocessofholwithfilmandphotographyandhelped
weaversreflectontheoutcomethroughinterviews.ArchaeologistBollwerkandher
colleaguesexplainthatco-creationentails‘areciprocalrelationship[…]inwhichpoweris
sharedequallyandthatmultipleperspectivesandtypesofknowledgeareacknowledged
andintegrated’.156Here,theco-creationofknowledgeenablesthiscommunityofweaversto
developtheirskillsandsenseofrecognitionbyemphasisingtheiragencies.Thisproject
aimstoilluminatethelinksbetweenancientandupdatedweavingknow-howgained
throughmatrilinealtransmission,bodymemoryandtacitknowledge.
Sources
154OrtrunZuber-Skerritt,'ActionLearningandActionResearch:Paradigm,PraxisandPrograms,’inEffectiveChangeManagementthroughActionResearchandActionLearning:Concepts,Perspectives,ProcessesandApplications,ed.ShankarSankara,BobDick,andRonPassfield(Lismore:SouthernCrossUniversityPress,2001),15.155HilaryBradburyandPeterReason,TheSAGEHandbookofActionResearchParticipativeInquiryandPractice(LosAngeles:Sage,2008),4.156ElizabethBollwerk,RobertConnolly,andCarolMcDavid,‘Co-CreationandPublicArchaeology’,AdvancesinArchaeologicalPractice3:3(2015):181.
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TobuildapolyvocalexplorationoftheCambodiansilkscape,Ihavedrawnona
diverserangeofprimarysourcesbeyondtheoral,whichreflectsthemultidisciplinary
natureofadesignhistoryapproach;thisincludes,inparticular,film,photographs,archival
documentsandmuseumartefacts.Duringfieldwork,Ialsoproducednewdocumentationof
primaryresearch,collectingacorpusofinterviewsandinformalconversationssupported
byabundantvisualdocumentation,asdetailedearlier.
Thescarcityofsilktextilesinpost-conflictCambodiancollectionshassignificantly
diminishedtheavailableknowledgeofstylesandmotifsthatcanbedrawndirectlyfrom
historicalartefacts.WhentheNationalMuseumofCambodia(NMC)reopenedinPhnom
Penhin1980,onlyseventy-tworareexamplesofsilktextileshadbeenrecoveredfromthe
399textileartefactsanddancecostumeelementsthathadbeencollectedbeforetheKR
regime.157Themuseumhasacquiredahundredadditionalpiecesthroughdonationssince
thelate2000s.
AlongsideexamplesfromthesesignificantmuseumcollectionsoftextilesinCambodiaand
internationally,theobjectsandformsofknowledgethisthesisaddresseshavealsobeen
encounteredinthefield.InCambodia,studyvisitstoshopsandmarketsinPhnomPenhand
SiemReap,combinedwithresearchinsilkweavingworkshopsinruralareasinSiemReap,
TakeoandKandalprovinces,providethemajorityoftheprimarysourcesformythesis.This
includescollectingsilkfibreandcocoonsusedinChapterOneandthefourikatpieces
producedintheActionResearchprojectinChapterThree,tophotographyandfilmsofthe
workshops,silkproducersandmakingprocesses.Ialsoproducedtwoshortfilms,TheSilk
Chronicles:WarpandWeft,basedonfootageshotinJuly2017atKramaYuyu.Inthethird
andlongestperiodoffieldworkinCambodia,supportfroml’EcoleFrançaised’Extrême
157KhunSamen,andTouchHab,'TextilesintheCollectionoftheNationalMuseumofCambodia’,IKTTSeminarprogram“Hol,theArtofCambodianTextile,’SiemReap,Cambodia,December12-13,2003.InstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles,http://iktt.esprit-libre.org/en/2004/09/abstract_part_2_textiles_in_th.html
77
OrientfacilitatedaccesstotheNMCtextilecollectionandtheNationalLibrary,alsoonsite,
whichholdsacquisitionrecordsandobjectcataloguesdatingfromtheFrenchprotectorate
era.InPhnomPenh,theBophanaAudiovisualResourceCentre,foundedbyCambodian
documentaristRithyPanh,providedfilmfootageonCambodiansilkpractices.Researchwas
alsoconductedattheNationalArchives,whichcontainsvastdocumentationonthehistory,
sociology,anthropology,andcultureoftheFrenchProtectorateandpost-independence
eras;andatthearchivesoftheUNESCOPhnomPenhofficetoidentifydataaboutearly
developmentprogrammesforsilkweaving.Thisthesisalsomakesuseofarticlesfrom
CambodiannewspapersaimedatalocalandEnglish-speakingaudience,mostlyThePhnom
PenhPostandtheKhmerTimes,andofficialreportspublishedbyNGOsandgovernmental
andinternationalagencies,whichoutlinethedevelopmentofsilkproductionsincethe
2000s.158
AsimilarprocesswasfollowedinLongBeach,California,toproducevisual
documentationandgatherinterviews,focusingespeciallyonthe2017CambodiaTown
CultureFestival,whichincludedacostumedparadeandapublicperformanceofKhmer
classicalballet.ThelocalCambodianCommunityHistoryandArchiveProjectholds
documentationabouttheCambodianAmericancommunity,includingethnographicand
linguisticresearchconductedbyco-foundersSusanNeedhamandKarenQuintiliani,local
newspapersandephemeraandnumerousphotographsdonatedbycommunitymembers.
ThestudyofsilkanditsroleinCambodianAmericanidentitiesissupportedbyadditional
158ThePhnomPenhPostisaCambodian-basedindependentdailynewspaperfoundedin1992bytheAmericanpublisherMichaelHayesandownedbyRossDunkley,anAustraliannational,since2008.KhmerTimesisanEnglish-languagenewspaperfoundedin2014byMalaysianMohanTirugmanasamBandamandownedbyhiscompanyVirtusMediaPte.SeeThikKaliyann,‘SpinnersandsilkweaverswinsupportfromEU,’ThePhnomPenhPost,4October2010,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lifestyle/spinners-and-silk-weavers-win-support-eu[AccessedOctober30,2016];SokChan,’LocalsilkindustryseeksChinesesupport,’KhmerTimes,3May2017,https://www.khmertimeskh.com/13243/local-silk-industry-seeks-chinese-support/[AccessedSeptember29,2019];SokChan,’Japanpledgestoboostsilkindustry,’KhmerTimes,April4,2017,https://www.khmertimeskh.com/8527/japan-pledges-to-boost-silk-industry/[AccessedSeptember29,2019].
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interviewsfrompractitionersofKhmerclassicalballetfromKhmerArtsAcademy,alocal
tailorandaweddingdressdesignerandtheirclients.
Chaptersummary
ToprovideafreshperspectiveontheCambodiansilkscape,thisthesisisarticulatedaround
fourkeythemeswhichprovidethestructureforthefourchapters,examininghowsilk-
making,throughitshistoryandgeographyofproductionandconsumption,hasbeen
informedbytradeandculturalexchanges;theagencyofstakeholdersformingthesocio-
economicnetworkofthesilksector;theagencyandknowledgeoftheweavers activatedand
transmittedintheirpraxis,andtheembodiedexperienceofCambodian-Americansilk
wearerswhoengagewithissuesofacculturationinthediasporaofLongBeach,California.
Mythesisfollowstwoseparateyetcomplementarynarratives,oneoflossinthefirsttwo
chaptersandoneofreclamationinthethirdandfourthchapters,toconsidertheconditions
oftherevitalisationofthesilksectorthroughsomeofitsmainagents.
ChapterOneexaminesthemeaningsofCambodiansilkandhowCambodiamaybe
definedthroughsilkfollowingageopoliticalperspective.Silkwovenclothsenfoldregional
historyandgeography,throughthelensoftheirmaterial,spatial,politicalandeconomic
positioningthroughtime.Movingchronologically,thischaptertraceshowthe
historiographyofsilkinCambodiawasformedinresponsetosuccessivewavesofcultural
influences,exchanges,andinternalandexternalconflicts,fromthefirstaccountofsilk
weavingfromaChineseenvoyattheroyalcourtofAngkorinthelatethirteenthcenturyto
theKRregimeinthe1970sanditsaftermath.Aselectionofkeyartefactsfrommuseum
collectionsinandoutsideCambodiaillustratetheshiftingvalueofCambodiansilkasa
commoditytradedviaSoutheastAsian,Indian,Chinese,andEuropeannetworks.
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Landscapesofproductionandthewaystheseterritoriesrespondedtoperiodsofpolitical
upheavalsareexploredtoinformthecontinuityofsilkpracticesthroughtime.
ChapterTwodiscussestheemergenceofmajoractorsinthesilkweavingsectorfrom1991
to2018undertheNGOandsocialenterprisemodels,someofwhichreceivedtheearly
supportoftransnationalsponsorssuchasUNESCO.Thechapterbuildsonaseriesofcase
studiesdetailingthehistoriesandsystemsofaselectivesamplingofCambodian-based
workshopsfoundedrespectivelybytheFrench,theJapaneseandCambodians,whichhave
implementedlocaltrainingprogrammesinsericultureandsilkweaving.Thereformationof
thesilkscapeunderlocalandglobalprerogativesredefinesdiscoursesofCambodian
authenticity,tradition,andcrafts.Thesepreservationistagentshavecraftedtheir
interventionsintohumanitariandiscoursesaimedatpreventingpovertyandculturalloss,
developingnewmethodsofproductionanddistributionforexportandtouristmarketsand
establishingstandards.Thischapterwillexplorehowthesemonopolisticpositionsraise
issuesofownershipandagencytoacknowledgehowearliermodelspertainingto
colonialismandtraderouteswhichwerediscussedinthepreviouschapterhaveshaped
patternsandpoliciesinthe1990sunderthescopeofsoftpower.Thisexaminationis
necessarytooutlinethesystemicdominanceofthesestakeholdersandhow,bydefault,it
showstheabsenceofweaversasactorsintheconversation.
ChapterThreethusturnsitsfocusonweaversinSiemReapandTakeoprovinces,to
examinemechanismsofmatrilinealtransmissionofsilkknowledgeinthepracticeofsilkin
responsetophenomenaofglobalisedflows,andthedominantpositionoftransnational
bodiesexposedinChapterTwo.CentredaroundtheActionResearchprojectcarriedout
withaweavingworkshopintheSiemReaparea,observationsanddocumentationofthe
processoftheholtechniquearecombinedwithinterviewswiththeweaverstohighlight
theirstrategiestoremobilisesilkweavingpracticestheyhadsetasideforadecade.
Dynamicsoftransmissionandreclamationofskillsalsorevealformsoftacitand‘embodied
80
learning’conceptualisedbyTrevorMarchand.159Furthermore,thischapterdemonstrates
waysinwhichskillsarepassedonwithinthefamily,thevillageandviatwospecifictraining
programmes,whichraisesissuesofvocation,ownershipandauthorityinsilkpractices.
ChapterThreehighlightshowthesilkweaverswhowereintervieweddealwithissuesof
agencyandknowledgeinthefaceofachangedcontemporarycontext.
Finally,ChapterFourfocusesonaperiodoffieldworkconductedinLongBeach,
California,amongtheCambodiandiasporaontheoccasionofCambodianNewYear
celebrationsinApril2017.LongBeachisconsideredtobethelargestdemographic
concentrationofCambodianimmigrantsoutsideSoutheastAsia,countingabout50,000
people.Thediasporiccommunityisregardedasanactivatesiteofheritage,identityand
performance,whereCambodiansilksareshowcasedfortheiraestheticandculturalvalue.
Interviewswithaselectionofmembersofthecommunityandauto-ethnographywillinform
howsilkdressintimatelyparticipatesinritualssuchasweddings,Buddhistceremonies,and
thepracticeofKhmerclassicalballetasanembodiedexperience.Thepainstakingprocessof
silkcostuminglinkstheemotionaltransactionofclothingtoissuesofculturalaffirmation,
memoryandnostalgia.Thisstudyhighlightsthevariouswaysinwhichdiasporic
communitiesreclaimandengagetheirdisplacedbodiesbywearingandconsumingsilk
garments,developingindividualandcollectiveapproachestoreconnectwiththeir
Cambodianidentity.Ultimately,thisthesishighlightsthehumangeographythatformsthe
silksector,demonstratinghowapolyvocalexplorationde-linksexistingmonolithic
narrativesonCambodianidentityaswellasCambodia’sculturalheritage.Tobetter
understandthecontemporarysilkscape,thisexplorationwillstartbyestablishingthe
historiographyandgeographyofCambodiansilkproductiontorevealaheritageofcultural
cross-currentsandgeopoliticalconflicts.
159TrevorMarchand,‘Muscles,MoralsandMind:CraftApprenticeshipandtheFormationofaPerson,’BritishJournalofEducationalStudies,56:3(2008):246.
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ChapterOne
Cambodiansilkpolyphonies:historiography,geography,andmateriality(802-1990)
Introduction
WhenCambodiareturnedtoanindependentpoliticalsystemfollowingtheParis
PeaceAccordsin1991andtheelectionsin1993,thecountryalsoreopenedtointernational
exchanges,formingnewallianceswithforeigninvestorsandcloseneighbouringcountries.
SilkproductionresumedinCambodiaunderanewcontext,bysourcingmaterialsinChina
andThailandwhilealsocompetingwiththesemajorsilkproducers.Thischapterunravels
newwaystoexamineCambodia’shistoriesandgeographies,usingsilkasalensthrough
whichtoviewissuesofnationalidentity,culturalheritageandmaterialculture.This
geopoliticalexaminationsupportstheargumentthatthehistoryandphysiognomyof
Cambodiaasalandjointlyformthesocialandculturalsystemsthatstillprevailinthe
contemporaryera.Itwilldosobyidentifyingthecomplexcross-currentsofpowertaking
placeinCambodianhistoryandtheireffectsonsilkproduction,fromtheearlymodernera
toFrenchcolonisationinthenineteenthcentury,theyearsofindependence,andtheKR
regimeinthemodernera.Italsoexplorestheinfluenceofforeigncultures–especially
China,India,Thailand,Vietnam,andFrance–onsilkpractices,stylesandtrade,lookingat
howtheseinteractionsaffectedthecraftingofnarrativesofCambodiantraditionsand
nationalidentity.Moreover,thishistoricalcriticaloverviewcontributestoanunderstanding
ofthedynamicsofcontemporarymodelsofsilkcraftdevelopment.
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Followingthetrailofsilkfibreproductionfrommacroscopicandmicroscopicperspectives
furthersupportstheconsiderationofhowsilkpracticeshavebeenenmeshedinCambodia’s
geography.HowdidsilkshapeCambodia’slandscape,and,reciprocally,howhastheland
anditspeoplesshapedCambodiansilk?Thematerialityofsilk–inparticular,the
indigenousqualityofKhmergoldensilk–informs,inarchaeologistJulianThomas’words,
how‘materialculturerepresentsatonceideasthathavebeenmadematerial,andnatural
substancethathasbeenrenderedcultural'.160Findinginspirationinthefieldofcultural
geography,theconceptofterritoryappliedtoCambodiaisconsideredfrommultilayered
angles.IngeographerDavidDelaney’swords,thisinvolves‘seeingterritoriesasmorethan
static,inertthingsandinsteadfocus[ing]onthedynamicsocialprocessesandpractices
throughandinrelationtowhichterritorialformsemergeoraretransformed’.161Duringthe
KRregime,Cambodiansociety,aswellastheterritory,know-how,andmaterialcultureof
silk,wasshattered.Thischapter’sgeopoliticalandhistoricalstudyexaminestheextentto
whichsilk-makinghasrespondedtoacycleofconstruction,destruction,andreconstruction
inspaceandtime,orwhetheritrespondsmoretotheparadigmofapalimpsest,where
remnantsofpastareasandpracticesoverlapwithnewdevelopmentsandlocationsforsilk.
Apanopticsetofperspectivesisexploredtoreevaluatethedefinitionsof
Cambodia’shistoriographyandgeographythroughsilk.MichaelBrand,Asianartcurator,
stressestheimportanceoftextilesintheconstructionofSoutheastAsianculturesasa
‘dominantartform’,statingthat‘forcenturies,textileshavebeentheprimarymediumof
artisticandculturalcommunicationswithinSoutheastAsia’.162Insteadofproducinga
typologyofSoutheastAsiantextilescountrybycountry,Brandarguedintheearly1990sfor
160JulianThomas,‘TheTroublewithMaterialCulture,’JournalofIberianArchaeology9/10(2007):4.AlsocitedinIngold,Making:Anthropology,Archaeology,ArtandArchitecture,20.161Delaney,Territory,AShortIntroduction,12.162MichaelBrand,inCulturesattheCrossroads:SoutheastAsianTextilesfromtheAustralianNationalGallery,ed.RobynMaxwell(Canberra,ACT:AustralianNationalGallery,1992),5.
83
amulticentredstudy,borrowingJamesClifford’sexpressionof‘multiculturedjuncture’and
applyingittoSoutheastAsia.163Brandproposesthattheregionshouldbeconsideredasa
textilehub.ThischapterthereforereinstatesCambodiawithintheSoutheastAsianfabric
andemphasisestheparallelmovementsofappropriation,dominationandadaptationthat
impactedonlocaltextileproduction.
Intermsofexternalinfluences,Frenchcolonisationchangedthelocalgeopolitics,
establishingtheideaofamodernnationstateinCambodia,anineteenth-centuryEuropean
conceptinwhich,accordingtoEricHobsbawm,‘theequationnation=state=people,and
especiallysovereignpeople,undoubtedlylinkednationtoterritory,sincestructureand
definitionofstateswerenowessentiallyterritorial’.164TheideaofCambodiaasanation
withdefinedborders,people,culture,andartefactsisexaminedtorevealhowCambodian
craftsandmakingwereshiftedtowardsWesterncolonialmodels,andhowthecommerceof
silkhasenmeshedwithcolonisation.
Moreover,thischapterbuildsonanthropologistJohnTerHorst’sexplorationofthe
sericulturechaininCambodia.TerHorstfollowedthetrailofimportedsilkfibretradedby
ethnicChinesecommunitiesbasedinVietnamafterthecivilwar,challengingtheideaofsilk
asanationalproduction.165Themarginalnatureofsilkweaving,relyingonsparse
quantitiesofdomesticKhmersilkandtheperipheralpositionofCambodiaawayfromthe
maincentresofsericultureinAsia,contradictsthenarrativeofsilkasahistoricallykey
Cambodianartisanalproduct.
Twomajortypologiesoftextileobjects,thekrama,thecottonginghamclothwornbythe
commonpeople,andtheceremonialsampothol(weftikathipwrap)arediscussed,
demonstratinghowtheyembodythesemodernhistoricalgeopoliticalshifts[Figs.10-11].166
163Ibid.;Clifford,ThePredicamentofCulture,213.164EricHobsbawm,NationsandNationalismsince1780:Programme,Myth,Reality(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2017),19.165TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,125-62. 166SeeappendixA3.
84
Whilethesilksampotbecameacommodityunderdiplomaticandcolonialagendas,the
kramatakesapoliticalmeaningwhenitisusedintheKRmilitiauniformsinthe1970s.
Examiningaselectionofobjectsfrommuseumssupportstheexpandingofthenarratives
revolvingaroundthekramaandsampothol.
Fig.10WomanwearingakramaclotharoundherchestinAngkorWat,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,2012.
85
Fig.11ThearyandChendaHeng,weaversatKramaYuyushowingasampotholfromtheircollection,TaPouk,SiemReap.Author’sphotograph,2017.
Crossingtheoreticalterritories:metageography,designhistory,andvoices
Thenecessitytocombinehistorywithgeographytoredefinegeopoliticsand
nationalidentitiesthroughcraftsbuildsonthefoundationalworkofhistoriansand
geographersMartinLewisandKarenWigen.Theseauthorshaverightlycritiquedvarious
dominantmetageographiessuchasEast/West,FirstandThirdWorld,orWest/Rest
binarism.Metageographyisa‘setofspatialstructuresthroughwhichpeopleordertheir
knowledgeoftheworld’thatreproducesmajorarbitrarygeographicalseparations,often
boundedbycolonialhistory.167Todeconstructthesepreconceivedperceptionsofspaceand
nation,theauthorsreengagewithconceptsofworldregionalframeworks–core,
semiperiphery,andperiphery–thatareusedbyworld-systemstheoristsandhistorians.In
167MartinLewisandKärenWigen,TheMythofContinents:ACritiqueofMetageography(Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,1997),x.
86
thischapter,LewisandWigen’scriticalperspectiveisaninvaluableresourcefornuancing
thevariousgeopoliticalrepresentationsofCambodiaandtheSoutheastAsianregion.
Locatingresearchgeographicallyandpositioningitsscopewithregardtoglobalhistoryis
alsoakeytheoreticalquestioninthecurrenthistoryofdesignfield.Wheredoyouspeak
from,towhom,andhow?Theseseeminglyobviousquestionsbecomemorecomplexwhen
discussingcultureswhichusuallystandattheperipheryofWestern-centricperspectives,
‘unfamiliarcountries’,asSpanishdesignthinkerAnnaCalveraqualifiesthemintheJournal
ofDesignHistory.168Calveraadvocatedageographicalapproachtothefield,openingup
designexperienceslocatedatthemargins.Sheoutlinedthetheoreticalchallengesforlocal
andregionalhistorianstopresenttheirworktoaninternationalaudience,defining
peripheralhistoriesas‘thoseleftaside’from‘thegeographicalpointofview’:thatis,‘the
nationsandcultureswhosedesignactivitiesandachievementsarestillunknownabroad’.169
Calveraencourageddesignhistorianstocontextualisetheirregionalstorieswithinglobal
history‘tomanageandtodrawanewoutlineofthemapofdesignusefulenoughtobuild
uponaWorldHistorythatallowsaglobalunderstandingofthesubject’.170Thiscallto
recentreCambodiaremainsnecessaryforacountrythatisunfamiliarinthefieldsofcrafts,
textileanddesignhistoryglobally.Therefore,afurthergoalofthischapteristooutlinethe
flowsofinfluencewhichhaveimpactedonsilkproduction,butalsotopointthediversityof
voicesexpressingthesemultipleperspectivesthatintegrateCambodia’shistorywithina
regionalandglobalview.
Calvera’sworkreferstoTonyFry’sseminalarticle‘AGeographyofPower:DesignHistory
168AnnaCalvera,‘Local,Regional,National,GlobalandFeedback:SeveralIssuestoBeFacedwithConstructingRegionalNarratives,’JournalofDesignHistory18,no.4(2005):372.169Calvera,‘Local,Regional,National,GlobalandFeedback:SeveralIssuestoBeFacedwithConstructingRegionalNarratives,’372.170Ibid.;SeealsoShu-meiShihonpursuingapostcolonial‘coupd’état’which‘involvestheenlargementoftheframeofreferenceanddiscoursefromthenationaltothetransnationalterrain,inwhichtherearemorepossibilitiesofempowermentfortheimmigrantandtheminority’,Shu-meiShih,VisualityandIdentity:SinophoneArticulationsacrossthePacific(Berkeley:UniversityPressesofCalifornia,2007),42-3.
87
andMarginality’,publishedin1989.Fryaddressedtheconceptofmarginsindesignhistory
intermsofbothlocationandpower,statingthat‘beingontheedgeofcentresofpoliticalor
economicpowerthusbecomesdefinedaspowerlessness,irrespectiveofphysicaldistance
fromanycentreofpower’.171Beinginthemarginsmeansstandingoutsidethemain
networksandaccesstomarkets,astherecipient,nottheactor,oftradingexchange.Fryuses
Australiaasanexample.AformerBritishcolonyandsettlernationdiffersfromCambodia,a
formerFrenchcolony.However,hisdescriptionofAustralia’smovetowardsindependence
bybuildingamodernitybyfragments,andthewaythatconstantdiscoursesoftradition
create‘partlyacultureofdespair’,arebothrelevanttoCambodia.172
Thispolyphonyofauthoritiesonsilkdevelopsatopographythatexpandsthegeneral
understandingofgeographytobecome,inFry'swords,‘adispositionofmind,matter,and
spaceuponamaterial,geophysical,andculturalterrain’.173Theoverarchinggeographical
approachenablesashiftfromdifferentscales,fromtheinfinitelysmalltotheinfinitelylarge,
fromthematerialtotheimmaterial,fromthepasttothepresent,andalsoaddressesthe
spatialimbalancebetweenruralityandurbanitywhichprevailedthroughtime.Itexplores
theeffectsofshiftingtheperceptionofsilkfromaresourcetoaterrainandcombiningit
withthehistoryofthesocial.Withinthisparadigmthischapterisinterestedinlocating
Cambodiansilkasasitewherematerials,artefacts,asmuchashumanexperienceandsocial
identities,havebeenreshapedthroughtime.
Silkfibreandfabricationprocess
171TonyFry,‘AGeographyofPower:DesignHistoryandMarginality,’DesignIssues(Autumn1989):15.172Ibid,25,21.173Fry,‘AGeographyofPower:DesignHistoryandMarginality,’30.
88
ThissectionfocusesonCambodiansilkasafibretoexplainwhatkindofmaterialit
isandwhatitsproductionentails.Silkfibreistheresultofachainofprocessesrootedinthe
naturalenvironment.InCambodia,anindigenousspeciesofdomesticatedpolyvoltine
bombyxmorimothsproduceeggswhich,fedbymulberryleaves,growintosilkwormswhich
formcocoonsofgoldensilk[Fig.12].174Thisspeciesalsoexistsinotherpartsofmainland
SoutheastAsia–inThailand,LaosandVietnam,inparticular.
AlthoughtheoriginsofsilkinCambodiaremainundated,thearcheologicalfindsinBan
ChiangvillageintheNortheastarea,UdonThani,areproofofasericulturehistoryin
Thailanddatingbackto4000BCE,asoldasthefirstevidenceofChinesesilkproduction.175
ThisdoesnotprovetherewassilkonCambodianland,butshowsthatitwascultivatedin
mainlandSoutheastAsia.
Thelifecycleofagoldensilkwormlastsforaboutforty-eightdays(tendaysfortheegg’s
incubationperiod,twenty-eightdaysforthewormtogrow,andtendaysforthepupainits
cocoontoturnintoamothtorepeatthecycle.176Fromthesecocoons,silkthreadsare
extractedinboiledwater,reeled,refinedindifferentqualitiesandwashed,tobedyedand
wovenintotextiles[Fig.13].
174Polyvoltine:termdescribinghowthebombyxmorisilkmothproducesmorethanonebroodofeggsinayear.SeealsoAppendixA2andFigure4. 175JenniferSharples,andAmornratRifenberg,ThaiSilk(Bangkok:PostBooks,1994),15.176CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,4.
89
Fig.12Polyvoltinebombyxmoricocoonsinmulberrybranches,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016.
90
Fig.13Artisanalsilkthreadextractionfromcocoonsinboiledwater,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016.
AccordingtoCambodianbotanistPaulineDyPhon,Cambodianspeciesofbombyx
morifeedontwokindsofmulberryleaves,themonthom(Morusalba)andmontoch(Morus
australis).177BernardDupaignealsoassertedthatinthelate1960stheimportationof
Japanesemulberrytreeswithbiggerleaves,apparentlyviaThailand,supplantedthelocal
species.178Khmergoldensilkgiveslesssilkthreadthanwhitemulberrysilkofcoarser
quality–aboutfourhundredmetrespercocoonversusathousandmetres–andisonly
processedbyhand.Theyellowpigmentcontainedinthesericin,thegumsecretedbythe
silkworm'sspinneretslocatedonitshead,whichbindsthetwosilk-proteinfilamentsof
fibroin,washesoutatthedegummingstage.Theyellowcoatingappearsclearlyinthis
177DyPhon,PlantsusedinCambodia,894.178Thereislittletonoinformationabouttheconditionsoftheseimports.Dupaigne,‘L’élevagedesversàsoieauCambodge’,117;‘MulberryTrees,’March1,1996,Khemara.http://www.cambodia.org/clubs/khemara/mulberry.htm[AccessedMarch21,2020]
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imageofagoldensilkcocoonfromagoldensilkproducerbasedinSiemReapunderan
OlympusS2x7high-definitionmicroscope[Fig.14].
Fig.14EntangledsilkfilamentsfromagoldensilkcocoonfromSiemReap:microscopeview.Author’sphotograph,October2017.CourtesyMuséeduQuaiBranly.
Fig.15DegummedfinesilkfromSiemReap:microscopeview.Author’sphotograph,October2017.CourtesyMuséeduQuaiBranly.
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Fig.16Differentqualitiesofsilkyarn:fromrawsilktothelefttofinesilkontherightbeforedegumming,KohDachisland.Author’sphotograph,December2016. Figure15showsthewhitelustroussilkthreadsinthedegummingstage,oncethesericin
hasbeenwashedoff,underthesamemicroscopeattheMuseeduQuaiBranlytextile
laboratory.Thethreadsarethenreadytobedyedandwoven.Thefirstlayerofthesilk
threadsinacocoon,rawsilk,represents20percentofthecocoonandiscommonlyusedto
maketablerunnersanddomestictextileproducts.Thesecondlayer,onceproperlyreeled,
givesdifferentqualitiesoffinesilkandisusedtomakescarves,kramasaut(silksarung)and
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sampot[Fig.16].
Fig.17Unwindingsilkcocoons,BatiCommune,Takeoprovince,1968.PhotographcourtesyofBernardDupaigne.
InFigure17,aphotographtakeninBaticommuneinTakeoprovincein1968,
Dupaignedocumentedtheprocessofsilkextractionandspinningconductedbywomenin
theirhomes,asimilarprocesstothatwhichIobservedinKohDachin2017.179Dupaigne
meticulouslydescribedtheinterdependenceofmulberrytreefarming,domesticsericulture,
179SeeFigure5foramapofsilkregionsinCambodia.
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spinningandweavinginavillagespecialisinginhigh-endsilksforanurbanclientele.
Humanactivitylinkstheseseparateprocesses,materialsandspacestogethertoforman
interrelatedecosystem.
Cocoonproducerswereusuallyinchargeofsilkreelingandwouldsellsilkyarn.
Independentpeddlers,potentiallyalsosilkproducers,wouldtravelfromvillagetovillage
offeringsilkmaterialstowomenwithoutaccesstolocalsericulture.Weaversalsopurchased
silkfromChinesewholesalersandreceivedcommissionsfromshopowners.Dupaigne’s
studyexposedafragileruraleconomywithnumerousobstacles;onethatcouldeasilyfalter
duetosilkwormdisease,lackoffarmableareasformulberrytrees,competitionwith
importedsilkfibre,orBuddhistimperativestonotkillworms,areligiousbeliefalsonoted
byJeanDelvert.180Theshifttowardsindustrialisationinthe1950s,reinforcedbythelackof
publicandprivateinvestmentinagriculture,pushedtheruralandurbanworldsfurther
apart.Thehuman,materialandspatialcomponentsofthelandscapeofsilkproduction,
unlikethatofotherfibressuchascottonandjute,stoodatthemarginsof
industrialisation.181Thesestructuralweaknessesonlyincreasedwiththesubsequent
politicalhavocinthe1970s.
Thisdistributionofroles,tasksandprocessesstillexistinpresent-dayCambodia.
Independentsmallholdersericulturefarmersaremostlymen,whocultivatemulberrytrees,
breedsilkworms,andproduceyarnmanually(reelingandspinning).Theywereestimated
toonlyahundredpeoplein2016.Theoverallnumberofsilkweavers(mainlywomen)was
estimatedto5,000in2016.Whentheydonotpurchasepre-dyedsilkyarn,weaversarein
chargeofitsprocessingfromdegummingtobleachinganddyeing.182
180Dupaigne,‘L’élevagedesversàsoieauCambodge,’130;Delvert,Lepaysancambodgien,282;SeealsoMichaelVickery’sanecdoteaboutsilkweaversintheremotevillageofBanteayChmaarattheborderofThailandin1962,MichaelVickery,Cambodia1975–1982(Bangkok:SilkwormBooks,1999),2.181Slocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury,105-6. 182 CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,8-9.
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ThissectionhasshownthespecificitiesofCambodiangoldensilkfibreandthecomplexities
ofprocessingit.Thismicro-perspectivenowleadstoamacro-perspectiveonthehistorical
andgeographicalstudyofsilkproduction,startingfromtheearlyhistoryofsilkin
Cambodia.
GeopoliticalandmaterialjuncturesintheKhmerEmpire(802-1431CE)
AsexplainedintheIntroduction,Cambodia’sentirehistoryconsistednotonlyofa
seriesofconquests,alliances,andconflictswithneighbouringcountries,butalsoofempires
thatattemptedtodominatetheSoutheastAsianregionandappropriatelocalresources
(men,goodsandlands)andtraderoutes.ThegeographicalpositionofCambodiain
SoutheastAsia,surroundedbyThailand,Vietnam,andLaos,closetoChinainthenorthand
MyanmarandIndiainthewest,hasmarkedlydefineditshistoryandtheformationofits
civilisation.ForsixcenturiestheKhmerEmpireoccupiedadominantpositionwhilefacing
numerouswarswithitsneighbours[Fig.18].ItfoughttheChamKingdomfromthetenthto
thetwelfthcenturyandtheThaiKingdomofAyutthayainthefourteenthcentury,leadingto
theKhmerEmpire’sprogressivedeclineinthemid-fifteenthcentury.183
183Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,59,79.
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Fig.18MapofSoutheastAsiain900.WikimediaCommons.
EuropeanscholarshipintheeighteenthcenturyhasconsideredtheSoutheastAsian
regionas‘FartherIndia’,beforebecoming‘Indo-China’,theintermediaryregionbetween
IndiainthewestandChinainthenorth.184LewisandWigencommentedthatapplyingthe
term‘Indo-China’toSoutheastAsiareflectedthe‘mixtureofChineseandIndiancultural
influences’whilealso‘implicitlydenyingitaregiononitsown’.185However,theiranalysis
replicatedthisperspectivebydefiningthe‘natureofSoutheastAsiancivilisationas
‘derivative’,aunifiedpatchworkmorethanacohesiveregion,whichhasbeendisprovedby
historianssuchasAnthonyReid.186ReidstressedthelimitsoftheinteractionswithChina
andIndiaintheformationofSoutheastAsiancivilisations,whichalldevelopedtheirown
184As‘colonialismbroughtcontinuingadjustmentstoEuropean'sviewofthisarea’sgeographicalcontours ’thejointtermIndochinawasreclaimedbytheFrenchtodesignatetheirAsiancolonies’.LewisandWigen,TheMythofContinents:aCritiqueofMetageography,171.185Ibid,171.186Ibid,174.
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‘featuresofmaterialcultureandsocialstructure’.187Thissectionexaminestowhichextent
ChinaandIndiainfluencedCambodiantextileproductionanduseintheMedievalera.Italso
establishesconnectionswithotherkeyplayersintheregionsuchasSiam.
TheearliestreferencetoCambodiansilkcomefromtheaccountofChineseofficial
ZhouDaguan.HewassenttotheroyalcourtofAngkorunderKingIndravarmanIII(1295-
1308)‘aspartofanofficialdelegationsentbytheChineseEmperorTemürduringtheYuan
Dynasty’.188Inhisobservations,hearguedthatCambodianshadmasteredneither
sericulturenorweavingtechnologies,exceptforbackstrapweaving,workingonlywith
cottonandkapok.TextilescholarGillianGreenhasidentifiedtheseindigenousweaversas
theKhmerLoeuethnicgroup,ahilltribewhichstillinhabitstheremoteareasofRatanakiri
andMondulkiritoday.189
StressingtheinterconnectednessofproductionbetweenAngkorandtheSiamese,Zhou
claimedthatsilkwasimportedandprocessedbySiameseweaversestablishedinthe
AngkorEmpire,whoproducedthedark-coloureddamasksilkwornbyCambodians.Healso
statedthatSiamesewomencould‘stitchanddarn,sowhenlocalpeoplehavetornor
damagedclothingtheyaskthemtodothemending’,whichmadethemlocaltailors.190
Zhou’scommentsabouttheroleofSiameseweaversinCambodia’stextileproduction,has
yettobesupportedbyvisualormaterialevidence.However,thepresenceofSiamese
artisansattheAngkorcourtcouldbeexplainedbythepresenceofKhmeroverlordsinthe
Siameseterritoriesthatnowformmodern-dayThailand.Inthetenthandeleventh
centuries,theAngkorEmpiredominatedtheLavoKingdom(modernLopburi)andtheIsaan
187AnthonyReid,AHistoryofSoutheastAsia:CriticalCrossroads(Chichester:Wiley-Blackwell,2015),26. 188ZhouDaguan,PeterHarris,trans.,ARecordofCambodia:TheLandandItsPeople,vii.189 Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,28. 190Zhou,ARecordofCambodia:TheLandandItsPeople,75-76.
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area,whichweremostlyoccupiedbyKhmerandTaipopulationsbeforetheTaipeople
rebelledtoformtheirownkingdomofSukhothaiin1238.191
AChinesemancomingfromacountrywithapowerfulsilkindustry,Zhou’stestimony
focusesonthevalueofthismaterialasacommodityandexpressionofstatus.AttheAngkor
court,textilesheldfunctionalpurposes,especiallyforreligiousandroyalceremonies.
ImportedsilksfromChina,redandgreentaffeta,weredonatedtomonkstomakeparasols
anddecoratepalanquins.192Hedescribedthecourtiers’regalattireasmadeofexpensive
textilesobtainedthroughexchangesintheregionwithCambodia'smaincompetitors,Siam,
Champaand‘theWesternSeas’,whichmostlikelymeansIndia.193Thisaccount,chronicled
byaforeignenvoy,putsChina,Siam,andIndiaonthemapasCambodia'smaininterlocutors
inthemedievalsilkscape.
GillianGreen’sworkisusefulinconsideringconnectionsbetweenChineseand
Cambodiantextiledesigns.Shecross-checkedkeyelementsofZhou'sreportwithabundant
visualevidencefoundonsculpturalimagestoformaclearerpictureofthetextilesproduced
inthethirteenthcentury,lookingatall-overpatternsincorporatingdifferentmotifs(vines,
stars,waves,stripes,diamondsanddifferenttypesofflowers)determiningrankingthrough
regalia.194Therearesimilaritiesbetweenthemedallionmotifsonstoneandwoodcarvings
depictingmedallionsonAngkoriantemplestodifferentgroupsoftextilesfoundinChinain
theTang(618-907)andSong(960–1279)dynasties.Forinstance,thesemedallions
decoratingastonelintelofadoorwayatAngkorWatphotographedbyGreenhaveshown
strongsimilaritieswiththispaintedhempartefactfromtheAurelSteincollectionheldat
theV&A[Figs.19-20].DiscoveredinDunhuang,amajorarchaeologicalsiteoftheSilkRoad
inChina,thislargetextilewithacreamgroundusedtocoveraBuddhiststatuefeaturesa
191ChristopherJohnBakerandPasukPhongpaichit,AHistoryofAyutthaya:SiamintheEarlyModernWorld(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2017),23.192Zhou,ARecordofCambodia:TheLandandItsPeople,61.193Ibid,50.194GillianGreen,'IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,’JournaloftheEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOrient43,no.3(2000):277-313.
99
boldcentrallotusflower.Greenhasalsopointedtoasilksamitefragmentenclosinglotus
flowersinitsroundelswhich,‘withapearlmedallionenclosingafullyopenlotus,isalmost
identicaltothesculptedforms’.195Stylisedpetal-shapedlotuswerealsoprominentmotifs
onChinesesancai(‘threecolours’)glazedvesselsproducedduringtheTangDynasty,mainly
forexport.196ThislimitedevidencesupportsZhou’stestimonyandhistoricalrecordsof
pointsofcontactbetweenChinaandCambodiainthetwelfthcentury.197
Fig.19Pairofcarvedlotusesunderalintel,AngkorWat.PhotographbyGillianGreen,2005.
195Greendescribedthecanopyasmadeofsilk,buttheV&Awebsiteindicatesitishemp.Thedimensionsof105cmx91cmalsodifferfromGreen,citingSusanWhitfieldinstatingitisa139-metresquarepiece.SeeGillianGreen, ‘AngkorVogue:SculptedEvidenceofImportedLuxuryTextilesintheCourtsofKingsandTemples,’JournaloftheEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOrient,50,no.4(2007):438;SusanWhitfield,TheSilkRoad:Trade,Travel,WarandFaith(Chicago:Serindia,2004),269;VictoriaandAlbertMuseum,‘Collections:TheSteinCollection,’http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O92230/the-stein-collection-canopy-unknown/[AccessedMarch13,2020].196NigelWood,ChineseGlazes:TheirOrigins,ChemistryandRecreation(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1999),199,206.;ReginaKrahl,‘Tang:ExuberanceinColour,’Christies,October26,2020https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/tang-exuberance-in-colour[AccessedJune10,2021] 197Green,‘AngkorVogue:SculptedEvidenceofImportedLuxuryTextilesintheCourtsofKingsandTemples,’442.
100
Fig.20CanopyfromtheSteinCollection,Victoria&AlbertMuseum.DiscoveredinDunhuang;made7thto9thcentury.Plainwovenhemp,painted.Copyright:GovernmentofIndia;Victoria&AlbertMuseum.
TheelaborategarmentsdepictedonAngkoriansculpturesaretestamenttothe
varietyofstyleswornbytheAngkorcourtfordomestic,ritualandmilitaryuse.198Sculpted
figuresshowcasedifferenttypesoflowergarmentssuchasthenarrowclothofindigenous
production,skirt-clothandhip-cloth,followingdifferentpleatingmethods.OnFigure21,the
devataiswearingatranslucenthipwrapwithafieldofsmallflowersrevealingherlegs,
withthepatternededgesflaringaroundthewaist.Thiskindoftextilewouldnotbemadeof
coarsekapokonabackstraploombyindigenousKhmerLoeupeople,butmostlikelyof
198SeeSapphoMarchal’svisualstudyofdressandornamentsofsculpteddevataoriginallypublishedin1928.SapphoMarchal,Costumesetparureskhmèrsd'aprèslesdevatâd'Angkor-Vat(Paris:L'Harmattan,1997);Green,‘IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,‘295.
101
patternedsilkorfinecottonmuslinthatwouldhavebeenimported,possiblyfromIndiaor
China.Greenarguesinthissense,thatthebackstrap-wovenclothwouldbeused‘by
commonersandascetics,couldbeconstructedfromnarrowlengthsofclothsuchasthose
wovenbyindigenousKhmerweavers.Theother,portrayedondeitiesandeliterequiring
widerweftwidths,couldnot’.199
Fig.21Devata(celestialbeing)wearinglightweightpatternedsilkonabas-reliefinAngkorWat,SiemReap,12thcentury.Author’sphotograph,2012.
199Green,‘IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,‘283.
102
AnothersetofdebatesrelatestotheIndianisationofCambodiantextilepracticesin
Angkoriantimes.HistorianssuchasGeorgesCoedèsandlaterIanW.Mabbett,alongwith
arthistorianJohnGuy,havelongestablishedIndia’sculturalinfluenceonCambodian
civilisationsinceantiquity.Coedèscoinedtheterm‘Indianisation’todesignatehowIndian
kingdomspropagatedintheSoutheastAsianregion,whichledtotheexpansionofthearts,
customsandreligionsofIndiaandtheuseofSanskrit.200Inthefirstcenturytothesixth
centuryCE,thestateofFunanlocatedintheMekongDeltadevelopedastatecraftfollowing
Indianmodelsintermsofadministrativeandtechnologicaladvancementsinaslowprocess
ofculturalsynthesis.201HinduismbecamethestatereligionuntilJayavarmanVII,whichalso
influencedtheproductionofreligiousartandarchitecture.Nuancingtheconceptof
Indianisation,DavidChandlersuggeststhatIndianculturewasundeniablyformativeof
Cambodia,withoutfullydefiningit,assessingthat‘elementsoflifethataretraceableto
Indiaweremerelycomponentsofthesum’,whichistheanglesupportedbythisthesis.202
FromthetenthcenturyonwardsundertheCholadynasty,powerfulguildsof
merchantsfromSouthIndiaandlinkedtolocalcraftspeoplewereinvolvedinactivelong-
distancetradewithSoutheastAsiathroughtheIndianOcean.203HistorianTirthankarRoy
assertsthatIndiantextileswereproducedfortheeliteclassofSoutheastAsianpowers,
includingtheKhmerEmpire.Royadds:‘thismarketwassosecureandprofitable,andIndia
sofaraway,thetradeencouragedimportsubstitution’withlocalproductioncomingmainly
fromCambodiaandJava.204
200GeorgeCoedès,SueBrownCowingandWalterF.Vella,TheIndianizedStatesofSoutheastAsia(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1996),15.201KennethHall,‘The"Indianization"ofFunan:AnEconomicHistoryofSoutheastAsia'sFirstState,’JournalofSoutheastAsianStudies,Vol.13,No.1(1982):84-85.202Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,13. 203UpinderSingh,AHistoryofAncientandEarlyMedievalIndia:FromtheStoneAgetothe12thCentury(Noida,India:Pearson,2019),602.204TirthankarRoy,IndiaintheWorldEconomy:FromAntiquitytothePresent(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2012),43.
103
GreencomparedmotifsonIndianmordant-dyedIndiancottonclothsandKhmermotifson
twelfthandthirteenth-centurybas-reliefsandsculptures.Indiantextileswereexportedto
Egyptfromasearlyastheninthcenturytotheseventeenthcenturyfordomesticuseand
werefoundinthearchaeologicalsiteofAlFustât,nearCairo,inaseriesofexcavations
startingfrom1912.205SomeofthesetextilesweremadeinGujarat,India,resembling
patternsfromJainpaintingsandarchitecturalelementsinthisregion.Theseearlyexamples
ofIndianclothsmatchingtheKhmerEmpiretimelinehelpedGreenfindvisualcorrelations.
ThemedallionmotifsharesacommonaestheticwithmotifscarvedonanAngkortemple,
describedbyGreenascashmedallions,andIndianfragmentswhichcouldresemblethis
laterexamplefromtheCooperHewittMuseum[Figs.22-23].
Fig.22Cashmedallions,PreahKhan.PhotographbyGillianGreen,2006.
205Thesetextileswerethendispatchedtomajormuseumsinternationally,includingTheTextileMuseuminWashington,theMetropolitanMuseuminNewYork,theV&AinLondonandtheAshmoleanMuseuminOxford.RuthBarnes,‘IndianTradeClothinEgypt:TheNewberryCollection,’TextileSocietyofAmericaSymposiumProceedings(1990):594.https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/tsaconf/594[AccessedMarch19,2020]
104
Fig.23Block-printedcottontextileproducedinIndiafromFustat,Egyptfromalaterperiod(18thcentury)showingsimilarmedallionpatterns,CooperHewitt,SmithsonianDesignMuseum.
Furthermore,thereareimportantcommonalitiesindressbetweenupperclothsspecificto
therepresentationofKhmersoldiersonbas-relief,intheformoflongjackets,cropped
bodicesandsashes,whichalsoappearedandIndianimagesdatingasfarbackasthefourth
centuryCE.206DrapedandpleatedskirtclothsfoundonAngkoriansculptureswerealsopart
ofearlyIndianformsunderthenameantariya,theancientnamefordhoti,forinstance
duringtheGuptaempire(mid-to-latethirdcenturyCEto543CE).207Epigraphicvocabulary
inSanskritandancientKhmershowedasharedrepertoireoftermsforclothingwhichcould
applyto‘theHinduisedritualoftheKhmercourt’.208
However,theCambodiantextilecultureofthatperioddoesnotfullymirrorIndiandress.
BreastbandsandheadscarvespresentonIndiandresswerenottypicalofKhmerclothing
206Green,‘IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,‘295.207SulochanaAyyar,CostumesandOrnamentsasDepictedintheSculpturesofGwaliorMuseum(Delhi:Mittal,1987),90.208Green,‘IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,‘293.
105
imageryonsculptures,potentiallyduetodifferencesofclimate,‘customsconcerning
modesty,andstatus;andthepersistenceofindigenousKhmercustoms’.209
Thissectionhasforegroundedtheideaofwell-developedtradebetweentheAngkor
Kingdomandothersurroundingpowers.Indiawasapowerfultradepartnerwhosestylistic
influenceintextiledesignanddressremainedpredominantoverMedievalCambodia.China
wasactivelypositioneddiplomaticallyandasamainexporterofsilks,butdidnotinfluence
thestyleofCambodiangarments.BesidesZhou’stestimonythatstatesthepresenceof
Siameseweaverswhocouldhavesharedtheirknow-howtolocalweavers,thereisno
evidenceofadevelopmentofindigenoussilkpracticesinCambodia.TheSiamKingdom,
Java,andChampawerealsoestablishedasprizedsuppliersofmanufacturedtextilesofthe
Angkorcourt.210
Inthethirteenthcentury,theseimportsmostlikelyenrichedCambodiantextileculturewith
technicalinnovationsinweavingandopenedtheKhmerEmpireelitetoarepertoireof
stylesandmotifsbeyondindigenoustextilepractices.
Inthefourteenthtothefifteenthcenturyonwards,anincreasingquantityoflowandhigh-
valuesilktextilesfromChinawereimportedthroughoutSoutheastAsia,including
Cambodia,especiallytabbyweave,pongeeandsatinsilkcloths.211Textileconnections
betweentheSiameseandtheKhmerappeartohavesolidifiedlaterintheearlymodernera
withtheestablishmentoftheKingdomofAyutthaya.
209Green,‘IndicImpetus?InnovationsinTextileUsageinAngkorianPeriodCambodia,‘296.210Ibid,302-303. 211DerekHeng,‘DistributiveNetworks,Sub-regionalTastesandEthnicity:theTradeinChineseTextilesinSoutheastAsiafromtheTenthtoFourteenthCenturiesCE,’inTextileTrades,ConsumerCultures,andtheMaterialWorldsoftheIndianOcean,eds.PedroMachadoetal.(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2018),173-174.
106
TheThaiinfluenceoverCambodia(1430-1860)
ThissectionfurtherintroducesthemainplayersintheformationofCambodiansilk
productionduringtheearlymodernera.KhmerEmpireenteredaperiodofconflictwithits
neighbours,especiallytheSiamesekingdom.TherivalrybetweenCambodiaandthe
KingdomofSukhothai(1238-1438)intensifiedwiththesackingofAngkorcapitalcityin
1431,whichpushedKhmerrulerstomovetheircapitalcitytoKrongChaktomuk,the
ancientnameforPhnomPenh,andfinallytoLongvekinKampongChhnangProvince.Inthe
sixteenthcentury,theSiamesekingdomofAyutthaya(1351-1767)invadedCambodiain
1591inresponsetotheKhmerEmpireattacks.ThisSiamese-CambodianWar(1591–1594)
resultedinthesackingofLongvekandthecaptureofmembersoftheCambodianroyalty
untiltheearly1600swhenKhmerkingSuriyopearreturnedtohiscourtinUdongand
eventuallyreclaimedauthorityoverhiskingdom.212Wars,migrationandgeographic
proximitybetweenUdongandAyutthayaledtoincreasingculturalexchangesbetween
SiameseandCambodianpeople.Chandlerexplains:‘untiltheendofthesixteenthcentury,
‘PhnomPenh’(or‘Lovek’or‘Udong’)and‘Ayudhya’consideredthemselvesparticipantsofa
hybridculture’relyingon‘Hinduizedkingship,andTheravadamonarchicaccessibility’.213
Thisalsoledtotheadoptionofcommonelementsindressandtextiles.214
ThismapofAsiaintheeighteenthcenturydemonstratesthefragmentationofmainland
SoutheastAsiaintosmallerkingdoms,aswellasthereducedsizeofCambodiaandits
proximitytoAyutthaya,Vietnam,theMughalEmpireandtheQingEmpire[Fig.24].Located
onanislandaccessiblebyriver,thecapitalofAyutthayawasconsideredoneofthelargest
cosmopolitancities,withapopulationofuptoonemillioninthelate1700s,withwavesof
212MichaelVickery,“’1620’,ACautionaryTale”inNewPerspectivesontheHistoryandHistoriographyofSoutheastAsia,ContinuingExplorations,eds.MichaelArthurAung-ThwinandKennethR.Hall(London:Routledge,2011),157-166.213Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,80.214Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,34.
107
travellersfromneighbouringcountries(Chinese,IndianMuslims,MalayMuslims)andfrom
Europe(Dutch,French,Portuguese,andEnglish).215Thiswasan‘exceptionalmoment’for
‘theeffectsofculturalexchange’.216Themetropolisbecameaplatformforstoringand
tradingcloths–Indiantextilesinparticular–butalsoacentreofproductionforcraftgoods,
includingsilk,onintra-Asianandgloballevels,untilitwasdestroyedbytheToungoo
BurmeseDynastyin1767.217
Fig.24MapofAsiaandSoutheastAsiainthe18thcentury.WikimediaCommons.
KingNarai,whoruledoverAyutthayafrom1656to1688,grantedextraterritorialrightsto
theDutchEastIndiaCompany,whichconsolidatedtheexpansionofSoutheastAsiantrade
215ChrisBaker,‘MarketsandProductionintheCityofAyutthayabefore1767:TranslationandAnalysisofPartoftheDescriptionofAyutthaya,'JournaloftheSiamSociety,99(2011):40-41.LondonwasthemostpopulatedEuropeancity,withapproximately600,000people.IncomparisonBeijing’spopulationwasabout659,000in1647.SeeHanGuanghui,TheHistoricalPopulationandGeographyofBeijing(Beijing:Beijingdaxuechubanshe,1996).AlsocitedinLillianM.LiandAlisonDray-Novey,‘GuardingBeijing'sFoodSecurityintheQingDynasty:State,Market,andPolice,’TheJournalofAsianStudies58,no.4(1999):995. 216Reid,AHistoryofSoutheastAsia:CriticalCrossroads,138-139.217ChrisBaker,andPhongpaichitPasuk,AHistoryofAyutthaya:SiamintheEarlyModernWorld(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2017),121,125.
108
withEuropeannationsandfurtherassertedtheDutchmonopolyovertheregion,especially
inrelationtothepricesofIndiancloth.218Cambodiaparticipatedinthesemaritime
commercialexchanges‘withtheprosperityofitselitedependentonseaborneoverseas
tradeconductedinlargepartbyEuropeantraders,Chinese,andethnicMalaysoperatingout
ofSumatraandSulawesi’.219Cambodianswerealsoactiveplayersintextiles.220An
eighteenth-centuryThaidocumentcalledAthibaiphaenthiphranakhonsiayutthaya
(DescriptionofAyutthaya)providesinformationaboutthecity’seconomicorganisation
beforeitsfallin1767,includingdataabouttradeandlistingsofmarketsandcraft
settlements.Thesectionaboutvisitingtradersdescribes‘Khmerwithcartsfrom
Battambangtransport[ing]bastardcardamom,cardamom,silk,benzoin,lac,tin,rhinohorn,
phum[ikat]silkcloth,Vietnamesesilk,thongphrai[gold],redgems,andothergoodsthat
comefromtheKhmerregion’.221
WearingsampotchawngkbuninCambodiaandchongkrabeninSiam,aunisexlower
garmentmadeofanuncutclothwrappedaroundthebodyandlegsandtuckedatthewaist,
becamethenorminbothroyalcourtsintheseventeenthcentury.222Aknown
representationoftheSiamesedresswaspassedonbySimondeLaLoubère,aFrench
diplomatwhospentfourthmonthsattheAyutthayacourtin1687andwroteadiaryofhis
travelsillustratedbyfortyengravings.223Hiscontributionisasourcewell-regardedby
218PrapassornPosrithong,‘IndianTradeTextilesasaThaiLegacy,’inTheSea,IdentityandHistory.FromtheBayofBengaltotheSouthChinaSea,ed.SatishChandraandHimanshuPrabhaRay(NewDelhi:Manohar,2013),332-333.219Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,88.220Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,16.;Conway,ThaiTextiles,98.221Baker,‘MarketsandProductionintheCityofAyutthayabefore1767:TranslationandAnalysisofPartoftheDescriptionofAyutthaya,’57.222Conway,ThaiTextiles,30-31.223SimondelaLoubère.DuRoyaumedeSiam,Vol.1(Paris,1691),72-29.ItisunclearinthebookwhetherdelaLoubèredrewtheillustrationshimself.
109
scholarssuchashistoriansDavidK.WyattandRonaldS.Love,whoconsiderthatdela
Loubère’swritingsofferanuancedandaccurateperspectiveonlifeinAyutthaya.224
ThetoppartofFigure25showstwoSiamesemandarins,high-rankingofficials,
wearingatunicasanupperclothandachongkrabenlowercloth;oneofthemwearsa
lomphok,apointedhatwornbyroyaltyandnobility.Inthelowersection,awomanisshown
dressedinaphanung(hip-wrap),barechestedandwithaphasabai,anupperbodywrap
wornovertheshoulder.TheserepresentationsofSiamesedressareconsistentwiththe
onesappearingonextantillustrationsinBuddhistThaimanuscriptsfromtheAyutthaya
period,suchasmanuscriptOr14068depictingtheTenBirthTalesheldattheBritish
Library[Fig.26].Whilethesemanuscriptsretellthemythicalstoriesofthelifeofthe
Buddha,theyalsoincorporateinformationaboutSiamesecustomsofthetime,including
fashion.225Inthispaintingthefemalefigurecarryingaparasolwearsaphanungpatterned
atthehemandaphasabaioverherchest.Themanontheleftalsowearsaphanungwith
floralmotifsinblue-red-whitecolourwaywhichmaybeIndianchintz,amajortextileimport
inSiam.226Otherillustrationsfromthisfoldedbookshowcommonerssuchasmalehunters
wearingloinclothsorworshippersinchongkraben..
224DavidK.Wyatt,‘Introduction,’inTheKingdomofSiam,SimondeLaLoubere,(Singapore:OxfordUniversityPress,1986),viii-ix;RonaldS.Love,“SimondeLaLoubère:FrenchViewsonSiaminthe1680s,”JournaloftheSiamSociety82/2(1994):156.225HenryGinsburg,Thaimanuscriptpainting(London:BritishLibrary,1989)46,97,100.226MattiebelleGittinger,MasterDyerstotheWorld:TechniqueandTradeinEarlyIndianDyedCottonTextiles(Washington:TheTextileMuseum,1982),163.
111
Fig.26DetailofapaintedpageoftheTenBirthTalesfromtheThaimanuscriptOr14068f3v,late18thcentury.BritishLibrary.
Figure27isaCambodianpaintingofthelivesofGautamaBuddha,filledwithsaturated
colors,gilding,anddecorativepatterns,whichalsooffersarepresentationofeighteenth-
centurydresssimilartotheThaistyledescribedearlier.Thebottomsection,partofthe
GreatDeparturescene,showsasetofgarmentssimilarwiththeonesdiscussedinthe
previousfigure.Thetwomenlyingdownontheleft-handsidewearasampotchawngkbun
insolidredandyellow.Thestandingmanandtheonekneelingbothwearasampot
patternedwithalatticeofstylisedflowers.Thefemalefigurelyinginthebackgroundwears
asampotwrappedaroundherwaistadornedwithaphkaachan(four-petaledflower)motif.
TheseCambodianandThaidressformsalsosharesimilar-soundingnames.Forexample,
thephanunganunpatternedsilkhipwrapinThai,resemblesthetermphamaunginKhmer,
indicatingasimilarlengthofsolid-colouredsilktubeskirtforfestivities.TheThaiphasabai
(sash)existsinKhmerdressunderasimilar-soundingnamesbaay.227
227Conway,ThaiTextiles,45.
112
Fig.27DetailofapaintingaboutthelifeofGautamaBuddha,Cambodia,18thcentury.Cataloguenumber961.3.305,AsianArtMuseumofToulon,France,WikimediaCommons.
BesidesSiam,CambodiaalsointeractedwithotherAsianpowersintheseventeenth
century,whichaffecteditstextileproduction.DuringthereignofKhmerrulerRamadhipatiI
(r.1642-1649),CambodiaintensifieditsrelationshipswithChampakindgom.Active
tradersintheregion,ChampeoplestartedmakingtheirwaytoCambodiaafterthecollapse
ofChampain1471duetoVietnameseinvasions.228RamadhipatiImarriedaMalayprincess
andconvertedtoIslam,bringingweaversfromtheChamcommunitiestoworkattheroyal
courttoweavethetechniqueofhol,ahighlydecoratedsilkclothobtainedbytyingand
dyeingweftsilkthreadsinsuccessivecoloursbeforeweavingthethreadsontheloomto
createintricatemotifs.229TextilehistorianMichaelC.Howardhasarguedthatthisstyle‘was
228AlvinCheng-HinLim,‘EthnicIdentitiesinCambodia,’inTheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,eds.KatherineBrickellandSimonSpringer(London:Routledge,2017),362. 229MichaelC.Howard,TextilesandClothingofViệtNam:aHistory(Jefferson,NC:McFarland&Company,2016),80.
113
similartotextileswoveninSumatra,theMalayPeninsula,andsouthernThailand,andwas
probablyintroducedfromthere,withlocalmodificationsespeciallyinregardstomotifs’.230
HowardalsostatesthatunderRamadhipatiI,Chamweaversalsoproducedholtextiles
outsidetheroyalcourtinthecountryside,whichfacilitatedthespreadofthistechniqueand
styleinCambodia.
PhnomPenhbecameanimportantmarketplaceforimportedluxurygoodsforthe
Cambodianelite,relyingontheChineseandJapanesediasporiccommunitiestobuild
sourcingnetworksofsilkyarn.231TerHorsthasindeedpointedouttheunderdevelopment
ofsericultureinCambodiaatthetime,explainingthatthecountrymostlyreliedonimports
foritsdomesticconsumptionandwasconsideredasanactivetradingplatformfor
Tonkinese,ChineseandJapanesesilks,atrendwhichcontinueduptothemodernera.232
Theseventeenthandeighteenthcenturieswereaperiodofhighinstabilityfor
Cambodia,whichsufferedrepeatedinvasionsfromSiamandVietnam.Inexchangefortheir
militarysupport,CambodiabridgedapoliticalalliancewiththeNguyendynastywhichruled
overthesouthernpartofVietnamsince1570.In1628,thedeathofKingJayJetthaII,who
hadmarriedtheVietnameseprincessAngChuvtosecurethisalliance,precipitated
Cambodia’scollapse,openingthewaytointernalconflictsandforeigncovetousnessinthe
eighteenthcentury.233ThesackingofPhnomPenhbytheSiamesein1772turnedtheKhmer
kingdomintoavassalstateofbothSiamandVietnam.WhileSiamoccupiedCambodia’s
westernprovinces,theVietnameseexertedadministrativecontrolovertheeasternregions.
TheVietnameseempireencourageditsownpeopletoresettleinCambodia,alongwith
ethnicChinesecommunitieslivinginVietnam.RuralVietnamesesettlersmainlyworkedin
230Howard,TextilesandClothingofViệtNam:aHistory,80.231Hall,‘TheComingoftheWest:EuropeanCambodianMarketplaceConnectivity,1500–1800,’inCambodiaandtheWest,1500-2000,13;BernardPhilippeGroslier,MichaelSmithies,trans.,AngkorandCambodiaintheSixteenthCentury,AccordingtoPortugueseandSpanishSources(Bangkok:OrchidPress,2006),123.232TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,89-90.233Vickery,‘’1620’,ACautionaryTale,’157-166.
114
thefishingsectoralongtheriversandinsericulture,expandingthepracticeinCambodia.234
Simultaneously,ChinesesilkmerchantsandproducersarrivedinCambodia,quickly
integratingandtakingovertheproductionchain.235Thisearlysettlementproved
instrumentalinthedevelopmentofsilkuptothe1990s,andwillbefurtherdiscussedinthis
chapter.
ThroughouttheeighteenthcenturyfineIndiancottonscontinuedtobeobjectsofprestige,
withdesignsadaptedfordifferentmarkets,notablytheSiamesecourt,andusedas
diplomaticgifts.236SilkbrocadeswerewoveninIndia,basedonThaidesigns,andimported
intoSiam,whileothersilkgoodswereimportedfromJapanandIran.237TheIndiandouble
ikatpatolawerealsohighlyregardedtextilesproducedinNorthernIndiaandtradedall
overSoutheastAsiafromIndonesiatoSiam.238However,thedemandforsilkschanged
progressivelyinSiaminfavourofChineseluxurygoodsandlocally-woventextilesdestined
fornobilityandroyalty.239Bythenineteenthcentury,Cambodianholtextilesalsoemerged
astributarygiftsandprizedgoodsforcourtiersattheThaicourt.240Cambodiaalso
produceddeerskinsandtimberproducts,whichwereprizedcommodities.241
TheexaminationofaselectionofmuseumobjectsillustratesthelinkingCambodianhol
textilestotheSiamesecourt.PennyEdwardsarguesthatinnineteenth-centuryCambodia,
silksampotwerematerialmanifestations‘integraltotheindigenoussociopolitical
234RamsesAmer,‘TheEthnicVietnameseinCambodia:AMinorityatRisk?,’ContemporarySoutheastAsia16,no.2(1994):212. 235TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,97-98.236JohnGuy,Wovencargoes:IndiantextilesintheEast(NewYork:ThamesandHudson,1998),127.237SharplesandRifenberg,ThaiSilk,18.238AlfredBühler,"PatolaInfluencesinSouthEastAsia,”JournalofIndianTextileHistory4(1959):1-46.239Guy,Wovencargoes:IndiantextilesintheEast,146.240MattiebelleGittingerandLeedomLefferts,TextilesandtheTaiExperienceinSoutheastAsia(WashingtonDC:TheTextileMuseum,1992),170. 241KennethR.Hall,‘TheComingoftheWest:EuropeanCambodianMarketplaceConnectivity,1500–1800,’inCambodiaandtheWest,1500-2000,ed.T.OSmith(London:PalgraveMacmillan2018),25.
115
hierarchies’inCambodia,embodyingpowerrelationsandstatus.Thetradingofsampotalso
revealstheglobalconnectionsinvolvedintheirproductionandconsumption.
OnetypicalfeatureofCambodianholisanirregularweft-faced2-1twillweavestructure
thatrequiresaminimumofthreeshafts,asshowninthisdetail,afeatureidentifiableinthe
followingexampleofhol[Figs.28a-b].242InThailand,silkweftikat(mudmee)isusually
wovenontwoshaftsinplainweave,exceptforweaversofKhmerancestryintheareaof
Surinwhoalsowoveinuneventwill.243
Figs.28a-bClose-upofanirregulartwillweavestructureonasampothol,MuséeduQuaiBranly.Author’sphotograph,January2017;Diagramofthe2-1twillweave(twoweftsup,oneweftdown)formingdiagonallines,bytheauthor.
ThesampotinFigure29,datingfrom1855andheldattheV&A,isoneoftheoldest
Cambodiansilkexamplesinmuseumcollectionsintheworld.Itwasoriginallyreceived
fromSingaporeandpresentedtotheIndiaMuseumin1855byKingMongkutofSiam,the
yearoftheBowringTreatybetweenSiamandBritain.AlsoknownastheEastIndia
CompanyMuseum,itscollectionsweretransferredin1979totheSouthKensington
242Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,62. 243Conway,ThaiTextiles,93,161;Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,104.
116
Museum,futureV&A.244Thischawngkbunisthreemetreslong,witharedtwillgroundand
polychromiclozengemotifs.Itfeaturespatternedbordersadornedwithyantramotifs,
whichare’protectivedevicesagainstphysicalandspiritualharm’consistingof‘abstract
signs,orlettersoftheKhmeralphabet’[Figs.29a-b].245Thisobjectexemplifiesthe
sophisticatedtechnicalknow-howachievedbyCambodianweaversbythemid-nineteenth
centuryandmaterialisesageographicandhistoricalitinerary,fromCambodiatotheKingof
SiamtotheBritishEastIndiaCompanytotheV&A.
Figs.29a-bSampotchawngkbunholgiftedtotheIndiaMuseumbyKingMongkut;detailofbordersofyantra,c.1855,5640(IS).Victoria&AlbertMuseum.
OtherfineexamplesofholasSiameseroyalofferingsareheldattheMuseumof
NaturalHistory,SmithsonianInstitute,inWashingtonD.C.KingMongkutdonatedsix
244VictoriaandAlbertMuseum,‘CollectingSouthAsiantextilesattheV&A,’http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/c/collecting-south-asian-textiles/(AccessedMay31,2021]245Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,143.
117
textilesincludingasetoffourKhmerholtextilestotheAmericanpresident,FranklinPierce
in1856.246HisbrotherPrahPinKlao,viceroyofSiam,donatedeleventextilepieces,someof
whichofIndianandChineseprovenance.247GiventocommemoratethesigningoftheHarris
TreatybetweenSiamandtheUnitedStatestheseartefactsembedinterwovendynamicsof
foreigninfluenceintheirproductionanddesign.
Greenidentifieslatticeandclose-packedspotscentralfieldsastypicalpatternsresponding
toSiamesesensibilities,modelledonmordant-dyedandpaintedcottontextilesfromIndia.
Oneofthedonatedpieces’centralfieldcomprisedofsimplespotsisreminiscentofthe
saudagiristyle,atypeofIndianblock-printedtrade-clothoflesserqualityspecifically
destinedfortheThaimarket,withrepeatedmotifssuchasthebhuti(singleflower)andjaal
(trellis)[Figs.30a-b].248Figure31,anineteenth-centuryprintedcottonclothfromIndia,
offersavisualcomparison.
ToidentifythepiecesasKhmerandnotSiamese,Greenfocusesherattentionontheir
uneventwillsilkground,aCambodianspecificity,andonthedesignschemeoftheseholhip
wraps.GreenexplainsthatforCambodianholtextiles,‘thecentralfieldisboundedalongits
sidebytwopatternedborderscontainedinthebandbetweencentralfieldsandborders[…]
[which]generallydonotextendbeyondthecentralfieldtothewarpendsastheydowith
Siamesesilkweftholhipwrappers’.249ThisfitsthedesignofthepiecesE-81andE-83inthe
HarrisTreatycollectionattheSmithsonian.
246LisaMcQuail,TreasuresofTwoNations:ThaiRoyalGiftstotheUnitedStatesofAmerica(Washington,DC:SmithsonianInstitution,1997),90.247Ibid,89.248Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,109;EilunedEdwards,‘Lastingimpressions:Indianblock-printsandglobaltrade,’TextileSocietyofAmericaSymposiumProceedings(2016):101.249Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,110,117.;GittingerandLefferts,TextilesandtheTaiExperienceinSoutheastAsia,165-167.
118
Figs.30a-bSampotholinsaudagiristyle;detailofthecentralfield.CatalogNumber:E83,fromKingMongkuttoPresidentPierce,ca.1856,NationalMuseumofNaturalHistory,SmithsonianInstitution.
Fig.31Textileinthesaudagiristyle,printedandresist-dyed,India,19thcentury,Accession:IPN.960,Victoria&AlbertMuseum.
AholdonatedbyPrahPinKlaolikelywoveninCambodia,displaysamotifofconfronting
nakornagainpali(snake),identifiedbyGreenasacommonelementonsampotholchawng
119
kbunwornbymenordinands.250Therefore,sheassumesthispiecewasnotcommissioned
tofitSiamesetaste,butmostlikelywovenbyaCambodianweaverversedinthisstyle,and
forCambodianuse[Figs.32a-b].251Greenalsobrieflymentionsthatthisnagapatternwas
alsofoundonBalinesetextiles,resemblingmen’shipwrapsKampuhfromBuleleng.252
Furtherresearchindeedshowsthat,inthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,
Balinesenoblemen’sceremonialhipwrapscalledsaputsongketorkampuhsongket,in
brocadedsilkwithmetallicthreads,showcasedsimilarcentralfieldspatternedwithpaired
nagaasseeninthisexample[Fig.33].253However,theinventoryofgiftsformulatedbythe
SiamesecourtdesignatesthePrahPinKlao’sgiftasP’umk’amane(KhmersilkclothinThai),
whichconfirmsitsCambodianorigins.
Overall,thisassortmentoftextilesmayhavebeenofferedbytheKingdomofCambodiato
theSiamesecourtasasignofdeferenceandtributarydonationorwerecommissionedor
purchasedbytheThaicourtdirectlyfromCambodianweavers.Thevarietyoftheirdesign
schemesandpatternsspeaktothefluidityofstylescirculatingfromSouthtoSoutheastAsia
andtheintegrationofhigh-qualityCambodianholtextilesinSiamesesumptuarycodesand
diplomaticrelationships.
ItwasinthiscontextofSiameseeconomicandculturaldominationthattheFrencharrived
asnewkeyplayersinSoutheastAsia.Francestartedtoexpanditscolonialterritoryinthe
peninsula,occupyingthesouthofVietnamfromtheMekongDeltain1858.Facingtheriskof
beingdismantledandincorporatedintotheKingdomofSiam,Cambodiarequested
protectionfromtheFrench.
250Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,117-127. 251Ibid,109. 252Ibid,109,183.253BrigittaHauser-Schaublin,Marie-LouiseNabholz-KartaschoffandUrsRamseyer,BalineseTextiles(London:BritishMuseumPress,1991),48.
120
Figs.32a-bSampotholwithconfrontednagainthecentralfield,fromPrahPinKlaotoPresidentPierce,c.1856inLisaMcQuailTreasuresofTwoNations:ThaiRoyalGiftstotheUnitedStatesofAmerica,Fig.100.
Fig.33Saputsongketwithconfrontednaga,early19thcenturyfromSingaraja,Bali,TONYRAKAArtGalleryTwitter,2019.
121
FrenchcolonisationandthecraftingofaCambodiannationalculture(1863-1953)
Thissectioncontinuestoexplorehowforeigninfluenceandgeopolitics,thistime
Frenchcolonisation,reshapedthehistoriographyofCambodiansilkandshifteditsposition
ondomesticandinternationallevels.AshistorianJohnTullystates,‘attheturnofthe
nineteenthcentury,fewEuropeanswereawareofCambodia’sexistence.Itsatonthe
peripheryoftheirknownworld’.254FranceonlybegantoconsidercontrollingCambodia
whentheyfearedthattheBritish,whohadsignedtreatieswithSiam,wouldexpressa
strategicinterest.In1863KingNorodomProhmbariraksignedanagreement
acknowledgingtheFrenchprotectorate,whichguaranteedthathecouldkeepthe
Cambodianterritoryintact[Fig.34].BytakingCambodiaunderitswing,Franceassertedits
positionovertheregiontodiminishthegrowinginfluenceofSiam.
TheFrenchalsousedtheircoloniestotakeadvantageoflocalresourcesandcreate
commercialopportunitieswithAsia,especiallyChina,itsprimarymarket,Japan,Singapore,
andtheDutchEastIndies.255Overall,thisshareofexportslargelyexceededtheexportsto
metropolitanFrance.Inthemid-1800sFrenchsericulturewassufferingfrompébrine,a
silkwormdisease,andwasfacingaggressivecompetitionfromChineseandJapanese
imports.256SettlinginSoutheastAsiaofferedthepossibilitytouselocalsilkfibreproduction
tosupplysilkmanufacturersfromLyoninFrance,andgetashareofthesilkexport
market.257Accordingtoacolonialreportpublishedin1923writtenbyDelignon,asilkplant
254JohnTully,‘CambodiaintheNineteenthCentury:OutoftheSiameseFryingPanandintotheFrenchFire?’inCambodiaandtheWest,1500-2000,ed.T.O.Smith(London:PalgraveMacmillanLimited,2018),37.255PierreBrocheux,andDanielHémery,Indochina:anAmbiguousColonization,1858-1954(Berkeley,Calif:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2011),176-177.256TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,99;TheCévennesareaprovidedmorethanhalfofthesilkcocoonproduction,abouttwenty-sixthousandmetrictonsofcocoonsayear;SeeJacquesAnquetil,LasoieenOccident(Paris:Flammarion,1995),189.257BrocheuxandHémery,Indochina:anAmbiguousColonization,1858-1954,38;CharlesRobequain,trans.IsabelA.Ward,TheEconomicDevelopmentofFrenchIndochina(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1944),233.
122
ownerinVietnam,before1899only3,886kilosofrawsilkweredestinedforFranceoutof
the185,402kilosproducedinIndochina(CambodiaandSouthernVietnamcountingfor
14,061kilos).258CambodianandsouthernVietnamesesilkwasmostlyexportedtoChina
andThailand,twomajorproducersandconsumers.
Fig.34MapofcountriesformingFrenchIndochinain1900.WikimediaCommons/Author’simage.
WiththeirkeenfascinationforAngkorWatandvestigesoftheKhmerEmpire,the
FrenchentertainednostalgicnotionsofthisgloriousCambodianhistory,bycontrast
consideringearlytwentieth-centuryCambodianculturetobedecadent.In1913,architect
andconservatorHenriMarchalechoedthenegativeideaperpetuatedbyFrenchcolonials
258LouisDelignon,‘LaproductiondelaSoieenIndochine.’Revuedebotaniqueappliquéeetd'agriculturecoloniale,3ᵉannée,bulletinn°24(31août1923):532.
123
thatCambodianpeoplewere‘indolentandapathetic[…]withnoaptitudeforcommerceor
theindustry’,yethecontendedthattheyalsoshowcased‘naturaldispositionsforthe
arts’.259MarchalstressedthepotentialofrevivingCambodianartsunderamodernform,
which‘asdecliningastheycouldbe,couldfeeddecorativemotifsforindustriessuchas
ceramics,woodwork,wallpapers,stainedglass,jewellery,embroidery’.260Underthis
mindset,theFrenchinvestmentinCambodianhandicraftproductionaimedtodevelop
artisanalproductsmarketabletoaFrenchaudienceyearningforexoticgoodsfromthe
colonies.
TheFrenchcolonialsubjectivitiestowardsCambodianculturearefurtherexemplifiedby
theinvolvementofGeorgesGroslier(1887-1945),aFrenchartist,architectandeducator
[Fig.35].HewasthefirstFrenchchildtobeborninCambodia,waseducatedinFranceand
spokeKhmerfluently.InaperspectivethatnuancesMarchal’sassertiononCambodian
artisticdecline,Groslierconsideredthattheseartsweredisappearingbecauselocalelites
disdainedtheirproducts,insteadpurchasingFrenchgoods.Whilehenotedthat‘many
womenknowhowtoweaveanddyeboldlycolouredsilkswhichareessentialtoevery
home’,healsoregrettedthat‘cottonpercalesandfloralfabricsimportedfromBritain
[were]replacinglocaltextiles’.261Headded:
‘Whilethepopularmasseshavekepttheirarts,theyareunabletopracticethem.Theykeeptheirtraditionsbutcannolongerapplythem.[…]Abandonedbytheirindigenousrulersandpagodas,theywaitforthegreatpoweroftheOccidenttointerveneandirremediablydispersetheirfragiletreasures,yetstillremembered,fromtheAngkorianera’.262
Despiteapatronisingtone,Groslier’sconcernforcraftspeopleandtheirskillssounds
sincereandexplainshiscommitmenttoimplementanewartisticeducationstrategy.
259Marchal,‘L’artcambodgienmoderne,’69.260Ibid,74. 261Groslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’400-401.Translatedbytheauthor.262Ibid,402.
124
Moreover,hejudgedpreviousCambodian-ledinitiativessupportinglocalcraftsmenas‘for
somewithoutafuture,theothersineffective’.263
Fig.35GeorgeGroslierinhisofficeinPhnomPenhholdingacarvedfigurine,Cambodia,1926.PhotographbyMartinHurlimann.WikimediaCommons.
Untiltheearlytwentiethcentury,theroyalworkshops’functionwas‘tofulfillordersfrom
thekingandthecourt,theyincludedpainters,sculptors,silversmithsorweavers,andwere
particularlyrequestedforthepreparationofdancecostumesfortheRoyalBallet’.264From
1907to1917,theCambodiangovernmentstartedtoexpandandredefinetheartsandcrafts
underroyalpatronage,realisingthesector’scommercialpotential:‘theworkshopsofthe
Palace[were]groupedtogetherwithinthe‘RoyalManufactory’,createdtoprovidenew
economicoutletstothecraftsector.Ithadtwosections,oneof‘jewelryandartobjects’,the
otherof‘sewing,embroideryandweaving’.265KingSisowathassignedhissonPrince
Monivongasthemanagerofthejewelrydepartment.266
263Groslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’395.264Abbe,‘LeDéveloppementdesArtsauCambodgeàL’ÉpoqueColoniale:GeorgeGroslieretL’ÉcoledesArtsCambodgiens(1917-1945),’8.265Ibid.266Edwards,Cambodge:TheCultivationofaNation,1860-1945,147-148.
125
ItisinthiscontextthatGroslierwascommissionedbytheFrenchGovernorGeneralAlbert
SarrauttoestablishacrafttrainingprogrammeforCambodians,L’EcoledesArts
Cambodgiens(TheSchoolofCambodianArts),in1918withaculturalrescueagendain
mindto‘educatetheforeignerandreeducateKhmerpeople’.267By1920,theschoolwas
combinedwiththemuseumAlbertSarrautinnewbuildingsestablishedneartheRoyal
Palace,withtheagreementofKingSisowath.268
ToGroslier,thisinitiativeaimed‘tofixartisticpracticesintheircurrentstate,tostudythem
andhelpthem;whilefoundinganactiveandtruemuseum’.269Hewasthedirectorofthe
SchoolofCambodianArtsfrom1920to1922andremainedinchargeofartistictraining
pedagogyuntil1944,withtheassistanceofAndréSilice,aFrenchartist.Thisorganisation
implementedsixworkshopsopenonlytoCambodians,welcomingupto165apprentices,
ledbyCambodianmastercraftsmen.Itincludeddrawingandarchitecture,sculpture,
woodworkingandgoldplating,afoundry,silversmithingandweaving.In1924,theweaving
workshopcountedtwenty-fiveyoungwomen,whoappearinthisarchivalphotographtaken
onsiteandmadeintoapostcardproducedbytheFrenchadministration[Fig.36].270
Thereisanapparentparadoxinwantingtopreserveindigenouscustomswhenthecolonial
poweritselfisanactiveagentofchange,bringingdeepmodificationstotheCambodian
culturallandscape:changeswhichweremostlyunwelcometothecolonised.Anthropologist
RenatoRosaldo,whoworkedspecificallyonthePhilippines,coinedtheterms‘imperial
nostalgia’todescribethisparadoxicalyearningforanuntouchedindigenouspastembedded
inthecolonialcivilisingmission.Rosaldo'snuancedperspectivedemonstratedhowthis
typeofideologycansimultaneouslybe‘compelling,contradictory,andpernicious’.271
267Groslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’402;SusanFallsandJessicaSmith,‘BrandingAuthenticity:CambodianIkatinTransnationalArtisanPartnerships(TAPs),’JournalofDesignHistory24,no.3(2011):7.268ThemuseumeventuallybecamePhnomPenhNationalMuseumin1953.269Groslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’398.270Ibid,403. 271RenatoRosaldo,‘ImperialistNostalgia,’Representations26(1989):110.
126
Fig.36PostcardofaphotographshowingthesilkspinningandweavingworkshopattheSchoolofCambodianArts,c.1924.
TheMuséeAlbertSarrautbecameatouristattractionforEuropeanswhohadsettledin
SoutheastAsiaandinternationalvisitorsattractedbyAngkorWat.Grosliercreatedthe
museum’stextilecollectionwithpiecesfoundacrossthecountry,primeexamplesofsilks
fromtheSchoolofCambodianArts,andceremonialbrocadesanddancecostumesfromthe
RoyalPalace.Inthe1924GeneralCollectioncatalogue,eachtextileobjectwaslistedwitha
fulldescriptioninFrenchandanacquisitionnumberstartingwithN.:forexample,‘N.49-
Sampothol,silk,1.97x0.90.Forwomen,Redwarp.Silkweftinyellow,green,purpleforming
horizontalstripes’.272EachobjectwaslinkedtoacardwritteninFrenchwithmoredata
aboutthepiece:itsdonor,material,priceofpurchaseincertaincases,dimensions,and
acquisitiondate.273
Withtheideatoprovideworkforthetrainedartisans,LesCorporationsCambodgiennes
272InFrench:‘N.49-Sampothol,soie.1.97x0.90.Pourfemme.Chaînerouge.Tramesoieteintejaune,vert,violetformantbandestransversales.’SeeCatalogueGénéralduMuséeduCambodge(MuséeAlbertSarraut),‘N.Etoffesetvêtements’(Hanoi,1924),194-207,courtesyofTheNationalMuseumLibrary.273Seecataloguecardforobject258HintheNcategory,sampothol,acquiredbythemuseuminJanuary1927,CourtesyoftheNationalMuseumLibrary.
127
(CambodianCorporations)wereestablishedin1919toproduceartefactswithFrench
customersinmind,whichGroslierdefinedas‘arichclientbase,avidforexoticismand
alwaysreadytoacquiresouvenirsandtestimonialsoffarawaycountriesthatthey
visited’.274
Atthetime,weaversmostlyproducedthree-metre-longtextilesforclothingtobedrapedas
sbaayorsampot.275WhileothertextiletechniquesexistedinCambodia,suchassolidsilk
phamaungandbrocadedrbauk,theCorporationsCambodgiennesinvestedspecificefforts
intothedevelopmentofmulticoloredweftikatsampothol,reproducingantiqueexamples
collectedatthemuseumfortherarityoftheirtechnique.LeServicedesArts(ArtsService),
anorganisationemergingfromtheSchoolofCambodianArts,actedastheintermediary
betweencustomersandartisans,receivingorders,purchasingrawmaterials,andensuringa
controlledsalesprice.276Withthisprogramme,Groslierrepurposedancestralknowledge
ownedbyindigenousartisanstoestablishacolonialmodelofproductionanddistribution.
TheColonialRevuereportedthatfrom1921to1925,threethousandsilksampot,following
highqualitystandardsestablishedandencouragedbytherésidentsupérieur(localFrench
governor),wereorderedforasuccessfulturnoverof47,500piastres,thecurrencyinFrench
Indochina,whichwentwhollytotheweavers.277
ThepromotionofLesCorporationsCambodgiennes’silksextendedtoFrenchmetropolitan
contextsoutsideCambodia.EdwardsdemonstratedthatFrenchcolonisationbroughta
particularnotionofnationalismtoCambodiandressandtextiles,‘mark[ing]suchobjectsas
“national”andfix[ing]theminaboundedgeoculturalsphere’.278Colonialpavilionswere
usedinthe1889ExpositionUniverselleinParistocommunicateessentialistattitudestoits
colonies;expositionscoloniales(colonialexhibitions)werethenlaunchedin1896inRouen.
274Groslier,‘Lareprisedesartskhmers,’415.275Ibid,420.276Ibid,418.277A.V.Dunet,ed.,‘LaséricicultureauCambodge,’LaRevueColoniale2no.15(Décembre1925):2-3.278Edwards,Cambodge:TheCultivationofaNation,1860-1945,145.
128
Inthe1922editioninMarseille,theCambodiansectionoftheIndochinapavilionfeatureda
spectacularlarge-scalearchitecturalreproductionofAngkorWat,usedassetandstagefor
Cambodiandancerswhohadbeenbroughtspecificallytoperform.279Thefairwasa
propagandatooltodemonstratewhattheorganisingcommitteecalledthe‘livinghistoryof
[French]colonisation’and'thegeneralsynthesisof[French]efforts'inIndochina.280
CambodiansilkswerealsosoldattheIndochinapavilion.
FashionscholarJenniferCraikhasarguedthat‘Westernculturesdrawontheexoticaofnon-
Westernculturesandpastculturestoaddanelementoffrissontotheeverydayculture’.281
Sheadds:'theideaoftheexoticimpliesasenseofmagic’.282Inthegrandiosesetreplicating
themythicalAngkoriantemplesinMarseille,theFrenchaudienceembracedthiscurated
experienceofothernessandappreciatedaselectionofKhmerartsandcraftslabelledas
authenticbythecolonialpowerbytheirconnectionwiththeKhmerempire.283
AsdetailedinaVoguearticlepublishedin1927,silksampotholproducedfortheFrench
marketweresaidtobedirectlyinspiredbyCambodia’sheritage:‘nexttothegodsofAngkor
andancienttextiles,modernartisansunderanastuteandintelligentFrenchmanagement,
arefortunatelyinspiredbyolddesignstoreviveKhmerart’.284 Sampotholcompetedwith
otherexoticcommodities,suchasthepopular‘Spanishshawls’producedinChinawith
279IsabelleFlour,‘OrientalismandtheRealityEffect:AngkorattheUniversalExpositions,1867–1937,’GettyResearchJournal6(January2014):71.280PennyEdwards,citingtheCommissariatGénéraldel’ExpositionNationalColonialedeMarseille.SeeEdwards,Cambodge:TheCultivationofaNation,1860-1945,154-55;CommissariatGénéraldel’ExpositionNationalColonialedeMarseille,ExpositionnationalecolonialedeMarseille(Marseille,1922),9-10.281JenniferCraik,‘ExoticNarrativesinFashion,’inModernFashionTraditions,eds.AngelaJansenandJenniferCraik(London:BloomsburyAcademic,2018),100.282Ibid,97.283AreportonMarseille’sColonialExhibitionof1922detailedthatCambodiansilktextileswereshowcasedinsidetheAngkorWatreplicabothintheartisticandeconomicexhibitionspaces.AntiqueCambodiansilks,referredtoas‘truemasterpiecesinappliedarts’,wereshowcasedwithlacquerware,jewellery,textiles,andsculpturesfromLaosandVietnamonthefirstfloor.ProductsfromtheSchoolofCambodianArtswereshowcasedwithothercolonialschools.Onthegroundfloor,silktextilesfromCambodiaandVietnamwerepartoftheeconomicexhibition.SeePierreGuesde,L'ExpositionNationaleColonialedeMarseilledécriteparsesauteurs(Marseille:CommissariatGénéraldel’Exposition,1922),50-51,89-92. 284J.R.F,‘Lessampotscambodgiens,’Vogue,1January1927,54.
129
Chinese-inspiredboldandcolourfulpatterns.285Thisarticleoffereditsreadersan
enthusiasticdepictionofholproducedbytheSchoolofCambodianArts,asiftheywerea
regionalproduct.BuyingsampotmeantbuyingFrench:‘thesetextileswithremarkable
designsare‘fromhome’,becauseourcoloniesproducethem’.286Thearticlealsodiscussed
theinvolvementoftheHouseofRodier,atextilecompanyestablishedin1848inLyon,
whichhadcommissionedGeorgesGrosliertoproducesampotholtobesoldinFranceas
shawlsanddecorativehangings[Fig.37].ThisconnectionbetweenFrenchmanufacturers
andLeServicedesArtsinthe1920sdemonstrateshowindigenoustextiles,originallya
domesticproductforlocalconsumption,wasintegratedbeyondCambodiaintothebroader
territoryoftheFrenchluxurymarket.Thecolonialcivilisingmissionisclearlystatedinthis
article:‘itistotheFrenchmetropoletohelpindigenouspopulationstoexploitthewealthof
ourcolonies,firstconditionoftheirprosperityandforthedevelopmentofcivilisation’.287
Fig.37SilkpictorialpidanwovenattheSchoolofCambodianArtsproducedforMaisonRodier,Vogue,1January1927,44.
285J.R.F,‘Lessampotscambodgiens,’42.SeealsoSarahCheang’sresearchonChineserobesandshawlswornbyWesternwomenasloungewearinthedomesticspaceoftheirhomes.SarahCheang,‘ChineseRobesinWesternInteriors:TransitionalityandTransformation’,inFashion,InteriorDesignandtheContoursofModernIdentity,ed.AllaMyzelevandJohnPotvin(Farnham:Ashgate,2017),129.286Author’stranslation.J.R.F,‘Lessampotscambodgiens,’42.287J.R.F,‘Lessampotscambodgiens’,52.
130
ThewaysinwhichCambodiansilkswerechampionedbytheFrenchcolonialpower
demonstratethenatureofFrenchcolonialismandhowdiscoursesofthecivilisingmission
wereenmeshedwithtrade.DiscussingtheworkproducedbyVietnamesepaintersin
colonialfineartsschoolsinVietnam,NoraTayloridentifiedthedifficultyofclearly
designatingthisartisticproduction,concludingthatitcouldnotbeconsiderednationally
Vietnamese,norindigenous,norFrench,butashoveringambiguouslybetweenthese
definitions.288Similarly,Cambodiansilksforcolonialtradeconservedthehandmadequality
ofCambodiancraftsmanship:‘remarkable,long,meticulous,anddifficultfabrication’,but
shiftedintermsofuseandculturalidentitytobecomehybridobjects.289
MaterialityofthesilklandscapeduringIndependence(1950-69)
AfterdelinkingtheeffectoforientalistdiscoursesandFrenchcolonialismonsilkas
artefactsandcraft,thissectionexploreshowCambodia’spostcolonialhistoryaffectsthe
spatialrealmbyexploringthegeographyandtopographicalfeaturesthatsupportsilk
production.Movingintothesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturyandtheperiodofnational
independence,thissectionexaminessilkasaresourceentangledwithCambodia’sland,
territory,andhistory.ItcontinuestounraveltheformativepatternsofCambodiansilk
withindebatesonculturalexchangesandnationalidentity.Inthatsense,lookingatthe
complexinterrelationbetweenmulberrytrees,silkfarmingandsilkweaving,andhowthis
impactedonthemorphologyofthelandscape,definessilkasaCambodianculture,and,
reversely,definesCambodiathroughsilk.290
288NoraTaylor,‘ORIENTALISM/OCCIDENTALISM:TheFoundingoftheEcoledesBeaux-Artsd'IndochineandthePoliticsofPaintinginColonialVietNam,1925-1945,’Crossroads:anInterdisciplinaryJournalofSoutheastAsianStudies11,no.2(1997):33.289J.R.F,‘Lessampotscambodgiens’,52.290SeetheconceptofculturallandscapefirstdevelopedbyCarlSauerinwhichnatureismodifiedbyhumanactions,whichthereforeimpactsonitsmorphology.CarlSauer,‘TheMorphologyofaLandscape,’inHumanGeography:AnEssentialAnthology,eds.J.Agnew,D.Livingstone,andA.Rodgers(Oxford:Blackwell,1996),309.
131
JapanbecameanindustrialisedandmilitarypowerduringtheMeijiera(1868-
1912),withregionalreachinAsiawhichfuelleditsimperialistaspirations.291Japan’sactive
expansionbeganinthe1930swiththeinvasionofManchuria,andacceleratedduringthe
Asia-PacificWarafterthePearlHarborattackin1941.From1941to1945,theVichyFrench
colonialadministrationremainednominallypresentinCambodiawhileJapanesetroops
occupiedtheterritory.Duringtheseyears,theJapaneseencouragedNorodomSihanouk,
whowascrownedCambodiankingin1941,toseekindependence.Japanstrategically
promotedtherhetoricofPan-AsianismandtheidealsofAsiansolidaritytoencourage
SoutheastAsiancountriestowardsindependence,thusweakeningtheincumbentFrench
andDutchcolonialforces.292AttheendofWW2,afterJapansurrendered,France
reestablishedcontroloverCambodia,buteventuallygrantedthecountryindependencein
1953.JapanthenofficiallyestablisheddiplomaticrelationswithCambodiaonceitbecame
anindependentnationin1953.293
NorodomSihanoukabdicatedtohisfatherNorodomSuramaritin1955tobeabletoruleas
Cambodia’sprimeministerwithhispoliticalpartySangkumReastrNiyum(People’s
SocialistCommunity)until1970.Thisperiod,knownasSangkum,wasmarkedbyimportant
economicandindustrialdevelopmentswhileSihanoukattemptedtomitigatehiscountry’s
involvementintheVietnameseconflict.AidfromFrance,theformercolonialpower,and
BritaincontinuedtobeinstrumentalinCambodia’sdevelopment,especiallyintermsof
industry,infrastructureandenergyproduction,whichshowstheprevalenceofWestern
291PeterNicholasTarling,ASuddenRampage:TheJapaneseOccupationofSoutheastAsia,1941-1945(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,2001),11-12.292SvenSaalerandChristopherSzpilman,‘Pan-AsianismasanIdealofAsianIdentityandSolidarity,1850–Present,’TheAsia-PacificJournal9,no.17:1(2011):7;Tarling,ASuddenRampage:TheJapaneseOccupationofSoutheastAsia,1941-1945,39.
293HideoSasagawa,'Japan’sInvolvementinCambodiaduringWorldWarII,’inVietnam-Indochina-JapanRelationsduringtheSecondWorldWar,ed.M.Shiraishi,andal.(Tokyo:WasedaInstituteofAsia-PacificStudies,2017),71.
132
imperialisttiestotheregionintheearlyyearsofindependence.294Despitemajorefforts
towardseducationandindustrialisation,Cambodiaremainedanagriculturalcountry
relyingonriceandrubber,itstwomainpillars,whilecottonandmulberryrawsilk
remainedminorcommercialcrops.295
Intheearly1960s,sericultureandsilkweavingwerebothactiveinthesouthwestregionin
PreyKabasandTani.ThismapdraftedbygeographerJeanDelvertshowssomeofthese
overlappingareaswithdifferentartisanalproductions(silk,cotton,metalware,natural
dyes,basketryandpottery)locatedsouthandwestofPhnomPenhatthebordersofthe
MekongandTonléSaprivers[Fig.38a-b].296Likecotton,mulberrytreesgrewonwell-
irrigatedregionsalongthesouthernbanksoftheMekongRiver.Cottonandsilkweaving
waspractisedbywomeninvillagesduringthedryseasonbecauseitwas‘oneoftheonly
resourcesavailable’inareaswithlimitedarablelands,tocomplementricefarming.297
Connectinglocalresourcestothelandalsoconnectsthemtotheirpopulations.Figure38a
alsoshowsextendedzonesofsilkweavingactivityalongtheMekongRiver,Cambodia’s
mostpopulousarea.Thenumberofweaversandtheirconcentrationindifferentsrok
(districts)correlatewithareasofsericultureinthreemainzones:southofPhnomPenh,in
KandalandTakeoprovince,aroundtheTonléTouchRiverandinafewremotephum
(villages)inBattambangandOddarMeancheayprovinces.298Intheseneighbouringregions
toVietnam,CambodiansilkproductionwasledbySino-KhmerandethnicVietnamese
communitiesinKandal,Takeo,andPreyVengprovinces.299
Relyingonextensiveperiodsoffieldworkfrom1968to1970,Dupaigneidentifiedtwotypes
ofproductioninthoseregions.InTakeo,family-ownedsilkfarmsraisedsilkwormsduring
therainyseasonfromJulytoNovember.InKandalandPreyVeng,intensiverearingcentres,
294Slocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury,77.295Ibid,101.296Delvert,‘Carte7Industriesrurales’inLepaysancambodgien,738. 297Delvert,Lepaysancambodgien,286.298Seemap,Figure5.299Delvert,Lepaysancambodgien,283;TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,100.
133
mostlymaintainedbyVietnameseimmigrantsontheBassacriverandlowerMekong,
operatedabouttwelvecyclesayearfortradebeforethe1970s,apracticethatresumedin
the1980s.300
Figs.38a-bLeft:Carte‘7.Industriesrurales’showingcottonandsericultureareas,inconjunctionwithweaving,matweaving,metalwork,makleuadyeing,basketryandceramics.Right:locationoftheareastudiedbyDelvertinCambodia.
Deconstructingtheproductionchainprovidesatrajectoryinwhichpoliticalagency
intersectswithsuccessiveandinterdependentmaterialtechnologies,whichthendictates
theconstraintsofsilkdesignandtheconditionsofthetrade.FromaCambodianviewpoint,
perspectivesoncraftswerelinkedtothepoliticsofruralityandeconomicpolicies.Onone
hand,economictheoristKhieuSamphancentredhisargumentonrevalorisingthe
300TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,112.
134
peasantry,crafts(includingweaving)andsmallindustries,advocatingfortheredistribution
ofwealthintoaruraleconomyestablishedunderMarxistprinciplesofstate-supported
cooperatives.KhieuSamphan’sdoctoralthesis,publishedin1959,becamethefoundational
ideologyfortheKRdictatorship.301
Ontheotherhandofthepoliticalspectrum,artisanaltextilepracticeswerealsopraisedas
inthe1959TechnicolorfilmFemmeCambodgienne,oneofthefirstfilmsdirectedbyPrince
Sihanouk,whoproducedatotalfortyfictionandpropagandistfilmsinhislife.302Thereis
littleinformationaboutthecontextofFemmeCambodgienne’smaking.Sihanoukoriginally
producedfilmswithforeignanddiplomaticaudiencesinmind.Moreover,cinemaswere
openingextensivelyinthecountryintheSangkumeraandthefirstCambodianfilmtobe
publiclyscreeneddatedfrom1958.303Eventually,Sihanoukwantedhisfilmstobeshownto
largeCambodianaudiences.HistorianMiltonOsbornesharesthatspectatorswere
forbiddentoleavethetheatreduringthesescreenings.304ItislikelythatFemme
Cambodgienne,atwenty-minutefilmnarratedinFrench,wasscreenedtoCambodiansas
wellasforeigners.ItportraysCambodianwomenasametaphorforCambodia’sfertileland,
withthevoiceoverrepeatingthephrase‘fertilityofthewoman,fertilityofthesoil’.305
Viewerssawwomeninactionasworking,diligentbodies,performingrepetitivegesturesof
plantingthesoildressedinblackpeasantclothingandaredginghamkrama.Afemale
weaverwearingasampotphamaungisshownspinningyarn,preparingthewarpwith
bobbinsofwhitesilkthreadwoundonwarpingbars,andweavingatwo-tonerbauk
(damask)silkonawoodenloominaworkshop[Figs.39a-c].
301KhieuSamphan,trans.LauraSummers,‘UnderdevelopmentinCambodia,’inIndochinaChronicle51-52(September-November1976):4.302MiltonOsborne,Sihanouk:PrinceofLight,PrinceofDarkness(ChiangMai:SilkwormBooks,1994),177-179.303RogerNelson,‘ThePowerofSihanoukandthePowerofCinema:AFilmedExecutioninCambodia,1964,’ACT77(April2019),http://act.tnnua.edu.tw/?p=7255[AccessedJune24,2021]304MiltonOsborne,BeforeKampuchea:PreludestoTragedy(Sydney:AllenandUnwin,1979),57. 305SihanoukwasaknownFrancophile.FrenchremainedCambodia'sdiplomaticlanguageatthetime.
135
FemmeCambodgienneembodiesthewaytheSangkumretainedelementsofFrenchculture,
combinedwithpre-colonialnostalgia,toproduceanewvisionofCambodianmodernity
relyingongenderedrepresentationsofemancipatedCambodianwomen.Inamontage,the
filmtiestogethertheAngkorianheritagewithcarvedapsaradancersandcontemporaneous
womenworkingasfarmersandweavers,linkingancestralactivities,suchascrafts,withthe
modernprofessionsoffactoryworker,judge,nurse,andacademic.Thefilmendsinthe
countryside,withfemalefarmersoperatingtractorsinsteadofploughs,showingthatin
Sihanouk’svision,rurality(withthesupportofnewtechnologies)remainsthecentral
featureofCambodia’snational,politicalandsocialstructure.306
WhilesilkweavingandtextilesarerecognisedaskeyfeaturesofCambodianculturein
politicaldiscourses,thedataontextileproductionintheSangkumremainssparse.For
instance,theMarch10,1960issueoftheJournalOfficielduCambodge(CambodiaOfficial
Gazette)showedthatcotton,kapokandsticklacweremajorexportswhiletextileswere
importedinhighquantities,withnoreferencetosilkmaterial.307Economichistorian
MargaretSlocombalsocontendsthat‘therealitybehindthestatisticswasnotasspectacular
astheofficialreportswouldhavethereaderbelieve.Toooften,itseems,politicsintervened
tothwartsoundeconomicintentions’.308
306FemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959),Dir.SamdechNorodomSihanouk,ProducedbyKhemaraPictures,Cambodia,AvailableatCNChttp://www.cnc-aff.fr/internet_cnc/Internet/ARemplir/Fiches/corpus_Indochine/FilmsSihanouk.html307PublishedmonthlyinFrenchbythegovernmenttosharedecrees,ministerialactions,budgetannouncementsandimportsandexportsdata.RoyaumeduCambodge,JournalOfficielduCambodge10(March10,1960):276-78.308Slocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury,106.
136
Fig.39aWomenwearingakramascarffarmingrice,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959),Dir.SamdechNorodomSihanouk.
Fig.39bWeaverwearingasampotphamaungwarpingwhitesilkthreadonawoodenwarpingdevice,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959).
137
Fig.39cWomanweavingasampotrbauk,fromFemmeCambodgienneàl'heureduSangkum(1959).
Dismantlementofthesilkterritory(1970-1979)
PolPothadspenttimeinChinain1966beforetheChineseCulturalRevolutionhad
started.InresettingCambodianhistorytoYearZero,theKRsharedanumberofideological
aspectswiththeGreatLeapForward,combinedwithnationalismandpeasantism.309
Cambodia’sterritorywasreorganisedintosixzones,consistingofthirty-tworegions,all
controlledbytheCPK,whichkeptthecountryinnearautarky[Fig.40].310Hundredsof
thousandsofvillagerswereseparatedfromtheirnativetownsandfamilies,deportedto
differentregionsandputtoforcedworkinlargercooperatives.Urbanpopulationswere
309BenKiernan,‘TheCambodianGenocide,1975-1979,’inCenturyofGenocide:CriticalEssaysandEyewitnessAccounts,eds.SamuelTotten,WilliamS.Parsons,IsraelW.Charny(NewYork:Routledge,2004),355-56. 310Kiernan,‘TheCambodianGenocide,1975-1979,’343.
138
forcedtoevacuatethecitycentres.DKinvestedinthecentralisationofgoods,production
anddistributionvia‘large-scalecollectivescoupledwithirrigationprojectsandasystemof
(poorly-plannedandconstructed)reservoirsanddamswasinitiated,tofosterhigher
produceyields,andtopermitmultiplecrops’.311Thesestrategiesledtoaninefficient
rationalisationoftheagriculturalterrain,andthepopulationsufferedseverefamine.
Fig.40‘AdministrativezonesofDemocraticKampuchea1975-78’,LibraryofCongress.FederalResearchDivision,Cambodia:ACountryStudy,c.1990,PublicDomain.
RepresentationofsilkpracticeswerepartofearlyKhmerRougepropaganda
messagesfollowingKhieuSamphan’spro-craftideology.TheCPK’sFour-YearPlan
311Tyner,TheKillingofCambodia:Geography,GenocideandtheUnmakingofSpace,118.
139
documentdraftedduringthe1976standingcommitteemeetingbrieflyoutlinedmethodsof
propagandaandinformation.Theplanwastorelyon‘radiobroadcasting:organisegeneral
listeningsessionsusingloudspeakersforallimportantplacesandmobileworkbrigades’
and‘films:oftherevolutionarymovement’spresentandpast,especiallythepresent.
Organisemanygroupstoproducemanyfilmstoshowtothepeopleingeneral’.312Art
historianStephanieBenzaquenGautierarguesthatDKfilmswereusedformassinstruction
inruralareas,screenedtothepopulationtopropagatetheregime’sagricultural,industrial
andmilitaryachievements.313
This1975ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceDailyReport,transcribingKRnews,aimed
todescribeactionstowardsthedevelopmentofthedomestictextileindustry:
…whiletillingandharrowingthelandinthecampaigntogrowtherainyseasonricecrop,ourbrothershave[…]clearedseveralhundredhectaresoflandtogrowcotton andmulberry trees to feed theirsilkworms for thedevelopmentof thetextile industry. To develop the textile industry, our brothers in every village,district,andproductiongrouphavebuiltmechanicalandmanuallooms.Insomeplacestheyhavebuiltsemiautomaticlooms.314
Aneleven-minute-longblack-and-whitesilentnewsreelcalled‘NewsfromDemocratic
Kampuchea‘andproducedbytheDKgovernmentin1977promotesasimilaragenda.It
showsfieldsofcottonbeingpickedbyhand,womenworkinginmulberrytreefields
collectingleavesandfeedingsilkworms,artisanalsilkweavingandeventuallyshiftstothe
promotionofindustrialscalecottonweaving[Figs.41a-b].Despiteafewinscriptionsin
Khmerintroducingthedifferentpartsofthefilm‘Artisanalweaving’,‘Industrialweaving’
and‘End’,theonlyinformationaboutalocationisthename‘StateTextileFactory1’
indicatedatafacility’sentrance.Close-upsonwomenshowthemdressedinblackgarbwith
312DavidChandler,andal,eds,PolPotPlanstheFuture:ConfidentialLeadershipDocumentsfromDemocraticKampuchea,1976-1977(NewHaven:YaleUniversity,1989),114.313StéphanieBenzaquen-Gautier,ImagesofKhmerRougeAtrocities,1975-2015:VisualizingtheCrimesofthePolPot’sRegimeinTransnationalContextsofMemory[PhDThesis](Amsterdam:ImaginaryMuseumProjects,2016),23-24.314ForeignBroadcastInformationService,FBISIV,May7,1975:H2,AlsoinKarlD.Jackson,ed,Cambodia,1975-1978:Rendez-vouswithDeath(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1989),62.
140
akramaasaheadscarf,theKRuniformthatisdiscussedlater,andoftensmilingand
operatinginsync,whichspeakstotheconstructednatureofthefilm.Femaleweaversin
neatlinesontheflooroperatesilkspinningwheels,followedbyasequenceshowingwomen
preparingwarpthreadsfromabobbinrackinaworkshop,weavingkramascarveson
manuallooms.Withoutshowingtheikatprocess,thisendswitharangeoffinishedsampot
hol,zoomingonthediversityofgeometricandstylisedwovenmotifs.Thefinalpartfocuses
onatextilefactoryscenewhereworkersareproducingyardagesofundyedanddyedcloth
onmechanisedlooms[Figs.41c-d-e].315
Fig.41aWomencollectingcottonballsinthefields,fromLesActualitéscambodgiennes,‘Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge’,January1,1977,INA.
315LesActualitésCambodgiennes,Tissageartisanaletindustrieldutextilesouslerégimekhmerrouge,January1,1977https://www.ina.fr/video/VDD06002101/tissage-artisanal-et-industriel-du-textile-sous-le-regime-khmer-rouge-video.html[AccessedSeptember16,2017].
141
Fig.41bFeedingsilkwormswithmulberrytreeleaves,LesActualitéscambodgiennes(1977).
Fig.41cWomeninKRblackgarbspinningsilkthread,LesActualitéscambodgiennes(1977).
142
Fig.41dSampotholtextilesdisplayingthediversityofgeometricandstylisedikatmotifs,LesActualitéscambodgiennes(1977).
Fig.41eWorkersenteringtheStateTextileFactory1,LesActualitéscambodgiennes(1977).
Dataabouttextileproduction,importsandhandicraftsinthisperiodislimitedandrelieson
fewtestimoniesandfragmentarysources.AsSlocombargues,‘theDKperiodremainsa
143
highlycontentiousfieldofstudy[intermsofeconomy]becausetherearenoreliable,
verifiablestatistics’.316DKrulersconsideredthatcottonwasanimportantcropandalight
industrysupportingtheregime’seffortstoclotheitspopulation:‘wewouldlikeeveryoneto
havetwosetsofclothes,thatiseightmetersofclothperannum.Toachievethis,wewill
havetoincreaseourmanufacture’.317SilkisnotdiscussedintheFour-YearPlan.Thereare
majordiscrepanciesbetweenthefilm’sdisplayofintentionsregardingtextileproductionin
1977andtherealityofartisanalandindustrialweavingundertheregime.
IndustrialisedcottonspinningandweavinghaddevelopedintheSangkumviathemain
statetextilefactory,SocieteNationaleduTextile,openedin1960inKampongChamwith
Chinesefunding,thatwassoonfollowedbyasecondspinningfactoryinBattambangin
1966.318WeavingfactoriesinPhnomPenhcontinuedtooperateduringtheDKperiod.Ina
politicalspeechin1978,PolPotclaimedthatjuteandcottonwerethriving.319Thereisno
cleardataonthemarketdistributionforthisproductionandtheeffectofgovernmental
policies.
Attemptstoincreaseproductionandself-sufficiencywerenotsuccessful.Accordingto
Kiernan,tradebetweenCambodiaandThailandwasstillcontinuingin1976asCambodia
importedmedicalsuppliesandkramascarvesthroughthebordercheckpointofPoipetin
thenorthofthecountry.320Cambodiaalsoimportedlargequantitiesofblackclothanddyes
fromChinauntil1978,followedbyshipmentsofbluecloth.InthelastyearsofDK,blue
clotheswereallegedlyusedtoidentifytheirwearersasoriginatingintheEasternzoneof
Cambodia:theywereoftendesignatedasVietnameseandpersecuted.321
316Slocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury,175.317 Chandler,andal,eds.,PolPotPlanstheFuture:ConfidentialLeadershipDocumentsfromDemocraticKampuchea,1976-1977,98,151. 318RemyPrud’homme,L'ÉconomieduCambodge(Paris:PressesUniversitairesdeFrance,1969),96;Slocomb,AnEconomicHistoryofCambodiaintheTwentiethCentury,107.319Ibid,207.320BenKiernan,ThePolPotRegime:Race,PowerandGenocideinCambodiaUndertheKhmerRouge,1975-79(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2008),144-145.321Ibid,406.
144
CharlesH.Twining,formerUSambassadortoCambodia,assessesthatbetween1975and
1978:
TheruleofthumbinDemocraticKampucheaseemstohavebeenonesetofnewclothingperpersonperyear.Clothingnotmadeincottageindustryortakenoffpersonswhowereexecutedcamepresumablyfromtheoperatingtextilefactories.Forthosetextileworkersunabletoproducealloftheirownfoodneeds,foodfromclothing-deficientareascouldperhapsberegardedastheir‘compensation’.322
Facingamajorshortageofresources,Cambodianshadtorelyonbartering.323Twining
describesasituationofsilkbarteredin‘avillageinwhichsomepeopleraisedsilkworms,
gatheredthesilk,andwoveit,sendingittodestinationswelloutsidetheimmediateareain
exchangeforfoodstuffs’.324Whilethefilm(Figure41)fromthefirstyearsoftheregime
showssericultureandweavingasacommonpractice,silkwasascarceresourcethatwas
notinvestedupon.
Onlyafewareasofsericulturewereretained,especiallyPhnomSrokdistrictinBanteay
MeancheyprovinceinthenorthofCambodia.325Mostmulberrytreesinthecountrywere
cutdownandsold.326Inthelate1970s,the‘unmaking’ofsilkproductionandweaving
practiceswasalsolinkedtotheforceddisplacementofartisansandfarmers.327Thisis
exemplifiedbySotheap,aformerweaverinterviewedbyTerHorst,whogrewupinTakeo
provinceintheearly1960sandmovedwithherfamilytoworkinatextilefactoryin
Battambanginthelate1970s.328
322Twining,‘TheEconomy,’122.323Kiernan,‘TheCambodianGenocide,1975-1979,’365. 324Twining,‘TheEconomy,’122.325KhmerSilkVillages,OntheGoldenSilkTrails,6.;RothMeas,‘Hopefortraditionalsilkfarmers,’ThePhnomPenhPost,28December2010https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lifestyle/hope-traditional-silk-farmers[AccessedJune1,2021];MorimotobrieflymentionsKohTrenginKampongChamneartheMekongriver.Morimoto,SilkProductionandMarketinginCambodia.ResearchReportfortheRevivalofSilkWeavingProject,17.326KikuoMorimoto,‘TracesofWar:TheRevivalofSilkWeavinginCambodia,’TextileSocietyofAmericaSymposiumProceedings(2002):404-409.327IborrowtheconceptofunmakingfromgeographerJamesTynerwhoarguesthat‘beforetheKhmerRougeconstructedtheirowncommunistspaces,theydeliberatelysetouttodeconstruct,orunmake,previousspaces’.Tyner,TheKillingofCambodia,110.328TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,18.
145
TheKRpushedtheiragendafurtherbycontrollingthedressofthepopulation.Beforethe
dictatorship,women’severydaywearwascommonlyashirtwithacolourfulMalay-style
printedsarongtubeskirt,andsilkwaswornforreligiousandfestivecelebrations.Shirts
andtrouserswereeverydaywearformen,andsometimescolourfulsilkshirtsandsilk
wrappedtrousersinthechawngkbunstyleforceremonies.ImportedWesternclothingwas
popularamongstcity-dwellers,withshapesthatweremorefitted,andbold1960s
patterns.329By1976,thepopulationwasforbiddentowearclothingthatwaseither
colourfulormadeofsilk.Clotheshadtobedyedindark,mutedtones,usingmud,charcoal
ordyestuffobtainedfrommakleua(ebonyfruit).330
Thisthesissupportsthehypothesisthat,accordingtoKRideology,silkwasassociatedwith
theelite,whereascottoncarriedaproletarianconnotation.Areferencetoactsofvoluntary
destructionappearsinthedocumentaryCambodge,lecridelasoie(Cambodia,thecryof
silk)whichdescribesKRfactionsburningsilkloomsbecausetheyweresymbolsofa
decadentculture.331Theproductionandstorageofsilkwasonlypermittedinlimited
quantities,fordiplomaticgiftstoforeignofficials.Moreover,‘ministryofficialsassignedto
greetsuchvisitorswerepermittedtogotoaspecialstoreroomtoborrowsilkclothing
shirtsformenandsampotforwomentoattenddiplomaticreceptions’.332Theuseofsilkwas
onlyreclaimedbyCPKhigh-rankingcadresforpubliceventsinvolvinginternational
visitors.Inhismemoirs,YPhandararecalledattendingamusicalperformanceinPhnom
Penhfor,amongstothers,representativesoftheSweden-KampucheaFriendshipAssociation
329Muanandal.,SeamsofChange,105-106.330ChilengPaandMortland,EscapingtheKhmerRouge:ACambodianMemoir,102.Intheaftermathoftheregime,black-cladclothingstillstirredsomepainfulmemoriesassociatedwiththeKRregime,especiallyamongstelderlypeople.SeeVannChanSimen,‘BacktoBlackFashionStirsMemories,’ThePhnomPenhPost31August2001https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/back-black-fashion-stirs-memories[AccessedMarch24,2020]331Cambodge,lecridelasoie,Dir.Butta,Carmen,ArteGEIE,2005.http://international.mediatheque-numerique.com/films/360-geo-reportage-cambodge-le-cri-de-la-soie332Muanandal.,SeamsofChange,112-113.
146
andambassadorDaoudaKouroumaoftheRepublicofGuineain1978.333Usedtowearing
raggeddarkclothes,hewasastoundedthatthecrowdofattendeeswaswearingcolourful
dress:henoticeddozensofyoungwomenwearingbrightsilksampotandfittedbodices.
Theunfittedblackcottonpyjamasinspiredbycommonpeasantgarbbecamethenational
uniformasanembodimentofthenewproletarianandcollectiveorder.Men,womenand
youngpeopleenrolledinKRmilitiasbecameananonymous,homogeneousarmyinblack
uniforms.Chinesekhakiarmyfatigueswerealsocommonasmilitaryuniform.Survivorsof
theKRregime,suchasChilengPa,reactedwithterroratthesightofthem.334Theyoften
woreakadep(cap)inspiredbyChineseCommunistPartycaps,blacksandalsmadefrom
rubbertyresandakramascarf.335
KRofficialsappropriatedthewidelyusedkramainredandwhitegingham,turningitintoa
symboloftheirrule.Theredscarfhadbeenpartofthesartorialidentityofnewmovements
inpostwarcommunistcountriessuchastheSovietUnionandChina,whichmayhave
inspiredDKleaders.ThereferencetothecolourredinKhmer‘Rouge’alsoappearedin
recurringmentionsofbloodinDK’snationalanthem,asa‘metaphoriccallforrevenge’.336
ReproductionsoftheseuniformsaredisplayedinthepermanentgalleryoftheTuolSleng
GenocideMuseuminPhnomPenh.337TheKillingFieldsgenocidesiteofChoeungEkdisplays
similarreproductions,inwhichtheredofthekramaandtheblackgarmentscreateastark
visualcontrast[Fig.42].AndrewMertha,expertinCambodianpolitics,hasfoundthatthe
StateWarehousedepartmentlocatedinPhnomPenhevenhadanofficededicatedtostoring
kramaclothsfordeliveryacrossthecountrytoCPKorganisations,evidenceofthe
333YPhandara,RetouràPhnomPenh:LeCambodgeduGénocideàlaColonisation(Paris:EditionsA.-M.Métailié,1982),131-135.334ChilengPaandMortland,EscapingtheKhmerRouge:ACambodianMemoir,68.335Muanandal.,SeamsofChange,105-106. 336NicholasA.RobinsandAdamJones,GenocidesbytheOppressed:SubalternGenocideinTheoryandPractice(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress,2009),95.337TuolSlengGenocideMuseumiscurrentlyrethinkingitspermanentdisplay.In2021,themuseumwillremovethesereproductionsthatarehungnexttorealvictims’clothingwithoutlabels.Thisjuxtapositionisrecognisedasconfusingforvisitors.
147
importanceofthisclothinthedictatorship’sideologyanditsembodimentthroughdress.338
AfteronlyfouryearsoftheKRrule,thefundamentalsofCambodiansocialorganisationand
economyhadbeenshattered.The1970smarkedaradicaltransformationofsocialcodesof
dressandmodesoftextileproduction,deliberatelyerasingtraditionalcustomsand
dismantlinglocaltextilecraftsintermsofresources,workforce,skills,andspacesof
production.
Fig.42Reproductionsofwomen’sandmen’sKhmerRougeuniforms(blackgarments,krama,andrubber-tyresandals)exhibitedattheChoeungEkKillingFields,PhnomPenh.WikimediaCommons.
338AndrewMertha,BrothersinArms:ChineseAidtotheKhmerRouge,1975–1979(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,2014),50.
148
Multipleagenciesinreconstructingthesilkindustry(1980-1990)
Thissectionfocusesonthereconstructionofthepost-warsilkindustryandhowit
involvedtheagenciesofmanyorganisations,bothinternationalanddomestic,cultural
institutionsandcommunities.TheVietnamese,formerKRalliesuntil1977,invadedPhnom
PenhonJanuary7,1979,overthrowingtheCPK’sfullcontroloverCambodiaand,asthe
actinggovernment,creatingthePeople’sRepublicofKampuchea(PRK)ledbyHengSamrin.
TheaftermathofDKwasthenmarkedbyVietnameseoccupation,politicalinstabilityand
complexinternalconflictsuntil1989.Nearlytwomillionpeopleperishedbetween1975and
1979,whichfundamentallychangedCambodia’sdemography.Thesituationwas
compoundedbytherefugeecrisisattheThaiborderandamassiveexodusabroad,bothof
whichareexploredinChapterFouronthecontinuationofsilkpracticesinthecontextof
displacementanddiaspora.339CertainregionsthatwerestillunderthedominationofKR
guerrillasremainedinaccessibleuntilthemid-1990s[Fig.43].
AccordingtotheNSS,‘onlyaboutfifteenhectaresofmulberrytreeswerefoundalive’after
thecollapseofthedictatorship.340However,thisdatamostlikelydatesfromalatersurvey
producedbyPASSinthemid-1990sasdiscussedintheIntroduction.Thereisnoavailable
surveyorfulldatafocusingonthesilksectorunderthePRK,onlyfragmentedinformation.
MichaelVickeryprovidesabroadviewonthestateoftheCambodiantextileindustryinthe
mid-1980s,reportingthatthePRKMinisterofIndustryMeasSamnangacknowledgedissues
ofproductionandsupply.341TheleadingtextilefactoryofTuolKorkinPhnomPenh
producedcottonclothbutoperatedundercapacity,duetotheinsufficientsuppliesofraw
339BarbaraCrossette,‘ThaiRefugeeCamp,DoorofHope,WillbeClosed,’TheNewYorkTimes,December30,1986,https://www.nytimes.com/1986/12/30/world/thai-refugee-camp-door-of-hope-will-be-closed.html[AccessedMarch28,2020].340CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,9.341MichaelVickery,Kampuchea:Politics,Economics,andSociety(London:F.Pinter,1986),147.
149
cottonacrossthecountry.Asaresult,thecountryreliedonmajordonationsofclothfrom
theSovietUnion,VietnamandEuropeancountries.342
Fig.43MapofCambodiainthe1980sshowingtheThaiborder,regionsandzonesofKhmerRougeactivity.Author’smap.
MoneywasabolishedundertheKRandreinstatedinMarch1980.Handicraftswere
practicedbyfamiliesandindividuals,outsideofthestate’sdirectcontrol,whichloaned
themcashviathenationalbankstoencouragedomesticcommerce.343
Weavingresumedinvillageandcouldbeprofitable.Vickerydiscussestheexampleofa
womanin1984‘justoutsidePhnomPenh[…]whoworkedfulltimeonherloom,turning
outatypeofsarong;andhermonthlyincomeoverexpenditureformaterialswas1,800riel,
342Vickery,Kampuchea:Politics,Economics,andSociety,149.343Ibid,137.
150
theequivalentofthreetopsalariesandworth360kg.ofrice’.344Oralhistoriescollectedby
educatorCarolWagnerandsocialscientistsHeidiDahlesandJohnTerHorstintheearly
2000sofferseveralstoriesofdisplacedvillagersrespondingbyenactingdifferentstrategies
ofsurvival.Thaverylearnedweavingwithexperiencedfemaleweaverswhowovesilkskirts
in1979-1980whenshereturnedtoherhomevillageinTakeoafterthedictatorship
collapsed.Sheeventuallymanagedtosaveenoughmoneyto‘buythematerialstobuilda
loom’tobecomeaprofessionalweaver.345SotheapreturnedtoherhomeinVealVeangin
1979andresumedweaving,buyinganewloomoncreditfromthemiddleman,bartering
hertextilesforriceinPhnomPenhmarkets.346Otherslearnedsilkweavingasasecondary
activitywhenmovingtoasilk-producingregion.MyownfieldworkinTaPoukvillage,on
theoutskirtsofSiemReap,inJuly2017providesanexampleofthis,inChendyHeng,sixty
yearsoldandmotherofChendaandThearyfromKramaYuyuworkshop.Chendy,originally
fromPhnomPenh,hadtoevacuatetoKandalprovinceundertheKR.Sheeventuallymarried
andresettledinTakeoprovince,andshelearnedhowtoweavefromherparents-in-law.347
Asthesestoriesshow,Cambodianweaversencounteredmajoreconomicand
demographicchallengesinthepostKRera.Nevertheless,silkweavingresumedintheearly
1980srelyingespeciallyonimportedsilkyarnfromsilkspinneriesinTanChau,a
VietnamesesilkcentrelocatedsouthofTakeoacrosstheborder.ThesurveybyTerHorst,
DongelmansandSeng,citingagronomistsPujebetandPeyre,doesnotdiscusswhetherthe
VietnameseoccupationofCambodiafacilitatedtheexpansionoftraderouteswithVietnam,
butthisseemsplausibleeventhoughitinvolvedChinesesilkyarnwholesalers.348
344Vickery,Kampuchea:Politics,Economics,andSociety,134. 345CarolWagner,SoulSurvivors:StoriesofWomenandChildreninCambodia(Berkeley,CA:CreativeArtsBookCompany,2002),195;346 DahlesandTerHorst,‘WeavingintoCambodia:NegotiatedEthnicityinthe(Post-colonial)SilkIndustry,’119. 347ChendyHeng,InterviewedbyMagaliAnBerthon,TaPouk,Cambodia,2017.348BorisDongelmans,BunlySengandJohnTerHorst,SilkWeavinginCambodia.ANationalCensus(PhnomPenh:CentreforAdvancedStudies,2005),10.
151
Therefore,thereformationofthesectorintheearly1980swaslinkedtoSino-Khmer
importerswhomaintainedamonopolyonsilkfibrebysellinglargequantitiestoCambodian
wholesalerssituatedinPhnomPenharoundtheCentral,Russian,OlympicandOld
Market.349Thisdatacomplexifiestheideaoftherevitalisationofsilkasanational
traditionalproductinwhich‘Khmer’equals‘Cambodian’,aspromotedintheNSSreport.350
TerHorstandDahlesoutlinethereformationofan‘ethnicallycomplexCambodiansilk
weavingindustry’involvingcomplextradenetworkswithCambodia’sborderlandsand
involveswholesalers,middlemen,silkweaversandretailers.351
Cambodiansreturnedtoamoreprominentuseofthepatron-clientsystem,knownaskhsae
(threads),whichhadcementedCambodiansocietylongbeforeforcedcollectivisation.This
inequitablepatrimonialsystemfavoursfamiliesandorganisationswiththemostpowerand
connections.Itdisadvantagesindividualsatthemarginsorwhoaredeprivedofasolid
socialfooting.Withinpowerrelationshipsthatimplyloyaltyandobligation,onepersonis
indebtedtoanotherwithinafamilyorabusiness.Thesilkindustryhasresumedunderthis
typologyofhierarchicalrelationships,operatingaverticallineofcommandfromsilk
merchantstointermediariestoweavers.352TerHorst’sstudyemphasisesthereassertionof
oldmodels‘inwhichasmallwholesalersgroupdictatesthecross-bordersilkyarntradeand
thequantityandqualityofproductionandtradeofsampot’.353
AccordingtotheNSS,in1990therewereonlyabouttwohundredandfifty
Cambodiansilkfarmersproducingindigenousgoldensilkbyworkingindependentlyonthe
limitedagriculturallandavailable,whichnecessitatedarelianceonsilkyarnimports.354
349TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,115-116;Dongelmans,BunlySengandTerHorst,SilkWeavinginCambodia.ANationalCensus,11.350Theforewordopenswith:‘thehistoryofsilkproductionisintricatelylinkedwiththehistoryofKhmertradition,cultureandidentity.’CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,ix.351Ibid,xiv.352TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,163.353Ibid,164.354CambodiaMinistryofCommerce,andITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,14.
152
ThiswasalsoconfirmedinKikuoMorimoto’s1995reportcommissionedbytheUNESCO
officeinPhnomPenh:‘priorto1970,manyvillagesinCambodiawereraisingsilkworms,
whichwerereeledandwovenintofinetraditionalfabrics.ExceptforKampotandKampong
Speuprovinces,mostoftheweaversinCambodianowusesilkyarnimportedfrom
Vietnam’.355Thecommissioningofthisreportalsoestablishestwonewmajoractorsinthe
reconstructionofthesilkindustry:MorimotohimselfandUNESCO.Theirroleisfurther
discussedinChapterTwo.
FromJanuarytoMarch1995,Morimotoconductedfieldworktoassessthestateofsilk
weavingandsericultureinCambodia.Hecoveredthirty-sixvillagesinPhnomPenh,
Kampot,Takeo,Kandal,KampongSpeu,KampongCham,PreyVengandSiemReap
provincesandinterviewedfifty-sixweavers,withtheexceptionofBattambangandBanteay
Meancheyprovinces,whichwerestillunsafeandoccupiedbyKRfactions[Fig.44].356The
lackofstudyinBanteayMeancheyunfortunatelylimitshisassessmentofthismajor
Cambodiansericulturearea.MorimotobrieflydiscussesastyleofsilksarongsfromPhnom
SrokinBanteayMeancheythatweresoldinSiemReapshops.357Healsoliststhesponsoring
agencyUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)/UnitedNationsOfficeforProject
Services-CAREREasthemainsupporteroflocalrawsilkproductioninthisarea.358
Morimotofocusesontheexperiencesofweaversandlocatingtextiletechniquesthatwere
stillpractisedinvillages.Hisresearchconcludesthatthetopographyofpre-1970silk
makinghadbeenheavilyalteredincertainzoneswiththedisappearanceofsilkwormeggs
andsilkyarnproductioninthekeycentresofKandalandKampot,whileweavingskillshad
survivedinnumerousvillages,especiallyinTakeoprovince,inwhichweaversmostlyrelied
onimportedsilkyarnfromVietnam.359
355Morimoto,SilkProductionandMarketinginCambodia.ResearchReportfortheRevivalofSilkWeavingProject,21.356Ibid,1.357Ibid,20. 358Ibid,31.359Ibid,13.
153
TheseelementsshowthattheseveredestructionresultingfromtheKRactionswasnot
complete,whichpermittedtheslowrecoveryofthesilksector.Processesofsilkmaking,
fromthemulberrytreesandthesilkwormstothefibreandweaving,werestillknownbya
numberofweavers.TheCambodiansilklandscapeinthe1980sthusoperatesasa
palimpsest,aspacethatshowsevidenceoftheerasureandsuperimpositionofsilk
practices.Itcarriesthetracesofpastactivities,rewritingtheagrarianlandsand
demographicdistributionco-optedbytheKR,andproducinganewconfigurationofsilk
basedonrawfibreimports,tradenetworkswithVietnamviaethnicChinesewholesalers,
andforeignkeyplayers.
Fig.44ResearchmapofMorimoto’ssilksurveyforUNESCO(Source:Morimoto,1995).
ThissectionnowexploreshowtheNationalMuseumofCambodia(NMC)dealtwith
thepreservationandcollectionofsilkartefactssincethe1980sandhowitaffected
technical,culturalandvisualknowledgeonsilkpractices.IntheaftermathoftheKRregime
andthepoliticalinstabilitythatensuedthelootingofKhmerculturalartefactsincreased.
154
TheKRguerrillasretreatedintotheforestsattheThaiborderanddevelopedtrading
networkswithThailandinthelate1980s,exchanginggemsandtimberforweaponry.360It
seemshighlylikelythatsilkswerealsoexchangedthroughthesechannelsandendedupin
Thailand.Inthe1990s,significanttraffickingofantiquities,especiallystatues,carved
templelintelsandpotterypillagedfromarchaeologicalruins,tookplacedueto‘thelackof
effectivelawenforcement,weakeningofsocietalprohibitions,destructionofthe
economy’.361Artefactsweresoldinternationallytomuseumsandprivatecollectors.Tolimit
thisextensivelooting,in1991Cambodiaeventuallyratifiedthreeconventionsforthe
protectionofculturalproperty:the1954HagueConvention,theUNESCOConventionand
theWorldHeritageConvention.362
Bykeepingartifacts,expandingtheircollection,andmakingpiecesavailabletoscholarsand
thepublic,museumshaveplayedaroleintherevitalisationofsilkinthepost-conflictera.It
isexploredherethroughthelensoftheonlypubliccollectionofCambodiantextilesin
Cambodia.Whileonlyonemuseumcollectionisexploredindetail,othermuseumswere
consideredinternationally.In2017-2018,studyvisitsalsotookplaceattheQuaiBranly
Museum,theV&A,theBritishMuseum,theUCLAFowlerMuseuminLosAngeles,the
privatecollectionTillekeandGibbinsinBangkok,andtheMGCAsianTraditionalTextiles
MuseuminSiemReap.ContactswerealsotakenremotelywiththeQueenSirikitMuseumof
TextilesinBangkok,theBankofChiangMaiMuseum,theFukuokaMuseumtolearnmore
abouttheircollections.363ThesevisitsalsohelpedmapCambodiancollectionsaroundthe
worldandformulateabroaderunderstandingoftheirrangeandspecificities.
360JoshuaBirchandJulieKornfeld,PickedClean:TheLegalityandPoliticsofCambodianCulturalHeritageObjects(PhnomPenh:DocumentationCenterofCambodia,2014),7,http://www.dccam.org/Abouts/Intern/Cambodia_Cultural_Heritage_Objects_Research_Paper.pdf[AccessedMay2,2017]361Ibid,8.362UNESCO,‘TextoftheConventionfortheSafeguardingoftheIntangibleCulturalHeritage,’2003,https://ich.unesco.org/en/convention[AccessedJanuary20,2019].363In2017itwasnotpossibletoplanastudyvisitattheHornimanduetotheredisplayoftheirgalleryofWorldCultures.2018wasdedicatedtofieldworkinCambodia.
155
TheNationalMuseumofCambodia(NMC),formerlyPhnomPenhNationalMuseum,
wasabandonedandclosedfrom1975to1979.LedbyFrenchkeepersuntil,themuseum
progressivelygatheredanimportantcollectionofCambodianantiquities(stone,metal,
woodandceramics)fromthepre-AngkorandAngkorperiods.364Themuseum’scollection
alsoincludedsilktextiles,holdingabout399piecesanddancecostumeelementscollected
between1918and1951underFrenchkeepers.WeavingtoolsdatingfromtheSchoolof
CambodianArtsinthe1920swerecollectedfromtheweavingworkshop,mostlikelyby
Groslier,todocumentsilkweavingprocessesinthemannerofanearlyethnographic
museum[Fig.45].Thisincludesarichlysculptedwoodenfloorloomcarvedwithdecorative
nagaheadsandtails,alongwithsculptedwoodshuttles,pedals,ikattyingstands,fourpairs
ofloomtensiondevices,andonesilkthreadwinder,allonpermanentdisplayinthe
galleries.
Fig.45DecoratedwoodcarvedelementsofaKhmerloomcollectedinthe1920s.Photograph,January1923,NationalMuseumofCambodiaarchives.
364‘ControloftheNationalMuseumandArtsAdministrationwascededbytheFrenchtotheCambodianson9August,1951andfollowingIndependencein1953,thethenMuséeNationaldePhnom-PenhwasthesubjectofBilateralaccords(7November1956).From1956to1966,themuseumcontinuedtoflourishunderthedirectionofMadeleineGiteau,ConservatriceduMuséeNational.’http://www.cambodiamuseum.info/museum_history.html[AccessedMarch28,2020]
156
Theclosingofthemuseumkeptthecollectionsrelativelyspared,thoughtheywerelargely
storedinthebasementwhichsufferedfromfloodsandpestinfestations.Whilethemuseum
hadfacedyearsofneglect,itreopenedtothepubliconApril13,1979undertheleadership
ofKannMan.365Onlytenofthepre-1975museum’sstaffhadsurvived,resultingina
significantlossofknowledgeaboutthemuseum’shistoryandobjects.CheaThaySeng,the
firstCambodiancuratortobeappointedin1966,diedatS21prisonin1976.366Intheyears
followingthereopeningduringtheCPK,thehypothesissupportedbythemuseum’sstaff,
especiallyHabTouch,DeputyDirectorofthemuseumin2000,isthatabouttwo-thirdsof
thetextileandcostumeartefactswerestolenandresold.367
InasymposiumonCambodiantextilesorganisedbyIKTTin2003,HabTouchassessedthat
NMConlyrecoveredseventy-twoflattextilesandacostumecollectionofbetweenthirtyand
fortypieces,mostlyaccessoriesforCambodiandance(belts,necklaces,hairpieces,two
embroideredfans)andtheatrecostumessuchasshirts,trousersandshoulderpads.Whatis
leftfromtheoriginalpre-KRcollectionconsistsofmulticolouredkietplangiheadscarves
madebyCham-Malayethnicgroups,andonlytwoKhmersampothol,butnopidan.368There
arealsofiveceremonialsampotdatingfromthe1910s,suchasthisbrittlesampotsarabap,a
redsilkbrocadedwithsupplementaryweftingoldmetallicthreads,keptfoldedinastorage
boxduetoitscondition[Fig.46].
365NationalMuseumofCambodia,MuseumHistoryhttps://www.cambodiamuseum.info/museum_history.html[AccessedMarch28,2020] 366PhilippePeycam,CulturalRenewalinCambodia(Leiden:Brill,2020),35.367KhunSamen,andTouchHab,‘TextilesintheCollectionoftheNationalMuseumofCambodia.’368Ibid.
157
Fig.46SampotsarabapattheNationalMuseumofCambodiafoldedinthetextilestorageroom.ObjectnumberN.38.Author’sphotograph,April2018.
Therearemultipleagentsinvolvedinmaintainingandexpandingthiscollection,with
peoplefromFrance,Japan,theUnitedStates,andAustralia,whichhostedalargeCambodian
diasporainthe1980s.TheCollectionInventoryProject(2004-2010) wasfundedbytheUS-
basedLeonLevyFoundationincollaborationwiththeCenterforKhmerStudiestoconduct
afulldigitalinventoryandconditionreportofthemuseum’s14,000objectsineleven
categories,withstone,ceramics,andmetalasthemaincategories.369Theprojectdrewonall
‘existingregistrationmethodsusedbythemuseumatdifferenttimesinthepast,including
severalFrenchcardcataloguesystems,Khmerhandwritteninventorylistsandapre-
existingdatabase’.370TheAustralianteamofexpertsassignedtotheproject,Catherine
MillikanandDarrylCollins,alsoledatrainingprogrammeinmuseumpracticesand
369NationalMuseumofCambodia,TheLeonLevyFoundation/CKSCollectionInventoryProjectoftheNationalMuseum2004-2010https://www.cambodiamuseum.info/en_projects_activities/cip.html[AccessedMarch28,2021]370Ibid.
158
maintenancefortheNMCstaff.371Whiletheyprovidedframeworksandmethodsdeveloped
inWesterninstitutions,foreignexpertsadjustedtothesituationonsiteandactively
participatedintheinstitution’srecoveryefforts.
ThetextilesareinthecareofKongKuntheary,whostudiedarchaeologyattheCambodian
RoyalUniversityofFineArtsinthe1990s.SheworkedattheMinistryofCulturein1987
andjoinedthemuseumin1994.AfterlivinginJapanforsomeyearswithherhusband,she
returnedtothemuseumin2006andwasappointedtotheTextiledepartmentin2015.372
TextileexpertGillianGreendonatedeightyholpiecesandfourpidanin2009,followedby
twomoresampotsarabapin2010.373Thisacquisitionwashandledbyanin-houseteam
includingKuntheary,supervisedbytwoAustralianspecialistsworkingattheNMCatthe
time.In2011thenon-profitorganisationCaringforYoungKhmer(CYK),whichtrains
weaversinTakeoprovincetomastertheartofpidan,alsodonatedtwenty-sevenpieces,
someofwhichreproducedlostobjectsfromthemuseum,basedonphotographs.374The
museumorganisedseveralexhibitionsofthesepidan,suchastheshow“RevitalizingKhmer
Treasure–Pidan:PictorialIkatSilk”in2014.Sinceearly2017,theentirecollectionof235
pieceshasbeenkeptinaclimate-controlledstorageroomonthemuseum’ssecondfloor,
andpieceshavebeenfullyinventoried.Incomparison,thelargestcollectionofCambodian
silksislocatedoutsideCambodia,attheMuséeduQuaiBranlyinFrancewithnearlyfour
hundredpiecesofCambodiantextiles,fragments,andgarments,mostlyfromthelate
nineteenthcenturytothefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.375
TheNMChasallocatedalimitedspaceforCambodiannationalsandtouriststoaccesssilk-
371AustralianWarMemorial,StaffoftheNationalMuseumofCambodiaposewithAustralianNationalGalleryhttps://www.awm.gov.au/collection/C958319[AccessedJune28,2021]372KongKuntheary,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April2018,PhnomPenh,Cambodia.373GillianGreen,personalemailconversation,April1,2020.374Allthetextilesfromthecollectionwerephotographedandintegratedwiththemuseumdatabasein2016-2017andmadeavailabletothepublic.YukikoYonekura,‘AFieldSurveyfortheProtectionofEndangeredWeavingTechniqueandMotifsoftheTraditionalCambodianPictorialIkatSilkPidan,’Gakuen919(2017):38. 375MuséeduQuaiBranly,‘HistoryoftheCollections’http://www.quaibranly.fr/en/collections/all-collections/history-of-the-collections/[AccessedMay2,2019].
159
relatedartefactsinthegalleriesexhibitingthecarvedloom,tools,twomodernpidan
hangings,andonebrocadedsilk[Fig.47].In2018,adisplayofKhmerclassicalballetobjects
datingfromthe1920sSisowatherawasadded,featuringembroideredelementsofamale
costumeandanembroideredsbaay,aspartofacollaborationbetweenthemuseumand
researchersfroml’EcoleFrançaised’ExtrêmeOrient[Fig.48].Theseinitiativessupportedby
multipleinternalandexternalactorspertaintocooperationprojectswithpositiveimpact,
allturnedtowardsredevelopingandsupportingtheNMCtextilecollectionandthe
museum’steaminawaythatfostersautonomyinleadershipandwaystocareaboutthe
objects.
Fig.47TwocontemporarypidanproducedanddonatedbyCYKondisplayattheNationalMuseumofCambodia,Author’sphotograph,April2018.
160
Fig.48KhmerballetcostumeelementsondisplayattheNationalMuseumofCambodia.Author’sphotograph,April2018.
Incomparison,TuolSlengGenocideMuseumwasestablishedin1979andopenedtothe
publicin1980.From1979à1988,research,organisingthearchives,andmuseographyat
themuseumwasledbytheVietnamesespecialadvisorMaiLam.376Themuseumwas
establishedonthesecretS-21KRprisonsiteinPhnomPenh,whereabout18,000prisoners
werekilledduringthedictatorshipleavingbehindthousandsoftextilesandclothing
remains.Themuseumholdsthousandsofphotographicandpaperrecordsoftheprisoners
andtheprison’soperationsintheirarchives.Since2018,thetextilesandgarmentshave
beenreclaimedinanambitioustextileconservationprojectsupportedbytheUSEmbassy
anddesignedbyAmericantextileconservatorJuliaBrennan,incollaborationwithin-house
376Anne-LaurePorée,‘TuolSleng,l’histoireinachevéed’unmuséemémoire,’Moussons30(2017)http://journals.openedition.org/moussons/3961[Accessed4July2021]
161
conservationspecialistKhoChenda.377Thereareonlytwosilkscarffragmentsinthethree
thousandpiecesfoundonsite,themajorityofwhichconsistofmachine-mademilitary
uniforms,caps,belts,maletrousersandshirts,andarangeofmoreunusualfragments,often
patchedandmended.WhiletheNMCcollectionconnectswithahistoryofancestraltextile
practices,royaltyandcolonialism,thepiecesatTuolSlengtellthehistoryofwar,torture,
andhardshipassociatedwiththeKRregimeandthePRK.
Conclusion
Inthischapter,silkisaninvaluablefocalpointtoinformCambodianhistoriesand
geographies,alensthroughwhichtocontemplateissuesofterritoriality,nationalidentity
andculturalinfluences.ExaminingthehistoryofCambodiansilkhashighlightedthe
successive,sometimesoverlapping,foreignagendasofChina,India,Thailand,Vietnam,and
Francethatinfluencedsilkpracticesthroughperiodsofdiplomacy,trade,wars,
colonisation,migrationandexchanges.Cambodiantextilecraftshavedevelopedinresponse
tocompetitivetradenetworksintheSoutheastAsianregion,hybridisationofdressstyles
andtextiletechniqueswithIndiainthethirteenthcenturyandSiamintheseventeenth
century,andadaptationtonewmarketswiththeFrenchcolonisation.Localsericultureand
textileproductionhavealsofacedmomentsofregressioninresponsetointernalcrisis
duringtheKRregimeandthepost-conflictVietnameseoccupationinthe1980s.Thisstudy
nuancestheideaofsilkasanancientCambodiantraditionunchangedsincetheKhmer
empire,destroyedduringtheKRregimeandrelaunchedinthe1990s.Tochallengethe
binarynotionofsilkdisappearanceandrevivalinthetwentiethcentury,thischapter
identifiesthepalimpsestasaparadigmtoqualifyandunderstandthere-formationand
377USEmbassyinCambodia,U.S.AssistanceforCambodianCulturalPreservationhttps://kh.usembassy.gov/education-culture/u-s-government-assistance-cambodian-cultural-heritage-preservation/[AccessedMarch25,2020].
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continuityofthesilksectorandweavingpractices.Italsohighlightsthesustainanceof
structuralpatternssuchasthepatron-clientrelationshipsofkhsae,majorsilkyarnimports
fromethnicChineseinVietnam,andthepositioningofthepolychromicsampotholasa
Cambodiancommodity,whichhavecontinuedtoinfusethecontemporarysilklandscape.
TextileexpertsGabrieleMentgesandLolaShamukhitdinovacontendthattextilesoccupy
theentangledpositionofmaterial,social,culturalandeconomicintermediariesinvolvinga
widerangeofactors,whichprovides‘insightintospacesofrelationsandspacesofmemory,
aswellasintothestructuresbehindestablishedculturalpatterns’.378Aftertwodecadesof
civilwar,thereopeningofthecountrytoforeigninvestmentintheearly1990sreshuffled
thecardsintermsofpoliticalandeconomicinfluences,implementingnewflowsof
population,tradeandresources.Thenextchapterhighlightsthetransnational,international
andlocalactorsinvolvedinthesilksectorsincethe1990stounravelfurtherthecultural
influencesandagenciesengagedinsilkinacontextofpost-conflictreconstruction.
378GabrieleMentgesandLolaShamukhitdinova,eds.,TextilesasNationalHeritage:Identities,PoliticsandMaterialCulture(Münster:Waxmann,2017),12.
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ChapterTwo
Keyplayersinsilkweaving:networksandnarratives(1991-2018)
Introduction
ThischapterdeepensthefocusonthegeopoliticalperspectivetakeninChapterOne
toexaminetheactorswhohaveformedtheCambodiansilknetworksincethe1990s,most
importantlytransnationalorganisations,foreignNGOsanddomesticinitiatives.Thisstudy
ofthecontemporarysilkscapeexaminestherevivalofsilkweavinginconnectionwiththe
exponentialgrowthofinternationalNGOsarrivinginCambodiaby1992,especiallyfromthe
UnitedStates,Japan,andEurope.379ThereopeningofCambodiainternationallyandthe
nationalelectionsin1993setanewparadigm.TheintroductionoftheseNGOshas
redistributedtheinfluenceofregionalcompetitorssuchasThailand,Vietnam,andChinaon
silkproductioninCambodia.Inaddition,thereturnoftouristsinconjunctionwithheritage
strategieshasalsochangedthephysiognomyofhandicraftproduction.Today,mostpeople
knowCambodiaonlyasaparadoxicalcountrywithtwohistoricalcornerstones:the
centuries-longAngkorianEmpire’sexpansion(802-1431CE)andtheshortanddestructive
near-autarkicKRregimefrom1975to1979.These‘twocontradictinghistoriesand
geographies’arematerialisedinthepresentbytheflowoftouristsseekingboththe
splendoursofthearchaeologicalruinsofAngkorWatnearSiemReapandthegenocidesites
ofTuolSlengprisonandtheKillingFieldsmassgraveinPhnomPenh.380Ofthesixmillion
379JohnBennett,MeetingNeeds:NGOCoordinationinPractice(Abingdon:Earthscan,1995),179;‘Lessthan4percentofCambodiannon-governmentorganisationswerefoundedinthe1980sorearlier’.SeeLouiseCoventry,‘‘It’sComplicated’:Cambodia'sNGOsandInternationalDonors,’TheAsiaDialogue,August7,2017,https://theasiadialogue.com/2017/08/07/its-complicated-relationships-between-cambodian-ngos-and-international-donors/[AccessedApril20,2020]380Brickell,Springer,andSokUdomDeth,TheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,17.
164
internationalvisitorsCambodiahostedin2017,about77percentcamefromAsiaandthe
Pacific,anessentialaspectofthischapter’sdiscussions.381
Threestagesinthechronologyoftherevitalisationofsilkinthepost-KReracanbe
identifiedintermsofactionsandkeyplayers.First,thischapterexploresthe1990snetwork
oftransnationalagencies,especiallyUNESCO,whoinvestedearlyinsericultureandsilk
weavingskillsdevelopment.Compensatingforthelimitednationalsupportforthe
Cambodiancraftsector,theseactiveagentshavecombinedfunding,foreignexpertiseanda
turntowardstourismtoencouragethesustainablerecoveryofsilkproduction.Second,the
chapterconsiderstheriseoftwoambitiousCambodia-basedprojectsfoundedbyFrench
andJapaneseactorsinthemid-1990s,ArtisansAngkor(AA)andtheInstituteforKhmer
TraditionalTextiles(IKTT)respectively,whichhavebecomeestablishedleadersinthe
sectortothepresentday.Finally,thechapteranalysestheemergingpresenceofCambodia-
ownedactorsinthisnetworkfromthe2000s,fromlargerconsortiatomedium-scale
initiativessuchasColorSilk,whichhavedevelopedahybridmodelofsocialenterprisein
whichforeignandlocalapproachesintersect.
WhilethischapterexpandsthepolyphonyofvoicesonCambodiansilk,itremains
centredonthesector’snetworkofstakeholdersdescribedinthischapter,whichallowsan
examinationoftheexceptionalismorinterconnectednessofeachinitiative.Thereare
numerousartisanalprojectsdedicatedtotextileproductioninCambodia.Thegoalisnotto
provideanexhaustivelist,buttofocusonthemostsignificantorganisationsexemplifying
therestructuringoftheeconomic,socialandculturallandscapeofsilkinrecentdecades
[Fig.49].Genderisalsopartofthisstudy,inconsideringtheroleofwomenwithinthe
silkscapeandtheirstrategiesascompanyowners.
AnthropologistsClareWilkinson-WeberandAliciaOryDenicolahavecalledforacritical
381MinistryofTourism,TourismStatisticsReport,March2018(PhnomPenh:MinistryofTourism,2019),https://www.tourismcambodia.com/img/resources/cambodia_tourism_statistics_2018.pdf[AccessedMay4,2019]
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stancetowardstheleadingdiscoursesoncraftproductioninthemarketplace.Theyask:
‘Whoclaimstherighttospeakaboutcraft?Insodoingdotheysuppressothervoices?[…]
Howdoesthisemergefromorevencontradicthabitualpractice?’382Byemphasisingthekey
players’monopolisticpositionandperspectivesinChapterTwo,itplacesthemakersof
Cambodiansilktextilesintheroleoftheworkforce,astherecipientsofdevelopmentand
trainingprogrammes.Whilesomeweavers’perspectivesareincludedinthischapter,their
relativeabsenceisacknowledgedandwillbeactivelybalancedinChapterThree,inwhich
weavers'voices,knowledgeandpotentialforagencyformthesolefocus.
Fig.49MaplocatingtheorganisationspresentedinChapterTwo.Author’simage.
382Wilkinson-Weber,andOryDeNicola,CriticalCraft:Technology,Globalization,andCapitalism,4.
KAMPOT
Takaor
PHNOM SROK
166
ConceptualandmethodologicalapproachtoexploringtheCambodiansilkscape
ThethesisIntroductiondefinesthesilkscapeasanexpandablespacecrossedby
flowsofvariousagents,beyondthecommonbinarismbetweennatureandculture,human
andnon-human,localandglobal,andcentreandperiphery.ItbuildsonAppadurai’sconcept
of-scapesandfurthertheoriesofthenetwork,specificallyActor-NetworkTheory(ANT),to
exposeamultitudeofagencieswithinglobalencounters.
EventhoughAppaduraiandLatour’srespectivetheoriesarerootedinWesternworldviews,
theuseoftheirthinkingisjustifiedinthischapter,whichovertlyengageswithinternational
stakeholders,post-colonialhistory,andWesternperspectivesonthesilkproductionchain.
Appaduraiaimstodisruptnotionsofaglobalisedworldandcommoditiesbylookingatthe
phenomenaofflowsanddisjuncturesandthedeterritorialisationoflocalcommunities.383
ANT,developedbysociologistsJohnLaw,BrunoLatourandMichelCallon,deconstructs
socialentitiesbyrevealingtheequalimportanceofhumanandnon-humanactorsof
differentnatures(groups,actions,objects,facts,andsocialorscientificstudies)tochallenge
pre-establishedsocialpatterns.384Decolonialthinkingisusedwhenengagingwith
Cambodianconceptsofsocietytoconsiderthesilknetwork,andthechapteralsoincludes
thevoicesofsomeweavers.Thesetheoreticalapproaches,inconjunctionwith
methodologiesofhistoricalresearchandethnography,haveresultedinthecollectionof
particulardata:biographiesoftheorganisations’founders,commercialcommunicationand
marketingstrategies,interviews,officialreports,sitevisits,participantobservationand
383Appadurai,‘DisjunctureandDifferenceintheGlobalCulturalEconomy,’296.384Latour,ReassemblingtheSocial:anIntroductiontoActor-NetworkTheory,9.
167
semi-structuredinterviewsgatheredduringthreeperiodsoffieldworkinCambodiain
winter2016,summer2017,andspring2018.385
Thenetworkofsilk-relatedexchangesexploredherealsoincludesmateriality,
processesandproductsaspartofthesamechain.386DesignhistorianKjetilFallanusesthe
conceptofscript,originallydevelopedbysociologistMadeleineAkrich,tounderstand‘how
aproduct'sutilitarianfunctions,aestheticsexpressions,socialmeaningandcultural
identitiesareconstructed’.387Writingthescriptofsilkweavingproductsconsistsoftracing
theproductionchainfromtherawmaterialtotheweavingstage.Itcouldalsomean
scriptingeachcompany’sstructurefromitsgenesistoitsproductionanddistribution
system.Aninvaluableexpressionofthisscriptingprocesswasfoundduringaresearchtrip
inNorthernThailandwhichIundertookin2016inparallelwiththePhD.388Thejoint
interdisciplinaryprojectbetweentheBritishCouncilinThailandandtheRoyalCollegeof
ArtfocusedondocumentingcontemporarytextilecraftsinTaiYuanandTaiLueweaving
communitiesinvillagesaroundChiangMaiandNanprovinces.Byinterviewingcraft
communityfoundersandvisitingeachsite,socialdesignerPeewaraJitsukummongkol,one
oftheresearchersco-leadingtheproject,draftedeachorganisation’sbusinessmodelin
compellingsketches.TheexamplehereshowsStudioNaenna,aChiangMai-basedprivate
enterprisefoundedbyAustraliantextileexpertPatriciaCheesman[Fig.50].Taking
385TheinterviewswithkeyrepresentativeswereallconductedinEnglish,EnglishbeingthelanguagepromotedbythecompanyfoundersandinstitutionofficialsinCambodia,withtheexceptionofChinKoeur,whospokeKhmer.Incomparison,thefollowingchapter,whichfocusesonthevoiceofthesilkmakers,willpresentaseriesofinterviewsconductedinKhmerwithatranslator.386JohnLaw,‘Actor-NetworkTheoryandMaterialSemiotics,’April25,2007,2,http://www.heterogeneities.net/publications/Law2007ANTandMaterialSemiotics.pdf[AccessedMay1,2020]387Fallan,DesignHistory:UnderstandingTheoryandMethod,9;SeealsoLatour,‘AcautiousPrometheus?,’13;Akrichengagedwithtechnicalobjectsandconsideredthemastherecipients,sums,andresultsofthedesigner'sagency,assessingthat‘likeafilmscript,technicalobjectsdefineaframeworkofactiontogetherwiththeactorsandthespaceinwhichtheyaresupposedtoact’.Akrich,‘TheDe-ScriptionofTechnicalObjects,’208.388ThisBritishCouncilresearchproject‘NewforOld:SoutheastAsiaResearchResidency'tookplaceinAsiaoverthemonthofDecember2016andledtotheexhibition'OntheLine’attheAramGallery,LondoninJune2017.
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inspirationfromthescriptingvalueofdiagrams,thischapteralsousesavarietyofgraphics
torepresent,whensuitable,thestructureofthekeysilkplayers.Asthecomingtogetherof
methodandtheory,thesediagramsilluminatethevariousinfluxesofinvestmentand
influenceacrossthesilkscape.
Fig.50DiagramofthebusinessmodelofStudioNaenna,aChiangMai-basedprivateenterprise,sketchedbyPeewaraJitsukummongkolforthe‘NewforOld’:SoutheastAsiaResearchResidency,December2016.
Domesticandtransnationalformsofkhsaeinpost-conflictCambodia
TheconceptofnetworkdevelopedbyLatour'sapproachtosocialtheorywas
appliedtotheworldofmaterialsbyanthropologistTimIngold.Hedefinedamaterialworld
madeofflows,aninfinityoflinesinbecoming,whichisapplicabletothecontextofcrafts
andweaving.Ingoldexpandedthemeaningoftheterm‘network’to‘réseau’usedinthe
Frenchtranslation,andalso’filet’,or‘net’.389Inthisunderstanding,thenetworkbecomesan
unlimitedweb,continuouslycreatingnewconnections.Coincidentally,theKhmer
389TimIngold,‘Laviedansunmondesansobjets,’Perspective,1(2016):18.
169
translationfortheterm‘connections’iskhsae,whichliterallymeans‘cords’or‘threads’,and
referstothecontractuallinksestablishedbetweenpeopleandfamiliesinCambodia.This
textilemetaphorlinkingmaterialityandsemiotics,mappingthingsandconceptsalike,is
commoninothercultures.Forinstance,theFrenchlanguagealsoreliesontextile
terminologytodescribesocialconnections:thephraseliensocialmeans‘socialbond’and
tisserdesliensmeans‘toweaveconnections’.WhileChapterOnediscussedtheimportance
ofkhsaeasamajorunderlyingfeatureofCambodiansocietythatwasreactivatedinthe
post-KRera,thischapterisinterestedinexpandingthepolysemictranslationinKhmerof
theterm‘network’.Thissectionaimstoarticulatetheentanglementofkhsae–thatis,allthe
relationshipswhichformthesilksector–byjuxtaposingmultiplemicro-narrativesof
history,culturalinfluenceanddevelopment.ThisapproachfollowsWalterMignolo’s
thinkingtoprovidea‘decolonialoption,asanon-normativespace,asaspaceopentothe
pluralityofalternatives’.390Moreover,historianTrudyJacobsenhaspositionedkhsaeasa
powerrelationestablishedspatially‘betweenafamilybasedinthecentreandindividuals
inheritingtherelationshipontheperiphery’.391Theinvisiblechannels,fromoneindividual
toanothertoagroup,findmaterialexpressionintheproductionandtransferofsilk
resources.Thissectionthereforediscusseshowthesesocialtiesweremanifestedinthesilk
sectorfromalocaltoaglobalperspective,butalsothroughmaterial,knowledge,and
economictransactions.
AswehaveseeninChapterOne,silkthreadstravelledfromVietnamtoCambodia
vianetworksofethnicChinesewholesalersinthe1990s,whichhintsathownumerous
actorsandintermediarieshaveactivatedtheCambodiansilkchainlocallyandbeyond
borders.Askeyagentsofthissystemforthedomesticmarket,‘middlemen’,ageneralterm
todesignateintermediaryentrepreneurs,eithermenorwomen,haveplayedanessential
390MignoloandVazquez,‘DecolonialAestheSis:ColonialWounds/DecolonialHealings.’391Jacobsen,LostGoddesses:TheDenialofFemalePowerinCambodianHistory,5.
170
roleinruralareas.Centralfiguresinhandicraftcottageeconomies,theymakeaprofitby
connectingeachactorofthechain.Forsilk,theybuyrawmaterialsfromsuppliers,loaning
themtoweavers,towhomtheypassorders,collectandpayforthefinishedproducts,minus
thecostofmaterials,andeventuallysellthesetoretailers[Fig.51].TerHorstestablished
thatbythe2000s‘wholesalers-middlemenguildscontrol[led]closeto75percentofthe
productioninthelargesilkweavingareasofKandalandTakeo,providingyarnoncredit’.392
Healsoestablishedthatin2008,ahundredmiddlemenweredealingwithtwentythousand
subcontractedweaversoverthecountry.InANT,controlandpowerdonottricklefromthe
topdown,butareactivatedthroughthedifferentagentsofthenetwork.Theprevalenceof
middlemeninthesilkchaindemonstratesthediversityofCambodianactorsanddynamics
thatexistedbeforetheinvolvementofinternationalfundingbodies.
Moreover,ina2011evaluationofthesilksector,theITCexpertsnotedthelackof
developmentofthesilkchain,consideringthecentralroleofintermediariesasaweakness,
leadingto‘hightransactioncosts,whichisacompetitivedisadvantageoninternational
markets’.393AscraftconsultantJohnBallyncontends,the‘artisan/middlemanrelationshipis
complex'andunderscrutiny,astheyareoften‘morebeneficialtomiddlementhancrafts
producers’.394ThisrelationshipwillbefurtherexaminedinChapterThreefromthe
viewpointofindependentweavers.
392TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,164. 393InternationalTradeCentre,Report:Mid-TermExternalEvaluationCambodiaSector-WideSilkProject(PhaseII)CMB/49/05A,13.394JohnBallyn,‘ACulturalEconomicAnalysisofCrafts:AViewfromtheWorkshopoftheWorld,’inACulturalEconomicAnalysisofCraft,ed.AnnaMignosaandPriyatejKotipalli(NewYork:Springer,2019),192.
171
Fig.51Diagramofthemiddlemanbusinessmodel.Author’simage.
Theroleofmiddlemenandthepatron-clientstructureofkhsaearespecificfeatures
oftheCambodiansilknetwork.ThisthesisalignswithTerHorst'sclaimthat‘the
hierarchicalorganisationalstructureofthesilkweavingindustryjeopardisestheneo-liberal
argumentthatfree-market-basednetworkshavereplacedthecommand-basedsocialist
onesinSoutheastAsia’.395Itisthereforeimportanttooutlinethetensionsbetweenthelocal
structureofthesilksectorwhenitresumed,andmorespecificallythechangesbroughtby
foreigninterventionafterthe1990s,andtheeffectsofthisonthegeographicallimitsofhow
theCambodiansilkscapecanbeimagined.OneexampleofthisreconfigurationisKikuo
Morimoto,IKTT’sfounder,whopurchasedsilkwormeggsinSurin,Thailand,in1995to
supportthesilkfarmhehadstartedinKampotprovinceinCambodia.WhileVietnam
suppliedsilkyarnviaethnicChinesewholesalers,ThailandcontinuedtobeCambodia’s
competitorandproviderofsilk,especiallyviatheNortheasternprovinceofSurin,where
largeKhmercommunitieshadsettledattheCambodianborder[Fig.52].396Morimotoalso
sourcednaturaldyestuffsfromThailandwhichwereunavailableinCambodiaatthetime.397
395Ballyn,‘ACulturalEconomicAnalysisofCrafts:AViewfromtheWorkshopoftheWorld,’164. 396Fromtheseventhtothethirteenthcentury,theregionofIsaninpresent-dayNortheastThailandwaspartoftheKhmerEmpire.397KikuoMorimoto,BayonMoon:RevivingCambodia’sTextileTraditions(SiemReap:InstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextiles),66,69.
172
HeusedThailandasamodelforsilkproductionandreliedonKhmercommunitiesin
Thailandtolearnaboutsilktextiletechniques.
Fig.52MapofThailand,highlightingtheregionofSurinattheborderofCambodiaandThailand.WikimediaCommons.
DefiningforeignagenciesintheCambodiansilkscape
Beyonddomesticsocio-culturalparticularisms,inthepost-KRera,transnational
networksofinstitutions,NGOsandsocialenterprisessupportedbyforeigninvestments
havereshapedtheCambodiansilkscapeundernewformsofpatronage.Examiningthe
backgroundonCambodia’sgovernanceintheearly1990smayexplaintheinvolvementof
173
specificcountriesandorganisationsintheculturalheritageandsilksectors.Followingthe
PeaceAgreementssignedinParisin1991,theUNtemporarilytookovertheadministration
ofCambodiawiththeUnitedNationsTransitionalAuthorityinCambodia.398Itsmandate
from1992to1993focusedonorganisingelections,restoringhumanrights,securityand
civiladministration,anddealingwiththeclosingofrefugeecampsandtherepatriationof
displacedpopulationsinCambodia.
TheUNalsosupportedtherestorationofCambodia’sculturalheritageafterthecivilwar
throughUNESCO,withthesponsoringofmultilateraldonors. In1989NorodomSihanouk,
officialchairmanoftheUN-approvedcoalitiongovernment-in-exileinChina,had
formulatedanappealwithUNESCOtoalerttheinternationalcommunitytotheneedto
safeguardAngkorWat.399ThiscampaignlinkedthepreservationofAngkorWat,its
recognitionasUNESCOWorldHeritagesiteandthepeacebuildingprocessinCambodia.At
thefirstinternationalconferenceonAngkorWat,whichtookplaceinTokyoin1993,itwas
decidedthattheInternationalCoordinatingCommitteefortheSafeguardingand
DevelopmentoftheHistoricSiteofAngkorwouldbeco-chairedbyFranceandJapan,who
wouldalsoorganisetheactivities,withUNESCOcoveringallthecostsofconservation
expertise.400
France,throughtheintermediaryoftheEcoleFrançaised'ExtrêmeOrient,fundedthe
restorationoftheAngkorThomandBaphuontemplesandimplementedmajorprojectsto
restorethesculptures,withtheNMC.Ontheotherhand,therestorationoftheBayon
templewasledbytheJapaneseGovernmentTeamforSafeguardingAngkor,incollaboration
withApsaraAuthority,theCambodianagencyinchargeoftheAngkorarchaeologicalsites
398TrevorFindlay,SIPRIResearchReportNo.9,Cambodia:TheLegacyandLessonsofUNTAC(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1995),11-12.399 JoGillespie,‘NaturalandCulturalHeritageinCambodia,’InTheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,ed.KatherineBrickellandSimonSpringer(London:Routledge,2017),401. 400UNESCO,ICC-Angkor:15years(PhnomPenh:UNESCO,2011),30-31.
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since1995.401InadditiontoFranceandJapan,astheleadingcountryintheAssociationof
SoutheastAsianNations,Thailandremainedacentralpartnerofthisconservationeffort,
alongwithAustralia.
ThesafeguardinginitiativeofAngkorWatmarkstheearlyinvestmentofFranceandJapan
intheCambodianheritagesector.KeikoMiura,aheritagestudiesscholarwhoworkedinthe
CultureUnitoftheUNESCOOfficeinCambodiafrom1992to1998,added:‘fromthisperiod
on,France(formercolonialpower)andJapan(newregionalpower)havebecomekey
playersinthereconstructionofCambodia’.402JapanandFrancehaveremainedamong
Cambodia’smaindonorsintheformofOfficialDevelopmentAssistance,atermdescribing
theflowofinternationalaidtopromote‘economicdevelopmentandwelfareofdeveloping
countriesasitsmainobjective’.403AccordingtotheOECD,uptothepresentFranceremains
Cambodia’sfourthhighestdonorviahumanitariansupporttoprivateinvestments,afterthe
AsianDevelopmentFund,Japan,andtheUnitedStates[Fig.53].404
Simultaneously,theelectionsin1993openedthewaytobilateralandmultilateraldonors’
investment,which,inturn,broughtanincreasingnumberoflocalandinternationalNGOsto
emerge.InternationalNGOsmovedfromfocusingonhumanitarianservicedelivery
programsinthe1980stothe1990s,todevelopmentworkineducation,agricultureand
health.405Thisbringstheissueofsoftpowerintoplay–thatis,accordingtointernational
401Ibid,24;WithintheUNESCO/JapaneseFunds-in-Trust,JapanledtheconservationandrestorationoftheRoyalPlaza,BayonandAngkorWatfrom1994to1999forabudgetof9,600,000USD.SeeEmbassyofJapaninCambodia,Japan’sCooperationintheFieldofPreservationofCulturalHeritageinCambodia,March,2017,https://www.kh.emb-japan.go.jp/angkor/angkor-e.htm[AccessedMay1,2020]402Miura,‘WorldHeritagemakinginAngkor.Global,Regional,NationalandLocalActors,InterplaysandImplications,’12. 403OECD,OfficialDevelopmentAssistance–DefinitionandCoverage,http://www.oecd.org/development/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm [Accessed3November2017] 404OECD,OfficialDevelopmentAssistancebydonorinUSDmillioninCambodia,2017-2018,http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data/aid-at-a-glance.htm[AccessedonOctober3,2020]405AsianDevelopmentBank,CivilSocietyBriefs:Cambodia(PhnomPenh:CambodiaResidentMission,2011)https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/28965/csb-cam.pdf[AccessedMay10,2021]
175
relationsexpertJosephNyeJr,therelationshipsbuiltaroundfosteringamutualadvantage
betweentwonations.406Thevarietyofcraftcompaniespresentedhereinterrogatessoft
powerapproachesintherevitalisationofsilkproductionsincethe1990s,revealingissues
ofauthenticityandownership.TheearlyinvolvementofFranceandJapanincultural
initiativesledtothearrivalofNGOstorevivelocalcraftprojects,suchastheFrench-owned
AAandtheJapaneseIKTTinCambodia,discussedlater.
Fig.53OfficialDevelopmentAssistancebydonorinUSDmillioninCambodia.OECD,2018.
TheUnitedStates,thirdODAtopdonor,hasinvestedheavilyinCambodia,andwas
essentialinfundingtheExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia,puttingtheKR
actionsontrialin2003withUNsupport.However,thesilksectorhasattractedfew
Americanprojects.ThemostnoticeableAmerican-ownedinitiativeisWeavesofCambodia,
anon-profitorganisationlocatedintheremotevillageofPreahVihearinStungTreng
provinceandfoundedbyBudGibbons,amemberoftheVietnamVeteransofAmerica
Foundation.Theorganisationfirstprovided‘prostheticstovictimsoflandminesand
176
wheelchairstootherhandicappedindividuals’.407Theprojectshiftedtovocationaltraining
fordisabledwomenandsilkweaving,bringinginAmericantextiledesignerCarolCassidy,
anauthorityintheSoutheastAsiantextileworld,fortrainingandguidance.Cassidyfounded
thepioneeringweavingorganisationLaoTextilesinVientiane,Laosin1990.Cassidythen
tookoverthedirectionofWeavesofCambodiain2001.408DuetothelimitedactivityofUS-
ownedprojectsintheCambodiansilksector,thereisnofullcasestudyfocusingonthe
influenceoftheUnitedStatesinthischapter.
Whatissignificant,however,intheexampleofWeavesofCambodiaisthebusiness
modelwithwhichtheprojectwasdeveloped.NGOshavebeenthemaintypeoforganisation
inthesilksectorinCambodia.FashionscholarKatalynMedvedevhasdiscussedtheir
predominanceinCambodianfashionproduction,‘occupy[ing]aspacebetweengovernment,
market,andcivilsociety’andpursuing‘along-termtransformativeandsocialjusticeagenda
thatbenefitsthelocalcivilsociety’.409Moreover,socialscientistLouiseCoventrycontends
thatNGOsareanotherexpressionoftheCambodiankhsae,whichexplains‘howandwhy
[they]havetakenupthespaceforcivilsocietyandwhysmaller,community-based
organisationshavebeenslowertoemerge’.410Thepatron-clientrelationshipsandthelack
ofgovernmentalsupporthaveencouragedtheprevalenceofforeign-fundedNGOsthatare
‘unlikelytohaveanempoweredconstituency’.411CoventrysuggeststhatthatNGOsthuslack
thecapacitytochallengeexistingpowerrelationsinCambodiaandfailtosignificantly
addressissuesofpovertyandmarginalisation.412ThecomplexroleofNGOsandtheir
impact,broadlyquestionedbyCoventryandmorespecificallybyMedvedev,animatesthis
407DeborahDeaconandPaulaCalvin,WarImageryinWomen’sTextiles:AnInternationalStudyofWeaving,Knitting,Sewing,Quilting,RugMakingandOtherFabricArts(Jefferson,NC:McFarland&Company,2014),152.408CarolCassidy,phoneinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,October2,2018. 409Medvedev,‘CambodianfashionNGOS:aretheydoinggood?,’149.410LouiseCoventry,'CivilSocietyinCambodia:ChallengesandContestations,’InTheHandbookofContemporaryCambodia,ed.KatherineBrickellandSimonSpringer(London:Routledge,2017),54.411Coventry,‘‘It’sComplicated’’:Cambodia'sNGOsandInternationalDonors.’412Ibid.
177
chapterofthethesis.Italsoaskstowhatextentthesilkscapereflectstransnational
influencesoverCambodia’sgeopolitical,social,andeconomicsystem,byexamininghowit
appliestoorganisationssuchasAAandIKTT,lookingattheirfundinganddevelopment
schemes.
Theotherbusinessmodelrecurringinthischapteristhesocialenterprise,aconcept
emergingintheUnitedStatesinthe1990s,primarilydesignating‘market-oriented
economicactivitiesservingasocialgoal’andencompassingawiderangeofinitiatives‘from
for-profitbusinessengagedincorporatephilanthropytonon-profitorganisationsengaged
inmission-supportingcommercialactivity’.413TheEMESInternationalResearchNetwork
forSocialEnterprisehasprovidedaframeworkofactionandethosforthismodel.Asocial
enterpriseisaprojectwithahighdegreeofautonomy,managedindependently,producing
goodsand/orservices,withasignificantlevelofriskandaminimumlevelofpaidworkers
andpaidactivities.414Itmustbebeneficialtothecommunity,includeacollectivedimension
initsleadershipandmanagement,andimplementstrategiesoflimitedprofitdistribution.415
Withtheerosionoftheforeign-donorfundingsystemsincethemid-2000s,anumberof
NGOshaveshiftedtoahybrideconomicmodelnegotiatingbetweenanon-profitandfor-
profitstatus.TheriseinthenumberofsocialenterpriseswastheresultofCambodia’s
economicgrowthinadiverserangeoffieldsintechandenvironmentalsectors.416In
practice,inCambodiatheterm‘socialenterprise’doesnotcorrespondtoaspecificlegal
status.Forinstance,AA(theFrench-Cambodianleaderofthesector)andColorSilk(amore
recentCambodian-ownedproject)havedifferentprofiles,yettheybothclaimtofollowthe
specificguidelinesofsocialentrepreneurship.AccordingtotheAsianWomenSocial
413JacquesDefournyandMartheNyssens,'DefiningSocialEnterprise,’inSocialEnterprise:AttheCrossroadsofMarket,PublicPoliciesandCivilSociety,ed.MartheNyssens(London:Routledge,2006),4. 414Ibid,5-6.415CarloBozargaandJacquesDefourny,eds.,TheEmergenceofSocialEnterprise(London:Routledge,2001),56-57.416Inthe2010s,PhnomPenhhasseentheriseofco-workingspacesandbusinessincubators,suchasImpactHubPhnomPenh,whichfosterstart-upprojectsandsocialbusinesses.
178
EntrepreneursNetworkReport,socialenterprisesinCambodiamaybebranchesofNGOs,
registeredasassociationswithCambodia’sInteriorMinistry,orasbusinesseswiththe
MinistryofCommerce.417ThelocalSocialEnterpriseCambodiainitiative,supportedby
ImpactHubPhnomPenh,digitallymappedsocialenterprisesregisteredonthewebsite
accordingtoactivity,fromagriculture,responsibletourism,health,environmentand
fashiontohandicrafts,andincludedColorSilk.418Thisplatformrecognisedthe‘complexity
ofmodelsaimingtocombinesocialandeconomicobjective’.419Itistheowner’s
responsibilitytodeclaretheenterpriseassocialandprovidefactualelementssupporting
thisclaim.Thewidespectrumofsilkactorsbetweenmacroandmicrostructures,from
transnationalagencies,NGOsandsocialenterprisesaddstothecomplexityofdefiningthe
Cambodiansilkscapeandgraspingitslocalandglobalties.
UNESCO:generatingsilkrevitalisationinitiativesundertransnationalinput
TheUNESCOOfficeinCambodiaplayedanessentialroleinbuildingprojectsand
creatingsynergieswithlocalandinternationalactors.AUNESCOinternalreportestablished
theguidelinesforthe‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving’programmelaunchedinAugust
1992forfiveyears,brokenintothreephases:‘ResearchandAcademicInputintotheRoyal
UniversityofFineArtsandDocumentation’,‘OrganizationofSilkWeavingCourses’,and
finally‘Outreach/ExtensionServices’.420Theprojectaimed‘torevitalizetraditionalsilk
weavingandrefinetheproductasoneofthemostimportantlivingbutseriously
417TheNipponFoundation,AsianWomenSocialEntrepreneursNetworkReport(Tokyo:TheNipponFoundation,2015),22-23.418SocialEnterpriseCambodia,HandicraftsandFashionMap,http://socialenterprisecambodia.org/maps#[AccessedJanuary4,2018]419SocialEnterpriseCambodia,FAQ,https://socialenterprisecambodia.org/#faq[AccessedMarch20,2017] 420UNESCOPhnomPenh,internalreport‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving,’1993,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.
179
deterioratedculturaltraditionsinCambodia’.421Intermsofactors,theplanwasfundedby
theUNESCOWorldDecadeforCulturalDevelopment,theSokaGakkaiInternationalofJapan
andtheUKgovernment.LedbytheUNESCOOfficeofCambodia,itreceivedthesupportof
Cambodia'sMinistryofCultureandFineArts.TheUNDPandtheInternationalLabour
Organizationoversawthethirdphase,inpartnershipwithNGOsandUNvolunteersonsite,
tosupportsilkfarmersandweavers,facilitatecreditandoffertraininginmarketing.422
In1993UNESCOcommissionedacollaborativesurveyledbyscholarsfromSophia
UniversityinTokyoandcolleaguesfromtheRoyalUniversityofFineArtsinPhnomPenhon
theculturalpracticesofshadow-puppettheatre,danceandhandicraftsinvillagesaround
Angkor’stemples.423Itaimedtocollectdataandproviderecommendationsforcultural
preservationpolicies.424Fromthisfirstassessment,theUNESCOOfficeinPhnomPenh
implementedprojectsonsilk.OneofthesewasKhemara,consideredthefirstindigenous
NGO,foundedin1991;in1995itreceivedfundingfromUNDPandPrincessMarie
Ranariddhforafive-yearplantorevitalisesericultureandweavingandsupportrural
women.EstablishedviatheinternationalorganisationOxfam,Khemarabenefitedfrom
directconnectionsbetweenitsfounder,MuSochuaLeiper,andherhusband,ScottLeiper,
formerUNDPSeniorProgrammeAdvisorinCambodia.MuSochuaLeiperwasbornin
PhnomPenhin1954.ShewassenttoParistostudyintheearly1970sbeforerelocatingto
theUnitedStates,wheresheearnedabachelor'sdegreeinPsychologyfromSanFrancisco
StateUniversityandaMaster’sinSocialWorkfromtheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.425
421Ibid.422UNESCOPhnomPenh,internalreport‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving.’423UNESCOdefinedIntangibleCulturalHeritageinits2003conventionas‘thepractices,representations,expressions,knowledge,skills–aswellastheinstruments,objects,artefactsandculturalspacesassociatedtherewith–thatcommunities,groupsand,insomecases,individualsrecogniseaspartoftheirculturalheritage.’SeeUNESCO,ConventionfortheSafeguardingoftheIntangibleCulturalHeritage,2003,http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001325/132540e.pdf[AccessedDecember20,2017]424TheJapanFoundation,TheActivityReport(1997)Part2-IV.Preserving,DocumentingorIncreasingPublicAccesstoTangible,1997,https://www.jpf.go.jp/e/project/intel/archive/ac/97/con2-4.html[Accessed2November2017]425HelenO’Connell,OxfamFocusonGender:WomenandConflict(Oxford:Oxfam,1993),45-47.
180
Khemarafocusedonimprovingwomen’srightsandsupportingtheiradvancementin
leadershippositions,‘drawinguponWesternconceptsoffeminisminitsapproach’.426The
silkschemeimplementedweavingtrainingforwomenbasedintheKampongSpeuand
PhnomPenhareaswhileprovidingthemwithbasicliteracyandnumeracyeducation,
partneringwithregionalwomen'sassociations.427
Intheearly1990s,localmarketshadbeenidentifiedaslackingalocally-producedhigh-end
silkoffer,privileginginsteadimportedstylessuchasIndonesiancottonbatiksandLaosilk
sarung.428UNESCOthereforeaimedtohelpweavers,especiallywomenandphysically
disabledindividuals,learnikatandnaturaldyetechniquestoproduceelaboratemarketable
silkproducts.UNESCOfirstinvitedAmericantextilescholarLeedomLeefertstolectureat
theRoyalUniversityofFineArts,conductresearchwithstudents,andassessthe
requirementsforrevivingthefieldinJanuary1993‘inthefaceofthelackofanexperton
Cambodiantextiles’.429Thesecondstagefocusedontraininginsericulture,weavingand
marketing.LeavSaEm,arenownedsixty-year-oldmalemasterweaverwhohadsurvived
theKRregimeandwasworkingfortheRoyalCourt,wasrecruitedtoleadtheweaving
trainingprogramme.OriginallyfromPreyKabascommuneinTakeoprovince,LeavSaEm
learnedtheartofpolychromicholandpidanfromhismother,whichwasuncommonfora
boy.430Duringthedictatorshipheworkedasafarmer,akramacottonweaver,andacookin
426TrudyJacobsen,‘RidingaBuffalotoCrossaMuddyField:HeuristicApproachestoFeminisminCambodia,’inWomen’sMovementsinAsia:FeminismsandTransnationalActivism,ed.MinaRocesandLouiseEdwards(London:Routledge,2010),215-16.427HengSokChheng,'RevivingtheTraditionsofKhmerWeaving,’ThePhnomPenhPost,November3,1995,http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/reviving-traditions-khmer-weaving[AccessedJanuary1,2018];Khemarastillexistsandfocusessocialservicesandadvocacyforchildren’scareandaccesstoeducation.Silkweavingactivitieshavestopped.FounderMuSochuamovedtopolitics,becomingthefirstwomantoheadtheMinistryforWomen’sandVeterans’Affairsfrom1998to2004inHunSen’scoalitiongovernment,thenjoiningtheopposition,actingastheVicePresidentoftheCambodiaNationalRescuePartyuntil2017.428BarbaraCrossette,'AnAncientSilkTradeIsReborn,’TheNewYorkTimes,April20,1997https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/20/travel/an-ancient-silk-trade-is-reborn.html[AccessedOctober12,2019]429UNESCOPhnomPenh,internalreport‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving,’1993,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.430Bornin1933,LeavSaEmcontinuedhisweavingactivityinhisworkshopuntilhediedin2003.LonNara,‘SilkWeavingTradeofLivSaEmUnderThreat,’ThePhnomPenhPost,26October2001
181
BattambangbeforereturningtoPhnomPenhin1982andopeninghisworkshop,expanding
itfromthreetotwentyloomsby1993.431ForUNESCO,LeavSaEmwelcomeduptoten
apprenticesatatimetohishouseinPhnomPenhforfivemonthsbeforetheyreturnedto
theirhometowns.432InaninterviewforThePhnomPenhPost,heexplainedthathereliedon
histrainees'motivation,hopingtoturnthemintoaccomplishedweavers.‘Iftheyhave
talent,ortheyaretrulyinterestedinthisart,thentheycanlearnveryquickly’,hesaid.433
UNESCOCambodiawouldthensupporttheweaversanddistributetheirproductsatthe
PhnomPenhoffice.Between1992and1996,seventy-twowomenfollowedthetraining.434
Inparallel,theagencypromotedsericulturebysendingtraineestotheInternationalCentre
forTrainingandResearchinTropicalSericultureinMysore,India,foreightmonths.435
Thereisnoavailableinformationthattracksthebreadthandoutcomeofthissericulture
project.
UNESCO’sweavinginitiativecontinuedinseveralformsuntiltheearly2000s.KiriSchultz,
programmeofficerfrom1995to1997,reportedthattheprojectwasintendedtobeadapted
todifferentcommunitiesandlasteduntilaround2005.Silkweavingcouldnotbeaviable
off-seasonactivityineveryprovince,duetocompetitionfromregionsspecialisingin
weavingandthescarcityofsilkyarnsupplies.Asaresult,UNESCOalsoimplementeda
duplicablecotton-weavingproject.436LeavSaEmmovedtotrainweaversinPhnomChisor
https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/silk-weaving-trade-liv-sa-em-under-threat[AccessedNovember12,2019]431KeikoMiura,UNESCOcorrespondencewithTomokoTsurumi,staffwriteratAsahiShinbun,August11,1993,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives;K'SaiChivit:ThreadsofLife,Dir.Feingold,DavidA.,DocumentaryEducationalResources,1994.432AndreaHamilton,‘TapestriesofHistory,’ThePhnomPenhPost,18June1993https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/tapestries-history[AccessedOctober30,2016];VeroniqueDauge,officialcorrespondencewithCambodia'sMinistryofCultureandFineArts,December24,1992,UNESCOPhnomPenh,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.433AndreaHamilton,‘TapestriesofHistory.’434NoellaRichard,HandicraftsandEmploymentGenerationforthePoorestYouthandWomen(Paris:UNESCO,2007),64.435VeroniqueDauge,officialcorrespondencewithCambodia'sMinistryofCultureandFineArts.436KiriSchultz,‘TraditionalArtsandCraftsfortheFuture,’MuseumInternational54,no.1-2(2002):60.
182
communeinTakeoprovince,about55kilometressouthofPhnomPenh.437Oneofthese
traineeweavers,ChinKoeur,wentontobecomeasuccessfulsilkentrepreneur,whichis
whyherstoryisexploredinmoredetailbelow.UNESCOcontinuedtolettheweaverswho
werestillactiveselltheirproductsatthePhnomPenhbranchuntilthemid-2010s.438There
wasnofollow-upfromtheagencytodeterminethecontinuityofpracticeandthelong-term
successofthetraining.Today,itremainsdifficulttoassessthelong-termeconomicand
socialimpactofthe‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving’programme,
Inaddition,UNESCObecameahub,linkingprogrammeofficers,individual
consultantsandUNvolunteerswithNGOfoundersandrepresentativesfromCambodian
ministriesoftradeandculture.Inaparallelexample,GabrieleMentgeshasexploredthe
complexroleofUNESCOintheheritagisationofnationalhandicraftsinUzbekistan.Her
analysisrevealedthat,inasimilarwaytotheCambodiancontext,thistransnational
organisationhad‘providednon-financialmeans,butmostlymaterialandtechnicalsupport
instead’,basedonthe‘personalinterestsandpreferenceofUNESCOactorsinthefield’.439
UNESCOCambodiacorrespondedwithnumerousburgeoningkeycraftprojects,including
IKTTandAA,twokeystudiesinthischapter.In1993,CharlesMaisonnaveCouteroufrom
LaLigueFrançaisedel’Enseignement(TheFrenchLeagueforEducation)alsoreachedout
tobuildapartnershiptodevelopsericultureinKralanhdistrict,SiemReapprovince,
anticipatingthefutureAAproject.440UNESCO,aftercommissioningMorimotoforthesilk
surveyin1994,continuedtoexchangewithhim,alsointroducinghimtootheractorsofthe
437CheangSokha,andDuncanO'Brien,'UnescopromotesPhnomChisor,’ThePhnomPenhPost,August13,2004,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/unesco-promotes-phnom-chisor[AccessedMay1,2020] 438PromChak,informalconversation,March15,2018,PhnomPenh:UNESCOoffice.439GabrieleMentges,‘TheRoleofUNESCOandtheUzbekNationBuildingProcess,’inHeritageRegimesandtheState,ed.ReginaF.Bendix,AdityaEggert,andArnikaPeselmann(Gottingen:UniversitatsverlagGottingen,2013),216-17;Abouttheheritagisationoftextiles,seealsoAyamiNakatani,‘PoliticsofBoundariesandHeritagizationofHandwovenTextilesinIndonesia,’inFashionableTraditions:AsianHandmadeTextilesinMotion,ed.AyamiNakatani(Lanham,MD:LexingtonBooks,2020),79-97.440CharlesMaisonnave-Couterou,officialcorrespondencewithRichardEngelhardt,UNESCOPhnomPenh,Feb17,1993,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.
183
sector.441UNESCOalsosupportedthePidanProject,implementedbytheJapaneseNGO
CaringforYoungKhmerin2003,whichwillbediscussedinrelationtoknowledge
transmissioninChapterThree.442
PursuingitsmissiontosupportCambodia’shandicrafts,aspartofthecountry’s
intangibleculturalheritage,UNESCO’slocalbranchtookontheroleofagovernmentalbody
byinvestingintheresearch,trainingofproducers,anddistributionofsilkproducts.Atthe
coreoftheCambodiansilkscapeearlyinthemid-1990s,UNESCO'sstrategyofassistance
reliesonvettinganddistributingendorsementstoinitiativeswhileconnectingwithforeign
fundingbodiesinterestedininvestingonsilkdevelopments.Oneexchangeoflettersinthe
UNESCOarchivesshowshowUNESCOrecommendedtheNewZealand-foundedNGORehab
CraftCambodiatoreceivefundingfromtheNewZealandgovernmentforthe
implementationofasericultureprojectin1996.443Whileplayinginto‘theactualpolitical
structures,regionalnetworkscombinedwithkinshipaffiliations’,theorganisation
contributedtobringingnewplayerswhohaveconsequentlystronglyredefinedthesectorto
thepresent.444Theeffectivenessandsuccessofthesesynergiesremaindifficulttoquantify
materially,economicallyandinthelongterm.By2005,UNESCOCambodia’sinfluencehad
declined,tothebenefitoftheITC,EU,andforeign-ownedNGOs.
BeyondthereportskeptintheUNESCOarchivesintegratedintothisthesis,itslegacylies
moreindevelopingmodelsoftrainingprogrammesrespondingtodiscoursesofpoverty
reductionandthepreservationoftraditions.UNESCOpoliciespursuedthedualobjectiveof
reclaiming‘deterioratedtraditionsofCambodia’whileimprovingthesocio-economic
441KiriSchultz,officialcorrespondencewithColinMcLennan/RehabCraftCambodiaonsericulture,April19,1996,UNESCOPhnomPenh,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.442MichelleVachon,‘GroupPromotesArtofPidanSilkWeavingPaintings,’TheCambodiaDaily,December27,2003.https://english.cambodiadaily.com/news/group-promotes-art-of-pidan-silk-weaving-paintings-849/[Accessed14December2017]443KhamlieneNhouyvanisvong,officialcorrespondencewiththeMinistryofForeignAffairsandTradeCooperationDivisionofNewZealand,July16,1996,UNESCOPhnomPenh,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives. 444Mentges,‘TheRoleofUNESCOandtheUzbekNationBuildingProcess,’222.
184
conditionsof‘disadvantagedgroupswithconfidenceanddignitywithintheirtraditional
culturalcontext’,consideringitwas‘muchneededinpresent-dayCambodia’.445This
narrativefosteredapervasiverhetoriccombiningideasaboutrevivinganationalheritage
witheconomicsurvival,whichhascontinuedtoinformthepubliccommunication
implementedbysilkcraftcompaniesinCambodia.446
BesidesUNESCO,otherUNagencies,includingtheFoodandAgricultureOrganisationand
especiallyITC,investedinsilktrainingprogrammes,parcellingupthesilkscapeand
multiplyingthenumberofactors.ITC,thejointagencybetweentheWorldTrade
OrganisationandtheUN,wasfoundedin1964withthegoalofexpandingthetrading
capacitiesofthe'leastdevelopedcountries’andsmallandmediumenterprise
competitiveness.ITCwasinvolvedintheCambodiansilksectorfrom2003whenit
implementedtheExport-ledPovertyReductionProgrammeandtheCambodiaSector-Wide
SilkProjectfrom2010to2012.ITCbridgedinternationalpartnershipsbyseekingfunding
fromtheNewZealandAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentandtheSwissState
SecretariatforEconomicAffairs.447DespitethisinternationalbrokerageperformedbyUN-
relatedagenciesinCambodia,particularnationsemergedtobecomeleadingvoicesinthe
resurrectedsilksector,especiallytheFrench,withAA,andtheJapanese,withIKTT.
ArtisansAngkor(AA):Frenchpatronageasaleadingvoiceofthesilksector
Thissectionandtheonethatfollowsexaminehowtwokeyplayers,AAandIKTT,
builttheiractivityandmaintainedtheirdominantpositionbyshapingrelationswithother
445UNESCOPhnomPenh,internalreport‘RevivalofTraditionalSilkWeaving,’1993,UNESCOPhnomPenhArchives.446Thisnarrativeofheritageandhybridisationhasbeenpervasiveinpost-colonialCambodia.SeeMichaelFalser,CulturalHeritageasCivilizingMission:FromDecaytoRecovery(NewYork:Springer,2015),7-8.447InternationalTradeCentre,Report:Mid-TermExternalEvaluationCambodiaSector-WideSilkProject,5.
185
actorsinthefield,emphasisingtraining,handicraftproductionandsales.Byidentifyingthe
majorstrategiestheyemployedtoenablethemtoreachthestatusofleadersinCambodia’s
artisanalsilkproducts,itispossibletodemonstratethecomplexagenciesoperatingwithin
thelocalsilkindustry.ThissectionalsoexamineshowAAandIKTT,throughtheir
leadership,positioning,productsanddiscourses,havealsocrafteddominantdiscourseson
hand-madesilkasatokenofCambodiantraditionsandnationalidentity.
AAisaFrenchinitiative,groundedininternationaldevelopmentpolicies,which
transitionedfromanNGO-ledprojectin1992toasemi-publicenterprisein2003.In1992,
LaLigueFrançaisedel’EnseignementlaunchedaprogrammecalledChantiers-Ecolesde
FormationProfessionnelleintheareaofSiemReap,nearthetouristsiteofAngkorWat,
withfundingfromtheEUandtheFrenchMinistryofForeignAffairsandFrench
Cooperation,undertheapprovaloftheCambodianMinistryofEducation.Theaimwasto
encourageyoungCambodianstoplayaroleintheircountry’sreconstructioneffortby
learningmanualskillsinconstructionandagricultureandparticipatingintherestorationof
Angkor’stemples,whichshowedpromisingtouristpotential.448
AsshowninFigure54,theChantiers-EcolesprogrammewascoordinatedbyCharles
Maisonnave-Couterou,aFrencheducatorwhotaughtinCambodiain1958andreturnedto
thecountryin1987forLaLigue,anddirectedonsitebyJean-PierreMartial,aFrench
engineer.449InspiredbytheFrenchmodelofLesCompagnonsduDevoir,amentoring
systemdatingfrom1941basedonthetransmissionofmanualknow-howfrommaster
journeymentoacommunityofapprentices,theprogrammereceivedthesupportof
volunteercompagnoninstructorswhohelpedtoimplementnineworkshopsinconstruction
448NationalPolytechnicInstituteofAngkor,AboutCEFPhttp://www.npia.info/html/whatcefp.php?p_lang=en[AccessedOctober27,2017]449CharlesMaisonnave-Couteroudiedin2009.JeanPierreMartialstayedinCambodiaandopenedtheMaisonPolankahotelwithhiswife,asilkshopowner,inSiemReap.CharlesMaisonnave-CouterouandRolandBiache,LigueFrançaisedel’enseignementetdel’EducationPermanente,Leschantiersécolesdeformationprofessionnelle,SiemReap-Cambodge,Rapportd’exécution1991/1996(Paris:Confédérationgénéraledesœuvreslaïques,1996),14.
186
andhandicrafts,includingmasonry,woodwork,metalwork,electricity,plumbing,carpentry,
andstone-cutting,ledinKhmerandFrench.Thefirstyearprovidedtrainingfor130young
people.Bytracingthecompany’shistoryrootedintwodistinctivelyFrenchassociations,
namelyLaLigueandLesCompagnonsduDevoir,andtheactivepresenceofFrenchfunders,
thisstudyarticulatestheproject’shybridnaturebetweenFranceandCambodia.
By1995,theChantiers-EcolesteamturnedtosilkwhenMaisonnave-Couterourealisedthat
oneofthedistrictsnearPuokvillageinSiemReapareahadbeen‘usedforthetraditional
productionofmulberrytrees,silkwormbreeding,cocoontreatment,dyeing,and
weaving’.450FindinginspirationintherevitalisationofsilkintheCévennes,France,inthe
1970s,Chantiers-EcolesconsultedFrenchsilkexpertMichelCostaandagronomistAlain
PeyrétocarryouttheprojectinCambodia.451ThisledtothefoundationoftheNationalSilk
CentreinPuok,tomanagesericulturetrainingandfarming.Theprojectreceivedfunding
fromtheAgenceFrançaisedeDéveloppement(FrenchDevelopmentAgency)viatheProjet
d'AppuiauSecteurdelaSoie(Silksupportprogramme).Internalreportsshowthatabout
4,320mulberryplantsweregrownontwoandahalfhectaresinPuokin1995,withaplan
toincreasethisto25,000plantsthefollowingyear.Chantiers-Ecolescontinuedtoexpand
silkweavingtraining,marketing,andproductdevelopment.Theorganisationaimedto
integrateitsapprenticesfurtherintoSiemReap’slocaleconomicfabric.452Themainfunder,
LaLigue,progressivelywithdrew.TheNationalSilkCentre,overseeingtraining,movedto
Cambodia’sMinistryofLabourandVocationalTraining,atransferpresentedinFigure55.
450Maisonnave-CouterouandBiache,Leschantiersécolesdeformationprofessionnelle,17.451NationalPolytechnicInstituteofAngkor,AboutCEFP.452Maisonnave-CouterouandBiache,Leschantiersécolesdeformationprofessionnelle,17.
187
Fig.54ChantiersEcolesdeFormationProfessionnellechartshowingstructureandnetworkoffoundersfrom1990to1995.Author’simage.
188
Fig.55TransferofleadershipofLesChantiersEcolesbetween1995and2000,fromLaLigueFrancaisedel’EducationtotheCambodiaMinistryofLabourandtheNationalSilkCenter,leadingtothefoundationofArtisansd’Angkor.Author’simage.
ThisprogressivetransfercreatedtheconditionsforChantiers-Ecoles’autonomyandthe
establishmentofanindependentcraftprojectunderthenameArtisansd'Angkor(AA).453
WithEUsupportaspartofthetwo-yearREPLICprogramme,AAexpandedhandicraft
productiontosilkgoods,metalware,woodandstonecarving.Thesilkprogrammereliedon
localnetworksinvillagesincollaborationwithvillagechiefs,asitdoestoday.Weaving
recruitsarebetweeneighteenandtwenty-fiveyearsoldwithnopriorknowledgeoftextiles,
andhaveoftenhadlittleaccesstoeducationandemployment.Afterapprenticescomplete
theirtrainingasagroup,theycontinuetopractiseindividuallyforafurtherthreemonths.
AAhasbuiltworkshopsintheselectedvillages,providinglooms,materials,andaworkshop
leadercontrollingalltheproducts,collectingthemfromtheworkshopandchecking
quality.454Whileensuringtight-knitrelationshipsinruralareas,AAalsoworkedon
453TheFrenchspellingwaslatersimplifiedinto‘ArtisansAngkor’tofacilitateitspronunciationforaforeignclientele.454PavEangKhoing,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April2,2018.
189
distribution,andopenedtwoshopsinSiemReapandPhnomPenhattractingmid-tohigh-
rangetouristandexpatconsumers.
OnceEUfundingstopped,AAtransitionedintoasemi-publiccompanywiththestatusofa
socialenterprise,keepingitstieswithFrance.In2003thefirm’ssharesweredivided
betweenfourparties:30percenttotheCambodiangovernment,20percenttothe
employees,10percenttoagroupofinvestors,and40percenttoVINCI,aleadingFrench
multinationalcompanyintheconcessionandconstructionbusinesswhichalsohandles
Cambodia’smainairports[Fig.56].Thisshowshowthebackingofpowerfulkeyplayersin
CambodiaandFranceensuredAA'sleadingpositioninthesector,brandedasaCambodian
companyinitscommunication.AA’swebsitestates:‘ArtisansAngkorisaCambodian
companythatwascreatedattheendof1990’,which‘hasbecomearealshowcaseofKhmer
handicrafts’.455Thisnarrativeisalsoprominentintourism-relatedpublicationsandinthe
CambodianpressforanEnglish-speakingaudience.In2018,CheaVannakinKhmerTimes
describesAAas‘thecountry’sbiggestselleroftraditionalartsandcultureproducts,which
arecraftedbylocalartisansinforty-eightworkshopsacrossSiemReapandPhnomPenh’.456
VINCI’sroleasmajorityshareholderhasremainedconfidentialinmostofAA’s
communication.ThisinformationonlyappearsonVINCI’swebsiteonapagededicatedtoits
involvementinCambodia.TheCambodiangovernment'spoliticalownershipofathirdof
thecompany'sshareshasbeenimportantinendorsingAAasastate-recognisedauthority
onCambodiancrafts.Withitsproductsdisplayedinthelargestretailspacesinmajor
airports,thecompanyrepresentedCambodiancultureforaninternationalcrowdofvisitors.
AAreachedfinancialequilibriumin2005,whichenabledittolaunchanin-housetraining
455ArtisansAngkor,Beliefs:OurStoryinBrief,http://dev.artisansdangkor.com/beliefs-1-77-our-story-in-brief.php[Accessed30October2017]456CheaVannak,‘ShowcasingKhmertraditionalcraftstovisitors,’KhmerTimes,December5,2018https://www.khmertimeskh.com/556095/showcasing-khmer-traditional-crafts-to-visitors/[Accessed10May2020]
190
programmeonsilkweavingandtailoringwhilemaintainingapartnershipwiththeNational
SilkCentreonsericulture.PresentingitselfasthelargestprivatesectoremployerinSiem
Reapprovince,in2017thecompanywasprovidingwork‘toover1100people,including
about800artisans’,halfofwhichwereinvolvedinsilkaccessoriesandgarments.457
Fig.56ArtisansAngkor’sownershipmodelsince2003.Author’simage.
LookingatAA’sleadershipshowsfrictionsbetweenaCambodianbrandidentity,a
largeCambodianworkforce,andaFrenchmonopoleintermsofmanagementanddesign
strategies.Sinceitsfoundation,AAhasbeensupervisedbyaFrenchCEOdesignatedby
VINCI,mainlyemployingFrenchstaffinmanagingpositions.458Thesamedualsituation
existsinthedesignleadershipstrategy.Designingwithaforeignclienteleinmindhasbeen
theprerogativeofWesterndesignersandCambodianstrainedinEurope,whileproduction
457ArtisansAngkor,Beliefs:OurStoryinBrief;StatisticsonemploymentinSiemReaparenotavailable,butgeographerRobinBiddulphhasconfirmedtheinformation.RobinBiddulph,‘SocialEnterpriseandInclusiveTourism.FiveCasesinSiemReap,Cambodia,’TourismGeographies,20,no.4(2018):615.458Cambodianness,Workplace:Cambodia,January30,2020https://cambodianess.com/article/bridging-cross-cultural-gaps-in-the-workplace-cambodia[Accessed10May2021]
191
hasremainedinCambodianhands.Thisdivisionoflabourhasprevailedinforeign-owned
craftcompaniesestablishedinnon-Westerncountries.AnthropologistsSusanFallsand
JessicaSmithhavedefinedthistypeofprojectasaTransnationalArtisanPartnership,a
structurecombiningphilanthropicandartisanalpracticesimplementing‘working
relationshipsbetweenThird-Worldartisans,skilledincrafts,andorganisations(eitherfor-
profitornot-for-profit)thatarefunded,managedand/orrunbyFirst-Worlddesigners,
activistsorentrepreneurs’.459CitingtheexampleofthewayIndiancraftsrespondedto
capitalisminthe1990s,OryDeNicolaandWilkinson-Weberhavenotedtheemergenceof
designersinthecraftsectorasmediatingfigures‘rhetoricallyposition[ed]onthefulcrumof
acompellingoppositionbetweeninnovationandtradition’.460AsAAmovedprogressively
towardsthesocialenterprisemodel,thecompanyemployedin-housedesignerstrainedin
Frenchdesignschools,aswellasfashionandtextiledesignconsultants,todesign
marketablecraftproducts.ThefirstdesigneremployedtodevelophandicraftswasLimMuy
Theam,aCambodianartisttrainedininteriordesignandpaintinginParis,whowasAA’s
artisticdirectorfrom1997until2010.Duringthistime,EricRaisina,aFrench-Malagasy
fashiondesignerwhohadalsotrainedinParis,wascommissionedtocreatethesilkclothing
collection.Since2010,craftsmenfromallsectors,exceptsilk,haverespondedtodesign
guidelinesimplementedbySvaySareth,Cambodianartisticdirectorandrenowned
contemporaryartist,bornin1972andtrainedinaFrenchfineartsschool.461
Forsilk,thesuccessivedesignershaveworkedcloselywithPavEangKhoing,SilkDirector,
since2003.462OriginallyfromKampongCham,PavEangKhoingwashiredasanassistantin
silkproductionin2001andpursuedaMaster’sdegreeinmanagementin2005while
459SusanFallsandJessicaSmith,‘BrandingAuthenticity:CambodianIkatinTransnationalArtisanPartnerships(TAPS),’JournalofDesignHistory,24,no.3(2011):1.460 Wilkinson-Weber,andOryDeNicola,CriticalCraft:Technology,Globalization,andCapitalism,82.461ArtisansAngkor,OurArtisticTeam:WeCareforBeauty,http://www.artisansdangkor.com/beauty-23-114-our-artistic-team.php[Accessed30October2017]462Disclaimer:IworkedasatextileandfashionconsultantforAAin2012,developingacapsulecollection‘IntheMoodforBoheme’consistingofhandmadesilkwomenswear,menswearandchildrenswearproducts.
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workingatAA.Hehasoverseencreativecollaborations,managingtheproductionchainbuilt
aroundalargenetworkofin-houseartisans,abouttwohundredandthirtyworkersinthree
weavingandtwosewingworkshopsatthecompany’ssilkfarminPuok,withtenpeople
tyingmaterialforikatpatternsandseventeenpeopleinchargeofdyeing.Hehasalso
coordinatedtenpeopleinraisingsilkwormsandpreparingthecocoons,andtwelvemorein
spinningthread.463TheSilkDirectoralsoworkscloselywithateamofweaverstocreate
newtextiledesigns.HeisshownherewithawomanfromthetyingteamatAA’ssilkfarm,
checkingthequalityofherwork[Fig.57].Ininterview,PavEangKhoingsharedhisambition
toachievethecompany’smissiontoprovideworkforthelargestnumberofpeopleby
expandingproductivityandsales.464Hisdemeanourhereexpressestheseriousnessof
managinglargeclustersofartisanswhiledealingwithproductionimperativesforefficiency
andinnovation.Hisstanceashelooksoveraseatedweavertyingweftikatthreadsalso
illustratesthedynamicsestablishedbetweenPavEangKhoingandhisteam.Hispositionof
authorityreflectsnormativeideasofsocialhierarchiesinCambodia,whicharestill
prevalentindailyetiquette.BuddhistscholarErikDavishasstatedthat‘hierarchicaland
dependentrelationsseemnecessaryinCambodiatogetalmostanythingaccomplished’.465
Thisrequireschildrentorespecttheirparentsandstudentstorespecttheirteachers,and
appliestoworkrelationshipsaswell,betweenamanagerandhisemployee.
463PavEangKhoing,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April2,2018,SiemReap,Cambodia.464Ibid. 465ErikW.Davis,‘Imaginaryconversationswithmothersaboutdeath,’inAttheEdgeoftheForest,EssaysonCambodia,History,andNarrativeinHonorofDavidChandler,ed.AnneRuthHansenandJudyLedgerwood(Ithaca,NY:SoutheastAsiaProgramCornellUniversity,2008),226.
193
Fig.57PavEangKhoingcheckingtheworkofaweavertyinganikatpatternatAAworkshop,Puok,SiemReap,Cambodia,April2,2018.Author’sphotograph.
TheFrenchcolonialeraofthe1920sandpost-conflicthumanitariandevelopmentin
the1990sdemonstratefundamentallydifferentcontexts.Thereis,however,acontinuityin
certainstrategieswhichindicateshowneocolonialmodelsarestillatplayinthesilksector,
especiallyamongstFrenchpolicymakers.Neocolonialismis‘widelyusedtorefertoaformof
globalpowerinwhichtransnationalcorporationsandglobalandmultilateralinstitutions
combinetoperpetuatecolonialformsofexploitationofdevelopingcountries’.466Inthesilk
sector,itmayrefertoschemesindirectlymaintainingtheculturalandeconomicinfluence
overlocalproductionviathemonopoleofforeigndonors,theapplicationofdevelopment
policiesandmarketingstrategies,andtheimposingofWesterntasteanddesigns.Fashion
scholarKatalinaMedvedevalsoidentifiesaformof‘benevolent,faith-basedneocolonialism’
466SandraHalperin,‘Neocolonialism,’EncyclopediaBritannica,May6,2020.https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism[Accessed10May2020]
194
promotedbyWesternChristiancraftorganisationssuchasStungTrengWomen’s
DevelopmentCenterandRajanaAssociation,‘link[ing]tomoralandculturalagendasrather
thaneconomicorstructuralones’.467InitstieswithVINCIasthemajorshareholderandthe
relianceonFrench-trainedin-housedesigners,AA’sstructureandpositioningshowsome
aspectsofFrenchpaternalism.
FallsandSmithidentifiedGeorgesGroslier’sinitiativeoftheSchoolofCambodianArtsinthe
1920sastheprimaryexampleofaTransnationalArtisanPartnershiptyingtherevitalisation
ofendangeredcraftstothereclaimingofCambodia’sAngkoriansplendour.Similarly,ina
1995report,Maisonnave-CouteroupraisedtheSiemReapareaas‘amajorsiteofKhmer
culture,alegacyofthecreativeartisticeffortoftheCambodianKingsandtheirpeople'.468
ThisjustifiedthelocalisationoftheChantiersEcolesinSiemReap,notfarfromAngkorWat
asamarketingstrategyandpositioningfocusedontourist-basedconsumerscomingtovisit
thetemples.AAalsoannouncesitslinkagewithCambodia’shistorybystating‘Proudofour
Angkorianheritage’onitswebsite.469
AA’spositionasaCambodianbrandappearsuncontested;theCambodianpresspraiseits
successandrecogniseitskeyroleinthesocio-economicdevelopmentoftheSiemReaparea.
In2019,KhmerTimesjournalistTaingRinithdescribesAAas‘theoutstandingguardianof
traditionalartsandcrafts’.470Positionedasthechampionof'traditionalCambodiancrafts’,
thesocialenterprisehasclaimedinitsrecentcommunicationthatitis‘waymorethanjusta
467Medvedev,‘CambodianFashionNGOs:AreTheyDoingGood?,’149.468Maisonnave-CouterouandBiache,Leschantiersécolesdeformationprofessionnelle,6.469ArtisansAngkor,Beliefs:MissionStatementhttp://www.artisansdangkor.com/beliefs-mission-statement.php[AccessedMay2,2021]470TaingRinith,‘ArtisansAngkortheOutstandingGuardianofTraditionalArt&Craft,’KhmerTimes,September3,2019,https://www.khmertimeskh.com/50639644/artisans-angkor-the-outstanding-guardian-of-traditional-art-craft/[AccessedMay2,2020]
195
touristattractionorsouvenirshop’,addingit‘shouldnotkeepCambodianhistoryand
traditionsasasimple‘background’tosellproducts’.471
Todescribethecommodificationofculturalartefactsasexpressionsofcolonial
nostalgia,Edwardsusedthequalifier‘memorabilia’,‘glamorised’versionsofferinga‘re-
evocationofthecontextthatproducedsuchimages’whichare‘excisedfromtheirhistorical
context’.472Merriam-Websterdefinesmemorabiliaas‘thingsthatareremarkableand
worthyofremembrance’and‘thingsthatstirrecollectionorarevaluedorcollectedfortheir
associationwithaparticularfieldorinterest’.473Intheearlytwentiethcentury,colonial
memorabiliareferredtoartefactscollectedinthecolonies,relics,andtrophiestransferred
outsidetheiroriginalcontexttoapersonalcollectionormuseum,ortothehomesofa
metropolitanclientele.
ItcouldbeproposedthatAA’sproductsaremodernformsofthiskindofmemorabilia
evokingtheAngkorianheritage.FallsandSmithhaveindeedconsideredthatTransnational
ArtisanPartnershipsappealtoWesternaestheticsensibilitieswhilealsorelyingon'the
promotionofanOrientalistlogic’.474AAchannelsdiscoursesofauthenticity,embracing
elementsthatclearlyrefertoantiqueCambodianaestheticsinthedesigns,whilemediating
Cambodianculturetoaforeignclientele.Onthecompany’swebsite,handicraftsaredirectly
associatedtoreferencestoCambodiancultureandtraditions.Inthisquotebelow,theterm
‘traditional’appearstwiceandtheterm‘crafts’intheformofcrafts,craftsmenand
craftsmanshipappearsthreetimes:
‘WearedevotedtomaintainArts&CraftsinCambodia,whichiswhyallourproductswerehandmadeintraditionalCambodianworkshopsbycraftsmenandwomenwhomastertheirancestors'craftsmanshipskills.Ourdesignsarealways
471ArtisansAngkor,WhatBeingaSocialEnterpriseReallyMeans,http://dev.artisansdangkor.com/beliefs-2-79-what-being-a-social-enterprise-really-means.php[AccessedMay2,2020]472Edwards,Cambodge:TheCultivationofaNation,1860-1945,10.473‘Memorabilia’,Merriam-Webster,https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/memorabilia[AccessedMay2,2020] 474FallsandSmith,‘BrandingAuthenticity:CambodianIkatinTransnationalArtisanPartnerships,’2.
196
deeplyrelatedtoCambodianculture(traditionalsymbols,patternsandlandscapes)’.475
Theself-declaredCambodiannessofAA'sproductsisapparentinportablesmall-scale
carvedstoneandwoodenreproductionsoftheAngkorWatstatues,scenesoftheReamker
onlacqueredpanels,andshawlsandpidaninpolychromicikatwitha‘trulyCambodian’
touch.476Dealingwith‘novelsituationsbyreferencingoldsituations’,inHobsbawm’swords,
thebrandhasproducedCambodiancraftsconnectingtothecollectiveimaginaryofthe
Khmerempire.477TheliteralmimicryofAngkorianartisevidentinthecraftcompany’s
souvenirsreproducingKingJayavarmanVII’shead,adevata,alionstatuefromBakheng
templeandjewelleryinspiredbydifferentAngkoriantemplebas-reliefsandstatuesheldat
theNMC.ThisreferencetotheKhmerEmpireismorestrikingincarvedproductsthaninthe
silkwovenproducts,asseeninthisshopdisplay[Fig.58].
In2017AAwassellingalargerangeoftextileproducts,includingaccessories,womenswear
andmenswear,wovenandprintedhometextiles,pillowsandthrows,butalsoawide
selectionofhomedecorgifts,allinsaturatedtones.Theyweremarketedashigh-quality
souvenirstargetingurbanupper-middle-classCambodians,Cambodiansfromthediaspora,
andinternationalclientsoutsidethetouristmarket.Silkaccessoriesrangefromsolid-
colouredsilkchiffonscarvesat15USDtocomplexdesignsofhandwovenshawlsin
polychromicikatfor1500USD.Thepiecesarelabelledwithnamesevocativeofthemain
Cambodianweavingtechniques,suchashol,rbaukfordamask,andsarabapforbrocade,as
describedinAppendixA3.
475ArtisansAngkor,Traditions:OurGreatLegacy,http://www.artisansdangkor.com/traditions-our-great-legacy[AccessedMay2,2021]476ArtisansAngkor,RoyalFansandUmbrellas, http://dev.artisansdangkor.com/traditions-21-106-royal-fans-umbrellas.php[AccessedMay2,2020];TheReamkerisanepictaleadaptedfromtheHinduistRamayana,whichwasdepictedonthewallsofAngkorWattempleandportrayedinKhmerdance.477HobsbawmandRanger,TheInventionofTradition,2,7.
197
Fig.58LionstatuebasedonBakhengtemplesculptureandholrbauksilkproductsondisplayattheArtisanAngkorshop,SiemReap,Cambodia,December25,2016.Author’sphotograph.
Silk,andChinesesilkinparticular,hasbeentheepitomeoforientalsophistication
fromaWesternperspective,withaperceivedpreciousnessassociatedwithluxuryand
femininity.478ChapterOnehighlightedhowCambodiansilkshavebeentradedsinceatleast
theseventeenthcenturyandrepurposedasnationalcraftsandprizedcommoditiesunder
theFrenchinthe1920s.Inthetwenty-firstcentury,AAstillplaysintothisimaginarytosell
high-endCambodianhandwovensilktextilesfortourists.479Customersareoffered
complimentaryguidedtouristtoursattheAAsilkfarminPuokvillagetosee
demonstrationsofsilkwormsbreeding,silkyarnreelingandspinning,ikattying,dyeingand
weaving[Fig.59].Thetoursellstheconceptsofauthenticityandqualitythroughthecurated
478SandraNiessen,CarlaJonesandAnnMarieLeshkowich,Re-orientingFashion:TheGlobalizationofAsianDress(Oxford:Berg,2005),10.479ArtisansAngkor,HistoryofSilkinCambodia,http://dev.artisansdangkor.com/people-16-111-history-of-silk-in-cambodia.php[AccessedMay2,2020]
198
performanceofhandmadeprocesses,showingartisansatworkanddisplayingthe
processingofindigenousgoldensilkandnaturaldyes.480
Itshouldbenotedthat,althoughallthetextileproductsarehandwoven,thedyesare
chemicalandfibreisofmixedorigin,fromCambodiaandotherAsiancountries.Only10per
centofthepiecesaremadeofCambodiangoldensilkproducedbyAAandpurchasedfrom
silkfarmersinthePhnomSrokarea.Thecompanysources80percentofitssilkof
industrialwhitequalityfromaspecificsupplierinChina;theremaining10percentisraw
silkfromVietnam.481
Fig.59ArtisansAngkorguidepresentingthetyingofholattheSilkFarm,Puok,SiemReap,Cambodia,December25,2016.Author’sphotograph.
480MagaliAnBerthon,‘CulturalAuthenticity,’BloomsburyEncyclopediaofDesign,Vol.I,2016,https://www.bloomsburydesignlibrary.com/encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9781472596178&tocid=b-9781472596178-BED-ONLINE-021&st=[AccessedMay2,2020];SeealsoLaurelKendall,‘IntangibleTracesandMaterialThings:ThePerformanceofHeritageHandicraft,’ActaKoreana,17,no.2(December2014):539.481PavEangKhoing,interviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.
199
ExaminationofAA’shistory,productionanddistribution,inconjunctionwith
productdesigns,rawmaterialsourcingandthecompany'scommunication,hasrevealedthe
multi-layeredpictureoftheleadingcraftcompanyinCambodia.AA’sstrategyindicatesthe
powerrelationsbetweeninternationalfunding,FrenchinterestsandCambodian
governmentalsupportinthesilknetwork.Intwodecades,AAhastransitionedfroma
vocationaltrainingprogrammeunderFrenchpatronageintoacontemporarymodelofsocial
enterprise,integratingforeignsupportwhilecultivatingitsCambodianroots.Througha
complexwebofinstitutionalandcommercialconnections,AAhasalsoreliedonalarge
workforcetoincreaseitsproduction,departingfromthecommonmodelofsilkweavingasa
cottageindustryledbyindividualsorcommunityworkshops.AA’sdesignandmarketing
strategiesrevealthatitisanchoredinorientalistdiscoursesoftraditiontyingcontemporary
craftproductstotheKhmerempireera.
TheInstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles(IKTT):authorityunderJapanesepatronage
ComparedtoAA,theIKTTprojecthasremainedsmallerinscalewhilesimilarly
dealingwithmultiplenationalandinternationalactorssinceitsfoundationin1996,
especiallyviathepersonality,historyandleadershipofitsfounder,KikuoMorimoto.The
waysinwhichMorimotonegotiatedmultipleinfluences,especiallyhisJapaneseupbringing,
alsomatterintheshapingofhissilkprojectandoffersanothermodelofTransnational
ArtisanPartnership.Exploringtheseconnectionsopensnewperspectivesonthesilkscape
relatingtonetworks,foreigninfluence,ownershipandauthenticity.Thissectioncombines
ANTwithethnographicresearchmethodstoexploretherangeofsourcesassociatedwith
IKTTstorytelling,includingthefounder’smemoirsandpressarticles.Inthefield,I
conductedtwositevisitsinDecember2016,onetotheIKTTshopinSiemReapandoneto
theworkshop,whereIinterviewedweaversandtalkedwithMorimotobeforehisdeathin
200
July2017.InadditiontotheseperiodsofPhDresearch,IhadmetMorimotoearlierin2012
foradocumentaryfilmprojectIwasworkingon,andwhichprovidedadditionalmaterialfor
metoreflecton.482
Bornin1948inKyoto,Japan,KikuoMorimototrainedforfiveyearsasayuzen
kimonotextileartist,paintingonsilkfabricusingresist-dyemethods,anarthecontinuedin
hislateryears.HeispicturedhereshowingoneofhispiecesathishouseinChotSamvillage
[Fig.60].Thestrongestinfluenceintermsofcraftideology,economicstrategyandnetwork
ofinfluenceintheconstructionofhisprojectwasunequivocallyJapan.Inhismemoirs,he
stated:'IwaseducatedinthetextileworldinKyoto’.483Kyoto'sflourishingcraftculture
remainedanessentialmodelforMorimoto.484
Fig.60KikuoMorimotoinhishouseshowingoneofhisyuzensilks,ChotSamvillage,Cambodia,2012.Author’sphotographforTissus&ArtisansduMondeproject.
482MagaliAnBerthon,‘KikuoMorimoto,l'âmedel’ikat,’Tissus&ArtisansduMonde,2012,[AccessedMay1,2020]483KikuoMorimoto,BayonMoon:RevivingCambodia’sTextileTraditions(SiemReap:InstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextiles,2008),43.484SeeTamaraHareven’shistoricaldescriptionofNishijinsilkweavingguildsinKyoto:TamaraHareven,TheSilkWeaversofKyoto:FamilyandWorkinaChangingTraditionalIndustry(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2002)25-32.
201
Atextileartistandentrepreneur,heinitiallysettledinThailandin1983,whereheworked
asavolunteerinrefugeecampsatthenorth-eastThaiborder,trainingLaoweaversin
naturaldyes.485HewasareliefworkerfortheJapanInternationalVolunteerCenter,anNGO
establishedin1980thatsentJapanesevolunteerstoThailandtoassistdisplacedpeoplein
theregion.486ThisphotographshowsMorimotointheforegroundworkingfortheJapan
InternationalVolunteerCenteronawell-drillingprojectinAranyaprathetinEastern
Thailand,ontheCambodianborder,in1983[Fig.61].
In1977,JapaneseprimeMinisterTakeoFukudahadlaidthefoundationsofJapan’sactive
foreignpolicy,laterknownastheFukudadoctrine,whileontourwithmembercountriesof
theAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations.487Japanpledgedtosupportcooperationand
peaceinSoutheastAsia,inthecontextoftheCambodia-Vietnamconflict.Asaresult,from
theearly1980s,JapaneseNGOsprioritised'thehumanitarianaspect,thepromotionof
repatriationofrefugees,andassistanceforthereconstructionofCambodia’.488
WhenhewasinThailand,MorimotovisitedtheNortheasternprovinceofSurin,in
Isaan,attheCambodianborder,wherehemetKhmercommunitiesandstarted
collaboratingwithweavers.Afterthecampsclosed,hestayedinThailandandin1988
openedashop,BaiMai,inBangkok,wherehesoldethnicKhmersilkproductsfromSurin.In
1990,heproducedareportonnaturaldyesinNortheastThailandforTheTextileMuseum
inWashington,DCandtaughtfrom1992to1995attheKingMongkutInstituteof
Technology,Bangkok.489FromthesilkreportcommissionedbyUNESCOCambodia
485LouiseCortandLeedomLefferts,‘Foreword,’inBayonMoon,KikuoMorimoto(SiemReap:InstituteofKhmerTraditionalTextiles,2008),x.486JapanInternationalVolunteerCenter,AboutJVC,https://www.ngo-jvc.net/en/about-jvc/[AccessedMay3,2020]487SueoSudo,'ManilaSpeech,18August1977,’Appendices,inTheFukudaDoctrineandASEAN:NewDimensionsinJapaneseForeignPolicy(ISEAS–YusofIshakInstitute,1992),241–47.488DethSok,UdomSun,andSerkanBulut,eds.Cambodia'sForeignRelationsinRegionalandGlobalContexts(SanktAugustin:Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung,2018),189.489ThisinformationcomesfromMorimoto’sbiographyontheIKTTformerwebsiteEspritLibreIKTT,whichisstillactive.Ithasbeenreusedverbatiminmultiplearticles,conferencebios,andonwebsites.SeeIKTT,Morimoto,KikuoBiography,April22,2004[AccessedMay2,2020]
202
discussedinChapterOne,Morimotowasinspiredtostarthisownventure,alocalNGO
revivingsericulture,weavingandnaturaldyes.Heinstitutedasilkwormbreedingprojectin
Takaorvillage,inKampotprovince,in1995andthenopenedaworkshop,theInstitutefor
KhmerTraditionalTextiles(IKTT),inPhnomPenhinJanuary1996,receivingsupportfrom
theToyotaFoundationtoconductmorefieldresearch.490
Fig.61KikuoMorimoto(foreground)workingonawell-drillingprojectatAranyaprathetineasternThailand,1983.PhotographcourtesyofIKTT.
Morimotorecruitedfiveexperiencedfemalemasterweavers,someofwhomhehad
metthroughtheUNESCOsurveyproject,whoagreedtocommunicatetheirskillstoanew
generationofweavers.491Morimotoreferredtothesewomenas‘thesilkgrandmothers’,
490MollyHarbarger,‘SilkDyerKikuoMorimoto,ResurrectingaCulturalEcology,’KyotoJournal73(2009)https://kyotojournal.org/wp-content/uploads/newwebimages/backissues/73/Morimoto.html[AccessedApril20,2020]491Numbershavebeeninconsistentfromonesourcetoanother,IKTTwebsitementionsfiveweaversin1996,whilepressarticlesspeakofadozenweavers.
203
elevatingtheseelderstotherankofmasterweavers.492Ofawomanhemetin1995he
wrote:‘shemaybethebesttextileartistinallCambodia–indeed,ofthelevelofdeservingto
becalledLivingNationalTreasure’.493InJapan,thehighestattainmentofcraftmasteryis
thetitleof‘LivingNationalTreasure’(NingenKokuho),alsoknownasthe‘Holderof
ImportantIntangibleCulturalProperties’,whichrecognisesindividuals’masteryofartisanal
andartisticpracticesatthehighestlevel.494ArthistorianMicheleBamblinghascontended
that,despiteitstitle,thisgovernmentalprogramme,establishedin1950,isnotintendedto
venerateartistsbuttoensurethetransmissionofskillsofhighartisticquality.495
Morimoto’sacknowledgementofthegrandmothers’valuereflectshisJapanesecultural
backgroundandhisinterestinpreservingcraftskills.
Toinvitethemtoworkwithhim,Morimotorecalled:'Ibroughttheseoldpiecesofsilkfabric
andaskedthegrandmothersiftheycouldmakesomethingsimilar.ItoldthemIwouldpay
threeorfourtimeswhatthemiddlemanpaidandtopleasedothebestworktheycould’.496
Offeringmuchhigherwages,healsoconvincedthembyenrollingtheirfamilies,engaging
them,too,inkeepingthepracticealive.Someofthese‘grandmother’weaverscamefrom
Takeoprovinceandwereworkingintheirhomevillages.Forexample,ChanSot,quotedin
PBS,valuedthechancetoworkwithsilkandbroughtherdaughteralongtotheIKTT
workshop.497OmChea,whoappearedinadocumentaryfilmfeaturingtheawardeesofthe
RolexAwardsforEnterprisein2004,explainedhowshefollowedMorimotowithamission
492EmilyTaguchi,‘RoughCut:Cambodia:TheSilkGrandmothers,InterviewwithKikuoMorimoto,'PBS,2007.https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/rough/2007/06/cambodia_the_si.html[AccessedMarch2,2020]493Morimoto,BayonMoon,47.494MicheleBambling,‘Japan’sLivingNationalTreasuresProgram:TheParadoxofRemembering,’PerspectivesonSocialMemoryinJapan,eds.TsuYunHui,JanvanBremen,andEyalBen-Ari(Kent,UK:GlobalOriental),149.;KidaTakuya,CynthiaTakayama(trans.),‘TraditionalArtCrafts(DentoKogei),’inJapan:FromReproductionstoOriginalWorks,’TheJournalofModernCraft3,no.1,(2010):19-35,21.495Bambling,‘Japan’sLivingNationalTreasuresProgram:TheParadoxofRemembering,’149.496Morimoto,BayonMoon,47.497Taguchi,‘ RoughCut:Cambodia:TheSilkGrandmothers,'PBS,June28,2007.
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topassonherknowledgeofholtoweavingapprentices[Fig.62].498Morimotoalsoenrolled
silkfarmersfromPhnomSrokandKampot,suchasPanDam,whomImetinDecember
2016atIKTT.HerwholefamilywereworkinginsericultureinKampotwhenMorimoto
visitedtobuysilkwormsinthelate1990s,whichiswhereherecruitedPanDamtocome
andworkinSiemReap.Asaresult,theseweaversandsilkproducerslefttheirhometown
anddidnotcontinuetheirpracticeinatraditionalsetup.Internalmigrationisacommon
phenomenoninCambodiaformenandwomen.In201358.4percentofmigrationwas
rural-ruralmovements,24.5percentrural-urbanand12percenturban-urban.499Although
Morimotoprovidedthesesilkproducersthemeanstocontinuetheirpracticeandthe
possibilitytoincreasetheirlivelihood,onecouldarguethattheirmoveuprootedtheir
practiceanddeprivedtheirhometowncommunityfromtheirskillsandexperience.
498RAE2004:11thRolexAwardsforEnterprise-2004Laureateslongform,producedbyNationalGeographicChannel,distributedbyTVEAsiaPacific,2004. 499UnescoBangkok,OverviewofInternalMigrationinCambodia(Bangkok:Unesco,2018),3-4.http://bangkok.unesco.org/content/policy-briefs-internal-migration-southeast-asia[AccessedMay2,2021]
205
Fig.62OmChea,weaver,rightofpicture,instillfromRAE2004:11thRolexAwardsforEnterprise,NationalGeographicChannel,distributedbyTVEAsiaPacific,2004.
In2000,MorimotorelocatedhisworkshoptothetouristtownofSiemReap,
becauseofthehighrentsinPhnomPenh.HemovedIKTTtoatypicalCambodianwooden
houseonstiltswithalimitedstaffandtwolooms.500In2002,Morimotoboughtfivehectares
ofwastelandnearChotSamvillageinthenorthofSiemReaptoestablishtheWisdomfrom
theForestvillageproject,aself-sufficientfacilityguaranteeingcontroloverthelandandthe
‘wholeprocess’ofsilk-making,frommulberrytreeplantationsandsilkwormrearingto
spinning,dyeing,andweaving.501IKTTambitiouslyclaimedtorestore'thenatural
environmentwithpeople’slifetogether’withaspecificinterestinproducingnatural
resourcesofnativegoldensilk,cotton,indigotreesandnaturaldyeplants.502Ina2002
photographMorimotoposeswithateamofspecialistsinchargeofdeminingtheland,a
commonpracticethatresultedfromtheUSmassbombingoftheregionduringtheVietnam
500Morimoto,BayonMoon,91.501 Berthon,‘KikuoMorimoto,l'amedel’ikat.’ 502IKTT,Information:ActionPlan2003-7-ProjectforWisdomfromForest,April27,2004http://iktt.esprit-libre.org/en/2004/04/action-plan-20037.html[AccessedMarch13,2020]
206
War,toclearitforconstructionandfacilitatereforestation[Fig.63].Thisunderlineshowthe
villagewasbuiltfromscratchunderMorimoto’ssupervision,modelledonTakaorvillagein
Kampot,withamajorityofworkersalsocomingfromthisregion,located420kilometres
fromSiemReap.503ThecompositionoftheIKTTteamofmakers,createdthroughinternal
migration,challengestheideaofasettlementinanauthenticvillagealreadypopulatedby
localskilledweavers.Itunderlinestheinherentartificialityintheproject’soriginsandthe
contingentnatureofreproducingtheconditionsoftraditionalCambodianweaving.
Fig.63KikuoMorimoto,secondright,withateamofspecialistsinchargeofdeminingthelandforthefuture‘WisdomfromtheForest’sitenearChotSam,SiemReap,2002.CourtesyofIKTT.
503Morimoto,BayonMoon,77;IKTT,ActionPlan2003,http://iktt.esprit-libre.org/en/2004/04/action-plan-20037.html[AccessedMay19,2020];seemapFigure53tolocateTakaorvillage.
207
DuringthisperiodofconstructionatChotSam,productioncontinuedintheSiemReap
workshop.By2016,whenIvisited,thevillagehadexpandedandnowoccupied23hectares.
Morimoto,wholivedonsitewiththeweavers’families,toldmetheorganisationwas
financiallystable,withtwoweavingworkshopsandtwoshops,inSiemReapcityandChot
Samvillage,asshownonthismapgiventotouristsattheSiemReapshop,withdirectionsto
thevillage[Fig.64].504
Fig.64Mapshowingdirectionstoaccesstothe‘WisdomfromtheForest’projectfromtheshopinSiemReap,collectedin2016:IKTT.
504KikuoMorimoto,InformalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,December2016,ChotSam,SiemReap.
208
Dataonthestructural,financialandeconomicsettingoftheIKTTcraftorganisation
isconspicuousbyitsabsence.Thereisnopublishedinformationabouttheprecisebusiness
modelunderwhichMorimotoestablishedIKTT,norhowhemanagedtofundtheproject’s
firstyears.Morimotocommunicatedextensivelywiththeforeignpress,especiallyJapanese
andAmericanreporters,andwiththeCambodianpressforanEnglish-speakingaudience.
Hismemoirsalsocommunicatehisphilosophyaboutworkingwiththeweavers,theartistry
ofsampothol,andtherevivalofindigenoussilkandnaturaldyes.505However,theIKTT
lacksthetransparentcommunicationinherenttoNGOsbackedbydonorsorsocial
enterprises.Besidespresentingitselfasanon-politicalandnon-profitCambodian
organisationinitsearlycommunicationandfirstwebsite,itdidnotspecifyitsstatus,nor
diditpublishannualreportsaboutitsrevenueandfundingschemes.506
ItispossibletoidentifyIKTT'schronology,earlydevelopmentandfuturegoalsfrom2003
to2007fromadetailedactionplanfortheWisdomfromtheForestvillageprovidedon
IKTT‘sformerwebsite,whichalsostatesthat'IKTT[did]nothavebigdonors’andreliedon
individualdonationsandsales.507Themajorformofsponsorshipthatwasevidently
receivedbyIKTTwastheprestigious11thRolexAward,receivinga100,000USDprizein
2004,whichalsomarkedaturningpointinIKTT’sinternationalrecognition,andwould
certainlyhaveenabledfurtherexpansion.508AccordingtoMorimoto,annualsalesreached
anaverageof300,000USDin2007andthebenefitsweresaidtobesharedamongthe
farmersandweavers,givingnofurtherinformationaboutthedistributionofsalaries.509Ina
505Morimoto,BayonMoon,102.506 IKTT,AboutInstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles(IKTT),http://iktt.esprit-libre.org/en/aboutus_top.shtml[AccessedMarch12,2020];Harbarger,‘SilkDyerKikuoMorimoto,ResurrectingaCulturalEcology.’ 507IKTT,Information:ActionPlan2003-7-ProjectforWisdomfromtheForest(PWF).508RolexAwards,KikuoMorimoto:AVillageDevotedtoSilk,2004,https://www.rolex.org/rolex-awards/cultural-heritage/kikuo-morimoto[AccessedMarch12,2019]509JeffKingston,‘Japan'sSaviorofKhmerSilk,’JapanTimes,Nov11,2007,https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2007/11/11/travel/japans-savior-of-khmer-silk/#.XreVoC97TOQ[AccessedMarch20,2020]
209
2012interviewforthewebsiteTheEntrepreneurs'Ship,Morimotospokeofthestruggleto
fundIKTT,andhintedathismethodforfundraising:
‘Basically,Ithoughtitcouldoperatewithoutrelyingondonations.However,sinceIwasneverfinanciallyblessed,itwasastruggletoraisethefundswehadtosomedegree.Wecameoutofthestrugglefromtemporarilyborrowingfunds,fromrelativesandfriends.Otherwaystoraisecapitalistoborrowthecapitalnecessaryforthedevelopmentofthebusinessthroughauthorities.’510
Thisquotedemonstratesaflexibleandpragmaticapproachtofunding,withoutprovidinga
clearoutlineofthesupportingpartnersformingIKTT’snetwork.
Similarchallengesareencounteredinassessingthenumberoftextileartisansworkingfor
theorganisationsinceitstarted.Thenumberofartisansisusuallyaclearindicatorofa
company’sscale,butalsoofthepositiveimpactofnon-profitprojectspursuingsocial,
cultural,andeconomicdevelopment.Hereisareviewofachronologyofconflictingkeydata
ontheworkforcethatwasfound.AccordingtotheRolexAwardsforEnterprise,in2002
Morimotobroughttwenty-threeweaverswiththeirfamiliestotheWisdomfromtheForest
village.511Incontrast,theIKTTactionplan2003-2007statedthattherewerethreehundred
traineesworkingfortheorganisationin2003,dividedinthreesections:research,silk
textileproduction,andsales.512Theemploymentgrowthappearedexponential,sinceby
2009anarticleintheKyotoJournalindicatedahighernumberoffivehundredworkers
weredividedintotwenty-fourgroupsofdifferentspecialisms,whichincludedacarpentry
groupmakingloomsandtools.513WhenIinterviewedMorimotoin2012,hesaidthatforty
familieslivedinthevillage,includingfiftychildrenwhoattendedthelocalschoolfounded
byIKTT.514WhenIvisitedagaininDecember2016,theguide,Asya,saidtherewereabout
510‘SocialEntrepreneurs@Work:KikuoMorimoto(InstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles)’,TheEntrepreneurs'Ship,October17,2012,http://www.entrepreneursship.org/blog/social-entrepreneurs-work-kikuo-morimoto-institute-for-khmer-traditional-textiles[AccessedMay3,2020];Morimoto,BayonMoon,105. 511RolexAwardsforEnterprise,ProjectUpdate:TheLongRoadtoSilkRevival,KikuoMorimoto,2004Laureate,May18,2016.512IKTT,Information:ActionPlan2003-7-ProjectforWisdomfromtheForest(PWF).513Harbarger,‘SilkDyerKikuoMorimoto,ResurrectingaCulturalEcology.’514Berthon,'KikuoMorimoto,l’âmedel’ikat.’
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seventywomenworkingonsiteandinsurroundingvillages.515Finally,theIKTTwebsite
spokeof‘two-hundredandfiftypeople,ofwhichaboutahundredhavebeenwiththe
companyfortenyears’.516Theseebbsandflowsintheworkforceandthelackof
transparencyonemploymentconditionsmayreflectstrugglestomaintainsales,aswellasa
scalingdowninthemostrecentyears.
Asawhole,thislackoffactualdatacorroboratesthefreeformoftheoriginalprojectandthe
loosepoliciescommontonumerousnon-profitorganisationswhichdevelopedorganically
inthe1990s.ThismayalsoreflectlifeinruralCambodia,wherefamilymemberswork
togetherandallbenefitinformallyfromtheboklakangkar(NGO),reproducingthekhsae
socialstructure.IKTThasfavouredinsteadaformofcommunicationemphasising
storytelling,centredaroundthepersonalityofitsfounder,undertheobjectivestocontinue
arigorousand‘authentic’artisanalproductionprocessintermsofmaterials,dyes,and
skills.
AswithAA,theIKTThasthereforestrategisedthe‘heritagising’ofCambodiansilk
handicrafts,thusopeningupanetworkofinternationalconnectionsintheacademicand
museumworld.ThepublicationofMorimoto'smemoirswasprefacedbyscholarsLeedom
Lefferts(whoconsultedforUNESCO),andLouiseCort(CuratorforCeramicsattheFreer
GalleryofArtandtheArthurM.SacklerGallery,SmithsonianInstitution,whosemuseum
shophasdistributedIKTT’sproductssince2003).
MorimotobecamearenownedadvocateforCambodiantextiles,especiallysampothol.Even
theorganisation’sabbreviatedtitle,‘IKTT’,whenreadaloud,soundsliketheword‘ikat’.He
alsoparticipatedinnumeroustalksandpanels,includingthe2002TextileSocietyof
AmericaSymposiumheldinNorthHampton,Massachusetts,andintheexhibition
‘CambodiaDyeingandWeaving’attheFukuokaCityMuseumofArtinJapanin2003.In
515Asya,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,December29,2016,ChotSamvillage,SiemReap,Cambodia.516IKTT,OurStoryhttps://www.ikttearth.org/our-story [AccessedMay2,2020]
211
December2003IKTTco-organised,withtheCenterforKhmerStudies,anAmerican-
Cambodianresearchinstitute,agroundbreakingsymposiumentitled‘‘‘Hol’theArtof
CambodianTextiles’,fundedbytheJapanFoundationAsiaCenterandHongKongTextile
Society,inSiemReap.517ThisgatheringofCambodianmuseumexpertsandinternational
scholarsexemplifiestherangeofpartnershipsestablishedbyMorimotoforIKTT,
connectingtheUnitedStates,Japan,andCambodiainparticular.
InspiredbybothPopartofthe1970sandanimism,Morimotoconsciouslyacknowledged
thattheoriginalityofhisprojectwasacombinationof‘interlockingthreads’ofinfluence.518
Atextileartist,entrepreneurandexpert,Morimotohasbeencelebratedbytheinternational
pressastheJapanese‘saviour’ofCambodia’ssilk.AJapanTimesarticlehyperbolically
states:‘hehasalmostsingle-handedlysavedthesilk-weavingindustryofCambodia,a
traditionthatwasnearlylostduringthreedecadesofwarandneglect’.519Thisdiscourse
perpetuatesaJapanesepaternalistmodelthatfailstoengagewiththenotionthat
Cambodiansthemselvescouldrebuildtheirsilkindustry.Morimoto’srelentless
commitmenttosupportingsilkandprovidingopportunitiesforhisworkersisnotin
questionhere.However,hisindividualapproachpositionedhimasaculturalbroker
appealingtoanichemarketofinternationalcustomers.Morimoto’spreservationist
approach,intertwiningsilkweaving,eco-consciousagricultureandrurality,embraces
discoursescombiningculturalheritage,nostalgiaforpasttraditionsandnaturalresources.
ThisnarrativeisclearlydescribedinMorimoto’smemoirsBayonMoon:
‘ThetraditionsofCambodiansilkweaving,onthebrinkofvanishingduringthetwentyyearsofcivilwar,haveatlastbeguntocometolifeagain.[…]Italsoamountstotherevivalofhumanknowledgeaccumulatedoverathousandyears,andtherenewaloftheforestofAngkor’.520
517InstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextiles,andCenterforKhmerStudies,‘‘Hol’theArtofCambodianTextiles:ABlendingofTwoAesthetics,theKhmerandtheChamSenses,'SymposiumProceedings,December12-13,2003(SiemReap:CenterforKhmerStudies,2004).518Morimoto,BayonMoon,86-88.519Kingston,‘Japan'sSaviorofKhmerSilk.’ 520Morimoto,BayonMoon,xx.
212
Itlinkstherevivalofancestraltraditionstothedangerofdisappearingduedecadesofwar
withtheAngkorianeraasahistoricalbackdrop.Thisnarrativeisrepeatedwithmild
variationsindifferentsources,includinginthereport‘TracesofWar’:
‘TheInstituteforKhmerTraditionalTextilesaimstorestoreandperpetuatethetraditionaltextilesindustriesinCambodia,withthecooperationofoldwomenwhoconservedprecioustraditionaltechniquesthroughouttheturmoilofthecountry’.521
Moreover,thisvisionofCambodiansilk‘traditions’mesheswithMorimoto’sJapanese
understandingofcraftsmanshiprootedintheenduringMingei(folkcraft)philosophy
foundedin1934byJapanesephilosopherSoetsuYanagiandpottersHamadaShōjiand
KawaiKanjirō,definingarusticaestheticoffunctionalartisanalobjectsinnaturalmaterials.
Transcendingtherealmofcrafts,Mingeiaimedtocreateaholisticmodelofmaker
communities‘inharmonywithnature’.522AsdesignhistorianYukoKikuchiargues,Yanagi
developedanorientalistdiscoursevalidatedbyOccidentaltheoriestoextracttheconceptof
Japanesenessincrafts.523
Thisrhetoricofnostalgiaforabucolic,pre-industrialerareemergedinJapaninthelate
1990s.AnthropologistAyamiNakatanihasexaminedtherisingconsumptionofSoutheast
Asianhandicraftsasanexpressionofnostalgictasteforanot-toodistantexoticism.Stories
aboutthemakingprocessesandculturalentanglementsoftheseproductswereheavily
advertisedinwomen’smagazines.524Inthismindset,artisanalobjectsfromCambodia
becamethematerialembodimentofarelatable‘otherness'andfoundtheirauthenticityin
theirtechniquesandmaterialsaswellasin'thecontextoftheirmaking’.525
521Morimoto,‘TracesofWar:TheRevivalofSilkWeavinginCambodia,’409. 522BrianMoeran,‘SocialOrganizationandtheMingeiMovement,’PacificAffairs,54,no.1(Spring,1981):47-8.;SoetsuYanagi,TheUnknownCraftsman:AJapaneseInsightintoBeauty(NewYork:KoshandaAmerica,1989)523YukoKikuchi,‘HybridityandtheOrientalOrientalismofMingeiTheory,’JournalofDesignHistory10,no.4(2007):348. 524AyamiNakatani,‘ExoticismandNostalgia:ConsumingSoutheastAsianHandicraftsinJapan,’IIASNewsletter30,March2003,20.525Ibid.
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IntheIKTTshopstheikatsaresoldaseitheruniquepiecesorlimitedrunsforbetween50
USDforthesmallestpiecestonearly1000USDforthemostelaborate.Theseartefacts
exhibitahandcraftedaesthetic,blendingthesubduedsheenofartisanally-produced
indigenousgoldensilkandthenuancedtouchofnaturallydyedhues.Theycontrastwith
other,shinier,brightersilksonthemarketthatuseindustrialsilkyarnandchemical
colours,seeninAA’sproducts[Figs.65a-b,66].
Figs.65a-bSelectionofholsilksinnaturaldyesondisplayattheIKTTshop,SiemReap,Cambodia,December2016.Author’sphotographs.
214
Fig.66ArtisansAngkor’sbrightly-colouredsilkproducts,January2017.Author’sphotograph.
Intermsofnetwork,Japanhasbeenamajoroutletfortheorganisation.Morimotoexplained
in2009thatIKTThadabranchinTokyoconsistingofbuyersandaspokesmantohelpto
’createopportunitiesforsellingthework,nottoaskforhandouts’.526Toattractalarger
internationalaudience,IKTThadalsoastutelydevelopedtwoseparatewebsites,onein
EnglishandoneinJapanese[Figs.67-68].Morimotovisitedhishomecountryeveryyearto
lectureandrepresentIKTT,forginglong-termcollaborationswithprivatecompaniessuch
asMujitodevelopprojectsonnaturalindigodyeing.527
Nakatanihasarguedthat‘AsiaisdistancedfromJapanbothtemporallyand
culturally’,intheparadoxthatJapanese‘exoticisethemselvesasAsian/Oriental,inwhich
casetheyaremergedwiththerestofAsiabut,atthesametime,theyobjectifyandpresent
526Harbarger,‘SilkDyerKikuoMorimoto,ResurrectingaCulturalEcology.’527Muji,TopExecutiveFace-to-FaceTalkwithKikuoMorimotohttps://ryohin-keikaku.jp/eng/csr/interview/002.html[AccessedMay2,2020]
215
thelatterastheirculturalother’.528ThiscouldexplaintheriseofJapanesetourismin
Cambodia.In2015,Japanesevisitorsconstitutedthesixthmostnumerousgroupintermsof
foreignarrivals:therewereabout193,000Japanesevisitors,ofwhichtwothirdscamefor
leisure.529Japanese-ledcraftorganisationssuchasIKTThaveintegratedthisclienteleinto
theirnetworkbyprovidingamediatedexperienceofruralCambodianculture.Whilethey
cametoSiemReapfortheKhmerEmpiresplendours,aregularflowofvisitors,especially
Japanese,alsoaddedIKTTasadestination,eventhoughtheweavingcentreliesofftheusual
touristroute.GroupsregularlyvisittheWisdomfromtheForestvillagetoexperiencelifein
aruralhandcraftvillage,stayingovernightinasimplehomestay,discoveringartisanal
productionprocessesandeatingwiththelocalworkers.In2016,itcost30USDtospend
onenightatthevillage,breakfastincluded,andthesamepriceforactivitiessuchasplanting
amulberrytreeandattendingatie-dyeworkshop.Untilhedied,IKTTcharged200USDfor
aone-hourlecturebyMorimotowithagroupofattendees.
Inaddition,Morimotoreceivednumerousvisitorstothevillage:textilecollectors,
scholars,businessandinstitutionalrepresentatives,photographersandfilmmakers,
volunteersandmanytourists,includingmyselfin2012andagainin2016.530Meetinghimin
2012wassimple.531Icontactedhimbyemailtodiscussmydocumentaryproject,towhich
heagreed;ImethimfirstatIKTT’sshopinSiemReap,whereheofferedtotakemetothe
WisdomfromtheForestvillagethefollowingday.532Acharismaticandamiable
spokepersonforIKTT,Morimotowasconvincinginhisadvocacyforaholisticapproachto
Cambodiangoldensilk,holweaving,andnaturaldyes.Hiseagernesstosharethevaluesand
storyofIKTT,alongwiththediscoveryoftheworkshopspacesandworkingweavers,
528Nakatani,‘ExoticismandNostalgia:ConsumingSoutheastAsianHandicraftsinJapan,’20.529PhnomPenhPost,'CambodiaPushesforMoreJapaneseTourism,’August18,2016,www.phnompenhpost.com/business/cambodia-pushes-more-japanese-tourism?[AccessedMay2,2020] 530SeethebookTreeofLife(2015)byJunjiNaitoandCambodianTextiles(2018)byUtagawaTatsuhito,thelastdocumentaryfilmbeforeMorimoto'sdeath. 531In2016,hewasquitefrailfromcancerandwasonlyabletotalkbriefly.532Berthon,'KikuoMorimoto,l’âmedel’ikat.’
216
guaranteedanengagingexperience,similartootheraccountsoftextilecolleaguesinthe
fieldwhohadmethimundersimilarcircumstances.
SinceMorimotodiedinJuly2017attheageofsixty-nine,theorganisationhasbeen
runbyMidoriIwamoto,whowastakenonin2015asaprojectmanageranddeputy
representativedealingwithdailyoperations.Shenowhasthechallengingtaskofpursuing
Morimoto'slegacywhilecontinuingtoengageandsupportthecommunityofartisans
workingforIKTT.Activesince1995,theorganisation’spositiveimpactonthepromotionof
silkweavinghasbeenundeniable.However,itsreachintermsofproductionandeconomic
impactonlocalpopulationsremainsdifficulttoassess.Thenextsectionturnsto
Cambodian-ownedinitiativesonadifferentscaleandexplorestheinvolvementofwomenas
stakeholdersinthesilkscape.
Fig.67IKTTwebsitewithKikuoMorimoto’sbiographyinEnglish,aimedataninternationalaudience,2017,http://www.ikttearth.org
217
Fig.68IKTTwebsitehomepage,Japaneseversion,2017.Morimotoisontheleftofthisundatedarchivalimage.http://www.iktt.org
Cambodianinitiatives:betweenmacro-consortiumandmicro-enterprises
Athirdwaveofdevelopmentinthesilksector,aftertheearlyinvestmentof
transnationalagenciesandtheestablishmentofleadingforeign-backedNGOs,hasbeen
Cambodian-ownedenterprises.Sincetheearly2000s,thesilksectorhasbeenmarkedby
twooverlappingmovementsofexpansionandsegmentation,dividedbetweenlarger
membershipassociations,foreign-ownedactorsandCambodian-ownedenterprisessuchas
SilkAssociationsofCambodiaandColorSilk.ShiftingthefocustoCambodianinitiatives
offersthepossibilityofexaminingtheagencyofnationalapproachesandtheirinfluencein
theglobalnetworkandadvancingtowardstheexplorationofCambodianvoicesinvolvedin
thesilkmarket.Keyconsiderationsherearetheextenttowhichthesecompaniesfitthe
generalparadigmofsilkcraftsbuiltbyforeignandtransnationalprerogatives,andwhether
theycontradictdominantdiscourses,renegotiatethem,orprovidealternativestrategies.
218
AccordingtotheNSS,themajorityoftheweavingworkforceinCambodiaoperates
inabouttwohundredandfiftysmallandmediumenterprisesandNGOs.533Thisfragmented
landscapesuffersfromalackofcooperationbetweenthesevariousactors,whooften
competeforfundingandcustomers.TheNSSalsopositionsThailandasoneofCambodia’s
majorcompetitorswithLaosandVietnamonsilkgoods,especiallydestinedtothetourist
market.Itassessesthat:‘CambodiacouldaimatcompetingwithThailandandVietNamby
pursuingadifferentiationstrategytowardshigh-endhand-madesilkproducts’.534In
response,severalgroupshaveaimedtostrengthentheindustryandestablishethical
guidelinesasawaytosupporttheproducers,asmuchasattractingadomesticandexport
market.Amongthesenationalstakeholders,ArtisansAssociationofCambodia,a
membership-basedorganisation,wasestablishedin2001throughthecoordinatedeffortsof
theWorldRehabilitationFund,theUNDevelopmentProgrammeandtheInternational
LabourOrganization.Itcurrentlyconsistsofforty-eightcompaniesinvolvedinthe
Cambodiancraftsector,representingmorethantwothousandworkers.535Someofthese
companiesareledbyFrench,JapaneseandKoreanfounders.Membersallrespondtofair-
tradeprinciplesdefinedbytheWorldFairTradeOrganization,workingtowardsavarietyof
goalssuchasempoweringpeoplewithdisabilities,preservingKhmerculture,protecting
againsthumantrafficking,fightingpovertyandsupportinglocalcommunities.Themajority
ofmembersdealwithtextileproduction,includingtheprojectsdiscussedinthischapter,
suchasAA,IKTT,andColorSilk.Otherinitiativesproducerecycledaccessories,wood
carvingsandsouvenirs.
ArtisansAssociationofCambodiahasbeenledbyMenSinoeunsince2003.Originallyfrom
PhnomPenh,hehadacareerinlawandpublicadministrationanddevelopment,fromCare
533InternationalTradeCenterandCambodiaMinistryofCommerce,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,11.534Ibid,22,48.535ArtisansAssociationofCambodia,Catalog2017-18:AACMemberProfiles[AccessedMay2,2020]
219
Internationalin1993totheDisabilityActionCouncilundertheaegisoftheCambodian
MinistryofSocialAffairsin1999.536Hisorganisationprovidestraininginmarketing,
commercialstrategy,design,trends,costingandshipping,andqualitycontrol.Italso
participatesininternationalfairssuchasMaison&ObjetinParis,NYNowinNewYorkand
BazaarBerlin,andhelpscompaniescompetewithotherSoutheastAsiancraftcountries
(principallyMyanmar,Laos,andThailand).537IinterviewedMenSinoeuninJuly2017.He
stressedthatthesilksectorwouldbenefitfrommoreinvestmentfromtheCambodian
governmentandtheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNationstosupportsilkweaversand
raisetheirwages.ArtisansAssociationofCambodiahasalsoadvocatedsimplifyingexport
proceduresandtheprocurementofcertificatesoforiginforCambodianentrepreneurs,in
ordertofacilitateexports.538
Silkproducershavebuilttheirownnetworkswithmixedresults,stillrelyingonthe
financialsupportofanumbrellaofinternationalinstitutions,especiallyITC.Amongthese
theCambodiaSilkForum,amembershiporganisationoftwentyofthemainproducersof
Cambodiansilkproducts,includingIKTT,remainedactiveuntiltheearly2010s.Itprovided
limitedsupporttolocalbusinesses,organisingregionalfairs,focusingonsilkfarmingand
gatheringfundingfromITC.539
KhmerSilkVillageAssociationdevelopedundertheaegisoftheAgenceFrançaisedu
Développementbetween2002and2005.Gatheringsilkfarmersandweavingcommunities
invillages,theassociationfocusedonincreasingsilkyarnproductiontocompetewith
536MenSinoeun,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,July2017,PhnomPenh,Cambodia. 537ArtisansAssociationofCambodia,Catalog2017-18:AACMemberProfiles.538OECD,‘AidforTradeCaseStoryWorldBank:WomenEntrepreneursinCambodia,’OECDWorldTradeOrganization,2010https://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/47803414.pdf[Accessed26December2017] 539‘HowtoBuyKhmerQualitySilk,’CambodianSilk,http://www.cambodiansilk.net[AccessedMay2,2020];‘Cambodia’sSilkRoadtoPovertyReduction,’InternationalTradeForumMagazine,2(2006),http://www.forumducommerce.org/Cambodias-Silk-Road-to-Poverty-Reduction/[AccessedMay1,2020];SeealsoChunSophal,‘SilkWeaversStruggleasCostofThreadIncreases,’ThePhnomPenhPost,6May2010https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/silk-weavers-struggle-cost-thread-increases?[AccessedMay1,2020]
220
threadimportsandenhanceweavers’capacitytocaterforexportmarkets.540Workingon
theentiretyoftheproductionchainandmanagedbyanexperiencedteam,KhmerSilk
VillageemergedasaprivilegedpartnerforthelargerfundingbodyITCtooperatethe
CambodiaSector-WideSilkProjectin2010-2012withcommunitiesinthefield,leading
trainingprogrammesinweaving,sericulture,andmarketingaswellaspurchasingand
distributingfinishedsilkproducts.However,theco-ophasnotcommunicateditsactivities
viaitsFacebookpagesince2013,andthewebsitehasbeendeactivated.
Morerecently,thefoundationoftheNationalSilkBoard,agovernment-privatesector
partnershiplaunchedin2013undertheMinistryofCommerce,withthesupportofITC,
respondedtothisneedformorecoordination,regulationandcentralisationtoboost
investorconfidenceandemphasisecompetitiveness.Issuesinsynergyandcooperation
betweenCambodianministriesdelayeditsofficialformationuntil2014.541Thegrouponly
starteditsactivityin2015,withtheredevelopmentoflocalsericultureasitsfirstpriority.
ThisledtothepublicationoftheNSS2016-2020report,whichisthemostcomprehensive
andrecentstudyofthesilkindustry,andakeysourceforthisthesis.542
540SusanFallsandJessicaSmith,‘GoodHands:SilkWeavingandTransnationalPartnershipsinCambodia,’inTextileEconomies:PowerandValuefromtheLocaltotheTransnational,ed.WalterE.Little,PatriciaA.McAnany(Lanham,MD:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,2011),216-18;InternationalTradeCentre,Report:Mid-TermExternalEvaluationCambodiaSector-WideSilkProject,38.541ChanMuyhong,‘NationalSilkBoardDelayedasMinistriesFailtoCoordinate,’ThePhnomPenhPost,June12,2014https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/national-silk-board-delayed-ministries-fail-coordinate[AccessedMay1,2020]542AnumberofprojectshaveemergedfromNSS,especiallytheopeningoftheKhmerSilkCentreattheRoyalUniversityofPhnomPenhin2019,focusingonimprovingandincreasingdomesticsericultureandengineeringinnovativeoutlets.ThisprojecthasbeenfundedbyUNDPtoprocurematerialsandequipmentinruralareasandtheJapanesegovernment.SeeVounDara,‘KhmerSilkCentreopensatRUPP,’ThePhnomPenhPost,June6,2019,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/khmer-silk-centre-opens-rupp[AccessedMay2,2020];UNDPCambodia,Cambodia’sNewSilkroute:BoostingLivelihoodsandRecapturingaRichHistory,2018https://www.kh.undp.org/content/cambodia/en/home/presscenter/articles/2018/cambodia_s-new-silk-route--boosting-livelihoods-and-recapturing-.html[AccessedMay2,2020]
221
Inparallelwiththesemacro-consortiamarkingtherecognitionofthesilksector’s
economicpotential,thesilkscapecontinuedtoexpandwithnewCambodian-owned
initiatives.Asthischapterhasshown,foreignfundingbodieshavehadamultiplyingeffect
onthesilkindustry,feedingabloomofnumerousdomesticinitiatives,withvaryingdegrees
ofsuccess.Despitetheprominenceoffemale-ledsmallandmediumenterprisesinthe
Cambodiancraftsector,womenhavestruggledtoaccessentrepreneurshipandhigherlevels
ofmanagement.543
Thisfinalsectioncomparestwoprojects,SilkAssociationsofCambodiaandColorSilk,
ownedbyCambodianwomenandestablishedinthecontinuityoftheseearlydevelopments.
Thisstudyconsidershowgenderispartofthedistributionofagenciesinthenetwork,as
wellasrespondingtoforeignmodelsofdevelopment.Moreover,discoursesongender
representationarealsolinkedtoideasofnostalgia.Jacobsenhasarguedthatfeminismin
Cambodiaemergedinthe1950sdespitethecustomarydiscoursethatkeptwomenin
inferiorpositionsfollowingChpabSrei,anineteenth-centurycodeofconductdefiningthe
idealbehaviourofsreikrupleakkhana,thevirtuouswoman.544The1980ssawthe
reassertionofthisconservativethinkingasaformofnostalgiaforpre-colonialtimes.The
re-legitimisationofthisgenderstereotypinghappenedatthesametimeastheriseofthe
firstpost-conflictwomen’sassociationsinfluencedbythereturnofexiledCambodian
womenfromrefugeecampsandWesterncountries.545Theresistantattitudetowards
womenworkinginmanagementroleshaspersistedinCambodiansociety,andisonly
slowlychangingintheyoungergeneration.546
543OECD,AidforTradeCaseStoryWorldBank:WomenEntrepreneursinCambodia,OECDWorldTradeOrganization,2010.https://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/47803414.pdf[AccessedMay2,2020]544Jacobsen,LostGoddesses:TheDenialofFemalePowerinCambodianHistory,182,231. 545Jacobsen,‘RidingaBuffalotoCrossaMuddyField:HeuristicApproachestoFeminisminCambodia,’215-16.546TheNipponFoundation,AsianWomenSocialEntrepreneursNetworkReport(Tokyo:TheNipponFoundation,2015),22-23.
222
ChinKoeurprovidesanexampleofafemaleownerwhosebusinessoriginatesfrom
theUNESCOsilkprojectinPhnomChisorpresentedatthebeginningofthischapter.This
formertrainee(forty-five-year-oldin2018)openedherowncompanyin1996asaweaver
andmiddlewomaninherhomevillageofKanhjanginTakeoProvince.WhenIinterviewed
herinMarch2018duringafieldtripinTakeoprovince,sheshowedmeherlaminated
UNESCOcertificatewhichattested,withhernameandpicture,toaseven-monthtraining
conductedfromMaytoOctober1995inPhnomPenhundermasterweaverLeavSaEm’s
apprenticeship,an‘easygoing’mastersupportiveof‘someonewhoreallywantstolearn’
[Fig.69].547Shekeptthecertificateinatranslucentplasticfolder,withotherCambodian
awardsshehadreceivedinhercareerforthebestholdesign,withinrangeofthewarehouse
whereshehadsetupherbusiness.Thespacehadadeskandafewchairs,oneloom,some
weavingandtyingsupplies,storedproductsonshelves,andmotorbikes.Thiscertificate
wasnotondisplayintheoffice,butshehadkeptitinpristineconditionformorethan
twentyyears,whichshowsthevalueandpridesheassociatedwiththisobject.ChinKoeur
hadonlyarudimentaryknowledgeofweavinglearnedatschoolin1995whenshestarted
theUNESCOtraining,whichrecruitedindividualsfromimpoverishedfamilies,uneducated
backgroundsandorphans.Itwas‘difficulttopreparethethreads,thatshehadno
experiencebefore.Andlearning[was]hardforher’.548Thisprogrammeprovidedherwith
thefoundationskillstoundertakeallthestagesofCambodiansilkweaving,especiallythe
holandpidantechniques,fromdesigningpatternstowarping,spinningsilk,tyingand
dyeingitwithnaturalandchemicaldyesandweavingontheloom.549Atthefinalceremony
markingtheendofhertraining,shewasgiventhiscertificateandasampotholkbun,which
sheeventuallysoldtobuysilkyarnatthemarketandstartherfirstorders.550Eachtimeshe
547ChinKoeur,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.PromChak,March17,2018,Kanhjang,Cambodia. 548Ibid. 549Ibid;SeeAppendixA2.550Ibid.
223
finishedanewpiece,shewouldbringittoUNESCOtosellonsite,andwouldusethemoney
tocreatearollingfund.
Fig.69ChinKoeur’scertificate,datedOctober1995,forsilkweavingtrainingundermasterweaverLeavSaEm,Kanhjangvillage,Takeo,March17,2018.Author’sphotograph.
ChinKoeur’sevolutioninthesilkbusinesshasbeenmotivatedbypragmatismand
reactivity,relyingontheresourcesavailabletoherinthe1990sandthesupportofUNESCO
Cambodia.ShepursuedadditionaltrainingonnaturaldyesatCYK,theJapanese-ledNGO
providingweavingprogrammesintheTakeoregion.Thenshestartedworkingwithher
sisterandmother,managingtobuildmorecapitalandlaunchherownbusiness,Silk
AssociationsofCambodia,inhervillageofKanhjangin1996[Figs.70-71].551Toproduce
more,shehiredotherweaversbasedinherarea,whomshepaidbythepiece.She
551KanhjangvillageispartofSlaCommune,SamraongDistrict,inTakeoProvince.Accordingtothe1998censusofCambodia,SamraŏngDistricthadapopulationof101,455.NationalInstituteofStatistics,GeneralPopulationCensusofCambodia1998,FinalCensusResults(Cambodia:MinistryofPlanning,2002),268.
224
progressedfromweavingtodesigning,training,management,anddistribution.Twenty
yearslatershewasworkingwith‘fiftylooms’,whichmeantfiftyweavers,whocould
produceaboutthreekbunperloom–aboutonehundredandfiftypiecesmonthly[Fig.72].
ChinKoeursaidthat‘shehasnownotimetoweave,justfocusondesigning[…]Shehires
likehermothertostarttodothisgrid[thetying],andthenshewillsendthisgridtoother
personstodesign,andthenshejustchecksittocorrectthedesign. Andafterthatshesends
ittothepersonwhodyes’.552
BesidesherparticipationintheUNESCOprogrammeandmyvisittoherpremises,Iwasnot
abletocross-checkanyoftheinformationprovidedbyChinKoeur.Theguidewho
introducedmetoher,PromChak,aprogrammeofficerassistantatUNESCOinPhnomPenh,
originallyfromPhnomChisor,hadknownhersincetheUNESCOproject.Theyhadbuilta
relationshipoftrust,whichvalidatestheauthenticityofChinKoeur’stestimony.Thevalue
ofherresponsesliesinherexpressionsofconfidenceandsenseofownershipinher
practiceasaweaverandentrepreneur.
552 ChinKoeur,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.
225
Fig.70SilkAssociationsofCambodiasignattheentrancetoChinKoeur’shouseandoffice,Kanhjangvillage,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince,March17,2018.Author’sphotograph.
Fig.71SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince,includingPhnomChisorandSla,Cambodia,basedonaGoogleMapsview.
Takeo
Towards Phnom Penh
226
Intermsofherpositionwithinthesilkscape,despitebearingthetitleof‘association’,Chin
Koeur’sbusinesshasreliedonhersoleownershipandcentralroleofdesignerand
middlewoman.Shehasengagedadynamicsetofrelations.ChinKoeurdevelopsthedesigns,
passesorderstoweaverswhowork‘onlyforher’,providingthemwithrawmaterialson
credit,andreceivesthefinishedproductsbeforesellingthemtoshops.Whileshehasbeen
workingonalargerproductionscale,shehascontinuedtopurchaserawmaterialsin
PhnomPenh,includingpre-dyedsilkthreads.553
Fig.72SilkAssociationsofCambodia’sbusinessmodel,basedoninterviewwithChinKoeur.Author’simage.ChinKoeur’scasedemonstratesthatcertainactorscannotbereducedtooneclearlydefined
role.Hermobilitybetweenthecountrysideandthecapitalcityindicateshowshehad
553ChinKoeur,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.
227
transformedherselffromheroriginalpositionofweaver,amorestaticroleassignedtoa
loomthatreliesonmiddlemenformaterialssourcing,orders,andsales.Inherinterview,
sheexpressedconcernaboutthepriceofimportedsilkfromVietnamorThailand,andwhat
itmeantforherbusiness.Shecouldnotunderstandwhyithaddoubledinrecentyears,
costing70USDforonekilo,despitetheCambodiangovernment’sstatement‘thattoimport
[silk]thereisnotax’.554Sheexplainedthat‘shealwayscomplainstothepeoplewhosellthe
silk.But...Andthegovernmentsaidtheydon'tchargetheimporttax,butthat'sstill
expensive’.555Thissituationhasforcedhertoraisethepriceofherproductstoaminimum
of200USDforoneholkbun.Fromothertestimoniescollectedinthefield,thesearehigh
pricesforcomplexpolychromicclothsforthelocalmarket,ifoneincludesafterthemark-up
appliedbythefinalseller.ThetextileshopsinPsaarOrusseymarketinPhnomPenhmay
offerausefulpricecomparison.InAugust2017,theshopowneratnumber33,street141,
explainedthatpricesdiffereddependingonthecomplexityofholpatternsandthenumber
ofcoloursused.Foratwo-colourpiece,itwas100USDforafullkbun(threeandahalf
metres),andhalfofthisforasampotsamloy(ahalfpiece).Foramulti-colouredpiece,the
dealercharged200USDforaholkbunandhalfofthisforasampotsamloy.
Forherproductdesigns,ChinKoeurhasmovedfromcopyingikatpatternsfromdifferent
villages,apracticecommontomiddlemenchoosingstylesandbringingthemtoweavers,to
designingnewmotifs.Inthatsenseshehaspositionedherselfasadesigner,andnotsimply
abuyer,deliveringnewmodelseachmonthandbecomingrecognisedforherstyle.She
declared‘notcopy[ing]theotherpatterns,justdesignsbyherself.[Otherwise]after,very
difficulttosell’.556Tosourceideasandcolourwaysshehasreliedonhersellers'feedbackin
PhnomPenh,whocommunicatecustomers’tasteandrequests.ChinKoeurhasfocusedon
hol,workingontyinganddyeingpatterns:sheisshownhereposingwithabundleofyarn,
554ChinKoeur,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon. 555Ibid.556Ibid.
228
nexttoherUNESCOcertificate[Fig.73].Withthehelpofhermother,shehasprovidedsets
ofpre-tiedanddyedweftyarn(kiet)toweaverswhoarepaid60USDtoweaveakbunfor
her.Inruralareas,middlemenusuallypayweaversabout90USDtomakeapiecefromstart
tofinish,includingtyinganddyeing,andtheweavershavetodeductthecostofraw
materials.557Bypayingthemonlyforweaving,withoutdyeing,ChinKoeurhasaccelerated
productionandensuredcontroloverthedesigns,amethodalsoappliedatAA,whichhas
separatedworkersintwoteams,onefortyinganddyeingandtheotherforweaving.558
Moreover,ChinKoeurhastrainedaselectionofweaversintie-dyetosecureaskilled
workforceabletofulfilhercompany'sorders.Thisspeakstohercreativemindset:shehas
positivelyutilisedherUNESCOtrainingandexpandedherskillsfromsoloweavertodesign
manager.
Thereare,however,signsthatChinKoeur’scompanyhasnotfullyevolvedfromthe
conventionalmodelofmiddleman-weaverrelationship.Bypayingbythepiece,shehas
maintainedpressureonweaverstoproducerapidly,withoutthesecurityofasalary.559She
perpetuatesthehierarchicalkhsaesystembynotincludingherfiftyweaversinleadership.
Forsales,ChinKoeurprovidesanexampleofhowthedomesticmarketworks.Shehas
workedwithshopsinPhnomPenhwhichinturnselltolocalbuyers,Cambodianswholive
abroadandCambodiansexportingtoEuropeandtheUnitedStates:‘forexamplethepeople
wholiveabroad,theylikethisstyle,theylikethiscolour,andthentheycallthesellerin
PhnomPenh.ThesellerinPhnomPenhjustsendsthephotoofthecolourtoher’560.She
worksontheseordersimmediately,subcontractingtheweavingandshippingthepieces
backtoPhnomPenh,usingtheflexibilityofartisanalproductiontoheradvantage.561Aware
557Dependingonthecomplexityofthepattern,foratwo-colorikatpiecethiswholeprocessofdyeingandweavingmaytakebetweentwotothreeweeksforaweaver.Itwouldtakeaminimumofamonthtocompleteapolychromicsilkikat.558PavEangKhoing,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.559Foradetaileddescriptionofthemiddlemen’sactivities,seeBallyn,’ACulturalEconomicAnalysisofCrafts:AViewfromtheWorkshopoftheWorld,’191.560ChinKoeur,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.561Ibid.
229
oftheneedtobypassshopsellerstoincreaseprofit,ChinKoeurhasconsideredhowto
distributeherproductsdirectlytocustomers.Shehasplanstoopenashopwithher
daughtersinahouseshehasboughtinthesouthofPhnomPenhandbysellinginpersonin
Thailand.SilkAssociationsofCambodiahasremainedorganicallyafamilybusiness,rather
thananassociation,developingfromherpracticeasanindividualweaverconcentratingon
adomesticmarket,usingtheearlyUNESCOsupporttoestablishheractivity.
Fig.73ChinKoeurworkingonatiedbundleofweftsilkyarninherworkshop,Kanhjangvillage,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince,March17,2018.Author’sphotograph.
Incomparison,ColorSilk,aCambodian-ownedsocialenterprisefoundedinPhnom
PenhbyNgornVanntha,athirty-seven-year-oldCambodianwoman,fostersadifferent
approachgroundedinsocialentrepreneurship,digitalcommunication,andexport-oriented
230
production.TherootsofthisorganisationarealsoinTakeoprovincewherethefounder
grewup,inafamilyofsilkweaversandtraders.562NgornVannthawenttohighschoolin
PhnomPenhandearnedaMastersinBusinessAdministrationattheRoyalUniversityof
LawandEconomics.SheworkedasanITanalystforaprivatecompanyuntilshewonthe
NationalBusinessPlanCompetitioninPhnomPenh,organisedbytheNationalUniversityof
ManagementinpartnershipwiththeinternationalconsultingfirmMcKinsey.Herproposal
wasbasedontheobservationthatloomsweredisappearingfromvillagers’housesdueto
ruralexodus.HerplanwastocreateemploymentopportunitiesforfemaleweaversinTakeo
byundercuttingmiddlemenandexpandingdistributionchannels.563
NgornVannthastartedColorSilkin2009withpersonalfunds.Forherfirstorder,she
recruitedtenweaversfromPreiKabasdistrictinTakeotodevelopsilksamplesdestinedfor
theUSmarket.Followingthecodesofsocialentrepreneurship,NgornVannthahasoperated
asManagingDirectorandChairmanoftheBoard.564OnekeyaspectofColorSilkisitsfemale
leadership.NgornVannthalearnedaboutweavingatayoungageandhasbenefitedfrom
highereducation.Nevertheless,sheexperiencedpressureanddoubtsfromherownfamily
andin-laws,despiteherhusband’searlyapproval.IninterviewinAugust2017she
confided:’nobodylistenedtomeinthebeginning’.565Thisillustratestheprevalenceof
genderedculturalnorms,evenamongeducatedCambodianwomen,whoarestillrelegated
toadomesticroleofhomemakerandmother.Togainrecognitionandsupport,Ngorn
VannthastrategicallyenteredaseriesofUScompetitionsforsocialinnovators,which
successfullyputColorSilkattheforefrontoftheexportmarket.In2010,NgornVanntha
washonouredbytheYouthActionNet®GlobalFellowshipprogrammelaunchedbythe
562PromChak,UNESCOofficeprogrammeassistantandoriginallyfromthesameareainTakeo,toldmethatNgornVanntha’sfamilywasknownaslocalmiddlementradingsilk.Inherinterview,NgornVannthadescribedherfamilyassilkweavers.563NgornVanntha,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,August2,2017,PhnomPenh,Cambodia.564StephenPatersonandYimKeorithy,‘DevelopinganInnovativeBusinessModel:TheCaseofColorSilkEnterpriseinCambodia,’ASEANSMECaseStudyProject,June21,2013,18-19. 565NgornVanntha,informalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.
231
InternationalYouthFoundation,aBaltimore-basednon-profitorganisationsupporting
globalyouthempowermentsince1990.Shewasofferedatwelve-monthfellowshipandwas
invitedtoaweek-longnetworkingprogrammeinWashington,D.C.,andreceivedagrant
acknowledgingherproject’ssocialimpactinthePhnomPenharea.In2011shereceivedthe
supportoftheInternationalYouthFoundation-StarbucksSharedPlanetYouthAction
Grant.566OneofColorSilk’sboardmembers,ReaganHudgens,isanAmericandigital
specialistactingasanadvisorforthesilkcompanyonoptimisingdistributionandclient
relationships,whichcouldexplainthecompany’sUSpositioning.567NgornVannthawas
thenhonourednationallyattheCambodianYoungEntrepreneurAwards2015,organised
byJCICambodiaandYoungEntrepreneursAssociationofCambodia.
Inparallelwithitssocialbusinessstructure,withashowroomandofficeinPhnomPenh,
ColorSilksetupafoundationin2011,providingfreetrainingworkshopsinsilkworm
farming,yarnprocessing,weavinganddyeingforvulnerabledisabledandilliterateyoung
women.Thisdevelopmenthasactivatedanotherrangeofsupportandconnectionsaround
theempowermentofwomen.TheprojectstartedwithaweavingcentreinSlacommunein
Takeo,followedbyalargerconstructionnearPhnomChisor,builtinMarch2016withthe
supportofMaybankFoundation,thephilanthropicbranchoftheMalaysianbankMaybank
[Fig.74].568ThisprojectwassupportedbytheASEANFoundationaspartofMaybank
WomenEcoWeavers’SoutheastAsianprogramme.569Thecentrewasceremoniallyopened
inAugust2017byChanSorey,SecretaryofState,MinistryofWomen’sAffairs,andDatuk
566InternationalYouthFoundation,InternationalYouthFoundation&NokiaHonor20YouthLeaders,2010,https://www.iyfnet.org/blog/international-youth-foundation-nokia-honor-20-youth-leaders[Accessed3January2018]567ChangemakersAshoka,ColorSilkEnterprise:SilkWeaving,2015https://www.changemakers.com/globalgoals2015/entries/color-silk-enterprise[AccessedMay2,2020]568MaybankFoundation,Pressrelease:LaunchingoftheMaybankSilkWeavingTrainingCentre,Cambodia,MaybankFoundationhttp://maybankfoundation.com/index.php/how-we-work/press-releases/item/launching-of-the-maybank-silk-weaving-training-centre-cambodia[Accessed12December2017];SeethemapinFigure75. 569Ibid.
232
MohaiyaniShamsudin,Maybank’sChairman.Maybank’spresentationattheopeningofthis
trainingcentreportrayedNgornVannthaasa'visionweaver’whois‘craftingfuturesona
forgottenwayoflife’,shiftingtoadiscourseofinnovationwithintradition.570
Groundednationallyandinternationallywiththistwo-partstructure,by2017ColorSilk
hadbeenabletotrainabout480weavers,integratingthemas‘members’operatingfrom
homewiththestatusofmicro-entrepreneurinsevenvillagesinTakeoprovince.Aspartof
theirnormalpractice,theorganisationprovidedtheweaverswithmaterialsatnocost,
loanedmoneytosetuplooms,andpaidpieceratesabovethemarketprices.571Theweavers
havemanagedtoearnanaverageincomeof200USDpermonth.572Theorganisationhas
alsoworkedwiththreehundredandfiftyfarmerswhogrowmulberrytreestohelpincrease
domesticsericulture.
570NgornVannthafeaturedontheMaybankSilkWeavingTrainingCentrefortheMaybankFoundationFacebookpage,July26,2017.Source:MaybankFoundation(Facebook). https://www.facebook.com/Maybank/photos/a.168159803216857/1640555265977296571‘AboutUs,’ColorSilk,https://colorsilkcommunity.wixsite.com/colorsilk-cambodia/color-silk-enterprise[AccessedMay2,2020]572RobinSpiess,‘Silktrainingcentreweavesanopportunityforruralwomen,’ThePhnomPenhPost,August2,2017https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/silk-training-centre-weaves-opportunity-rural-women[AccessedJanuary28,2021]
233
Fig.74MaybankWomenEcoWeaversprogrammeattheMaybankSilkWeavingTrainingCenter,Slacommune,Takeoprovince,n.d.PhotographColorSilkFoundation.
AsshownonColorSilk’swebsite,weaversproduceawiderangeofsilkproductssuchas
yardageinsolidcoloursandpatternedusingtheholtechnique,sarong,scarves,bagsand
clothes,creatingnewstylesthatarepresentedtocustomerseachmonth[Fig.75].
Approximately65percentofColorSilkproductsaremadetoorderforawholesalemarket
witharosterofclientswhoaremostlybasedintheEU(Germany,inparticular),Japan,
UnitedStatesandSingapore;therestissoldtoretailersinPhnomPenhandSiemReap,a
strategywhichdiffersfromthatofotherplayersinthesectorfocusedonthetouristmarket
[Fig.76].573WhilefacingstrongcompetitionfromAsianproducersfromChina,Vietnamand
Thailand,NgornVannthahas,however,succeededinexportingproductsandintegrating
internationalconsumersintothecompany’sdistributionnetwork.Clients,includingbuyers
andfashiondesigners,areabletomakecustomordersandselectstylesonline.
573SokChan,‘TraditionalSilkIndustryStrugglestoKeepitsShine,’KhmerTimes,March10,2016,http://www.khmertimeskh.com/news/22615/traditional-silk-industry-struggles-to-keep-its-shine/[AccessedonDecember15,2017]
234
Thismodel,whichcombinesCambodianleadershipandinternationalbusiness
strategies,appearsinthecompany’sapproachtoproblemsolving,goal-orienteddiagnosis,
anditsclearimpactobjectivestotackleissuesofinternalmigration,povertyreductionand
theempowermentofruralwomen.Forinstance,in2015ColorSilkprovideddetailsofits
salarylevels,businessplan,expectedgrowth,anticipatedincreaseofthenumberof
trainees,andthecontentoftheirtrainingonitsonlineapplicationforayoungsocial
entrepreneursawardonthesocialinnovationnetworkAshoka.574
Fig.75RangeofColorSilkikatfabricsinavarietyofcolourwaysandpatterns,ColorSilkwebsite,AccessedMay2,2020.
574ChangemakersAshoka,ColorSilkEnterprise:SilkWeaving,2015,AccessedMay2,2020https://www.changemakers.com/globalgoals2015/entries/color-silk-enterprise
235
Fig.76DistributionofColorSilk’sexport/wholesaleanddomesticretailproducts.Author’simage.
Thepublicisingofthisdataquantifyingimpactdiffersfromthepreviousmodelsexamined
inthischapter,especiallyinChinKoeur’sinformalmodelorIKTT’simprecisedata.Inthe
caseofColorSilk,theheritageaspectofCambodiansilkweavinghasrecededbehindthe
imperativesforquantifiablesocialimpact.Onthe'About'pageofColorSilk’swebsite,
‘preservingaCambodiansilkheritage’comeslastinthecompany’stargetobjectives.575
Furthermore,ColorSilkisactiveonsocialmedia,withaFacebookpagewith13,261
followersand410followersonInstagram,presentingdebatesaroundtheethicalfashion
movement,whichadvocatesformoretransparencyinthegarmentmanufacturingsupply
chainandsupportstextileworkers’rightsindevelopingcountries.576Foritsparticipationin
the2017iterationoftheonlineglobalcampaign‘WhoMademyClothes?’,aninitiativeofthe
575‘AboutUs,’ColorSilk.576ColorSilkCambodia,‘Story,’https://www.facebook.com/pg/colorsilkcambodia/about/?ref=page_internal[AccessedOctober8,2017]
236
London-basednon-profitorganisationFashionRevolution,ColorSilkpromotedthe
Cambodianoriginsofitsproductsanditsartisanalapproach,sharingpicturesofweavers
holdingsignsstatinginEnglish‘Imadeyourclothes’[Fig.77].
Fig.77ColorSilkweaversfortheFashionRevolution2017campaign‘Whomademyclothes?’,April2017,ColorSilkFacebookpage.
ChinKoeurandNgornVannthasharesimilarities.TheyarebothfemaleCambodian
entrepreneursworkingwithweaversinTakeoprovince.ColorSilkwaspartofthesame
2015tourthatMaoThora,SecretaryofState,madetoSilkAssociationsofCambodia.They
bothavoidcultivatingpost-colonialandpost-conflictdiscoursespraisingtherevitalisation
ofadyingcraftcommonamongforeign-ownedcompanies.Thissectionhasexploredhow,
aswomenentrepreneurs,theyhaveovercometheirmarginalisedpositionwithinthe
Cambodiangenderhierarchythroughtwodifferentapproaches.SilkAssociationsof
Cambodiahasfocusedonincreasingproductionforadomesticmarket,findingrecognition
foritscreativedesignsbypursuingamiddleman-weaverrelationshiponalargerscale
withoutinvestinginfair-tradepractices.ColorSilk,ontheotherhand,hascapitalisedona
potentmodelcultivatingasocialentrepreneurshipethostofosterinternational
partnershipsandreachglobalfashionmarkets.
237
Conclusion
Bycontextualisingdiverseperspectivesthroughaseriesofcasestudies,thischapter
haslocatedCambodiansilkwithinregional,national,andglobalframeworks,
deconstructingandmappingthenetworksanddiscoursesassociatedwithsilksincethe
1990s.Neo-colonialdiscoursescombiningissuesofculturalheritage,nostalgiaforpast
traditionsandauthenticityhavesustainedtheinvolvementofforeign-ownedand
transnationalinitiatives.Thestronginfluenceofforeignvoices–FrenchandJapanesein
particular–oftenrelyonrevivalistbinarydiscoursesofpovertyreductionandcultural
revivallinkedtotheAngkorianheritageandthedestructionwroughtbythecivilwar.
ThecontemporarypoliticsoftheCambodiansilknetworkaggregatesnumerous
stakeholdersnationallyandinternationally,withoverlapping,competing,andsometimes
complementaryrolessuchasgovernmentagencies,workshopfounders,independentand
employedweavers,suppliersandlocalandforeigncustomers,includingtourists.Coming
fromdisparatebackgrounds,eachcraftcompanyexaminedinthischapterappearsasa
culturalbrokernegotiatingwithanarrayofconnectingactors,drawingfromlocaland
foreigninfluences.Silktextilesalsocarryanagency.FromtokensofCambodianculture,
theyhavebecomeproductsofrecontextualisedtraditionthatappealtonon-local
markets.577
Powerrelationsareunevenlydistributedinthenetwork:theyareconcentratedin
thehandsoftransnationalfundingbodies,NGOs,andsocialenterprisestosupport
sericultureandlargerweavingprojects,andrelyontouristconsumption.Theirprominent
positioninthesilkscapehaspartiallymimickedtheCambodianoverarchingpatron-client
dynamic.Simultaneously,thenetworkisfragmentedintosmall-scaleinitiativesinwhich
informalactivityindomesticproductionremainsdominatedbymiddlemen.
577FallsandSmith,‘BrandingAuthenticity:CambodianIkatinTransnationalArtisanPartnerships,’5.
238
DesigntheoristRajeshwariGhosestressedtheimportanceofdevelopmentalistsfostering
‘autonomousandindigenousdevelopment’inAsiandevelopingcountries,providingasense
ofequitableself-relianceinthedesignsadopted,butalsointhematerials,processes,
advertising,andproductmanufacturing.578Foranindustrythatiscentredonartisanal
practices,themakersthemselvesarekeptattheperipheryofdominantdiscoursesand
leadership.Inthefaceofhistory,successivewavesofconflict,colonisationandunbalanced
socialstructuresandeconomicmodels,theirrolehasremainedunderestimatedand
marginalisedfromthechainofcommand.
Decolonialtheoryandnon-normativespaceswillbekeyframeworksinChaptersThreeand
Fourtodirectlyengagewithweaversandweavingpractices,aswellasissuesof
embodiment,skillstransmission,andexpressionsofculturalidentity.Weavershavealso
appearedinthischapterwhenpracticeandskillstransmissionhavebeendiscussed,with
theexampleofLeavSaEm’sworkforUNESCO,thesilkgrandmothersco-optedby
Morimoto,andevenChinKoeur,whodevelopedherpositionwithinthenetwork.This
chapterhasofferedalimiteddecolonialperspectiveonthepre-existingstructureofkhsae
andhowitchallengesWesternviewsintermsofagencywithinthenetwork.
TheexamplesoftheentrepreneursChinKoeurandNgomVannthapointtothe
heterogeneityofCambodianperspectivesandtheroleofartisansnotasobjectsofeconomic
policiesbutasactivesubjectsoftheirownpractice,inchargeofthetransmissionoftheir
skillsinsilkproduction.Thefollowingchapterthereforeexploreswaystofurtherchallenge
existingnarrativesbyreinstatingsilkproducersasexpertsandpossessorsofknowledge,
givingagreaterspacewithinthepolyphonyofthesilkscapetothevoicesofweavers.
578RajeshwariGhose,‘Design,Development,Culture,andCulturalLegaciesinAsia,’DesignIssues6,no.1,DesigninAsiaandAustralia(Autumn,1989):44.
239
ChapterThree
Weavers:DynamicsofKnowledgeProductionthroughPractice,Embodiment,andMemory
Introduction
Wilkinson-WeberandOriDenicolahavepositedthat’craft,likehistory,isatoolthat
peopleusetonegotiatetheirrolesandplaceswithinthematerialandsocial
environment’.579Aftermappingthesectoronamacro-levelandidentifyingthekeyagents
whowerethearchitectsoftheCambodiansilk-scapesincethe1990sinChapterTwo,
ChapterThreeturnsitsfocusonactorsremainingatthemarginsofthesilknetwork,namely
thesilkweaverswhoarepredominantly(66to87percent)women.580Weaversarenot
oftenincontroloftheirownnarrative,relegatedtoapassiveworkforceinneedofsupport
innumerousfunders’reportsandNGO’scommunication.BesidestheextensiveNSSsurvey
whichspendsseveralpagesdescribingCambodianweavers’demography,weaversare
overwhelminglyreferredtoasagenericanonymousgroup.581Theyaremainlycalled‘the
weavers’,toalesserextent‘women’asonColorSilkwebsite,andattimes‘thebeneficiaries’
asin:‘thebeneficiariesdidwithoutexceptionsappreciatetheservicesprovidedbythe
project’.582Assessmentspointingouteithertheweavers’weaknessesorthebenefitsgained
fromspecificprogrammesarecommon.Forexample,theCambodiaSectorWideSilkProject
reportestablishesthatthe‘technicalskillsofweaversarerelativelyweakascomparedto
579Wilkinson-WeberandOriDenicola,CriticalCraft:Technology,Globalization,andCapitalism,1.580InternationalTradeCenterandCambodiaMinistryofCommerce,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,5.581CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,9-10.;ArtisansAngkor,SilkWeavinghttp://www.artisansdangkor.com/people-16-95-silk-weaving.php[June29,2021]582ColorSilk,AboutUs:ColorSilkEnterprisehttps://colorsilkcommunity.wixsite.com/colorsilk-cambodia/color-silk-enterprise[June29,2021];InternationalTradeCenter,Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProject(PhaseII)CMB/49/05A,40.
240
competitorsinneighbouringcountries‘.583Moreover,a2006articlefromtheInternational
TradeForumMagazinestressedthatweaversneedassistance:
‘The20,000weaverswillemphasizeimprovingthequalityoftheirweavingaswellastheirabilitytosupplysilkclothinsufficientquantityandinatimelymanner.Theywillbeassistedbyweavingexpertsandinternationaldesigners’.584
Whenspecificallycited,individualweaversarepresentedinresponsetothefunder’s
developmentprogramme:‘twoyearsagoHengknewlittleaboutthemarketdemandforthe
silkscarvesandsmoothfabricsheproduced.Since,ITC’ssilkprojecthashelpedherto
increasehermonthlyincometobetweenUS$800andUS$1,000’.585Thischapterdraws
insteadontheirvoicesandpracticesasprimarymaterialtoexamine,asadvocatedby
anthropologistTrevorMarchand,‘individualprocesses,strategies,andtacticsofknowing–
andnotknowing–withinbroaderenvironmental,social,andpoliticalframesof
reference’.586
Toanswerthesequestionsonknowledgeandagency,thechosenmethodologyforthis
studyisgroundedinethnographicwork,visualdocumentationandinterviewsundertaken
inruralareasofCambodiaoverthreeperiodsoffieldwork[Fig.78].InDecember2016,I
interviewedIKTTweaversinSiemReap.InAugust2017,Imetthreetraineeweaversatthe
JapaneseCaringforYoungKhmer(CYK)NGO’sweavingcentreinTrapaingKrasaing
commune,Batidistrict,Takeoprovince.IndependentweaversinPhnomChisorarea,Takeo,
werealsointerviewedinMarch2018.Alongsidetheseinterviews,theActionResearch(AR)
methodwasexploredinacollaborativeprojectwiththeCambodiantextileorganisation
KramaYuyu(KY)inTaPoukvillage,nearSiemReap,during2017.Thisprojectformsthe
583;InternationalTradeCenter,Mid-TermExternalEvaluation:CambodiaSector-WideSilkProject(PhaseII)CMB/49/05A,16.584InternationalTradeCentre,‘Cambodia'sSilkRoadtoPovertyReduction,’InternationalTradeForum-Issue2/2006https://www.tradeforum.org/Cambodias-Silk-Road-to-Poverty-Reduction/[June29,2021]585ITCNews,FeatureStory:ImprovingtheLivelihoodsofCambodianSilkEntrepreneurs,March1,2013https://www.intracen.org/layouts/2coltemplate.aspx?pageid=47244640256&id=73349[June29,2021]586Marchand,MakingKnowledge:ExplorationsoftheIndissolubleRelationBetweenMind,BodyandEnvironment,15.
241
corefocusofthischapter,tofurtherexaminetheweavers’strategiesofknowledge
transmissionandproductionthatarepresentintheactofweavingitself,andconsiderhow
theseskillscanbevectorsofeconomicandsocialempowerment.
Fig.78Myfieldworkforthischapterisconcentratedintwoprovinces:SiemReapinthenorth,Takeointhesouth.WikimediaCommons.
ThesmallscaleandfoundingaimsofKYwerekeytotheselectionofthiscompany
fortheARproject.KYwasfoundedin2006byTomokoTakagi,aJapanesewomannowin
herlatefortieswithexperienceinlandscapearchitectureandtextilecurationinNorthern
Japan,toprovideemploymentopportunitiesforlocalweavers.TomokorecruitedChenda
Heng,firstasherassistantandthenasthemanageroftheworkshop.Between2006and
2009,KYconsistedofonlyfourmembers,Tomoko,Chenda,Theary(Chenda’ssister)and
anotherweaver.587After2010,theworkshopexpandedandChendatrainednewrecruits,
whichleftherlesstimetocreatenewdesigns.KYhasbeenregisteredasaprivate
enterpriseattheCambodianMinistryofCommercesince2013.In2017,thecompanyhada
587TomokoTakagiandChendaHeng,informalconversation,December23,2016,TaPouk,Cambodia.
242
staffofthirty-fivefemaleweaversspecialisingincottonkrama.Duetoitssmallscale,the
workshophadbeengivingprioritytoon-demandproductionforexports.Chendaand
ThearylearnedholsilkweavingasteenagersinTakeoprovincefromtheirmother.
However,theyhadnotpractisedsilkweavingformorethanadecadeandwereonly
workingwithcottonatKY.
Toexplorehowtheseweaverscouldremobilisetheirunusedskills,theARprojectfocused
fromJulytoOctober2017ontheplanningandproductionoffoursampothol,conductedby
ChendaandThearywiththesupportofco-founderTomoko.Asaresearcher,Iengagedin
identifyingtheweavers’needsandhowtheARprojectcouldsupportthem,aswellas
facilitatingthefundingandplanningoftheactionbetweenFebruaryandJune2017.A
specificperiodoffieldworkwasdevisedtoenablemetoexploreanewandveryparticular
methodology.FromJuly24toJuly30,2017,Iwaspresentonsiteandfocusedonintensive
documentationthereofhowweaversdealtwiththewarpandweftikatpreparation
processes,usingfilmandphotographyaskeymethodologicaltools,inadditiontofurther
interviews.
Thespokenandembodiednarrativesoftheseweaversareengagedtoexploretheirroles
andstrategiesinthefaceofthehistoryofCambodia’slossandrevitalisationofitssilk
production,andhowtheynegotiatewithdifferentmethodsoflearning,practisingand
passingontheseskills.Marchandhasdemonstratedthat‘knowledgenecessarilyextendsto
otherdomainsincludingemotional,sensorial,spatialandsomaticrepresentations’andis
'communicatedbetweenactors,mostevidentlywiththebody’.588Knowledgeisthus
consideredintheweavers’oraltraditions,asmuchasintheirbodiesandtestimonies
collectedinthefield,toexamineskillslearninginapprenticeshipandcommunitywork.
Presentingapaletteofdefinitionsofsilkartisansas‘knowingbodies’aimstonuanceand
588Marchand,‘Muscles,MoralsandMind:CraftApprenticeshipandtheFormationofPerson,’257.
243
expandtheoreticalconceptsofembodimentinaCambodiancontext.589Inthissense,silk
craftsmanshipbecomesthesiteof‘embodiedlearning’inadialoguebetweenmaterials,
tools,andtheweaver’sbody.Itopensupthisanalysistoarangeofconcepts,suchastacit
knowledgeandmaterialityofmaking,whichwillbeillustratedinthefollowingsections.590
ThechapterwillfirstfocusonhowtheprojectwithKYwaschosenandsetup
aroundinterviews,visualdocumentationandARmethodologies.Anexaminationofsocietal
andstructuralissuesencounteredbyindependentandstaffweaversandapprenticesacross
Cambodia,suchashierarchicaldynamics,lackofmobility,genderdistribution,and
globalisation,willcomplementthecriticalcontextualisation,leadingtoananalysisoftheAR
projectwithKYweavers.Theproject’sfindingswilltheninitiatedebatesaroundissuesof
vocationandagencyregardingknowledgeformation,buildingoncomparativeexamples
fromotherperiodsoffieldwork.
Thediversityofconversationsthatthischapterbuildson,andtherangeofprofilesofthe
femaleweavers,whetherindependentweavers,followingtrainingprogrammesinanNGO,
orhiredbyacraftcompany,aimtoformamultilayeredportrayaloftheCambodianweaving
workforce.Thisapproachusespolyphonyasastrategytowardsde-simplifyingculturaland
socialrepresentationsofthisworkforce.Theconsiderationofweavers’individualand
collectiveagenciesaimstochallengetheinequitablehierarchieswithinsilkproductionand
placemakersagainattheheartofthesilkscape.
ActionResearchandyarning:developingdialogicmethodologies
EducatorLindaTuhiwaiSmithhaspioneeredimportantdecolonisingguidelinesfor
conductingresearchwithindigenousgroupsandencouragingtheminaprocessofself-
589Ibid.590Marchand,MakingKnowledge,2.
244
determination‘expressedthroughawiderangeofpsychological,social,culturaland
economicterrains’[Fig.79].591
Fig.79‘TheIndigenousResearchAgenda’,inSmith,DecolonizingMethodologies,1999,Figure6.1,117.
WhileSmithaddressedtheperspectiveoftheMaoripeoples,theIndigenousResearch
Agendapresentedinthisfigurecouldalsobeappliedtootherethnicgroups.Inthechart,
Smithnotesfourdirectionstoaimtowards:‘decolonisation,healing,transformationand
mobilisation.Theyarenotgoalsorendsinthemselvesbutprocesseswhichconnect,inform
andclarifythetensionsbetweenthelocal,theregionalandtheglobal’.592Additionally,the
‘fourmajortidesarerepresentedinthechartassurvival,recovery,development,self-
determination’.593Thisagendaisadvancedthroughacommunity-basedapproach,which
‘assumesthatpeopleknowandcanreflectontheirownlives,havequestionsandpriorities
591Smith,DecolonizingMethodologies,116.592Ibid.593Ibid.
245
oftheirown,haveskillsandsensitivitieswhichcanenhance(orundermine)any
community-basedprojects’.594Thismodelputstheaccentonfocusingontheprocessover
theoutcomeoftheaction,asSmithbelievesthat‘processesareexpectedtoberespectful,to
enablepeople,tohealandtoeducate’.595
Themethodologiesengagedinthischapterhaveaimedtowardssimilarobjectives,
especiallythroughtheuseofparticipatoryAR,byengagingwithanon-hierarchicalwayto
recordthesensorialandmaterialexperienceoftextilepracticesandworkingwitha
communityofweavers.AccordingtoeducationscholarOrtrunZuber-Skerritt,the
researcher’sroleinARis'toknow,understand,improveorchangeaparticularsocial
situationorcontextforthebenefitofthepeoplewhoarealsothe‘participants’(notjust
‘subjects’)intheinquiryandwhoareaffectedbytheresultsandsolutions.’596The
participatoryqualityoftheprojectiscentral,involvingeachparticipant‘practically,
intellectuallyandemotionallyinthecauseforwhichtheresearchisconducted’.597This
paradigmhelpsto‘recognisethatknowledgeissociallyconstructedandcreatedfrom
within,andfor,aparticulargrouporcontext’.598Inthissense,thestudyofmakingprocesses
addsanembodiedcomponenttomyanalysis,allowingbodiestobecomeanotherofthe
‘voices’inthepolyphony.
Filmwasthereforeselectedasthebestresearchandpracticemethodforcapturingand
recordingbodilyexpressions.AsvisualanthropologistanddocumentaryfilmmakerDavid
MacDougallcontends,‘unlikeknowledgecommunicatedbywords,whatweshowinimages
hasnotransparencyandvolition–itisadifferentknowledge,stubbornandopaque,but
594Smith,DecolonizingMethodologies,125,127;SeealsoErnestT.Stringer,ActionResearch:AHandbookforPractitioners(LosAngeles:SageBooks,2014),8.595Ibid,127. 596Zuber-Skerritt,'ActionLearningandActionResearch:Paradigm,PraxisandPrograms,’7.597OrtrunZuber-SkerrittandLesleyWood,ActionLearningandActionResearch:GenresandApproaches(Bingley:EmeraldPublishing,2019),8.598Ibid.
246
withacapacityofthefinestdetail’.599MacDougallhasencouragedhistoriansand
anthropologiststoconsiderphotographyandfilm‘notasadjunctstoformulating
knowledge’butintheircapacityto‘embracetheknowledgeofbeing’.600Inthisregard,the
useoffilmintheARprojectwillbetreatedasanadditionallayerofmethodologytorecord
theperformanceofmakingandunderlinetheembodiednatureofsilkweaving.
ARisaresearchmethodologythataimsforimpactandchange,specificallydesigned
toaddresstheneedsofaparticulargroupincontext,ledindialoguewithaproject
coordinator.Itisthereforeimportanttounderstandhowtheideafortheprojectemerged
fromadiscussionIhadinDecember2016withTomokoTakagiandChendaHengatthe
workshopinTaPoukvillage.IhaveknownmembersofKYsince2014,whenIworkedon
thedevelopmentofkramascarvesasatextiledesignerfortheFrenchcompanyKrama
Krama.Wehadsinceremainedintouchandworkedonanumberofothertextiledesign
projects.WhenIvisitedinDecember2016,nowconductinginterviewsasapostgraduate
researcher,Chendaexplainedtome,withTomoko’shelpintranslating,howasteenagers
sheandhersisterThearylearnedhowtomakeholfromtheirmother,Chendy,andhow
theybothgaveupsilkweavingin2006infavourofsimplertechniquesofcottonkrama
weaving.TomokoexpressedinterestindevelopingsilkproductsatKY,basedonChenda
andTheary’sexpertise.Sheexplainedhowtheylackedthefundingandtimetoproduceikat
samplestopresenttopotentialbuyers.Chendaalsorespondedenthusiasticallytotheidea.
Fromthisstartingpoint,TomokoandIreconvenedinFebruary2017byemailtodiscuss
howthispreliminarydiscussioncouldturnintoacommonprojectcombiningresearchand
practice,inwhichKYweaverscouldbesupported.Inturn,shediscussedthefeasibility,cost
andtimetablefortheprojectwithChenda.OnceChendahadestablishedtheaveragecost
599DavidMacDougall,TheCorporealImage:Film,Ethnography,andtheSenses(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress),5-6.600MacDougall,TheCorporealImage:Film,Ethnography,andtheSenses,5-6.
247
andtime,Iappliedforandobtained750USDoffundingfromFriendsofKhmerCulture,a
US-basedfoundationwhichsupportsartisticandculturalpreservationprojectsin
Cambodia.Inreturn,FriendsofKhmerCulturerequiredafullreportontheactionand
picturesofthefinalsilksamples,whichIdeliveredinNovember2017.Thisawardcovered
thecostoffinesilkandchemicaldyestuffrawmaterialsandpaidforThearyandChenda’s
labour,followingKramaYuyu’srates,tomakefourpolychromicsilkholkbun.
AccordingtoeducatorsAltrichter,PoschandSomekh,thepurposeofActionResearch‘isnot
simplytodescribe,interpret,analyseandtheorise–thestuffoftraditionalresearch–butto
actinandonasituationtomakethingsbetterthantheywere’.601Themainparticipants
wereKYmasterweaversChendaandTheary,whowereinchargeofcreatingandproducing
thesilksamples,andco-founderTomoko,whofacilitatedthesourcingofmaterials,
organisation,costingandplanning,communicationbetweenChendaandme,translationon
site,andmyselfastheresearcherandco-convenor.Thisprojectalsoincludedfourother
staffweavers(Sarin,Salat,SreiPon,andSoKim)toassistChendaandThearywiththe
dyeingandweavingprocesses,Chendy,ChendaandTheary’smother,whoparticipatedin
aninterview,andYu,agraduatestudentfromSiemReapwhoIhiredasatranslatorforone
day’sinterviewingduringmyvisitonsite[Figs.80-81].
601HerbertAltrichter,BridgetSomekh,andPeterPosch,TeachersInvestigatetheirWork(London:Routledge),1993,4.
248
Fig.80GroupatKramaYuyu.Lefttoright,translatorYu,weaverTheary,formerweaverChendy,weaverChenda,MagaliAnBerthon,co-founderTomokoTakagi.Author’sphotograph,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia,July26,2017.
Fig.81HengChenda,centre,withSarin,Salat,SreiPon,andSoKimworkingonthewarping.Author’sphotograph,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia,July24,2017.
Thefocusoftheactionwastoenabletheparticipantstoworktogethertoexplore
theirunusedskillsinsilkweaving.Mymaininterestastheresearcherwastoobservethe
249
strategiesthattheweaverswereusingtore-engagewiththeirsilkknowledge,especially
withhol.Thistechniqueinvolvesintricatedyeingprocessesandusesuneventwillasabase
structurewovenonathree-harnessesloom.ARmethodologiesareorganisedinsuccessive
stages:planning,acting,observing,andreflecting.602Inthetimespanoftheproject,I
observedtheactionduringoneweekoffieldworkinJuly2017.Ifollowedtheplanning,
preparation,beginningoftheactionandcompletionbyreceivingregularemailupdates
fromTomokountilthecompletionoftheprojectinOctober2017.
Toexploretheweavers’discoursesasalternativevoices,interviewsareanotherkey
sourceandresearchmethodinthischapter.Overmythreeperiodsoffieldwork,Irecorded
twelveoraltestimoniesfollowingasemi-guidedqualitativeformat.Inaddition,Ihadtwelve
informaldiscussionswithfacilitators,weavers,andtranslators.603Theseinteractions
createddialogicencountersthatworktowardsmeaningfulexchanges.Thisapproach
resonateswithanAustralian-basedresearchprojectonbuildingconversationsonhealth-
relatedissuesledwithAboriginalcommunitiesin2016,offeringindigenousgroupsaself-
reflectiveplatform'tochallengethemselves,questiontheirowninternalisedpowerlessness,
anddevelopopportunitiestogainasenseofcontrolwithintheirlives(includingthe
environmentsinwhichtheyliveandwork)’.604InthecultureofAboriginalpeople,yarning
referstoaculturalformofdiscussioninarespectfulmeaningfulexchange,ofwhicheach
dialogicmomentiscalledyarn.605Textilemetaphorsarecommoninnumerousculturesto
602Zuber-Skerritt,'ActionLearningandActionResearch:Paradigm,PraxisandPrograms,7;Zuber-SkerrittandWood,ActionLearningandActionResearch:GenresandApproaches,5.603InDecember2016,IvisitedIKTTwhereIhaddiscussionswithPanDam,JokKiangandOmLai.InJuly2017IworkedwithKYweavers,especiallyChendaHeng,hersisterThearyandmotherChendy.InAugust2017,IinterviewedAmSai,NowSaraem,andPheachatCYKtrainingcentreinTrapaingKrasaing,Takeoprovince.InMarch2018,ImetwithSoAi,Kamon,Pon,andYuonSophoninPhnomChisorvillages,Takeoprovince.604BronwynL.Fredericksandal.,‘EngagingthePracticeofYarninginActionResearch,’ActionLearningandActionResearchJournal,17,no.2(2011):9.605‘Yarningismorethanjustalightexchangeofwordsandpleasantriesincasualconversation.Ayarnisbothaprocessandanexchange;itencompasseselementsofrespect,protocolandengagementinindividuals’relationshipswitheachother.’SeeFredericks,andal.,‘Engagingthe
250
describesocialdynamics.Indeed,wehaveseeninpreviouschaptershowkhsae
relationshipsinCambodia,hierarchicalsocialstrings,arestillpresentinthesilksector.
Here,yarningopensuptheideaofbuildingequitableexchangebetweenparticipants,
includingmyself,toovercomethecomplexpowerdynamicsinethnographicfieldworkand
givemorespacetomyinterlocutors’experiences.
Admittedly,itwasdifficulttoachieveinshorterencounters,whenIhadonlyadayatCYK
weavingcentreorinPhnomChisorareatomeetseveralweavers.Ihavebeenmore
successfulinimplementingthisqualityofexchangewithChendaandThearyatKY,because
Ihadmoretimetobuildtrustoveraweek’sfieldworkvisitingtheworkshop.Iarrivedearly
at8am,whentheworkshopopened,andstayeduntilitclosedat5pm,includingspending
lunchtimewithTomoko,ChendaandThearyeachtimeIvisited.Thisofferedtimetodiscuss
silk-related,butalsomorepersonal,topics,inaninformalmanner.Moreover,inviting
Chendy–ChendaandTheary’smother–toaninterviewallowedthisfamilyofweaversto
discussandaddtoeachother’sthoughts,insteadofsimplyansweringmyquestions.
Chendy,sixtyyearsoldatthetimeoftheproject,haslivedasaBuddhistnuninatemple
nearBakongvillageabout5kilometresawayfromtheworkshop.ChendyandChenda–and
Theary,toalesserextentbecausesheisshyer–alsoengagedwithYu,thetranslator,to
explaincertaindetailsofweavingtechniquesanddyeingtohim,asiftheywereteaching
himaswell.Atacertainpointeveryonewasspeakingatthesametime,andsomejokes
cametogether.Chendywastellingastoryofhowshehadsoldafewsilksampotinher
village:‘thepeoplewhoboughtthekbendidnotgiveallthemoney,theygavesomeandkept
some’.Theytoldher:‘Iwillpayyoulater’.Iasked:‘aretheystillinBakong?’;Yutranslated:
practiceofyarninginActionResearch,’8;SjharnLeeson,CatrinSmithandJohnRynne,‘YarningandAppreciativeInquiry:theUseofCulturallyAppropriateandRespectfulResearchMethodsWhenWorkingwithAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderWomeninAustralianPrisons,’MethodologicalInnovationsVol.9(January2016):1-17.
251
‘shesaysthatsheseesthemeveryday!’,atwhichwealllaughed.606Theselittlemoments
keptusallengagedandmyinterlocutorsshowedaneagernesstosharetheirexperiences.
Theextenttowhichmeaningfulandequitableexchangescouldbeachievedcannot
beassessedwithoutadiscussionontranslation.MyrelianceonKhmertranslators
presentedcertainchallengestothesharingofperspectives(bothmineandtheweavers’),
andthisshouldcounteranytendencytoconsidertheweavers’voicesasfullyunedited
sources.IhaveworkedwithmaletranslatorswhoIwasintroducedtothroughmy
professionalnetworkinCambodia:Rothmono,whohelpedattheCYKtrainingcentrein
Takeoprovince,andYuforKYatKYinTaPoukvillagenearSiemReap.ImetPromChakat
thePhnomPenhUNESCOoffice.Ihadonlyonefemaleguide,Asya,anIKTTemployeewith
rudimentaryEnglishskillswhowasassignedtoaccompanymeduringmyvisitinDecember
2016attheWisdomfromtheForestproject.
Mytranslatorssharedwithmewhattheyhadunderstoodtheweaverstosaywiththeirown
levelofEnglish,whichdifferedinfluency.IidentifiedcertaintermsinKhmer,whichI
integratedintotheinterviewtranscripts;Ialsoincludedmomentsofhesitationand
laughs.607Thisofferedawaytoincreasetherepresentationoftheweavers’voices,by
includingtheanalysisofnonverbalcommunication.Thistechniquecomprises‘kinesics(i.e.,
behaviorsreflectedbybodydisplacementsandpostures),proxemics(i.e.,behaviors
denotingspecialrelationshipsoftheinterviewees/interviewers),chronemics(i.e.,temporal
speechmarkerssuchasgaps,silences,andhesitations)’.608Toevaluatethesenseof
engagement,Iconsidermyinterlocutors’physicallanguage,theiravailability,and,forsome
weavers,thedesiretoshowmetextilestheyhadwoven.
Moreover,itisnecessarytoaddressthedifferencebetweenworkingwithatranslatorhired
606ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.YuandTomokoTakagi,July26,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.607SeeAppendixA6.608MagdalenaDenhamandAnthonyJohnOnwuegbuzie,‘BeyondWords:UsingNonverbalCommunicationDatainResearchtoEnhanceThickDescriptionandInterpretation,’InternationalJournalofQualitativeMethods,12,no.1(2013):671.
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foraspecificvisit,suchasRothmonoandYu,andanintermediarybringingmetoaspecific
placeandfacilitatingmyencounterswithweavers.WorkingwithAsyawasincidental,but
hasprovidedinvaluableinsightsintoIKTTandtheweavers.Asya,inherearlytwentiesin
2016,hadbeenworkingforIKTTforafewyears.SheworkedattheshopinSiemReapwhile
alsostitchinghandkerchiefhems.ShehadcometoSiemReapfromKandalprovincewithher
motherwhenshewasthreeyearsold.Herauntandgrandmotherbothworkedatthecentre.
Amemberofthecommunity,Asyaknewalltheweaverspersonallyandwasableto
approachtheminanappropriatelyrespectfulmannertoaskthemmyquestions.609
Thedynamicsofthistranslator-researcherrelationship,however,weremostsignificantwith
PromChak,aforty-eight-year-oldprogrammeassistantatUNESCOPhnomPenh.PromChak
hadparticipatedinthePhnomChisorweavinginitiativeintheearly2000s,asdiscussedin
ChapterTwo.Inturn,hethusconnectedme,anoutsiderforeignresearcher,toweavers,
includinghisnieceKamon,indifferentvillagesinthisarea.PromChak’slatefatherhadbeen
acommuneleaderinSamraongDistrictandhismother,fromPreyKabasdistrict,wasasilk
weaver.610Hisbackgroundintheregionwasimportantincreatingabridgeofknowledge
betweenmeandtheweaversduringtheinterviews.
PromChakoftenaddedhisownknowledgetotheconversations,sharing,forexample,that
heknewthatthepricesforsilkholwoulddecreasebeforeKhmerNewYear.611Itwasalso
apparentthathispresencewaswelcomedbytheweavers.ThemeetingwithPonprovidesa
keyexample.Immediatelyafterheintroducedustoher,PromChaksaidtome:‘shesaysshe
recognisesmefromthefaceofmyfather’.612Ponmadeherselfavailabletodiscussher
activityindetailfornearlyhalfanhour,doublethetimespentwiththethreeotherweavers
wemetintheirhomes.Itwasnotpossibleformetoreadthedifferencebetweenhavinga
609Asya,informalconversation,December26,2016,ChotSamvillage,SiemReap,Cambodia.610PromChak,informalconversation;Seemap,Figure75.611Ibid.612Pon,interviewedbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.PromChak,PhnomChisorarea,TakeoProvince,March17,2018.
253
femaleoramaletranslatorintheseexchanges.Thisdynamicwiththetranslatorisanother
waytoapproachandunderstandtheparticularkindofpolyphonyatworkinthischapter.
Theweavers’voiceswerelayeredwithotherCambodianvoices,includingmaleandfemale
translators’voices.
EstablishingtheneedsofCambodiansilkweaverstosetuptheActionResearchproject
Thissectionestablishesaseriesofkeyobservationsmadeduringthethreeperiods
offieldwork,whichoutlinetheissuesencounteredbyCambodianweaverstoinformhow
theARprojectonsilkskillstransmissionwassetupwithKYweavers,andforwhatpurpose.
Theperpetuationofsilkpracticesislinkedtorurality,accesstomarkets,globalisationand
weavingasagenderedactivity.Invillages,Cambodianwomengenerallycarrythe‘’double
duty’[of]engaginginagriculturallabororwageemployment,andtakingcareofthe
householdtasks’.613Womenarealsooftentheonlywageearnerinthehousehold.614Asthe
primarycarersfortheirchildren,theyusetheirincome,anaverageoffiftytoseventyUSD
permonth,inparticulartobuymedicalsuppliesandsendthechildrentoschool.Whenthe
familiesaretoopoor,theywillonlysendtheirboystoschoolandgirlswilltakeover
householdtasks.615Thisdataleadstoquestionsaboutthevalueofcraftactivitiesasasource
ofincomeforfemaleweavers,andhowtheygainorloseagencywithinthesilknetwork.Itis
thereforereflectedinthechoiceoftestimonies,solelyofwomen,presentedacrossthis
chapter,whoallcomefromvillageslocatedintworegions–SiemReapinthenorthand
Takeointhesouth.616
613JudyLedgerwood,‘WomeninCambodianSociety,’CenterforSoutheastAsianStudies,NorthernIllinoisUniversityhttp://www.seasite.niu.edu/khmer/ledgerwood/women.htm[AccessedNovember2,2020]614Ibid.615MaryN.Booth,‘EducationandGenderinContemporaryCambodia,’InternationalJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScience,4,no.10(August2014):44. 616SeeFigure5fortheseregions.Inthisgendereddistributionofrolesinthehousehold,mensometimesparticipateinweaving-relatedtaskstoassistwomenweaversathome.Theyworkona
254
Fromthesechallenges,thischapterconsidersthechangesandcontinuityinsilkpracticesin
contemporaryCambodia.Itexaminesthewaysinwhichweavingknowledgeisperpetuated
bypassingthroughmatrilineallineages,asprevailedbeforethecivilwar,andthemodesof
adaptationthattheweaversthemselveshaveengagedintoincreasetheiragency.
WhethertrainedinNGOsorworkingindependentlyfromhome,thewomenImetduring
fieldworksplittheirtimebetweenweavingactivityandothertaskssuchastakingcareof
thehouseholdandchildren,andsometimesfarming.Theyrecognisedthatsilkweaving
generatesinsufficientincome.However,ithasremainedoneoftheonlyactivitiesforelderly
womenandmotherswhoneedtobalancetheirtimewithotherdutiesinvillages.617Yuon
Sophon,afifty-one-year-oldweaverfromPhnomChisor,inresponsetothequestion‘would
shedosomethingelsethanweaving?’explainedthat‘nowtheoldwomen,theycanonlydo
this,weaving’[Fig.82].618Otherwomen,youngeroringoodhealth,donotusuallypursue
weavingunlesstheyhavetocarefortheirchildren.AlsobasedinPhnomChisor,Pon,sixty-
fiveyearsoldin2018,inresponsetothequestion‘howmanypiecesdoesshedoper
month?’,said‘twokbun,sometimesonlyonekbunbecausebusywiththegrandkids’
[Fig.83].619SoAi,thirty-nineyearsold,dividedhertimebetweenweaving,raisingherfour
childrenandworkinginthericefieldswhileherhusbandworkedasafarmerandin
construction[Fig.84].Inresponsetoacommentonsilkbeinganexpensivematerialtouse,
Kamon,thirty-sixyearsold,consideredthat‘she[has]nochoice,becausesheneedstotake
careofher[two]children,sothisisthejobthatshecanworkandalsotakecareofher
children[…]andcookforthem’[Fig.85].620AndChendafromKY,thirty-sevenatthetimeof
limitednumberofstages,suchastyingikatweftthreads,dyeing,andmakingtheheddlesfortheloom.617SoumhyaVenkatesan,‘RethinkingAgency:PersonsandThingsintheHeterotopiaof‘TraditionalIndianCraft,’JournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute15(2009):86.618YuonSophon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,translatedbyPromChak,PhnomChisor,Takeoprovince,March17,2018.619Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon;SoAi,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,translatedbyPromChak,PhnomChisor,Takeoprovince,March17,2018. 620Kamon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,translatedbyPromChak,PhnomChisor,Takeoprovince,March17,2018.
255
theproject,wasasinglemotherofoneteenageson,whilehersisterTheary,twenty-nine,
hadjusthadababy.Weavingandmanagingtheworkshopwastheironlyrevenue.621
Fig.82YuonSophonworkingonherloom,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.
Fig.83Poninherhouseshowingabrightbluesampotholshehaswoven,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.
621 TomokoTakagiandChendaHeng,informalconversation,December23,2016,TaPouk,Cambodia.
256
Fig.84SoAiwithoneofherwovensilks,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.
Fig.85Kamonweavingasampotholathome,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.
257
Toaccessadistributionmarket,weaversbuildcloserelationshipswithamiddleman
(jhmaunkandal),whoprovidesmaterials,orders,andsales.Whilepatronageconnections
wereexaminedinChapterTwofromamacroperspectivebetweenandinsideorganisations,
inthischaptertheexperienceofkhsaeisexaminedfromtheweavers’pointofviewto
underlineissuesofmobilityandautonomy.AnthropologistSoumhyaVenkatesan,who
carriedoutextensiveresearchwithmat-weaversinPattamadai,SouthIndia,hasstressed
thatthenatureofweavingrequiresthepractitionertobephysicallypresent‘attheloom,
whichisfirmlyfixedinspacewithinthehome’.622Duetotheirhouseholdandfamilycare
duties,ruralweavershavelittleopportunitytocirculate.SoAi,YuonSophonandKamon
fromPhnomChisorallsaidthattheyhadneverbeentoPhnomPenhtoselltheirproducts
andsimplyreliedonamiddleman.Itwasnotevenclearwhatlevelofmobilitytheyhad
withinTakeoprovince,especiallyconsideringtheextentofthedailychoresthattiedthem
tothehome.
Incontrasttothefixedlocationoftheweavers,middlemen(menandwomen)appearas
mobileagentsempoweredbytheirconnectionsbetweenthecountrysideandthe
distributioncentres.Indeed,insociologistGeorgSimmel’stheory,thefigureofthe
‘stranger’,orthe‘trader’,isdevelopedinoppositiontothehandicraft‘producersofless
mobility’,whichiswhatappliesinCambodia.623Simmel’sperspectiveremainsgroundedin
aWestern-centricviewofthesocialworldwhichconsidersmobilityasavectorofprogress,
expansion,andintelligence.624Thisnarrativeperpetuatesahierarchicalsysteminwhich
traders‘embodyingthesynthesisofnearnessanddistance’dominatecraftsmen–inthis
casecraftswomen–whoaredeniedagency.625Thisperspectiveiscounteredby
622Venkatesan,‘LearningtoWeave;WeavingtoLearn...What?,’JournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitutevol16,no.1(2010):166.623GeorgSimmelandKurtH.Wolff,TheSociologyofGeorgSimmel(Glencoe,IL:FreePress,1950),403.624Ibid;alsoreferredinVenkatesan,‘LearningtoWeave;WeavingtoLearn...What?,’166.625Simmel,TheSociologyofGeorgSimmel,404.
258
repositioningweaversaskeyholdersofknowledgewithpotentagencythroughtheir
practice.
Middlemenhaveimposedconditionsofbusinessontheweavers,communicating
informationaboutthemarketandworkingcloselywiththemwhilemaintainingtheirhold.
Whentheydiscusstheirrelationshipwithmiddlemen,theweaversIinterviewedcommonly
usedthewordpibak(difficult)toexpressdistrust,helplessness,andresignation.Yuon
Sophonexplainedshewasfreetodesignanystyleshewanted,butshealsosaidbluntly‘we
doworkwithmiddleman,sothepriceisalwayslow’.626Iasked‘whatcanshedosothe
middlemankeepsgoodprices?’.Shesaid:‘it'sdifficultbecauseit'slikeacontract’,‘it’s
difficulttoincreasetheprice’.Tothequestion‘willshecontinueweaving?’,shesaidthat
‘shewillcontinue.Nochoice.Evenifthepriceislow,shehasnochoice’.627Similarly,Chendy
Heng,aparticipantintheARproject,said:‘itisnoteasytomakeonekbun.Butthedealers
whocometobuyfromthemakersandthentheybringittothecityandthentheysellit,
theymakemoreprofitthanthemaker’.628Chendyproduceduptothirtykbunayear,which
shewouldsellforaround90USDapiecetomiddlemen,whowouldthengetabout120USD
perpieceatthemarket.
DuringhisPhDfieldresearch,TerHorstinterviewedweaverswhofelttheyfearedtheir
middleman’sjudgementontheproductstheywouldpresentforsale.629TheweaversImet
didnotexpresssuchapprehension,buttheyfullyacknowledgedtheunequalrelationship
withtheirtrader.Forexample,SoAisaid:‘yes,shedoes[haveagoodrelationshipwithher
middleman]butsometimesheincreasesthepriceofthesilkmaterialandthenitdrops’.630
Thisleftanunsustainableshrinkingmarginofprofitforweavers.ThereforeSoAi
acknowledgedthat‘shehasalreadyaskedthemiddlemannottodropthepriceotherwise
626YuonSophon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.627Ibid.628ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.YuandTomokoTakagi,July26,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.629TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,19.630SoAi,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.
259
peoplewillstopproducing’.631Weaversdidnotrefertotheirintermediariesbyname,using
insteadthegenericandanonymoustermof‘middleman’,positioningtheseindividual
merchantsasanexternalforceandfiguresofauthority.
Howcouldweaversachievemoreautonomy?Thisquestionsupportsthesettingup
oftheARprojectanditsgoaltoencouragewomentoreclaimthewholeprocessofsilkhol
making,fromsourcingtoweaving,andtoexpandandsharetheirskills,valorisingtheir
technicalandcreativeknowledge.ThewomenIinterviewedwerefullyawarethatthey
couldgetahigherpricewithdirectaccesstorawmaterialsandcustomers.YuonSophon
admitted‘ifshehadmoney,shecouldbuytheproductjustatthemarketaroundhere,
withoutgoingthroughthemiddleman.Shecouldbuy,takethematerialandthensell.’632For
thatshewouldneedworkingcapitaltobuytherawmaterialsandnegotiateprices.
Forherpart,Pon‘usedtoworkwithmiddlemenbutshedoesn'twanttoanymore...Difficult.
Youcansellahigherpricebyyourself’.633Shechoseinsteadtobuyherownmaterialsand
sellbyherself.Pondidnotexplainhowshecouldaffordit.However,herhouselooked
significantlylargerthantheotherweavers’homesIvisitedinPhnomChisor,whichstrongly
suggeststhatshehadmoreavailablemeans.Twoofherdaughterslivedinadjoininghouses,
eachwithoneloomonthegroundfloorunderthestiltedstructure.Ponhadidentified
severalstrategiestofacilitateherwork.First,shepurchasedindustriallypre-dyedsilk
threadsimportedfromVietnamatthenearbymarketinTakeoinsteadofbuyingundyed
fibreforthewarpanddyeingitherself,apracticebecomingmoreçommonamongst
weavers.634Shealsoteamedupwithherdaughters,whomshehadtrained,untiltheygot
married.Forsimpleikatpatterns,shesubcontractedthestageoftyinganddyeingtheweft
threadstootherweaversinhervillageandonlyworkedonweavingtheseweftthreadsonto
631SoAi,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.632Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.633Ibid. 634SeeAppendixA2forthedetailedprocessesofholweaving.
260
theloom.Toincreaseherrevenue,sheworkedfaster:‘thatcanbedoneinoneweek’,
adding:‘that'swhysometimesshealsoworksatnight’.635Fordistribution,sheexplained
that‘beforeshebroughttheproductsbyherselfinPhnomPenh’atthemarket,butshethen
optedinsteadtosell‘justtoanyone,peoplewhowanttobuy,peoplewhocomeor
sometimesshebringstothemarketinTakeo’.636Ponmovedawayfromthemiddleman-
weavercontracttoearnmorefromeachsale.However,thecostoftherawmaterialshas
continuedtoincrease,andherworkhasremaineddependentonmarketdemands.What
stemsfromtheweavers’experiencespointstothenecessityofchallengingexistingmodels
ofdependencytowardsmiddlementosourcemoreaffordablematerials,increasesales
pricesandreachcustomers.
Globalisationisanothermajorfactoraffectingruralpopulations–andweavers–
andislinkedtomobilityandeconomicsurvival,eithermarginalisingthemorforcingthem
tochangetheiractivities.AswasseeninChapterTwo,thesilkworkforcehasreliedon
importedrawmaterialsfromThailandandVietnamtocompensateforthelimiteddomestic
sericulture.Moreover,sincethemid-1990s,theglobalisationoffastfashionproductionhas
ledtotheexpansionofgarmentmanufacture,whichismostlycontrolledbyChinese
interestssubcontractingforEuropeanandAmericanmultinationalsonCambodian
territory,andisquicklybecoming‘thebackboneofthecountry'sexport-driveneconomy’,
responsiblefor’40percentofCambodia’sGDP’.637Benefitingfromlow-skilledcheaplabour,
about1,522siteswereregisteredinCambodiain2017.638Originallylimitedtothearea
aroundPhnomPenhandlaterslowlyspreadingtotheotherprovincesofKampongSpeu
635Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.636Ibid.637RobinSpiess,,’ASectorTooBigtoFail?,’ThePhnomPenhPost,5April2018https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/sector-too-big-fail[AccessedOctober10,2019];GillianKane,‘FactsonCambodia’sGarmentIndustry,’CleanClothesCampaign,2014,3.638ChengSokhorng,‘IndustrialSectorGrows,butStillReliantonGarmentFactories,’ThePhnomPenhPost,February26,2018https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/industrial-sector-grows-still-reliant-garment-factories[AccessedAugust8,2019]
261
andTakeo,thisindustryemployedabout847,419workersin2017,alargemajorityof
whichwerewomen,whichhasdeeplyimpactedonvillagers’lives,andchallengedthe
continuationofsilkweaving.639
TheNSSreportconsideredtheindustrialgarmentsectorseparatelyfromthesilksector,as
‘partofadifferentvaluechainwithoutanymajorlinkagestosericultureandsilkweavingin
Cambodia’.640Theworkdiffersmarkedlyfromtextilehandicraftsintermsofproductsand
production,relyingonlabour-intensiveprocessesfollowingthecut-make-trimindustrial
model.641However,tosecureamorestablerevenue,manyweaversinruralareashave
abandonedtheiractivityinfavourofjobsinsewingandtailoringinfactoriesfarfromtheir
hometowns.Thispredicamentispartofthelargerissueofrural-urbanmigrationwhichhas
affectedthecountrygenerally.642
OneexampleofthesechangesinactivityinthecountrysideisprovidedbytheJapaneseNGO
CYK,whichhasoperatedweavingtrainingprogrammesforCambodianyouthandwomenin
TrapaingKrasaingvillage,Batidistrict,Takeoprovince,since2003[Fig.86].643
639‘’Workfasterorgetout’:LaborRightsIssuesinCambodia’sGarmentIndustry’,HumanRightsWatch,March11,2015https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/03/11/work-faster-or-get-out/labor-rights-abuses-cambodias-garment-industry[AccessedonAugust8,2019]640CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,5.641NGOs,domesticandinternationalpress,andunionisedactivistsprotestingagainsttheworkconditionsandlowrevenuesofgarmentfactoryemployeesinCambodiahavepushedthegovernmenttoraiseminimumwages,whichhaveincreasedfrom61USDin2012to182USDin2018.SeeWorkersRightsConsortium,'CambodianWorkersSeekingHigherWagesMeetViolentRepression,’[pdf]March24,2014,9-15.https://www.workersrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/WRC-Report-Crackdown-in-Cambodia-3.24.14.pdf642UNESCO,UNDP,IOM,andUN-Habitat,‘OverviewofInternalMigrationinCambodia,'PolicyBriefsonInternalMigrationinSoutheastAsia,(Bangkok:UNESCOBangkok,2016),3.643Intermsofmanagement,CYKisoperatedbyaCambodianteamwithSreyChanascountrydirectorandPhengSophalasadministrator.TheorganisationreceivestheactivesupportofJapaneseadvisors,especiallyHarumiSekiguchi,whoarrivedinCambodiain1999andfirstworkedinrefugeecampsontheThaiborderbeforetakingontheroleofdirectoratCYK.SekiguchihasnowrelocatedtoJapanandvisitsCambodiaregularly.CYKreliesonsales,alongwithfundingfromJapanandadditionalsupportfromFriendsofKhmerCulturefoundation.
262
Fig.86TheCYKweavingcentreislocatedinTrapaingKrasaingcommune,Batidistrict,Takeoprovince.GoogleMaps,August25,2019.
ImetthreeparticipantsofCYKprogrammes:AmSai,NowSaraem,andPheachwhowereat
theweavingcentreinAugust2017.Theyhadregisteredfortheadvancedcourseinpidan,
weavingpictorialhangings,thatstartedinApril2017[Figs.87-88-89].644Pidanhadbeena
prominentpracticeinTakeoprovince,buthadnearlyvanishedbytheearly1990s.Pheng
Sophal,manageratCYK,explainedthatuntil2008,theNGOprovidedtentrainingclassesa
yearfocusedondifferentaspectsoftheweavingprocess,fromwarping,creatingtie-
dyepatternsforweftikat,masteringnaturaldyes,weavingandcostcalculation.These
programmesengageduptotwohundredfemaleweaversfromTakeoperyear.Afterthe
training,CYKcontinuedtosupportweaversbyplacingregularordersofsilkpidanandhol,
payingfortherawmaterialsandsellingthefinishedproductsintheNGO’sshopinPhnom
Penh.Demandfortraininghasdrasticallydecreasedsincethen,due,accordingtoSophal,to
thespreadofgarmentfactoriesthroughouttheprovince,inparticularaplantthatopenedin
644CYKsellsthesepidanasartworksanddecorativeitemsatahighprice,rangingfrom460USDforamulticolouredpieceinnaturaldyesandimportedindustrialsilkto1130USDforapidaninCambodiangoldensilkinindigo.HarumiSekiguchi,informalconversation,December29,2016,PhnomPenh,Cambodia.
263
2015neartheCYKcentre.645WhenIvisitedin2017,CYKhadonlyimplementedfour
trainingprogrammes:howtomakeakimono(whichAmSaihadfollowed),howtoweavea
holcloth,aholscarf,andpidanweaving.646Sophalhadalsonoticedthatthelastfew
independentartisansaroundTrapaingKrasaingweremostlyproducingnylonscarves,and
hadabandonedsilk.647
GlobalisationhasbroughtWesternmodesofproductiontoCambodia.Examining
contemporaryformsoflabourwithinaWesternunderstandingofmodernsociety,
sociologistRichardSennetthassuggestedthattheriseofmass-productionisamajorcause
ofsocialinequalityandprecarity,leadingtothephenomenonof‘de-skilling’:thatis,‘the
replacementofmenbymachinesinindustrialproduction,ascomplexmachinesreplaced
skilledcraftlabour’.648Inresponse,Sennettemphasisesthatcraftpracticesareinvaluable
toolstore-skillsocieties,especiallyviacommunitywork.Asdiscussedintheprevious
chapterwiththeexamplesofIKTTandAA,handicraftcompaniesinCambodiahave
sustainedtheideathathandicraftsarepracticesrespectfulofheritageandtradition.Inthis
sense,choosingtoworkatagarmentfactoryratherthanpractisinghandweavingwould
threatenthetransmissionandcontinuationofsilkpractices.
645PhengSophal,informaldiscussion,August3,2017,TrapaingKrasaing,Cambodia.646AmSai,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,trans.byRothmono,August3,2017,TrapaingKrasaing,Cambodia.647HarumiSekiguchi,informalconversation. 648RichardSennett,Togetherness:TheRituals,Pleasures&PoliticsofCooperation(London:PenguinGroup,2012),7-8;Deskillingisatermusedinthesociologyofwork,stemmingfromthestudyofindustrialisationandtechnologicalchangesintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturyinEurope.SeeFlorianBruggerandChristianGehrke,'SkillingandDeskilling:TechnologicalChangeinClassicalEconomicTheoryanditsEmpiricalEvidence,’TheoryandSociety47(2018):663–689.
264
Fig.87AmSaiweavinganindigo-dyedpidan,CYKweavingcentre,TrapaingKrasaing,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.
Fig.88NowSaraemworkingonthetyingframeforaspecialsampotholorder,CYKweavingcentre.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.
265
Fig.89Pheachsortingandcollectinggoldensilkthreads,CYKweavingcentre.Author’sphotograph,August3,2017.
Incontrast,Venkatesanhascriticallyestablishedthenarrativeofcraftsversus
industrialisationasanexpressionofFoucault’sconceptofheterotopia,whicharticulates
‘utopianvisions[…]throughsocialpractices,andhowthisprocesspointstoquestionsof
powerandagency’.649Foucaulthasdescribedheterotopiaasadisruptivespace‘witha
preciseanddeterminedfunctionwithinasociety’,bringingtogetheropposingelementsor
discontinuoustimesintoonesite.650Venkatesan’scritiqueisconcernedwithnarrativesthat
promotenostalgicspacesforapre-industrialisedsociety,keepingcraftproducersina
passiveroleofperpetuatingtraditionsandpresentingthemas‘victimsofmodernisation
requiringassistance’.651
649SoumhyaVenkatesan,‘RethinkingAgency:PersonsandThingsintheheterotopiaof‘traditionalIndiancraft,’78-79;heterotopia,fromtheGreekhetero,place,andtopia,another:‘anotherplace’650MichelFoucault,“DesEspacesAutres”(OfOtherSpaces:UtopiasandHeterotopias),Architecture,Mouvement,Continuité,5(October1984):46–49;trans.JayMiskowiecinDiacritics16,no.1(Spring,1986):25-26.651Venkatesan,‘RethinkingAgency:PersonsandThingsintheHeterotopiaof‘TraditionalIndianCraft,’87.
266
LivedexperienceinCambodiahasindeedrevealedanalternativeperspectivetothatofthe
silkheterotopia.Theeconomicrationalebehindcraftmakingisapriorityformakers.My
researchinCambodiahasrevealedthattheweavershavenuancedpositions.Someofthese
womenhaveexpressedinterestinworkingattheroumtchaktakdey(garmentfactory)
insteadofweaving,despitethehealthandsafetyissuesinmanyofthosefactories.652
Chenda'sstoryillustrateshowmobilityandphysicalfactorsplayanessentialrolein
weavingactivities.ThismasterweaveratKY,whohasledtheARproject,grewupinTakeo
provinceandmovedseveraltimes.ShearrivedinPhnomPenhinherlateteens,andwhen
violenceeruptedin1997shelefttoworkbrieflyinKampongChamprovinceforacraft
organisation.653Shesaidthatat‘abouteighteenyearsold,sheworkedoneyearin
thegarmentfactory’beforereturningtoweaving.Sheadded:‘itcausedherlegpain,
numbness.[…]So,hermothertookcareofherandtookhertothehospital.Andafterthat
shegottreatedandherlegswerebetter.Andso,shecouldcontinuetoworkonweavingin
Takeo’.Sheexplainedthat‘shedidn'tlikethegarmentfactorymuchbecauseofthe
chemicalsandthesituationinwhichshewasworkingwasnotgoodforher,sheonly
workedtheretomakemoney’.654In2005shemovedwithheraunttoSiemReaptocontinue
weaving,followedshortlyafterbyheryoungersisterTheary,andjoinedKYin2006.
Chenda’stestimonyepitomisesthedirectconnectionbetweenmattersofthebody,weaving
practices,andagency.Weavingisfirstanembodiedmatter,takingphysicalabilitiesandage
askeydecidingfactors.Incidentally,tothequestion‘wassheeverinterestedinworkingina
garmentfactory’,NowSaraem,oneofthetraineesatCYKcentre,answered‘shewantedto,
652MartaKasztelan,‘Cambodia’sGarmentWorkersVulnerabletoUnsafeAbortions,’Guardian,July13,2016https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jul/13/cambodias-garment-workers-vulnerable-to-unsafe-abortions[AccessedAugust8,2019];KhouthSophakChakrya,‘Nearly300GarmentWorkersTreatedafterFaintingatTakeoFactory,’ThePhnomPenhPost,10July2018https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/nearly-300-garment-workers-treated-after-fainting-takeo-factory[AccessedAugust8,2019].653Chendacouldnotrememberthenameofthisorganisation,assumingitwasaboklakangkar(NGO). 654ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.YuandTomokoTakagi,July26,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.
267
but[…]sheisalittlebittoooldnowsosheisworkinghere’.655
ForSoAiandYuonSophonfromPhnomChisor,handicraftswerenotconsideredtobea
nobleroptionthanthefactory.656Garmentfactoriesanddomesticweavingpracticeswere
notinopposition,butsimplytwoincome-generatingoptionsforruralwomenin
contemporaryCambodia.YuonSophonhadstartedtoteachhereighteen-year-olddaughter
howtoweave.Nevertheless,forherthreechildren,shehoped‘theymightgetabetterjob
andabetterplacethanthisone’.657WhileNowSaraemwoveforCYK,hertwodaughters
workedinfactories,oneinembroideryandtheotherintailoring.658
Withoutre-evaluatingcraftpracticeswithimprovedworkconditionsandalternativesto
bypassthemonopolisticroleofthemiddleman,promotingSennett’sreskillingmodelisnot
sufficienttotakeCambodiancraftswomenoutofpoverty.Theywillcontinuetoseekhigher
wagesandleavetheirhometowns.
Thefindingspresentedinthissectionexplorefemaleweavers’agency.Thewaysinwhich
weaversexperiencehouseholdduties,economicstrain,distributionchallenges,mobilityand
factoryworkdisruptthediscoursesoftraditionthatanimatethesilkscape,asdiscussedin
ChapterTwo,emphasisingthatsilkisanancestralpractice,ashowcasefortraditional
Cambodianculture,andits‘importance[…]foreconomicdevelopmentandthecultural
heritageofCambodia,aswellasitsimportancefortourismpromotion’.659Femaleweavers
negotiatetheconstraintsoftheirdualroleofcaretakerandprovider,theirstifling
dependenceonmiddlemenandlackofaccesstosourcinganddistribution.Theyaspireto
betterwages,andiftheirphysicalconditionallowsittheymayconsiderfactorywork.
Transmittingtheirknowledgeinweavingtotheirdaughtersservestwopurposes,training
655NowSaraem,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,trans.byRothmono,August3,2017,TrapaingKrasaing,Cambodia.656NowSaraem,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon;SoAi,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon;‘Shesaysherhealthisnotgoodtoworkatthefactorysoshedoesthat,onlyweaving.Alsoherageisnotacceptabletoworkatthefactory’.InYuonSophon,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.657YuonSophon,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.658NowSaraem,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.659CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,viii.
268
someonetohelpthemandpassingonmarketableskills.Fromthisevidence,theARproject
withKYworkshopwasdevelopedaroundexpandingtheweavers’strategiestoregain
agencywithinthesilkscapethroughmaterialsourcing,skillsbuilding,collaborativework
andaformofyarningexchangefosteredbyinterviews.
PlanningtheKramaYuyu(KY)ActionResearch(AR)project
ThissectionfocusesontheplanningoftheARproject.KYworkshopwasorganised
aroundthejointleadershipofTomokoTakagi,supervisingfinances,commissionsand
administrativework,andChendaHeng,overseeingtextiletrainingandproduction.Forthe
ARproject,Tomokowasinterestedinsupportingtheweaversindevelopingsilkikat
samples,toidentifythetime,costandprocessesneededtocreateanewlineofsilkproducts
andreachpotentialnewbuyers.660
Ididnotinterveneinthesourcingofmaterials,leavingtheweaversfreetodecidewhatthey
woulduseaccordingtotheirknowledgeandexperience.Inthepreparationstage,Tomoko
workedonpurchasingrawmaterialsandorganisingtheactionwiththeweavers,including
coordinatingmyvisitforaweekinJuly.Originally,theKYteamhadthoughtaboutmaking
fiveikatsamples.InMay2017theydecidedtoreduceittothreepieces,tofittheircostand
workcapacity.661AnunplannedfourthpiecewasmadebyChendaattheendoftheproject.
Eachsilkkbun,fourmetreslongandonemetrewide,wasdeconstructedbyChendaand
Tomokoasfollows:onepieceismadeofaboutfourone-metrerepeats(bunteah)oftheikat
pattern(koem),eachbrokenintoseventeenbobbins(knar).Foronekbun,thismeant
preparingfoursetsofseventeenconsecutiveknarofweftikatthreads,followingaspecific
ordertoformthedesiredpatternduringweaving[Figs.90a-b].
660TomokoTakagi,personalemailexchangewithauthor,June11,2017.661TomokoTakagiandChendaHeng,personalemailexchangewithauthor,May26,2017.
269
Figs.90a-bDiagramofthedesignstructureofoneholpiece(kbun)asdeconstructedbyTomokoandChendafortheweavingprocess.Author’sphotographofasetofseventeenbobbins(knar)representingonerepeat(bunteah)ofonepattern(koem).
TheprojectstartedinMay2017,tobecompletedbyAugust2017.Duetoother
commissionedwork,theweaverseventuallyfinishedweavingallthepieceslaterthan
originallyplanned,inOctober2017,asshowninFigure91.DuringthephaseswhereIwas
notonsiteTomokoactedasaco-researcher,facilitatingexchangeswiththeweavers,taking
picturesandinformingmebyemailofkeyadvancesintheproject.Apreliminaryscheduling
chartfromJuly2017providesagoodexampleofherparticipation.662Sheprepareditin
EnglishandKhmertoexplaintheplanningforapproximatelyonemonth,fromearlyJulyto
mid-August,andthebudgetformaterialsandequipmentofabout200USD.Thecomplex
chartdetailseachstepoftheweavingprocess,withthenumberofdaysandweaverforeach
task.Itstartswithwarping(pteah)forsixdays’work.Then,itdescribestheworkonweft
threadsforthreekbuninseparatestages:boilingsilk,rollingsilkbundles,tyingthepatterns
(koem),dyeing,rollingintobobbinsandweaving.Theikatdesignsweredesignatedaskoem
withaletter,andunderlinedindifferentcolours:orangeforkoemA,greenforkoemB,
662SeeAppendixA5.
270
blue/brownforkoemC.Thisworkingdocument,servingseveralpurposes,helpedTomoko
andChendaplantheweavers’workload,ensurethesmoothfunctioningoftheprojectand
sharewithmetheintricateprocessofhol.
Fig.91ActionResearchprojectfullplanningfromMaytoOctober2017.
MyvisitwasplannedfromJuly24to30,sothattheprojectwasadvancedenough
formetobeabletoobserveasmanystepsaspossibleandconductinterviews.Oneofthese
processeswaspreparingthewarpthreads,whichhasoftenbeenoverlookedinthestudyof
ikattextiletechniques.Warpingconsistsinpreparingtheneededamountofyarninlength
andwidththatwillbeinstalledfirstontheloom.Thearyoversawthewindingofthewarp
dyedyarnonspools.IttookfivedaysfromJune15to21[Fig.92].Fromthesespools,yarns
271
wererewoundonawarpingframeunderaneventension,withacrossateachendofthe
frametokeepthewarpendsseparatedandinorder.ThisprocesswasconductedonJuly21.
Fig.92Thearywindingtheblackwarpthreadsonspools,TaPoukvillage,June2017.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi.
Iwasabletoseewhathappensafterthisprocessincludingtherollingofthewarpontoa
beam,itspassingthroughthereedandpartsofitsinstallationontheloom.Moreattention
hasbeenputonthetyinganddyeingprocessesoftheweftyarns,theweaving,andthestudy
ofikatmotifs,whichiswhyImadeashortdocumentaryonwhatIobservedofthewarping
processattheworkshop,inadditiontoanotherfilmonweft.663FromAugusttoOctober,I
workedontheinterviewtranscripts.IalsocollaboratedwithfilmeditorRemiBuonototurn
thefootagefrommyfieldworkintotwoshortfilms,whichareexploredfurtherinthe
observationsection.
663SeeGreen’sextensivefocusonweftdesignsinGreen,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia.
272
Intermsofequipment,onefloorloomwassetasidespecificallyfortheprojectatthe
workshop.Besidesgivingtimelyhelpinsomeofthestagesofthewarpanddyeing
processes,therestofthestaffcontinuedtoworkoncottonkramaordersontheother
looms.TheweaversinformedmeaboutmaterialsourcingonlywhenIarrivedonsiteinJuly
2017.Theyhadoptedforfinemulberrysilk,importedfromVietnam,purchasedpre-dyedin
blackforthewarpthreadsandundyedfortheweftinTakeoprovinceandshippedtoTa
Pouk.ChendaandThearywerenotfamiliarwithgoldensilk.664Inassessingthequalityof
silk,Chendaexplainedthattheywantedafibre‘tobesoft,heavy,smoothandlook
beautiful’.665ChendaalsoreliedonhermotherChendy’sadvice:sherecommendedusing
whitefinesilkfromVietnam.Discussinggoldensilk,Chendysaid:’theprocesstoobtainsilk
fromthecocoonisdifficult,andittakessolong,andnownoonedoesitanymore’[Fig.93].666
ThisstatementmirrorstheobservationinChapterOnethatCambodianweaversrely99per
centuponwhitesilkandarelessfamiliarwithindigenousgoldensilk.667
ThefastdyeswereimportedfromThailandandpurchasedfromatextileshopinTakeo
province.ChendaandThearyconsideredtheywereaninexpensiveoption,withquick
resultsandboldcolours,andbecausetheirmother,Chendy,andaunt,Somaly,had
recommendedthem[Fig.94].668
664ChendaHeng,informalconversation,July26,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.665Ibid. 666ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.667Goldensilkneedstobethoroughlydegummedtoremoveitsyellowcolourtobedyed,whileindustriallyprocessedwhitesilkissoldpre-washedandreadytobedyed.668ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.
273
Fig.93Industrially-producedfinesilkimportedfromVietnamnexttogoldensilkatKramaYuyuworkshop,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.
Fig.94EmptypacketsofpinkchemicalfastdyefromThailandfortheholtie-dyeprocess.Author’sphotograph,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia,July24,2017.
274
Chendaworkedondesigningthreesampotholwithmulticolouredpatterns.Forinspiration,
sheexplainedthatshelookedatsomebookssheownsbut‘doesn'tusuallyuse’,adding:‘in
thebookstherearesimpledesignsthatshenoticedforhol’.669Sheselectedfivedifferent
polychromicgeometrickoem(designs)withpatternsofsmallandlargescale,sayingthat
‘shecannotmakeanotherdesign,thisisaneasyoneshecando,butforananimalorabirdit
ismoredifficultforher’.670Sheisseenhere–photographedbyTomoko–drawingsections
ofthesemotifsonpaperthatdeconstructthekeymoduleforkoemBtodeterminehowshe
wouldreinterpretthemonthetyingframe[Figs.95a-b].Duringthetying,shedidnotusethe
paperbutkeptthebookopenonthesampotholpictureshehadchosen.
Figs.95a-bChendalookingatholmotifsinbooksanddraftingthetyingpatterns,TaPoukvillage,May2017.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi.
669ChendyHeng,ChendaHeng,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon. 670Ibid.
275
ObservingweavingduringtheActionResearchprojectatKramaYuyu
ThissectionmovestotheobservationstageoftheARproject.Thisperiodof
fieldworktookplaceintheweekofJuly24,2017,atKYindoorworkshopinTaPoukvillage,
whichaccommodatesaboutthirtylooms,largestocksofcolouredcottonthreads,amini
showroomspace,andadyeingareawithpotsandvats.IwasstayinginahotelinSiemReap,
about15kmfromTaPouk,andwenttothefacilitywithatuk-tukdriver,stayingfrom8am
to5pm,includinglunch.Ispentthreefulldaysonsite,spreadacrosstheweeksothatI
couldobservedifferentkindsoftasks,aspresentedonthischart[Fig.96].Thegoalwasto
documentthekeystagesofmakingsilkholinadditiontointerviewingChenda,Theary,and
theirmotherChendy.July24wasdedicatedtothewarpingstageandJuly26tothetying
anddyeingoftwodesignskoemAandB,followedbyaninterviewsessioninwhichChendy,
whowasonlyavailabletojointhatday.July30wasspentinstartingtheweavingofkoemA
ontheloomandinterviewingChenda,Theary,andTomokoabouttheirimpressionsofthe
silkweavingproject.OnthedayswhenIwasnotpresent,weaverscontinuedtoworkon
specificstepssuchastyinganddyeingweftthreadsandmakingtheheddlesfortheloom.I
didnottakepartintheweavingprocessmyselfandusedphotographyandfilmastoolsto
transcribetheembodiedexperienceofholpracticesreclaimedbyKYweavers.
276
Fig.96ChartoftheARobservationandinterviewprogramme.
OnJuly24,Chenda,Thearyandtheirteamstartedpreparingthepre-dyedblacksilk
threadsdestinedforthewarp.ChendaandhersisterThearyhadhelpedtheirmotheras
teenagersbuttheyhadnevercompletedallthestagesofwarpingsilkbefore.Oneofthe
laterstepsofwarpingconsistsofmethodicallywindingthefullwidthofthewarpyarns,
withouttanglingthethreads,onabeamwhichwillbeplacedontheloom,keepinganeven
tensionintheprocess.671ItwasledbyChenda,Theary,Sarin,Salat,SreiPonandSoKim,
usingthewholelengthoftheworkshoptokeepthe17m-longwarpintensionbetweentwo
671SeeAppendixA2.
277
woodensticksateachendandoperatethebeamingprocess[Fig.97].672Irecordedthis
actionwithadigitalcamera,whichprovidedthefootagefortheshortfilmTheSilk
Chronicles:Warp.Whileobservingtheprocessandfilming,themainthingInoticedwasthat
insteadofgivingverbalorders,Chendaphysicallymovedeachweaveraroundthewarp
threads,betweenthedifferentstations.Shethenbroughtthewarpingboardforwinding.
Eachweavermovedinacoordinatedmanner,contributingtothestraighteningand
separatingofthewarpthreadsrunningunderandovertherodsandrollingaroundthe
warpingboard.Chenda’sinstructionsweremostlyimplicit,initiatingeachstepandletting
therestoftheteamfollowherleadinstinctively,whilealsorelyingontheirownknowledge
ofwarpingcottonthreads.
Inaddition,theprocessofeditingthefilm,andbeingabletowatchtheactionseveraltimes,
hasenabledanadditionallayerofanalysisaroundwarpingasaformofchoreography.In
thefilm,theyswapplaces,eyesrivetedonthewarp,placingtheirhandsandtouchingitwith
theirfingerstocheckthetension.Iusedthesplit-screeneffectintheeditingtoshowthe
interplaybetweenweaversandtheirmovementwithintheworkshopspace[Fig.98].
672TheSilkChronicles:Warp,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[TC02:14]
278
Fig.97Weaversinthewarpingprocesstryingtokeepthethreadsuntangled,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.
Fig.98Splitscreenshowingweaversonbothendofthewarpthreadstokeepthetensioneven.FromTheSilkChronicles:Warp,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[TC01:10].
279
Oncethewarphadbeenbeamed,theteammovedtothedrawing-instage,which
consistsofdrawingthewarpendsthroughtheharness’heddlesorthereedintheorder
requiredbythedesignoftheclothtobewoven.673Chendaselectedametallicreed(tchak
tamani)onemetrewide.674Thearysatonthefloorandmeticulouslypassedeachwarpend
througheachdentofthereed,withthehelpofanotherweaver[Fig.99].Theyfinishedthe
processduringthefollowingday.
Fig.99Oneweaverseparatingthethreadsandtheotherpassingitthroughthereed’sdentwithahook,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.
Fortheweft,theweaversworkedontyinganddyeingthefirsttwopieces,koemA
andkoemB,onJuly24-26.Toachievethedesiredeffectofpolychromicpatternsusingthe
673SatyaNarayanDash,HandloomIndustryinIndia,109.Theheddlesareusuallymadeofmetallicwireorfinecordandareattachedtotheshaftofaloom.Warpthreadsarepassedthrougheachheddletobeevenlyarranged,andfollowspecificweavestructures,whenshaftswillliftupanddown.Thewarpthreadsusuallypassthroughtheheddlesfirstandthenthroughthereed’sdents.Thisstageofpassingthewarpendsthrougheachdenttoseparatethethreadsevenlyiscalledsleying.Thereedisheldbythebeater.Theshuttleholdingweftthreadswillcrossthroughthewarpendsforthetextiletobewoven. 674SeeAppendixA2.
280
resist-dyetechniquetheweaversworkedthroughfoursuccessiveroundsoftying,dyeingin
onecolouranddryingthetiedskein.Theymanipulatedthesilkweftthreadsthrough
severalforms:onatyingframe,knottedintoabundlefordyeing,thenturnedintospools,
andfinallybeingwovenontheloom.Acrossthreedaysofobservationoveraweek,Isaw
thevariousstagesoftheweftikatprocess,includingtying,dyeingandthestepcalledbauk,
whichinvolveshittingdyedsilkskeinsinametallicbasintoallowthedyetogodeeperinto
thefibreinspiteoftheknottedareas.
Again,filmingprovidedamethodologytocapturethesegesturesandanalysethem.675
ReviewingthefootageusedtomakeWeftconfirmedthatthesesuccessiveprocesses
demandoutstandinghandskills,precisionandstrength,butalsomentalskillssuchas
anticipation,theabilitytoprojectandimagine,andadaptabilitytospatialand
environmentalconstraints.OnkoemB,Chendatiedtheweftthreadsmeticulouslywith
plasticstripstopreventthedyefromcolouringtheseareas.Sheproceededtothefirstdye
bath,abrightpink(pkaachu)chemicalfastdyefromThailandmixedwithwarmwater,
withoutgloves,whichcolouredherskin[Fig.100].Aftersuccessivelyplungingthesilk
bundleintoapinkvatoverafireandleavingittoboil,theweaversrinseditandleftittodry
outside.
675TheSilkChronicles:Weft,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[TC00:41-00:55]
281
Fig.100ChendaandTheary’shandscheckingthequalityofthepinkdyeingprocess,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July24,2017.
Asstatedearlier,thisARprojectallowedtheweaverstoimplementtheirownstrategiesand
focusedondynamicsofknowledgeinsilk-making.WhileIrefrainedfromintervening,Istill
raisedmyconcernthatthistypeoffastdyeisconsideredharmfulfortheenvironmentand
toxicforthemakers’health.676Weaversdidnotwearprotectivegogglesorgloves,and
seemedunconcerned.Tomoko,forherpart,tooknoteofit.Thishealthandsafetyissuewill
beaddressedinthenextsectionontheweavers’interviewsandevaluationoftheAR
project.
OnJuly26,ThearystartedthesecondroundoftyingforkoemB,installingtheweft
threadsonanikatbambooframetounmaskcertainareasandcoverotherswiththinplastic
stripsinpreparationforthenextdyebathofyellow(luong)[Fig.101].Theary’shand
676RebeccaMoss,’MassFaintingandClothingChemicals,’HowWeGettoNexthttps://howwegettonext.com/mass-fainting-and-clothing-chemicals-c352b94bb54b[AccessedJune16,2019]
282
movementswerefastandprecise.Thefilmfootageemphasiseshoweachgestureseemsto
repeatthepreviousone,eventhoughittiesadifferentareaofthesilkweft,wrappingthe
plasticstripstightlyaroundthethreads,cuttingtheremnantswithaknife,andmoving
acrossthetyingframe.677Eachknotbuildsonthepreviousonetorepeltheyellowdyeand
formtheplannedpatternontheweft.Inthatsense,thisphaseofobservationdemonstrates
howtheikatmotifsappearingonthefinaltextilesareaproductofrepeatedgesturesof
tying,dyeing,untying.AsIngoldsuggests,incraftsmanship‘notwostrokesareidentical.
Anditisalsowhysawinghasarhythmicquality.Fortheretoberhythm,movementmustbe
felt.Rhythmicityimpliesnotjustrepetitionbutdifferenceswithinrepetition’.678Thearyset
aspecificpaceforherpracticeinadialoguebetweenherhands,theplastictiesandtheweft
threads,inanembodied‘monitoringofthetaskasitunfolds’.679
Whileshemasteredtying,Thearystruggledwithdyeing,asshewaslessexperienced.The
yellowdyewouldnottake.HersisterChendatookover,checkedthedyevat,addedmore
chemicaldyestuffandplungedthetiedbundlemorethoroughly.680Theweaverseventually
obtainedthedesiredeffect,withsomepartsoftheweftinbrightyellowandotherparts
over-dyeingthepinkareastocreateawarmreddish-orangetone[Fig.102].
677TheSilkChronicles:Weft[TC03:20-04:20]678TimIngold,‘TheTextilityofMaking,’CambridgeJournalofEconomics34(2010):98.679Ibid.680TheSilkChronicles:Weft[TC05:00-06:43]
283
Fig.101ThearyonthesecondroundoftyingkoemB,unmaskingcertainareasandcoveringotherswithplasticstrips,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July26,2017.
Fig.102SplitscreenshowingChendaandThearydyeingthetiedpinksilkskeinintheyellowvat.FromTheSilkChronicles:Weft,film,dir.MagaliAnBerthon,2017[TC04:33].
284
Finally,onceshehadfinisheddyeingthesilkskeinforkoemA,Thearytransferreditto
spoolsmadeofwoodensticks(knar)forweaving.681Holdingthespoolwithherlefthand
androllingthespinningwheelwithherright,Thearywoundthethreadsontosetsof
successivespools,eachsetformingonerepeatofthemotif.Crouchingonthefloor,she
followedthecontinuousmovementofthethread,usingherhandstooperatethewheel,
feelingthethreadsrollingaroundthespoolwiththefingersofherlefthand,asshownin
thisclose-up[Fig.103].Touchinghelpedherassessandadjusttherightrhythmtowindthe
threadevenlyonthespools.
Fig.103ThearyspinningthemulticolouredweftsilkthreadsforkoemBonspools,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.
InmyabsenceonJuly28-29,ChendaandThearyinstalledthewarpontheoneloom
mobilisedfortheproject.OnmyfinalvisitinJuly30,Chendafinishedthisprocessandfixed
theedges.Shethenproceededtothreadtheheddlesonthreesetsofrodstomakethree
681TheSilkChronicles:Weft[TC06:59-09:40]SeeagainFigure90.
285
shafts[Figs.104a-b].Cambodianweaversmakenon-reusablecordheddlesbyhand,
whereasEuropeanloomshavepre-madewireheddles.Thisstepisoftenoutsourcedto
othervillagers,tomaketheprocesseasierandfaster.682
Fig.104aChendamanuallymakingtheheddlesontheloom,Author’sphotograph,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia,July30,2017.Fig.104bDiagramofwheretheheddlesarepositionedontheloom.
ResettlingintheSiemReapareahasmodifiedChenda’sandTheary’spracticewithoutthe
accesstoanetworkofsubcontractorsinneighbouringvillages.Chendaexplained:‘inTakeo
provincetheyhaveacoupleofpeople,expertsindoingthisthing[heddles][…]theywill
bringittotheirhouseandtheydoit,afterthey'redone,theybringitbacktothem[the
weavers]’.683Inthiscase,heddlesaredoneseparatelyandloopedaroundupperandlower
682ChendaandThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthonaboutChenda'svillageinTakeoProvince,trans.YuandTomokoTakagi,July30,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.;TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,130.683Ibid.
286
rods.Onceready,heddlesaredirectlyinstalledandattachedtotheloom.Theweaverthen
threadsthewarpendsthroughtheheddlesonebyoneandthentiesthewarponthefront
beamoftheloom,andthendrawsthemthroughthereed.Subcontractingthisprocessthus
changestheorderofthedifferentsteps.
Ontheloom,Chendaspenttimecoatingthewarp,usingabristlebrush(praing)dippedin
watermixedwithtapiocastarchtoprotectthefinesilkthreadsandhelptheprocess
[Fig.105].Tomoko,whowaspresent,explainedthattapiocastarchstrengthenedthefibres.
However,iftheweatheristoohot,thestarchdriestoofastanditcanmakethesilkbrittle.
Ontheotherhand,ifitisrainy,thestarchdoesnotdryandalsodamagesthesilk.Marchand
hasrightlyarguedthatitisimpossibletodenytheimpactoftheenvironmentonthe
learningexperience.Byenvironment,hemeans‘artifacts,tools-to-hand,andrawmaterials;
space,place,andarchitecture;pathsandboundaries;time-framesandtemporalrhythms;
light,darkness,andweather’.684Theweavingworkshop,operatingunderspecificweather
conditions,becameamicro-environmenttowhichtheweaversactivelyresponded.
Oncethewarpwasready,Chendawoveabout12cmofblueandblacksegmentstostart.She
thenusedthefirstspooloftheknarsetof17spoolspreparedbyhersisterintheshuttleto
composetheikatmotifrepeatontheloom[Fig.106].Bytheendoftheday,shehad
managedtoweaveasegmentof5cm(ona1mwidth)asshowninthispicture[Fig.107].Hol
textilesarewovenfromthereverse.Theexteriorsideofthefabriccanbeseenwhenthe
warpisunrolledfromtheloom.Onanuneventwill,whilebothsidesareshowingtheikat
patterns,thereverseisdarker(showingmoreofthewarpthreads)andtheexteriorsideis
brighter(showingmoreoftheweftthreads).
684Marchand,MakingKnowledge,2.
287
Fig.105Chendacoatingthewarpwithwatermixedwithtapioca,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July30,2017.
Figs.106-107Left:AspooloftheknarforkoemAisputinashuttleandpassedthoughthewarp.Right:Chenda’shandshowingthemulticolouredsectionshehaswoven.Author’sphotographs,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia,July30,2017.
Thisperiodofobservationhasfocusedontheweavers’decisionsandactions.This
sectionisbasedonmemoriesofmydirectobservationsduringfieldwork,thatwerealso
capturedinnote-takingandphotography.Italsoreliedonthereviewingoffilmfootageand
theeditingofWarpandWeftasmethodologicaltoolstoexploreweavingasagestural
practice.Thefilmsprovideamaterialillustrationoftacitknowledge.Followingphilosopher
288
MichaelPolyani,IwoZmyslonydevelopedalinguisticanalysisoftheterm‘tacit’,definingit
as‘quiet’,or‘withouttheuseofspeech’,fromtheLatinadjectivetacite.Morebroadly,Ingold
hasarguedthat‘tacit’hasarangeofmeanings,‘fromthesilentthroughtheunspokentothe
implicit’.685Acknowledgingthattheweavers’voiceshavebeenmediatedbytranslation,the
useoffilmoffersamoredirectaccesstotheweavers’bodiesasproducersofknowledgeand
howsilkholprocessesareenactedinaspecificspaceandenvironment.Thetechnical
descriptionofholweavingandthevisualanalysisofaselectionoffinishedpieces(seenin
ChapterOne)areenhancedbywitnessingthecomplexityofthoughtandskillputinto
weaving,shownthroughthehandsandbodiesoftheweavers.
Handicraftproductioninherentlyinvolvestheperformanceofmaking.686InChapter
Two,theperformanceofhandicrafts,forinstanceattheAAsilkfarminPuok,wasusedto
signifytheauthenticationofCambodiansilkweavingtoatouristaudience.AtKY,weavers
performedsilkikatweavingtoimplementtheproject,butalsoformybenefit,asresearcher
andobserver.TheseideaswillbefurtherdevelopedinChapterFour,whereembodied
knowledgeisexploredthroughtheuseofsilkinceremonialevents,danceandcultural
eventsinthecontextoftheCambodianAmericandiaspora.
Weavers’interviews:agenciesinknowledgeandskillstransmissionintheActionResearch
project
AsdetailedinFigure96,theobservationphasewascomplementedbyinterviewson
July26and30.OnJuly26,theinterviewtookplaceduringthelunchbreakforaboutanhour
andahalf,andinvolvedChenda,Theary,theirmotherChendy,translatorYu,Tomoko,and
myself.OnJuly30theinterviewwasmoreinformal,takingplacethroughoutthedayand
685Ingold,Making,109.686SeeKendall,‘IntangibleTracesandMaterialThings:ThePerformanceofHeritageHandicraft,’550.
289
involvingChenda,Tomokoandmyself.Forexample,ItalkedtoChenda,withTomoko’shelp,
whileshewasworkingontheloom.
TheJuly26interviewbetweenChenda,ThearyandChendyilluminatedtheirstrategiesto
re-engageunusedknow-howandtheimportanceofskillstransmissionwithinthefamily.
Thediscussionalsorevealedthewaysinwhichreclaimedandoldknowledgewere
mobilisedinthereenactmentofholweavingpractices.Weaversusedaseriesoftacticsto
achievethesilkholproject,suchasrelyingontheirbodymemoryandtheirformertraining,
seekingadvicefromtheirfamily,discussingwitheachother,andrehearsingthesteps.
Chendyexplainedhowshelearnedsilkweaving,sayingshe‘isoriginallyfromPhnomPenh.
ButduringtheKhmerRougeperiodshewasevacuatedtoKandalprovince.Butafterthat
shegotmarriedandmovedtoTakeo.Andthenshelearned,shestartedtomaketheweaving
andthesilk’.687Tothequestion‘whyweaving’shesaid:‘Takeoprovinceistheareafor
weaving,soitwasawaytomakealiving’.688InTakeo,shelearnedwithEung,hermother-
in-law.Forayear,she‘watchedherweavingeveryday,andthensheeventuallywasableto
doit[…]Firstshestartedtodotying,thingslikethat.Andaftershestartedweaving’.689She
added‘itwascomplicatedtomakealivingwithweaving[…]besidesweaving,shewasalso
growingrice’.
Shehadsixchildrenandtrainedbothherdaughters.Chendastartedattwelve:‘itwasnot
perfect.Sheonlylearnedhowtodothis,thetying.Butaftersheturnedfourteenshelearned
toweave.Butshewastinyandshecouldnotreachthefloorwithherfeet,soitwasdifficult
toweave’.690ForThearyitwas‘whenshewasaboutsixteenorseventeenyearsoldwhen
shewasinhighschool.Aftersheleftschoolandstartedtofocusonweaving’.Chendyadded
‘it’seasytolearn.Theyjustneedanexampleandtheycandoit’.691
687Chendy,Chenda,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.688Ibid.689Ibid.690Ibid. 691Ibid.
290
ShemovedtoSiemReaptofollowherdaughtersin2005.692Shebroughtwithherfrom
Takeoarepertoireofweftikatmotifsintheformofspoolsofdyedsilkthreads,withwhich
sheposesinthispicture[Figs.108a-b].Shesaid:‘thisisthesilktheyrolltomakeaspool.
Thatbelongstoher,hercollection’.693Tothequestionofwhatthepatternsforeachwere,
sheansweredthat‘shedoesn'tremembernow.It'sallmixedup.Thisonesheknows.She
madeadiagramwiththecolourandsheremembers.Butsomeothersit'smixedup
together’.694
Duringtheinterview,theHengfamilywaseagertosharetheirknowledgeandbuildoneach
other’sthoughts,discussingtheseikatspools:‘thesecomefromTakeofromtenyearsago.
Andshe[Chendy]haskepttheminBakong.AftersheleftTakeo,shemadeacouple,three
kbunthatshehassold’.695Asikatpatternsyettobewoven,thesespoolsmaterialise
Chendy’sknowledgetotapintoandreclaim.Chendystoppedweavingsilkaround2006,
becauseher‘eyesstartedtobeblurry’andsheneededglasses.Shebecameanunin2016.
Illustratinghowsilkknowledgeisgroundedinamatrilinealrelationship,Chendy
consideredthatshehad‘transferredallofherknowledgetoherdaughters,everything
aboutweavingandthehol’.696Passingonsilkweavingskillswasdirectlypredicatedon
economicnecessity,whilealsobeingconsideredameanstogainautonomy.Chendy
admittedthatshe‘issabaychet(happy)[…],shedoesn'thavetoworry.Herdaughterscan
survivebythemselvesanddependonthemselves.Noneedtoaskherformoney’.697Chendy
wasalsopleasedtoseeChenda‘teachpeople[atKY]howtodoweaving.Somaybetheywill
teachtothenextgeneration.Sotheskillswillnotgoaway’.698
692FormoreonelderlyinternalmigrationsinCambodia,see:SabinaLawreniukandLaurieParsons,‘Mother,Grandmother,Migrant:ElderTranslocalityandtheRenegotiationofHouseholdRolesinCambodia,’EnvironmentandPlanningA49,no.7(2017):1664-1683.693Chendy,Chenda,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon. 694Ibid.695Ibid.696Ibid.697Ibid.698Ibid.
291
Figs.108a-bChendyHengshowinghercollectionofsilkikatspoolsbroughtfromTakeoprovince,TaPoukvillage,Cambodia.Author’sphotograph,July26,2017.
MovingtoChendaandherknowledgeonhol,sherememberedhowtotieanddesign
holpatternsbecauseshe‘practisedalotfrom2006to2007’.699TopreparefortheAR
project,Chendasaid:
‘it'sdifficulttobringbackthememorytomakethehol.Forthekramashecandoit,butfortheholshehadtoresearchandlearnalot[…]whenshedidnotremember,sheaskedhermotherortheauntieinTakeoprovincetogetmoreinformationonhowtomakeit[…]sheaskedonlyaboutdyeingcolours,betweennaturaldyeingandchemicaldyes.Shewantedtoknowabouthowtodoit’.700
AboutcollaboratingwithhersisterTheary,Chendasaiditwas:
‘teamwork,forthisprojectsheisworkingwithhersister.It'sgoingwell.Sometimestheyaskeachother,learnfromeachother.BecausesometimessheforgetsandThearyremembers.Andthentheopposite.Sotheyaskeachother’.701
Chendasaidthat‘inthefutureifthisprojectworkswell,sheiswillingtocreatesomemore
anddesignmore.Notonlythispatternbutmaybeanimaldesignor...Sheisalsowillingto
699Chendy,Chenda,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.700Ibid.701Ibid.
292
learnmorealso’.702Toselectpeopletotrain,shewouldlookforqualitiesofpatienceand
perseverance,butalsoarealinterestinlearningandpractising.
Theweaverssuccessfullyproducedfourdistinctivepolychromicsilkkbuninthe
weftikattechnique,whichtheyhadnotpractisedformorethanadecade.Tomoko
communicatedwithmebyemailandsentmepicturesofChendaandThearyshowingthe
finalsamplesinOctober2017.Tomokodidnotspecificallysharetheirfeelingsaboutthese
holpieces,exceptinoneemail,inwhichChendathoughtthatmakingtheholpieceshad
gonewell,buthadtakenalongtime.ThiswasalsoexpressedintheJuly26interview.
Chendasaidthen:'Ididnothaveanyproblemwithanyofthestages,butalltakealongtime.
[…]thelongestprocessistotieanddyeandwash[thesilkthreads]’.703Onherend,when
askedwhatshethoughtaboutwhileweaving,Thearyexpressedfeelingdemotivatedat
times,statingthat‘sometimeswhileshe'sworkingshe'sthinkingit'stakingsolongandthe
costoftheholisverycheap.Soshestopsforalittle.Andafterthatshehasthedesireto
workonitagain,soshegoesbacktoit’.704Theworkisarduous.InheremailsfromAugust,
Tomokoexplainedthatthedyeingprocessofsilkweftsandthethreadingofthewarptook
longerthananticipated.ChendaandThearyalsohadtochangethereedbecauseitwas
damagingthethreads,whichdelayedtheprocessbyanotherfewdays.
However,thestudyoftheseholsamplesdesignsrevealstheagencyofweaversin
thewaystheyapproachtheirskillstoeitherfollowtraditionalstylesorinnovate.KoemA,B
andCarefinesilkholtextilesinapolychromiccombinationindeepredandorangetones
withblueandwhiteaccents,withall-overgeometricmotifsandcontrastingborders
[Figs.109-110-111].KoemCdisplaysalargerandmoreintricatedecorativeframework,
playingwithsuccessivestripesofred,yellow,purpleandorange,withadditionaltriangle
motifsandalineofwhitedots.Forthesepieces,ChendaandThearyfollowedtheprinciples
702Chendy,Chenda,andThearyHeng,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon. 703Ibid.704Ibid.
293
ofcolourandcompositionlearnedinTakeoprovinceintheiryouth.Askedwhysheuseda
blackwarp(pteahkhmao),Chendaexplainedthatshefounditbeautifulandthatit
enhancedtheothercoloursafterweaving.Shespontaneouslystatedthat‘alongtimeago
whentheymadehollikethis,theymadeitblackandred,inthetraditionalway’.705
WhatisstrikingishowthesecomparetokoemD,whichwasdevelopedinacompletely
differentstyle.Afterthethreepieceswerecompleted,anddespitetheirtime-consuming
process,Chendadecidedtousetheremainderofthesilkwarptomakeafourthkbun.In
July,Chendahadstated:‘Iwanttodomyowndesign’forthelastpiece.Tomokoemailedme
inSeptembertoseekmyopiniononthedesign.Iwantedtoletherchoose,buttohelpI
suggestedthatshecouldlookintoherearlycottonpiecesforKYinikatandnaturaldyesfor
ideas.706Intheend,Chendaexperimentedwithneutraltonesofgreyandblack,
deconstructingmotifsshehaddevelopedinthepastwithstripesandexperimentingwitha
largerscale[Fig.112].Theresultshowcasestheweaver’sversatilepersonalityandabilityto
innovate.ItwasonlyafterChendaandThearyhadcompletedthethreepiecesaccordingto
theirideaof‘traditionalhol’thatChendafeltempoweredtocreateamorepersonalstyle,
followinghertechnicalknowledgeofholwhileexpandingitwithaboldrepertoireofnew
designsandhues.
705ChendaHengandTomokoTakagi,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthonaboutmakingheddles,trans.Yu,July26,2017,TaPouk,Cambodia.706Ibid.
294
Fig.109DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemA,October2020.
Fig.110DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemB,October2020.
295
Fig.111DetailofthefinishedholkbunkoemC,October2020.
Fig.112Chendawiththefourthkbunshewoveinneutraltonesandmixedpatterns.PhotographcourtesyofTomokoTakagi.
296
ChendaandThearyhavere-engagedwithapracticelearnedathomeinTakeoina
reconfiguredcontext,bycollaboratingwithTomokoandfourotherweaversattheKY
workshopinTaPouk,creatingnewdynamicsofcollectiveworkandskillstransmission.The
waysinwhichweavers(ChendawithTheary,ChendyinsupportandothermembersatKY),
relyoneachotheriskeytosupporttheirlearningandpractice.AsMarchandwrites,the
‘socialnatureofknowledge[…]isrealisedon-line:incommunicationand,moregenerally,in
interaction’.707Knowledge-makingandculturaltransmissionexistinamovementbetween
individualandcollectiveexperience,inwhichembodiedknowledgereconnectssocial
interactionswithcraftspractices.
Thefruitfuldiscussionsthathappenedbetweenmeandthemakersduringtheinterviews
reinforcedtheaddedvalueofdialogue,whichisbyitselfaproducerofknowledge.By
enablingtheweaverstoarticulate,throughpracticeandinterviews,howtheymobilised
differentformsofknowledge,fromtacitknowledge,bodymemoryandfamilymemoryto
collectiveskills,theirstatusasexpertswaslegitimised.ItisclearthatthisARproject,asa
practice-ledinitiative,canbepartofaprogressiveshiftinmethodologiesofresearchwith
indigenousgroups.GoingbacktoSmith’sIndigenousResearchAgenda(seeFigure79),the
ARprojectclearlyaccompaniedtheparticipantsduringthreeoftheseprocesses:healing,in
termsofreclaimingalostpractice;transformation,byquestioningtheweavers’knowledge,
memoriesandpositionality,andmobilisation,byinvitingthemtobeactiveagentsofthe
reclamationprocess,decidingonplanning,resources,design,andthedistributionoftasks.
Inclusivitycouldbeincreasedbyengagingweavinggroupsfurtherindocumentingtheir
practicethemselves,orinteractingwithlocalresearchers,whichmypositionasoutsider
researcherdidnotallow.Forexample,incommunity-basedprojects,Smithencouragesthe
integrationof‘insider'indigenousresearchersworkingwithintheirowncommunities,
707Marchand,MakingKnowledge,11.
297
whichpresentsanewrangeofethicalchallengesaroundreflexivity,neutrality,and
objectivity.708
TheprojectwithKYrepresentedonlyonecycleofAR,whichcouldbefollowedbya
newcycleoftestingnewimplicationsandmodifiedpremisesinthefuture.Considering
issuesofhealthandsafetyaroundmaterials,theuseofThaifastchemicaldyesinparticular,
Tomokounderstoodthattoxicdyestuffscouldaffectweavers,aswellasputtingpotential
customersoff.Sheexplainedbyemailthatforasecondcycleshewaslookingatsafe
chemicaldyesfromtheGermanbrandDyStar,aswellasconsideringusingnaturaldyes,
acknowledgingthatbothoptionswouldbemorecostly.KYhasbeenconsideringdeveloping
acollectionofsilkscarves,todiversifyitsoffertoreachahigher-endmarketandattract
potentialnewbuyers.ThesecondcycleofARcouldadjusttheproductionprocessand
materialsourcingtomakeitmoretime-efficientandsustainableanduseholdesignsfor
marketablesilkproducts.Thiswouldrequireadditionalfunding,whichremainsamajor
constraintinindigenous,rural,andcommunity-basedcontexts.KYwas,itseems,hopingI
couldhelpthemwithfundingagain.TomokowrotethattheotherweaversatKYwhohad
notengagedintheprojecthadexpressedinterestinlearningsilkweaving.
However,inanemailexchangewithTomokoinJuly2019,IfoundoutthatChendaHenghad
leftKYinSpring2019.Thereasonswerenotcommunicatedtome.Thearywasexpectinga
babyandwouldonlyresumeherweavingactivitiesatthebeginningof2020.Shewouldbe
theonlyweaverwithsilkikatknowledgeattheworkshop.Thislastupdatehasundermined
thepositiveeffectsoftheARprojectinrevivingsilkknowledgeinthelongterm,limitingthe
possibilitiesoftransmittingthesetechniquestotherestoftheweaversatKY.
708Smith,DecolonizingMethodologies,127.
298
Weavers’voicesonmemory,knowledge,andtasteinsilkpractices
WiththeexamplesofChendykeepingheroldspoolsofikatyarnandChenda
rehearsingspecificstepsofholweavingshehadlearnedasateenager,theARprojecthas
highlightedhowmemoryinformstheweavers'knowledgeonsilk.709Thissectionnowturns
tomyotherperiodsoffieldworktoexaminefurthertheroleofmemoryintheformationof
knowledgeandtaste.TheinterviewswithYuonSophonandPon,theolderweaversfrom
PhnomChisor,exemplifytheconnectionbetweenweavingexperienceandpastmemories.
ThetraumaoftheKRregimewasneverdirectlyaddressedintheconversations,but
periodisationreferringtothe‘PolPotera’wasfrequentasacornerstonemarkingthenotion
ofa‘before’and‘after’theregime.710Whenaskedaboutthechronologyofherweaving
activity,Ponrepliedthatshe‘marriedjustbeforePolPotregime.Shejustlearnedatthat
time.Studiedatschoolalsoandlearnedweaving.Shewasmovedtoliveinanothercity.So
afterthePolPotregime,shemovedback,startedweavingagain[because]itwastheonly
skillthatshehad’.711Aboutsilkfibre,Ponsaid:‘whenshewasyoung,hermothersheused
todosilkbyherself,producedbythelocalworms’,aprocessPonneverreallysuccessfully
mastered,andwhichshehaschosennottopursue,bybuyingimportedindustrialsilk.712
Askedwhetherherchildrenwouldcontinueweaving,YuonSophonsaidtheywouldnot.She
talkedabout‘before’,anundeterminedpastwhichreferredinthiscasetobeforethe
expansionofgarmentfactoriesinTakeoprovince.Shesaid‘before,everyhousehadaloom,
butnotonlyoneloom,buteventhreeloomsalso,inthepast.Butnowthewomengoto
workforthefactory.’713Hercommentlackedanyformofnostalgia.Theseaccountsarelived
709CommunicationscholarSvendBrinkmann,withDortheKirkegaardThomsen,hasarguedthatthememoriessharedininterviewsaresubjective:‘rather,[theinterviewee]istalkingaboutaspecificmemoryofanexperience’.SeeSvendBrinkmann,QualitativeInterviewing(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2013),38.710Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.711Ibid.712Ibid. 713YuonSophon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.
299
experiencesofCambodia’shistory,andtheyparticipateintheformationofacollective
memory.TheelderlyweaversatPhnomChisorsituatedtheirpresentpracticeincontrastto
ideasaboutancientways.
AtCYKtrainingcentreinTrapaingKrasaingvillage,Batidistrict,Takeo,Pheach,inhermid-
thirties,hadarrivedwithheryoungestdaughtertocollectgoldensilkthreads[Fig.89].At
CYK,Pheachwasgivenfreematerials–dyesandgoldensilk–andadecentcommissionfor
pidanweaving.Besidesbeingmotivatedbythesegoodworkingconditions,Pheachwas
unusualinthewaysheexpressedadeepvocationforweaving.714Shesaidthat‘notonlyshe
likesit,butshelovesit.Becauseit'scustoms,it'sKhmer.It'sKhmercustoms.Itisthe
identityofCambodia.Shereallyreallylovesweaving’.715Tothequestion‘whatdoyoulike
aboutweaving?’sheansweredthat‘heronlyinspirationisdoingwhattheKhmerancestors
havebeendoingandshewantstocontinue’.716Shewasthefourthgenerationofweaversin
herfamily:‘upuntilhermother,thisiswhathergrandmothertoldher,hermotheristhe
thirdgenerationofweavers.Butbeforeshedoesn'tknowiftheywereweaversornot.[…]
They[thefamily]startedevenbeforetheKRregime.DuringtheKRregime,weavinghas
stoppedlikeeverywhereelse.ButaftertheKRtheybeganagain’.717Herfamilyworkedwith
goldensilkuntilabout1993andthenswitchedtoVietnamesesilk,whichexplainswhy
PheachhadnevertriedweavingwiththismaterialuntiljoiningCYK.Pheachalsorecalled
childhoodmemoriesaboutpidantextiles:
‘Whenshewasyounger,asmallchild,sheusedtoseepidaninthepagoda.Butshedoesn'tseeitanymore[…]shesawapidanonthewallsofapagoda.whenshe'smakingthesamethinglikethat,shefeelsasenseofprideinwhatsheisdoing[…]pidanwasbeautiful’.718
Pheach’sloveforsilkweavingisconnectedtoherchildhoodmemoriesandhowshehas
714Pheach,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,translatedbyRothmono,August3,2017,TrapaingKrasaing,Cambodia;CYKpaysanaverageof170USDperpidanpiecetotheweavers. 715Ibid.716Ibid.717Ibid.718Ibid.
300
establishedheridentityasaCambodianwoman.WantingtocontinueatypicallyCambodian
practiceshedeemsbeautifulhasalsobeenamotivationtoseektrainingandlearnpidanat
CYK.
Byfocusingontheproductionofholtextilesamples,theARprojecthasalsolinked
silkwithquestionsoftaste,styleandviewsonCambodianculture.Duringtheinterviews
accompanyingthefieldworkinPhnomChisorweaversalsoshowedthetextilestheymade
forCambodianfemaleconsumers.Tofindideas,theysaidtheywerediscussingwitheach
other,listeningtotheirmiddlemen’srequests,andlookingatthepopularstylesproduced
bytheirneighbours.SoAimadethisholpoarinbrightlimegreenandsalmonpinkin
chemicaldyeswithadecorativefriezeofstylisedflowersandgeometricshapes[Fig.113].
Shefoundinspirationbycopyingoldpatternsdevelopedinhervillageandbyfollowingher
middleman’srecommendation.Inherexperience,youngCambodiancustomerspreferred
lightweightpatternsandboldcolourcombinations,andwereattractedtothisstyleof
design.
Ponshowedmeatwo-toneelectricbluesilksampothol,whichsheliked,sayingitwas‘a
newstyle,morepopularfortheyoungpeople(khmeinkhmein)[…]but[that]shewould
neverwear’[Fig.114].719Toexplainherdefinitionofthetraditional‘oldstyle’ofhol,Pon
insistedonshowingmeapreciouslykeptstackofsampotfromherpersonalcollection,
includingthefirsthipwrapshehadwovenforherpersonaluse,whichshe‘worealot’for
ceremoniessuchasweddingsandBuddhistgatheringsatthepagoda[Fig.115].720Itwasa
multicolouredholinbrownishtonesandnaturaldyesthatshedeemedsuitableforawoman
ofherage.
719Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.720Ibid.
301
Fig.113SoAiandPromChakholdingherlatestpieceinabrightacidgreenandsalmonpinkmotifs,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotograph,March17,2018.
Figs.114-115Left:SampotholpoarwovenbyPoninelectricblue.Right:StackofsampotfromPon'scollection,includingthefirsthipwrapskirtshewoveforherselfonthetop,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotographs,March17,2018.
ForSoAiandPontoposewiththeirtextilesinmyphotographsthusdemonstrates
theirwillingnesstoberecognisedfortheirwork,colours,andmotifs.Whilemostartisans
sellalloftheirproduction,Ponwaseagertopresentherowncollectionofsampot.She
302
expressedherappreciationforsilkasamaterial,butalsoherunderstandingofCambodian
dresscodesandthevalueofgoodqualityproducts.Tothequestion‘whydoesshelikesilk’?
sheanswered:‘it'straditional.It'slikeforpartyorwedding,it'sthestyle’.721Thissenseof
appreciationalsotranspiredinmyencounterwithKamon,thirty-sixyearsoldin2018.
WhenImether,shewasweavingaholpiece‘notforsale,becausethisisforawedding
partysoshepreparesforherself’.722Sheaddedthat‘thepattern,shecopiedfromthe
neighbours’.723Itwasafive-colourpatternofsmallflowerswithaborderofstylised
centipedes[Figs.116a-b].Kamonexplainedthatshewouldkeepthispiece‘forever,andfor
anotherparty,useagainandagain’.724Shehadalreadymadethreesilkensemblesforherself
andfourforhermother.Sheexplainedthat‘silkisbeautiful(saart)’andneededfor
‘traditionalclothes[…]intheweddinginthemorning,peopleweartubeskirtswithhol’.725
Figs.116a-bKamonworkingonhersampotholpieceforaweddingandclose-up,SamraongDistrict,Takeoprovince.Author’sphotographs,March17,2018.
Listeningtotheweaverssharingmemoriesfromtheirpastexperiencesandchildhood,
721Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon. 722Kamon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.723Ibid. 724Ibid.725Ibid.
303
discussingthetextilestheyproduceandwear,showsthatweavingisnotjustmotivatedby
economicincentives.Silktextilesarelinkedtolocalcollectivecustomsandembeddedinthe
weavers’lives.TheCambodianweaversImetinthesethreeperiodsoffieldworkmostly
weavetosell,butsomeoccasionallyweavepiecesforthemselvestobewornatparties,
ceremonies,andweddings.Thesalespriceofsilktextilesalsovariesdependingonthetime
oftheyear.Forinstance,beforetheNewYearwhichisahighseasonforweddingsand
Buddhistceremonies,weaversaccepttoselltheirpiecestomiddlemenatalowerprice
becausetheyneedthemoneytoattendtheseevents.726Similarly,Chendyexplainedthat
weaversmarriedtofarmerssellholpiecesatacheaperpriceduringthericeharvesting
seasonfromNovembertoJanuary,tohelpraisefundstosupporttheharvestingeffort.727
Activatingknowledgethroughcommunity,matrilinealconnectionsandapprenticeship
TheinterviewbetweenChenda,ChendyandThearyintheARprojectalsodirectly
relatestothewayinwhichfamilydynamicsoftransmission,supportandinterdependence
areessentialactivatorsofsilkknowledge.InCambodia,weavingapprenticeshipis
embeddedinaruralfamilialenvironmentandhierarchicalrelationships,whetherittakes
placeinpeople’shousesinvillagesorincraftcompanies’facilities.
Lookingatthetransmissionofsilkskillsentailsexaminingthenatureoftherelationships
involvedinpracticeandlearning.AtKY,Chendaexplainedhowshewastrainedbyher
motherinheryouth.TopreparefortheARproject,Chendareactivatedthischainof
knowledgebycontactingheragainforguidanceonthetechniqueofikattie-dyeing.In
PhnomChisor,womenofdifferentages,suchasKamon,YuonSophonandPon,learnedsilk
practicesinthefamilywithaloominstalledonthegroundflooroftheirhousesonstilts.So
726Pon,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon. 727HengChendy,Chenda,andTheary,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.
304
Ailearnedwithaneighbourattheageoffifteen,sincehermotherdidnotknowhowto
weave.728Shestatedthat‘sometimessheneedsthepeopleinthevillagetohelp.Forthe
tyingshedoesherself.Buttopreparetheptey[warp]thensheneedstheneighbours.At
leastsixpeopletoholdthethreads’,asdemonstratedduringtheARobservationphase.729
SoAialsotrainedherfourchildrentohelpherwithspinning.Passingontextileknowledge
tothefamilythusservesseveralgoals:itprovidesincome-generatingknow-howforthe
children’sfutureandsecuresskilledhelpatcloserangetosupportthefamilyactivity.
TheWisdomfromtheForestvillagebuiltbyIKTTinChotSamnearSiemReap,
presentedinChapterTwo,offersacomparison.Thevillagehasaccommodatedweaversand
theirfamilies,somelocalandsomefromotherprovinces.AsDerksargued,‘processesof
femalelabourmigration’inCambodiaaretheresultof‘acomplexinterplayamong
individual,household,stateandgloballevels’.730WhenMorimotorecruitedthe‘silk
grandmothers’totrainapprenticesandmovetothevillage,somebroughttheirchildrenand
grandchildrenintotheorganisation.Conversely,otherelderlywomenfollowedtheir
childrenwhowerealreadypartofIKTT.AmongthemwasOmLai,fifty-sevenyearsoldin
2016,whowasoriginallyfromTakeoandlearneddyeing,tyingandweavingfromher
mother.HerowndaughterwasalreadyworkingatIKTTwhenshejoinedin2012[Fig.117].
728SoAi,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.729Ibid.730Derks,KhmerWomenontheMove,10.
305
Fig.117OmLai(ontheright)dyeingsilkskeinswithotherweavers,IKTTvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.
JokKiang,thirty-sevenyearsold,hadbeenworkingatIKTTforfifteenyearswhenIvisited
andwasoneofthemostskilledholweaversattheworkshop[Fig.118].ShecamefromAng
RoviengvillageinTakeoprovince,movingwithhergrandmother,whoalsocametowork
forIKTT.Whilehereighty-four-year-oldgrandmotherhasnowretiredandreturnedto
Takeo,JokKianghasstartedtoteachoneofherthreechildren,herthirteen-year-old
daughter,howtodothetying.
PanDam,seventy-threeyearsoldin2016,wasmentionedinthepreviouschapter[Fig.119].
HerwholefamilywasinvolvedinsericultureinKampotwhenMorimotoconvincedherto
comeworkforhiminSiemReap.AsthemostexperiencedsericultureexpertatIKTT,she
thentrainedeveryoneinthesilkworm-rearingteam,aswellasherfourdaughters,whoalso
cametoworkwithher.731InthecaseofPanDamandherdaughters,itwasasmuchan
economicrationaleasthepossibilityofpursuingafamilyactivitywiththesupportofa
731OmLai,JokKiang,andPanDam,Informalconversations,trans.Asya,December26,2016,ChotSam,SiemReap,Cambodia.
306
widerstructure.MenarealsoinvolvedwithIKTT’soperations.Anewspaperarticle
describesin2009‘acarpentrygroupmak[ing]weavingtoolssuchasloomsandbuild[ing]
traditional-stylewoodenCambodianhouses’inwhichaseventy-five-year-oldcarpenter
trainedothermentocontinueafterhisretirement.732Asmallgroupofworkersproduced
bananaashusedasdyestuff.In2017,thehusbandofHopSam,athirty-seven-year-old
weaver,wasoverseeingtheelectricalsystematthevillage.Othermenworkedinthefields
surroundingtheworkshopsalsotendingtotinctorialplants.
Fig.118JokKiangworkingonaholtextile,IKTTvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.
732Harbarger,‘SilkDyerKikuoMorimoto,ResurrectingaCulturalEcology.’
307
Fig.119PanDamatthesilkwormnursery,IKTTvillage,KnaSandaycommune,BanteaySreidistrict,SiemReapprovince.Author’sphotograph,December26,2016.
AscontendedbyFallsandSmith,theWisdomfromtheForestvillagehasoperatedasa
utopiancraftsitesurroundedbylandsandforests,exploitingthecodesofrurallifeand
reproducingcommunitytiesandmatriarchallineages.733Thisself-sufficientcollaborative
societyrespondstoVenkatesan’sconceptofaheterotopiainwhichthepositionofmakersis
highlymanaged.734IKTThasthuscreatedacomplexityofagenciesfortheweaverswho
navigatedailybetweentheirrolesaswomen,mothers,daughters,craftswomen,and
membersoftheorganisation.735Newrecruitshavelearnedfrommoreexperiencedmakers,
733FallsandSmith,‘BrandingAuthenticity:CambodianIkatinTransnationalArtisanPartnerships,’5.734Venkatesan,‘RethinkingAgency:PersonsandThingsintheHeterotopiaof‘TraditionalIndianCraft,’83.735‘InaplacelikeSiemReap,wherethelinkstotraditionwereseveredcompletely,itwouldbedifficulttorevivethissortoftraining[mothertodaughtertransmission].Theroleofmotheristakenbytheoldwomenmastersoftheteachers,whiletheroleofbigsisterfallstothewomanintheexperiencedteam.’InMorimoto,BayonMoon,117.
308
progressivelyevolvingintheirapprenticeship.Thecross-generationaltransmissionhas
beenextendedtostaffmembers’children,whoarefollowingarteducationclassesand
Japaneselanguagelessons,withthepossibilityofworkingfortheorganisationinthe
future.736
AsrecipientsandparticipantsofIKTT,weaversarenotdeprivedoftheiragency.Under
Morimoto’sinput,KatalinMedvedevnotedduringhertimeoffieldworkatIKTTin2008
that‘someofthewomen[…]praised[Morimoto’s]supportfortheworkers’creativityand
abilitytoimproviseanddeveloptheirowntechniqueaswellashisencouragementofthem
asco-creators’.737Bychoosingtocometothevillageandinvitingfamilymemberstojoin,
weavershavebecomeactiveprescribersoftheirenskilment.Thedynamicsofknowledge
areenacteddifferentlybetweenKYmembersattheworkshop,villagersandneighboursin
PhnomChisorandatIKTT,whichhashybridisedNGOpracticeswithmatrilinealformsof
textileeducationcommontoCambodianvillages.Whatisnotableinallthesedifferent
contextsofweaving,whichoffervariationsoffamilyandwomen-boundapprenticeship,is
thatweaversemergeasdecisiveagentstoensurethecontinuationofsilkcraftsmanship.
Conclusion
Thefocusonknowledgetransmissioninthischapterhasrepositionedweaversat
theheartofthesilkscapebyexploringtheirexperienceinregardtolearningandsharingsilk
skillsandwaysofsustainingtheiractivity.Thecombineduseofethnography,interviewsand
ARoverseveralperiodsoffieldworkhasprovidedtheprimarymaterialforthisstudy,
736Medvedev,2015,’TheRootsofChangeintheContemporaryCambodianFashionScene,’22.MorimotodidnotexplainwhyheinsistedJapanesewouldbetaught.MyguessisthatitwouldhelpthechildrengaintransferableskillsforinteractingwithtouristsandbuyersiftheyjoinedIKTTinthefutureorworkedintourism.ItmayalsohavetodowithreproducingeducationasMorimotohadexperiencedit,asaJapanesemanwhogrewupinKyotoandtrainedasayuzenapprentice.737Ibid.
309
shiftingfromamacroviewofthesilksector,asexploredinChapterTwo,toamicro-level
approach.Focusingontheactionsandvoicesoftheweavershasdevelopedfurtherthe
polyphonicperspectiveonsilkbuiltthroughoutthisthesis.Thismethodologyhashelpedto
challengestereotypicalrepresentationsofweavers,whoresistanygeneralisationasa
uniformsocialgroup.Theirsubjectiveexperiencesrevealalternativenarratives.The
weavers’prescriptivebehavioursarelinkedtoideasoffemaleCambodianselfhoodand
socialandculturalrepresentations,whilealsosummoningdifferentformsofempirical,
emotional,andrememberedstrategiesthatengagewithcollectiveandindividualformsof
memory.
Weaversfaceasystemrootedinstructuralinequity,takingpartinaproduction
landscapereformedwithinthecontextofthetremendouspost-civilwarlossofskillsand
globalisationthatcausedthespreadoftheindustrialisedgarmentindustry,theinflatedcost
ofmaterials,anddifficultaccesstomarkets.Caughtbetweentheinputofsponsoring
organisations,theconstraintsimposedbymiddlemenandtheirgenderedsocialroleas
caretakers,weavershavebeencorneredintoadependentpositiontocontinueproducing
andselling,whichautomaticallyjeopardisesthecontinuationoftheircraft.Thisresearch
hasidentifiedareasofagencyandempowermentfortheweavers,followingVenkatesan’s
argumentthatcontemporarycraftspeopleshouldbereconsidered‘asnewsocialbeings
withspecificagentivecapacities’.738
Zuber-SkerritthassuggestedthatinAR,‘variablesarenotpredeterminedandcontrolled,
butaretakenonboardastheyarisefromthedata’,whichechoesMarchand’sviewonthe
potentialinsharedactivitiesfor‘misinterpretation,ornewinterpretation’to‘carryforward
ideasandpracticesinnoveldirections’.739Byimplementinganddocumentingthe
productionoffourholtextiles,theARproject hasshownhowmemoryofpastpracticeand
738Venkatesan,‘Rethinkingagency:personsandthingsintheheterotopiaof‘traditionalIndiancraft,’93.739Ibid.;Marchand,MakingKnowledge,112.
310
embodiedknowledgearemobilisedandtransmittedduringtheprocessofre-learningsilk
weaving.Usingtheworkshopasalocusforcreativereconstruction,KYweavershave
producedsilkknowledgebyactivatingbody,memory,family,andprofessionallevers.The
projectsuccessfullyengageddifferentinterlocutorstiedbyvarioussocialbonds:thefamily
ofChendy,ChendaandTheary,co-founderTomokointhesupportiveroleoffacilitator,six
staffweaversastraineesandcollaborators,Yufortranslation,andIintheroleofresearcher
andinterviewer.Thereclaimingofsilkknowledge,neglectedformorethanadecade,and
thepossibilityofverbalisingandreflectingonthisexperiencethroughinterviews,has
shownhowweaverscanbeactorsintheirownenskilment.TheepiloguetotheARproject,
describinghowChendaeventuallyandabruptlyleftKYandhowTheary,onleaveforher
pregnancy,couldnolongerweavesilk,illustrates,however,thedifficultyofensuringthe
transmissionofthisknowledgeanditscontinuity.Itquestionstheextenttowhichwomen
cantakechargeoftheiragencyandidentityinCambodiansocietythroughweavingand
achieveself-reliance.Thesilksectorwillneedtoenactstructuralchangestosecuremore
autonomyandsupportfortheweavingworkforce.
BeyondtheinterviewscollectedinCambodia,thisstudyhasexploredhowtheweavers’
bodiesprovideanessentialsourceofknowledgebylookingattacitexchanges,the
repetitionofgesturesandthenegotiationwiththematerialityandtechniquesofholmaking.
MacDougallhasstatedthatindocumentaryfilm-making,‘thereareotherbodiestobe
considered,aswell–thoseofthespectatorandthefilmmaker,andeventhebodyofthefilm
itself’.740Theuseoffilm-makingandthereviewingoffootagehassupplementedtheoral
voices,mediatedbytranslation,toincorporatemovementandweavers’bodiesinthe
understandingofsilkknowledge.Otheraspectsofembodimentthroughsilkwillbe
exploredinChapterFour,consideringhowtheartofdressingcanbecomeatoolforidentity
740MacDougall,TheCorporealImage:Film,Ethnography,AndtheSenses,15.
311
andculturalexpression.Thisexplorationwilltakeplaceinthediasporiccommunityof
CambodiaTowninLongBeach,California.
ChapterFour
SilkEmbodiment:craftingCambodianidentityintheglobaldiaspora
Introduction
Inacontextofforcedmigrationleadingtoadramaticlossofbearings,theactof
reclaimingtextileanddressculturalpractices,acoreissueinthisthesis,takesonanother
dimension.ChapterThreeworkedtowardsanaffirmativerecentringofCambodianweavers
withinthesilkscape,especiallythroughthestudyofknowledgetransmission.Thischapter
pursuestheexaminationofembodimentandempowermentthroughsilkpracticesby
establishingitsscopeoutsidenationalborders.ConsideringtheCambodiansilkscapeasa
networkthatalsoconnectstheglobalandthelocal,Ishifttheperspectivetorefugeeand
migrantdiasporapopulationstoexplorethecultural,aestheticandmaterialroleofsilkand
considerthedynamicsof‘transformationandpersistence’necessitatedbytheaftermathof
theCambodiancivilwar.741Whathavediasporiccommunitieskeptorabandonedfrom
Cambodianculture,andhowhavetheyengagedwithsilkasawayofnegotiatingtensionsin
theformationoftheirimmigrantidentities?
Sincethelate1980s,themainCambodiancommunitiesestablishedinEuropeand
theUnitedStateshaveadjustedtotheirhostcountrywhiletryingtopreservestrong
connectionswithCambodia,andremainactiveinthepracticeofnumerousculturaland
religiouscustoms.Ebihara,MortlandandLedgerwoodhaveoutlinedhowcontemporary
Cambodianidentityisrealisedbetweenaninnateattachmenttothehomelandand
adjustmentstonewinfluences:
741Ebihara,Mortland,andLedgerwood,eds.,CambodianCulturesince1975:HomelandandExile,22.
312
‘AlthoughKhmercultureischanginginnewenvironments,thefactremainsthatfirst-generationKhmerimmigrantscontinuetoview‘reality’inthenewworldthroughthelensofpatternsofmeaningsandrelationshipslearnedintheirnatalcountry’.742
Despitethetemporalandgeographicdisconnection,thevariousexpressionsofCambodian
culturearticulatedinanewcountryalwaysseemtoexistinreferencetothehomeland,an
ideareinforcedbysociologistJeremyHein,whohasobservedthat‘amongimmigrants,
valuesandnormsemergefromthegroup’sadaptationtohistoricalandstructural
conditionsbothpriortoandaftermigration’.743Heinthuspositsthemaindichotomies
experiencedbythediasporicsubjectbetweenhereandthere,pastmemoriesandpresent
realities.Inahistoryofdisplacementandconflict,silkis,therefore,examinedinitsmaterial
andcultural,aswellasemotionalandphysical,dimensionsasembodyingdiasporicidentity.
ContinuingthefocusofChapterThreeonmakingandmakers,thisstudyfirst
considerstheextenttowhichrefugeeweavershavebeenabletosustaintheircraftinthe
circumstancesofmigrationandrelocationtotheUnitedStates.Second,itfocuseson
CambodianAmericanswhopurchase,use,andwearsilktoexploreitsperformativepower
inpublicandprivatesettingsanduncoverformsofbodilyandemotionalknowledge.This
examinationtakesplaceintheCambodiancommunityofLongBeach,California,which,at
about50,000people,isconsideredthelargestdemographicconcentrationofCambodian
immigrantsoutsideSoutheastAsia[Figs.120a-b].TwoperiodsoffieldworkintheLong
BeachneighbourhoodofCambodiaTownundertakeninApril2017ontheoccasionofthe
CambodiaTownCultureFestival(CTCF)andtheCambodianNewYear(ChoulChnam
Thmey)celebrationsandagaininFebruary2018providetheprimarymaterialforthis
ethnographicresearch.SilkclothingandaccessoriesaremainlyproducedbyCambodian
womenandaimedatfemaleconsumers,andtherelationshipbetweenfemininityandsilkis
742Ibid,26. 743JeremyHein,EthnicOrigins:theAdaptationofCambodianandHmongRefugeesinFourAmericanCities(NewYork:RusselSageFoundation,2006),33.
313
exploredthroughaseriesofencounters:withalocaltailor,aweddingdressdesignerand
planner,andagroupofyoungCambodianAmericanwomenlearningandtransmittingthe
artofKhmerclassicalballet.
Figs.120a-bGeographiclocationofCambodiaTowninLongBeach,InAdebiyiandal,TheStateofCambodiaTownReport(LosAngeles,CA:UCLA,2013),7;LocalisationofLongBeach,CA,GoogleMaps,2018.
Capturingthedisplacedexperiencethroughethnographyandembodiment
ContinuingthemethodologicalprocessadoptedinChapterThree,usinginterviews
asatoolforself-determination,myinterlocutorsareconsideredasactivemediatorsoftheir
ownculture,andthewaystheyhaveadaptedtotheirreconfiguredenvironmentand
retainedeconomicandculturalbridgeswiththeirnativecountrythroughdressare
explored.Thesubjectiveandfragmentedqualityofthetestimoniescollectedinthefield,far
fromunderminingthisself-determination,playsanimportantrole.
Thischapterdrawsonnotesandvisualdocumentationmadeduringperiodsofobservation
attheCTCF,attheChandaTailortailoringworkshop,inshopsandstreetsinCambodia
Town,andduringdanceclassesatthelocalKhmerArtsAcademy(KAA).Usingsemi-guided
314
qualitativeinterviews,IhaverecordedthreeoraltestimonieswithSokChan,dressmaker,
KhanniaOk,associateinstructoratKAAandKayleneMen,founderofBridalKhmer,along
withsixinformaldiscussionswithyoungdancers,silkconsumersandfestivalattendees.
Advocatingforaninclusiveresearchapproach,Heinhasstressedthevalueofgiving
informants‘therighttospeakforthemselves’.744InacomparativestudyofCambodianand
HmongrefugeesintheUSstatesofWisconsinandMinnesota,heoutlinedthechallengesfor
sociologiststointerpretinformants’personalopinionsand‘understandasocialworldwith
whichweoftenhavelittleornopersonalexperience’.745Iapproachedmytwoperiodsof
fieldworkinCambodiaTowninasimilarmanner,guidedbymyinformants’experienceand
recommendations.
Moreover,ethnicidentityassituationalanddynamicisacentralthemeinthis
chapter.GroundingheranalysisinthecaseofFilipinoAmericansimmigrantsinSanDiego,
AsianAmericansociologistYenLeEspirituconsidersthattransnationalimmigrants‘arenot
deterritorialised,free-floatingpeople.Instead,theycontinuetoexist,interact,construct
theiridentities,andexercisetheirrightswithinnation-statesthatmonopolisepowerand
imposecategoriesofidentityonlocalresidents’.746Theconditionoftransnational
immigrantsexistsinadualmovementwhichisbothliteralandsymbolic.Espirituasked:
‘HowdoyoungFilipinoswhohaveneverbeen‘home’imaginethe'homeland'?Andhowdo
theyrecallthatwhichissomewhereelse,thatwhichwasperhapsneverknown?’747
Similarly,howdoCambodianAmericansdealwithasenseof‘home’andhowdoessilkplay
aroleinthisexperienceandthroughwhichactivities?
TofacilitatetheanalysisofidentityandculturalshiftsamongCambodianimmigrantgroups,
thisstudyreliesonHein’sgeneralisationinassociating‘Cambodian’with‘Khmer',
744Hein,EthnicOrigins:theAdaptationofCambodianandHmongRefugeesinFourAmericanCities,23.745Ibid.746YenLeEspiritu,HomeBound:FilipinoAmericanLivesacrossCultures,Communities,andCountries(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2003),11-12.747Ibid.
315
consideringthattheKhmerethnicgroupisdominantinCambodiandiasporicsociety
comparedtootherethnicminorities,suchasCham,Sino-KhmerandethnicVietnamese.748
Cambodianidentityisbothdynamicandsetaroundafullrangeofdistinctivefeaturessuch
as‘lookingKhmer,speakingKhmer,observingBuddhism,actingproperly,and
acknowledgingtheheritageofthe‘grandmothersandgrandfathers’byfollowingKhmer
customs’.749TheCambodianAmericansIhaveinterviewedinLongBeachallidentifiedas
belongingtoeitherKhmerorCambodianculturewithoutdistinguishingbetweenthem.One
ofmycontacts,MaryTan’shusband,despitebeingChineseCambodian,putonasilksuitand
attendedtheculturalfestival.750
Lookingatthetheorisationoforalsourcesasprimarymaterialinotherterritories
hashelpedtoformulateamethodologicalapproachthatisbothoriginalandrelevanttothe
Cambodiancontext.Forinstance,Testimonioisaformoforalandnarrativemethodology
rootedinLatinAmericandecolonialpedagogythatisunderpinnedbyaffirmationand
empowerment,actingfortherecoveryofacommunity’sknowledgeproduction.Chicana
andChicanostudiesscholarsJuliaE.CurryRodríguezandKathrynBlackmerReyeshave
establishedthat‘althoughatestimonioistechnicallyanaccountmadebyoneperson,it
representsthevoiceofmanywhoseliveshavebeenaffectedbyparticularsocialevents’.751
Inthissense,thespacegiventoaselectionofvoicesandstoriesinthepersonofSokChan,
KhanniaOk,KayleneMenandothers,standsfortheCambodianAmericancommunityof
LongBeach,inresonancewiththeepistemologyoffirst-persontestimonio.
Furthertothenatureofnarrativesasresearch,KamalaVisweswaran,anthropologistof
SouthAsiantransnationalanddiasporaidentities,hasarguedthat‘ethnography,likefiction,
748YenLeEspiritu,HomeBound:FilipinoAmericanLivesacrossCultures,Communities,andCountries,32.749CarolMortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates(NewYork:BerghahnBooks,2017),150.750MaryTan,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach.PicturedinFigure139.751KathrynBlackmerReyesandJuliaE.CurryRodríguez,‘Testimonio:Origins,Terms,andResources,’Equity&ExcellenceinEducation45,no.3(2012):528.
316
nomatteritspretensetopresentaself-containednarrativeorculturalwhole,remains
incompleteanddetachedfromtherealmstowhichitpoints’.752Visweswaranhas
highlightedhowthisincompletenesscouldprovideinformationinitself,playarolein
identityformation,andquestiontheessenceoftheresearcher-subjectdynamics.753
Similarly,diasporicfictionwiththewritingsofMonicaSok,autoethnographyandembodied
knowledge,inregardstosilkdressanddanceperformance,haveemergedasinvaluable
toolstoreconstructhistoriesandidentities,especiallyinthecaseofmarginalisedsubjects.
Inthischapter,CambodianAmericanimaginings,voicesandbodiesformapolyphony
indicatingthemultilayeredsignificanceofsilkonthebodyasapotentcomponentof
contemporaryCambodianheritage.
TheembodiedperspectiveonsilkuseintheCambodiandiasporaborrowsfrom
CambodianAmericanarthistorianBorethLy’sconceptofsensorium‘wherethesenses
provideacomplexlayeringofexperience’.754Lyhasarguedthat‘localSoutheastAsian
perspectivesonobjectsandvisionsaremoreembodiedandmulti-sensorial’thanin
prevailingWesternlogocentricapproaches.755Thisapproachaddressestheagendaofa
moredecolonialinquirythat‘interruptsestablishedWesternhabitsofthinkingabout,
viewing,andseeingritual’.756Thismeansthatmyinterlocutors’diverseexperienceofsilkis
alsoexaminedfromtheirintimateperspectiveslinkedtotheiremotionsandsensationsand
inconsideringculturalandfamilyeventsintheeverydaylife.
Autoethnographyisamethodologyusedtoemphasiseasubjectiveandempathetic
approach.Autoethnographydemands,asMarchandcontends,‘immersion,perceptualand
kinestheticawareness,carefulreflection,persistentquestioning,andaconstantprobingof
752KamalaVisweswaran,FictionsofFeministEthnography(Minneapolis,MN:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2008),1.753Ibid,69. 754BorethLy,‘OfScentandSensibility:EmbodiedWaysofSeeinginSoutheastAsianCultures,’SUVANNABHUMI10,no.1(June2018):81.755Ibid,68. 756Ibid,67.
317
thecomplexandmultiplefactorsthatconstituteanyfieldofpractice’.757Thewaysinwhich
thesampotfitsthebodyinmovementisexaminedbyrecordingmyautoethnographic
experienceofdressinginachawngkbunandtakingpartinaKhmerballetdanceclasstoget
closertothesensationsofmovinginsilkclothing.758
Thischapteralsoengageswiththeinvolvementofnon-Cambodianintermediaries
whohaveencouragedthecontinuityofCambodiancultureinlocalimmigrantcommunities.
SusanNeedham,anthropologistandprofessoratCaliforniaStateUniversityDominguez
Hills,exemplifiesthismediatingposition,whichdiffersfromthoseencounteredin
Cambodiancraftcompaniesinearlierchapters:KikuoMorimotoandTomokoTakagi’s
positions,forinstance.Needham’sroleappearedclosertothatofaculturalbrokerinsocial
services,thatis,anindividualpossessingknowledgeofthevaluesandnormsofdifferent
culturalgroupswith‘theabilitytounderstandcomplexinterpersonaldynamics[…]to
effectivelymaneuverandtransferinformationandresourcesfromonecultureto
another’.759NeedhamhasindeedbuiltenduringrelationshipswithCambodianAmericansof
CambodiaTownforthreedecades,producingextensiveethnographicandlinguistic
research.760In2008,sheco-foundedtheCambodianCommunityHistory&ArchiveProject
(CamCHAP),anarchivalcentreinLongBeach,withKarenQuintiliani,Professorof
AnthropologyatCaliforniaStateUniversityLongBeach.Thiscentrehascollectedovertwo
thousandphotographs,EnglishandKhmernewspapers,ephemeraproducedbyCambodian-
ledandCambodian-servingorganisations,andoralhistoriescollectedinthecommunity.761
757Marchand,MakingKnowledge,10.758SeealsoPriyaSrinivasan,SweatingSaris:IndianDanceasTransnationalLabor(Philadelphia,PA:TempleUniversityPress,2011),xi,17-18.759JacquelineRobinsonandSuzieWeng,‘Culturalbroker,’inEncyclopediaofHumanServicesandDiversity,ed.LinwoodCousins(ThousandOaks,CA:SAGEPublications,2014),303.;SeealsoMaryAnnJezewski,‘Culturebrokeringinmigrantfarmworkerhealthcare.’WesternJournalofNursingResearch,12,no.4(2010):497.Culturalbrokeringis‘theactofbridging,linkingormediatingbetweengroupsorpersonsofdifferentculturalbackgroundsforthepurposeofreducingconflictorproducingchange’. 760SusanNeedham,InformalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April11,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.761Ibid;CamCHAPFacebookpage,Abouthttps://www.facebook.com/pg/camchaplb/about/?ref=page_internal[AccessedJune2,2020]
318
NeedhamalsofoundedtheCTCF,discussedbelow.Aswellasbeingintegraltotheway
interactionswithCambodiansilkhavedevelopedatLongBeach,theintroductionofthese
CaucasianAmericanvoicesalsoprovidesanopportunityforfurtherself-reflexivityabout
myownpositionasaresearcher.
Fromrefugeecampstoresettlement:weavingpracticeindisplacement
AsdiscussedintheIntroductionandChapterOne,undertheKRregimeweaving
mostlystoppedwhenthestructureofCambodiansocietywasdismantled,andcitieswere
evacuated,familiesseparated,andvillagersdisplacedtootherruralareasandputtoforced
labour.Thissectionconsidershowrefugeeweavers,astravellingbodieswithspecificsetsof
skills,wereabletosustaintheircraftwhileresettlinginthelate1970sinrefugeecampsat
theThaiborderandabroadintheUnitedStatesbythe1980s.Itconsidersthemeaningsof
weavingforCambodiansoutsideCambodia,operatedinanewcontextasameansof
survival,butalsoasasurvivingculturalpractice.TheexampleoftheweaverEmBunwill
indicatethepotentiallyhealingpowerofweavinginreconstructingidentityandcommunity
ties.EmBun’sstoryisunusual,asfewweaversrelocatedandcontinuedtheirpracticein
theirhostcountries,andthereisalsoanabsenceofscholarlyliteratureonthistopic.
Around1978,whenVietnamesetroopsinvadedCambodiatooverthrowthe
dictatorship,anestimateof630,000CambodiansfledfortheThai-Cambodianborderand
regroupedinrefugeecamps.762Thismassiveexodusturnedintolong-termresettlementfor
mostCambodians,astheThaigovernmentrefusedtoletthemmigratetoThailand,and
mostcouldnotreturntotheirhomeland.Cambodia’schaoticsituationwasreflectedinthe
762JamesLynch,‘BorderKhmer:ADemographicStudyoftheResidentsofSite2,SiteBandSite8,’Thai/CambodiaBorderRefugeeCamps1975-1999InformationandDocumentationWebsite,1989,http://www.websitesrcg.com/border/camps/survey-1989.html[AccessedOctober15,2018,26]
319
campsscatteredalongtheborderandmaintainedbygroupswithdiversepoliticalagendas.
SitessuchasNongChamandNongSametweremanagedbytheKhmerPeople’sNational
LiberationFront,ledbyKhmerSerei,ananti-communistanti-monarchistresistancegroup.
KRfactionsdominatedBanCharat,Saronginthenorth,andSite8,BoraiandTaLuan,south
ofAranyaprathetinPrachinburiProvinceofThailand.
TheKhao-I-DangcampopenednearAranyaprathetin1979andwasmanagedbytheUN
HighCommissionerforRefugeesandtheThaigovernmentuntil1993.Ithostedupto
130,000peopleandwasthemainplatformforCambodianrefugeestryingtoemigrateto
othercountries.Site2,thelargestciviliancampmainlyinhabitedbyfollowersoftheKhmer
People'sNationalLiberation,wasbuiltin1984andcoordinatedbytheUNBorderRelief
Operation[Fig.121].Whileabout225,000Cambodiansmanagedtoemigrateabroad,
especiallytotheUnitedStates,France,AustraliaandCanada,approximately100,000
CambodiansreturnedtoCambodiaitselfduringtheVietnameseoccupation.Another
100,000refugeesremainedincampsuntiltheywererepatriatedtoCambodiainMay
1993.763
763CarolMortland,‘Khmer,’InRefugeesinAmericainthe1990s:AReferenceHandbook,ed.DavidHaines(Westport,CT:GreenwoodPress,1996),240.
320
Fig.121MapofCambodianrefugeecampsontheThai-Cambodianborder,1986.FromTonyJackson,JustWaitingtoDie?CambodianRefugeesinThailand(Oxford:OxfamResearchandEvaluationUnit,July1987),5.
JamesLynch,regionalrepresentativeoftheUNHighCommissionerforRefugeesin
the1980s,producedademographicstudyoftheSite2,SiteB,andSite8refugeecamps:of
the15,525peoplesurveyed,atleasttwothirdshadarrivedontheborderin1979-1980and
themajorityhadremainedincamps.764Camplifewasextremelychallengingintermsof
health,food,andsafety.Nevertheless,religiousceremoniesandculturalcelebrationswere
progressivelyreintroduced,especiallyintheUN-supportedcamps.Dance,musicand
vocationaltraining,includingweavingandsewing,restartedintheresettlements,showing
howquicklyCambodiansresumedculturalandreligiousactivitiesthathadbeenstopped
764Lynch,‘BorderKhmer:ADemographicStudyoftheResidentsofSite2,SiteBandSite8,’26.
321
duringtheKRregime.765Migrantworldsarenotdematerialised.766AnthropologistsPaul
BasuandSimonColemanhaveconsideredthatdisplacedpopulationsandthingsintersectin
spacesoftemporaryorpermanentrelocation,inwhich‘objects,possessions,and
performancesillustrateculturallyrichmodulationsofmobility’.767Moreover,Ebihara,
MortlandandLedgerwoodhavearguedthatincamps,Khmerrefugeeswereleftina
powerlessstateforextendedperiods,unableto‘controlthemostbasicactivitiesoftheir
lives:procuringfood,water,andfuel’.768Inthisunstableethnoscape,thepracticeofpre-KR
culturalritualsmayhavebeenattemptstosecureasenseofhome,inwhichBuddhism,
danceandmusic‘retainedtheirimportanceattachedtotheiroriginalidentificationas‘truly
Khmer’’.769
Therearerarementionsofweavingincampsintheliterature.770Aswehaveseen,Kikuo
MorimotoworkedinrefugeecampsinThailandwithLaoweavers,andtherearealsoa
handfuloftestimoniesfromDKsurvivors.OneoftheseconcernsThavery,presentedin
humanitarianCarolWagner'sSoulSurvivors.771LiketheweaversinChapterThree,Thavery
witnessedweavingpracticesathomewhenshewasachildinTakeoprovince.She
explained:‘[mymother]andmyoldersisterwovefancysilkskirts,bothhol,whichhasa
design,andphamuong,whichisplain’.772In1979,shereturnedtoherhomevillagewhere
shelearnedsilkweavingwithneighbours.In1990shemovedtoSite2tobereunitedwith
oneofhersisters.Sheadded:‘IlivedwithWanfornearlytwoyears,becauseitwaseasierto
earnmoneythaninCambodia.Wewovecottonsampot’untilthecampsclosed.773Thavery
765Inhissurveyoftherefugees’variousoccupations,Lynchidentifiedseveralweaversamongthecampresidents.766PaulBasuandSimonColeman,‘Introduction:MigrantWorlds,MaterialCultures,’Mobilities,3,no.3(2008):317.767Ibid,322.768Ebihara,Mortland,andLedgerwood,eds.,CambodianCulturesince1975,20.769Ibid,9,23.770Lynch,‘BorderKhmer:ADemographicStudyoftheResidentsofSite2,SiteBandSite8,’51-54.771Wagner,SoulSurvivors,190-201.772Ibid,192.773Ibid,196.
322
eventuallymovedtoPhnomPenhin1993toteachweavingatKhemara,theNGOdiscussed
inChapterTwo.Thaverydiscussedsilkandweaving:‘silkusedtobeproducedinmyhome
provinceinTakeo,buttheKRcutdownthemulberrytreesthatthesilkwormsfedon,so
nowIhavetobuysilkthreadfromVietnam’.774Shespecialisedinpidanweaving,explaining:
‘[it]isthemostdifficultweavingtodo.[…]Wehavetotiefourhundredtinybundlesofsilk
todothewholestoryandtheweavingissixorsevenmeterslong.I’veneverdonethewhole
storybymyself,justpartsofit’.775
Inthecamps,weaversadaptedtothecheapmaterialsavailableonsite,weaving
productssuchascottonorpolyesterkramaclothsthatrequiredsimpletechniques.The
scarfinFigure122wasmadeattheUN-backedKhaoIDangrefugeecampandwas
purchasedbyanAustralianmigrationofficerandlaterdonatedtoMuseumsVictoria,
Australia.Thisisatypicalkramahandwovenclothinabright,chemicallydyedplaidofpink,
blue,green,andyellow,contrastedwithablackstripe.Thisartefactexemplifieshow,
despitefewfirst-handaccounts,weavingwaslikelytohavebeenacommonmanualactivity
inthecamps.Weaversproduceditemsfortheirpersonaluseandtoselltootherrefugeesin
thecamps,andinthiscasetoforeignvisitingofficials.Therarematerialandtestimonial
evidenceofweavingalsodemonstratesthetransientnatureofcraftpracticesinrefugee
campsastemporaryspacesofproduction.Weavingwaspresentinthelocaleconomyof
survivalandbartering.
774Wagner,SoulSurvivors,197.775Ibid.
323
Fig.122KramawoveninKhaoIDangrefugeecamp,Thailand,1987-1989,acquisitionnumberHT31980,donatedbyJennieRobert,CourtesyofMuseumsVictoria/CCBY.
TheresettlementofCambodianrefugeeshasreshapedtheweavers’practice.More
than150,000CambodiansrelocatedtotheUnitedStatesinthreeseparatewavesbetween
1975and1993,alongwithVietnamese,Hmong,andLaotianpopulations,aspartofthe
SoutheastAsianrefugeemovement.776Thefirstwaveof4,600Cambodiansarrived
immediatelybeforeCambodiacollapsedunderKRcontrolin1975.Linguisticanthropologist
NancySmith-Hefnerstatedthat‘familiesbundledupclothing,cookware,medicine,and
sacksofrice.Theyhastilyhidgold,jewellery,familyheirlooms,andothervaluables’.777
CambodiansweredispatchedtolocationsdeterminedbytheU.S.OfficeofRefugee
Resettlement.778Thesecondimmigrationwavestartedinlate1978duringtheCambodian–
VietnameseWar,whenfactionsfromtheSocialistRepublicofVietnamwereforcingPolPot
776LanDong,‘CambodianAmericanPerformingArtsandArtists’inAsianAmericanCulture:FromAnimetoTigerMoms,126.777Smith-Hefner,KhmerAmerican:IdentityandMoralEducationinaDiasporicCommunity,8.778SuchengChan,‘CambodiansintheUnitedStates:Refugees,Immigrants,AmericanEthnicMinority,’OxfordResearchEncyclopediaofAmericanHistory,Sept2015https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-317[AccessedSeptember30,2018]
324
outofpower.Finally,thelargestwaveofabout60,000refugeesresettledbetween1980and
1982,whenDKfell,withfurtherregularinfluxesinthefollowingyears.779After1994,theUS
refugeeprogrammewasterminated.Cambodianswhoarrivedinthecountrycameas
immigrants.780AccordingtothePewResearchCenter,theCambodianpopulationinthe
UnitedStateswasapproximately300,000peoplein2015.781
CambodianAmericansintheearlyimmigrationwavesoftenreturnedtothecampsas
volunteersforinternationalagencies.Theywouldbuysilksampotandbringthembackto
theircommunitiesintheUnitedStatesasgifts.782Sincethattime,CambodianAmericans
haveoftenreturnedtoCambodia.Mortlandhasestimatedthatby‘themid-1990s’about‘20
percentofresettledKhmerhadvisitedthehomeland’.783Thesecontactsbetweenthetwo
countriesacceleratedintheearly2000swiththeavailabilityofmoreaffordableflights.
EmBun(c.1916-2010)isasarareknownexampleofaCambodianweaverwho
resumedherpracticeafteremigratingtoHarrisburg,Pennsylvaniain1981,agedsixty-five.
ShewasborninTakeoprovince,startedobservinghergrandmotherandmotherworking
ontheloomasachild,andthenlearnedweavingwithhermotherwhenshewassixteen.784
BeforetheKRregimeshewasaweaverandafarmer,andwasinchargeofraising
779Smith-Hefner,KhmerAmerican:IdentityandMoralEducationinaDiasporicCommunity,8.780SuchengChan,RemappingAsianAmericanHistory(WalnutCreek,CA:AltamiraPress,2003),202;SeealsoSuchengChan,andAudreyU.Kim,NotJustVictims:ConversationswithCambodianCommunityLeadersintheUnitedStates(Urbana,IL:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2003),20-23,31.781ArianaRodriguez-Gitler,‘CambodianpopulationintheU.S.,2000-2015,’PewSocialTrendshttp://www.pewsocialtrends.ORG/AUTHOR/ARODRIGUEZGITLER/)[AccessedJuly18,2018]782TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,117.783Mortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates,217.784TheNationalEndowmentfortheArtsstates:‘EmBunlearnedtoweavefromhermotherwhenshewasabouttenyearsold,’whileMonicaSok,EmBun’sgranddaughter,writesthatshelearnedfromhermotheratagesixteen.NationalEndowmentfortheArts,‘NEANationalHeritageFellowships’https://www.arts.gov/honors/heritage/em-bun[AccessedJune10,2021];MonicaSok,'TheWeaverinMyPoems:ARemembranceofEmBun,'NEAArtsMagazine:NationalEndowmentfortheArts,2017https://www.arts.gov/stories/magazine/2017/1/nea-jazz-mastersnea-national-heritage-fellowships-celebrating-35-years/weaver-my-poems[AccessedJune15,2021]
325
silkwormsandreelingsilkthreads.785In1979shefledwithherfourdaughtersandtwosons
toarefugeecampinThailand.786ResettledinHarrisburg,shestartedtoexperience
depressionandisolationduetothelanguagebarriersheexperienced.
CarolMortlandobservedthat‘someKhmerwomenarecommittedtopreservingtraditional
weaving.[…]Weaverstalkofweavingtheirexperiencesintotheirworkanddescribethe
comfortweavingbringsthem’,addingthat‘weavingexhibitsanddemonstrationsare
popular’.787Thisindicateshowweavingcanbeexploredasasourceofembodiedcomfort,as
wellasaculturalactivityreengagingcommunities.InHarrisburg,EmBuntried
unsuccessfullytoweaveonanAmericanloom.788Eventuallyshereceivedsupportfrom
JoannaRoe,alocalPresbyterianchurchmemberwhoobtainedagrantfromtheDauphin
CountyHistoricalSocietyandcommissionedtheconstructionofaCambodian-styleloom
fromalocalcompany,WoodloreBuilders.Theloomwasbuilt‘accordingtoplanssentfrom
theKhaw-i-DangrefugeecampviatheInternationalRescueCommittee’.789EmBun’sfamily
attestedthatthiswasaturningpointforheremotionally.Byreturningtoapracticethathad
definedhersincechildhood,withfamiliartoolsandequipment,shewasabletoreconstruct
partofheridentityandfindasenseofhealingandhome.Shestartedweavingagainonthe
loomthatwasinstalledinherbasement,usingmaterialspurchasedwiththegrantand
leftoversilkfromatiefactoryincentralPennsylvania[Fig.123].790Shewovesampotforher
familyandreceivedcommissionsfromotherCambodianwomenlivingontheEastCoast.
785JeanetteKrebs,‘WomanWeavesAnew,’PatriotNews(Harrisburg,PA.)(June19,1990,149):146;MichaelTennesen,‘SilkandCeremony,’ModernMaturity(October/November1991):17.786EmBun,MastersofTraditionalArtshttp://www.mastersoftraditionalarts.org/artists/41?selected_facets=name_initial_last_exact%3AE[AccessedSeptember14,2019]787Mortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates,234.788MonicaSok,'TheWeaverinMyPoems:ARemembranceofEmBun.'789JaniceG.Rosenthal,‘CambodianSilkWeaver,'ThreadsMagazine(December1990/January1991,32):22.790NationalEndowmentfortheArts,‘NEANationalHeritageFellowships.’
326
Fig.123EmBunweavingonherloominHarrisburg,PA.Photograph,BlairSeitz.
Inhomagetohergrandmother(lokyeay),poetandwriterMonicaSokrecalledthatEmBun
skilfullywovesilkskirtsinthephamaungstylewithashotsilkeffect:‘Shedyedtwocolors
andwovethemtogether,soathirdcolorcouldshine’.791Recognitionfromherpeershelped
herregainhersocialpositioninanewenvironment.Shesharedhersilk-weaving
knowledgewithoneofherdaughters,LynnYuos,andotherCambodianwomenin
Harrisburg.792
EmBun’sworkwasrecognisedbytheNationalEndowmentfortheArtsin1990,thehighest
distinctioninfolkandtraditionalartsintheUnitedStates[Fig.124].Shewasalso
distinguishedasamasterweaverbythePennsylvaniaCouncilontheArts.InaNational
HeritageFellowshipConcertvideoin1990,sheisinterviewedbriefly,showingagreen,red,
791Sok,‘TheWeaverinMyPoems:ARemembranceofEmBun.’792Rosenthal,‘CambodianSilkWeaver.’
327
andwhitelargecheckedpieceinthekramasautstyle,explainingwithpridethatittookher
twodaystoweaveit.793
TheNationalEndowmentfortheArtsstatedthatEmBun‘hashelpedfellowCambodian
immigrantsmaintaincontactwiththeirheritageandhasbeenacatalystforthe
preservationofCambodiantraditionalartsintheUnitedStates’.794EmBunwascommended
beyondherownpractice,andforturninghercontributionintoavehicletotransmit
Cambodianculture,echoingthesenseofvocationexpressedbyPheach,weaverinTakeofor
CYK,inChapterThree.
Fig.124EmBun(left)atthe1990NationalHeritageFellowshipConcert,Washington,D.C.PhotographcourtesyoftheNationalEndowmentfortheArts.
Sok’swritingemphasiseshergrandmother’simpactontheCambodianAmerican
community.Shemused:‘IwonderhowmanyCambodiansgotmarriedwearingmy
793SeeappendixA3onkramasaut.EmBun,1990NationalHeritageFellowshipConcert,Washington,D.C.,courtesyNationalEndowmentfortheArtshttp://mastersoftraditionalarts.org/artists/41[AccessedSeptember15,2020] 794NationalEndowmentfortheArts,‘NEANationalHeritageFellowships.’
328
grandmother’ssilk,howmanylivesshetouchedbyconnectingthemwithourculture’.795‘At
CambodianweddingsinCleveland,Ohio,whereherrelativeslived’,Sokcontinued,'she
woreherownfabrics,showingoffdarkpurplehueswhilemymotherdonnedatraditional
goldenskirt’.796TouchingEmBun’sdesigns,severalCambodianwomenwouldask,‘Where
didyougetthis?’797Throughtouch,thesewomenrelivedafamiliarsensoryexperienceof
Cambodianness.EmBunalsofoundtheemotionalrewardssheneededinhercraft,
anchoredintangiblereality.
Further,theconnectionbetweencraft,body,andfamilytransmissioniscompellingly
materialisedinSok’spoetry,evokingagaintheconceptofaSoutheastAsiansensorium.Her
grandmother’sstoryprovidedareservoirofsymbolicnarrativestiedtoSok’skinshipand
senseofself.Itinspiredherpoem‘TheWeaver’,publishedin2017,inwhichSokrecalls
sittingbyhergrandmotherandwatchingherweaveinsilenceasshemournsthelossofher
eldestsontotheKRregime:
‘[…]EverydayIsawthisoldwomanfromtheOctopusTreeweavingatherloom,riversandlakesunderneathherhair’.
Soksubtlyconnectstheideaofsilkthreadstohair,tothevisualimageoftheriver,
metaphoricallypresentedasarefugeforhergrandmothertokeepherlostson.EmBun,by
usingher‘bodyasavehicleofbeing-in-the-world’,inMerleau-Ponty’sterms,interlaces
piecesofherself,herownhair,inhertextiledesignstotranscribehowshefoundsolacein
artisanalworkthroughabodilypractice:
‘Shethreadedtheloomwithonestrandofherlongsilverhair,[…]Itmadeherhappyassheworkedonsilkdressesandherhairneverranout’.798
795Sok,‘TheWeaverinMyPoems:ARemembranceofEmBun.’796Sok,‘TheWeaverinMyPoems:ARemembranceofEmBun.’797Ibid. 798Merleau-Ponty,Phénoménologiedelaperception,71;MonicaSok,‘TheWeaver,’AdroitMagazine,24(2017)http://www.theadroitjournal.org/issue-twenty-four[AccessedSeptember15,2018];See
329
Inthispoem,thetransferenceofsilkweavingskillsoperatesonasymboliclevelfrom
grandmothertogranddaughter,oneartisttotheother.WhileEmBuncouldweavebutnot
speakEnglish,SokcouldnotweavebutusedEnglishtoreconnectwithherCambodian
lineage:‘Shewastheweaverinmyfamily,andIamthepoet’.799
Bydrawingtogetherherownmemoriesofhergrandmotherandhergrandmother’s
practice,SokexploredwhatdramascholarKetuH.Katrakhasdefinedas‘simultaneityof
geography’:thatis,‘thepossibilityoflivinghereinbodyandelsewhereinmindand
imagination’.800Katrakhasestablishedthatthissuperimpositionofgeographiesisakey
frameworkofanalysisforSouthAsiandiasporicwriting,applicableheretotheCambodian
diaspora.801PoeticlicenceallowedSoktoimagineandreconstructhergrandmother’smind-
bodyexperience,boundbygriefandresilience,andreclaimherownfamilyhistory.By
practisingsilkweaving,sharingwithherfamily,showinghersilkdesignsateventsand
disseminatingthemtootherCambodianAmericanwomen,EmBun,withnoaccessto
English,regainedapersonalandsocialrolethathelpedherliveinHarrisburg.Thepublic
appreciationofhercontributionbycontrastalsohighlightstheabsenceofawider
movementrevivingCambodiancraftsmanshipintheUnitedStates,despitethesignificant
communityofCambodianimmigrants.
EmBun’sexamplealsoemphasisestheimportanceofdemonstrationand
performanceinthepursuitofCambodiansilkcraftsanditsrecognitionindiasporic
communities.AhandfulofeventsinCaliforniainthelate1980sandearly1990sinvolving
alsoMonicaSok,‘Odetotheloom,’TheOffing,June19,2019https://theoffingmag.com/poetry/ode-to-the-loom/[AccessedJune20,2020]799MonicaSok,‘TheWeaver.’ 800KetuKatrak,‘SouthAsianAmericanLiterature,’inAnInterethnicCompaniontoAsianAmericanLiterature,ed.King-KokCheung(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1997),201.801Ibid,201-202.
330
demonstrationsofweavingconfirmsthishypothesis.Apsara:TheFeminineinCambodian
ArtisconsideredtobethefirstexhibitiondedicatedtoCambodiancultureintheUnited
States,partofLosAngeles'CityRootsFestivalthatshowcasedtheculturesofmany
immigrantgroups,includingMexicans,Koreans,Guatemalans,VietnameseandFilipinos.802
Curatedin1987byculturalbrokerAmyCatlin,ethnomusicologyprofessorattheUniversity
ofCalifornia,ittookplaceattheWoman’sBuilding,anon-profitartsandeducationcentre
supportingwomen’srightsinLosAngeles.803Asshowninafilmdocumentingtheevent,two
membersoftheKhmerWomenWeaversStudioofLongBeachofferedademonstrationfor
theguests,workingonafloorloomonkramacloths[Fig.125].Theexhibition's
accompanyingpublicationfeaturedinterviewswithCambodianAmericanwomenartists
fromSouthernCalifornia,includingasinger,adancer,afashiondesigner,analtarmaker,
andPhanIth,oneoftheweaversattheexhibition.
802SusanAuerbach,‘TheBrokeringofEthnicFolklore,’inCreativeEthnicity,SymbolsandStrategiesofContemporaryEthnicLife,ed.StephenStern,andJohnA.Cicala(Logan,UT:UtahStateUniversityPress,1991),224.803TheWoman’sBuilding,openbetween1973and2001inLosAngeles,wasco-foundedbytheAmericanfeministartistandeducatorJudyChicago.
331
Fig,125Weaverworkingonherloom,screenshotfromtheKhmerDanceandMusicProjectvideoarchive:ApsaraexhibitbyAmyCatlin,filmedonDecember6,1987duringtheopenhouseday.
OriginallyfromBattambang,PhanIthlearnedweavinginarefugeecampattheThaiborder.
IntheUnitedStates,whilemaintainingajobatanelectronicassemblyfactoryshecontinued
weavinginhersparetimetorememberherpastlifeinCambodia[Fig.126].Shestated:
‘weavingislikeamemoryofwhatmostofmylifewas,andhowwecouldtakecareof
ourselves’.804
TheKhmerWomenWeaversstudioproducedpolyesterkramascarves[Fig.127].According
totheexhibitioncatalogue,theyalsowovesilkstylessuchasphamaung,anlounh,and
kramasaut.805Besidesthe‘Apsara’event,agroupofweaversalsoparticipatedina
demonstrationattheUnitedCambodianCommunityCenterfortheopeningnightofa
vocationalandtechnicalschoolinLongBeachintheearly1990s.806Figure128showsone
804AmyCatlin,ed.,Apsara:TheFeminineinCambodianArt(LosAngeles,CA:TheWoman'sBuilding,1987),26.805Ibid,27. 806NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,66-67.Foundedin1977,UnitedCambodianCommunityisanon-profitagencywhichplaysanessentialroleinthearea,providingawiderangeofsocialservicesforthelocalcommunitywithaspecificfocusonhealthcareandcommunityengagement.
332
womaninsampotholspinningthreadonaspindle,withloomssetupforweavinginthe
background.BonnieLowenthal,whoworkedforUnitedCambodianCommunity,recalled
thattheweavingprojectreceivedagrantawardedbytheNationalEndowmentsfortheArts,
whichsupportedthepurchaseofseverallooms.807Oneoftheseloomswasinstalledatthe
LongBeachSeniorCenter,wherewomencouldcomeandproducecottonkramascarves.
AccordingtoLowenthaltheprojecthadbeeninitiatedbythelocalArtsofApsaracultural
association.Itmostlyinvolvedelderlywomenwithpriorknowledgeofweaving,andwas
shortlived.
Figs.126-127Left:PhanIthweavingatKhmerWomenWeaversstudioinLongBeach.;Right:SeriesofkramascarvesmadebytheKhmerWomenWeavers’Project,LongBeach,inAmyCatlin,Apsara:TheFeminineinCambodianArt,3,26.
BythetimeofmyfirstvisittoLongBeachin2017,neitherthisproject,northeKhmer
WomenWeavers’Studio,stillexisted.Thesetwoevents,however,pointtothesignificance
ofweavingpracticesinthelate1980s,whenCambodianrefugeesfirstsettledintheUnited
States.ContinuingtheseskillswaspartoftheprocessofreclaimingCambodianculturefor
807BonnieLowenthal,informalphoneconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,LongBeach,2017.ItisnotcleartothisdatewhetherthisprojectwasanextensionfromtheKhmerWomenWeaversStudiooraseparateprojectaltogether.
333
first-wavediasporiccommunities.Potentialexplanationsforthedifficultyofcontinuing
theseskillsinanewenvironmentincludedthecomplexityofthetechniques,andpotentially
thelackofavailabilityofyoungergenerationstotrain.Weavingwasapparentlycontinued
byelderlyCambodianwomen,anddidnotleadtothefoundationofvocationalschoolsor
trainingprogrammes.Inthediaspora,demonstratingweavingtoexemplifythevitalityof
Cambodianculturehadseeminglyoverriddenthenecessitytoadvancethecraftitself.Silk
hasmoreconsistentlycontinuedtoexistinimmigrantcommunitiesthroughitsusefor
dressandculturalceremonies.Theperformativepowerofsilkclothing,therefore,provides
thefocusoftherestofthischapter,inananalysisofCTCF,theritualsofferedbywedding
ceremoniesandthepracticeofKhmerclassicalballetinLongBeach.
Fig.128WeaverdemonstratingcottonspinningattheUnitedCambodianCommunityCenteronAnaheimStreet,LongBeach,CA,inNeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,66.
CambodiaTown:aplatformofencountersforsilkdressmakersandwearers
ThediasporicterritoryofCambodiaTowninLongBeach,Californiaisusedto
334
examinetheemotionalroleofsilkdressamongCambodianimmigrantsthroughthethemes
ofloss,memory,nostalgia,andimaginaries.Myinterlocutorsareadressmakeranda
weddingdressdesignerandtheirclients.Thisstudyisgroundedininsiderperspectivesof
CambodianslivinginCambodiaTown,withtheirshopsasmicro-sitesofresearchtoanalyse
thelocaldynamicsofsilkconsumption.
ThehistoryofaCambodianpresenceinCaliforniabeganinthe1950sand1960s,when
CambodianstudentsenrolledinengineeringandothertechnicalcoursesattheLosAngeles
andLongBeachcampusesofCaliforniaStateUniversity.808Oncetheseeducational
programmesended,themajorityreturnedtotheirhomeland,leavingonlyafew
Cambodiansintheregion.Thesefirstconnections,however,playedacriticalroleinthe
establishmentofalargerCambodiancommunityinSouthernCaliforniafollowingthemid-
1970sCambodiancivilwar.MirroringtheglobalexodusofCambodiansaroundtheworld,
thefirstCambodiansarrivinginLongBeachweremainlyrefugeeswhoescapedin1975.
Thesecondwavetookplaceintheearly1980s.809Insubsequentdecades,Cambodians
arrivedinlargenumbersintheLongBeachareatojoinfamilymembers,leadingtothe
formationofalargecommunity.810Today,LongBeachisamulticulturalcitywithofficial
statisticsrevealingalargeHispaniccommunity,about42percentofthepopulation,and
twoimportantAfricanAmericanandAsiangroups,eachrespectivelyaround13percentof
thepopulation.811Thecityhas19,998residentsofCambodiandescent,about4percentof
thecity'spopulation.However,asCambodianAmericansoftenshowareluctancetoregister
forthecensus,therealestimateisaround50,000people,makingLongBeachthe
808Chan,CambodiansintheUnitedStates:Refugees,Immigrants,AmericanEthnicMinority,13-14;NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,9.809NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,7.810Chan,CambodiansintheUnitedStates:Refugees,Immigrants,AmericanEthnicMinority,120.811UnitedStatesCensusBureau,QuickFactsLongBeachcity,California2017.https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/longbeachcitycalifornia,US/PST045217[AccessedSeptember28,2018]
335
CambodiancapitaloftheUnitedStates.812TheCambodianswhosettledinLongBeachinthe
1980shavehadasignificantimpactonthecity’spoliticallife.Thequarterintheeastsideof
thecitywascommonlycalledLittlePhnomPenh.Withthecommitmentofactivistswho
advocatedforCambodianrecognitionfrom2001,theCityCouncilagreedtodesignatethe
sectionoftheAnaheimStreetcorridorbetweenJuniperoAvenueandAtlanticBoulevard
‘CambodiaTown’in2007[Fig.129].
Fig.129CitysignforCambodiaTown,delineatingtheCambodianethnicneighbourhoodofLongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.
812Incomparison,thecityofParis,Franceanditssuburbia,especiallyTorcy,haswelcomedabout40,000Cambodianimmigrants,accordingtothecensusissuedbytheFrenchNationalInstituteofStatisticsandEconomicStudiesin1990.Theyare,howeverspreadoveralargesuburbanterritorywithoutcoalescingintoacentralisedzoneasisthecaseinLongBeach.Inabsenceofmorerecentnumbers,the2012censusonimmigrationinFranceindicatesthatonly2.8percentoftheFrenchpopulationwereborninCambodia,Laos,andVietnamcombined,representingatotalof161,000people.SeeINSEE,‘Immigrésselonlepaysdenaissanceen2012.’[AccessedonOctober1,2018]
336
Itwas‘thefirstethnicdesignationinthecity’shistoryandthefirstCambodiaTowninthe
nation’.813Asianimmigrantsasawholerepresentnearlyaquarterofthepopulationin
CambodiaTown.814Theneighbourhoodwasplaguedbyawaveofviolenceinthe1990s
betweenCambodianandMexicangangs,challengingthemythofCambodianAmericans
beingpartoftheAsianAmerican‘modelminority’.815Mirroringthemainstatisticson
CambodiansasagroupintheUnitedStates,youngpeople'seducationrateinthe
CambodiancommunityofLongBeachisverylow:about65percentofyoungadultsdonot
completehighschool.Issuesrelatingtopublicsafetyhavedecreasedsincethelate2000sin
theneighbourhood,andastrongnetworkofassociationssupportsunderprivilegedelders
andyouthinparticular.OneoftheseistheKhmerArtsAcademy(KAA),adance
organisationofferingKhmerclassicaldancetrainingtoyounglocals,foundedin2002by
masterdancerSophilineCheamShapiroandherhusbandJohnShapiro.Thisprimeexample
oftherichassociativelifeinLongBeachwillbeexploredinmoredetaillaterinthischapter.
SusanNeedhamintroducedmetoMaryTanattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival
inApril2017.Asilkenthusiast,MaryofferedtointroducemetoherdressmakerSokChanin
CambodiaTown,whomshehadknownforaboutnineyears.Avisittohertailoring
workshopChandaTailoroffersanothersituatedexaminationofthekindofsilkeconomy
operatinginthisneighbourhood.Itwasinvisiblefromthestreet,locatedinthebackroomof
anemptyofficeonAnaheimStreet.There,ImetagainwithMaryTanwhohelpedmewith
translationduringourmeeting,becauseSokdidnotspeakEnglishfluently.Thisledtoan
813NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,7.814AlimatAdebiyiandal.,TheStateofCambodiaTownReport(LosAngeles:UCLA,2013),9.815TheGangsofCambodiaTown,LatinoUSA/NPR,broadcastOctober31,2014https://www.npr.org/2014/10/31/360501617/the-gangs-of-cambodia-town[AccessedOctober1,2018]
337
informalgroupconversationratherthanaone-to-oneinterview,speakingwithMaryin
EnglishandChaninKhmer.816
Chan,fifty-sevenyearsoldin2017,hasbeeninLongBeachsince2004.Sheexplained:‘I
followedmyhusbandwhowantedtogotoLongBeach[…]livedinPhnomPenhandthen
movedhere[CambodiaTown]becauseotherCambodianslivehere.AndinCaliforniathe
weatherissimilartoCambodia’.817ShewasborninBattambangandworkedasa
dressmakerinPhnomPenh.Shewasabletoputthesehand-sewingskillstouseinCalifornia
byopeningherowntailoringserviceinLongBeach[Fig.130].818Herhusband‘worksina
school.Attheoffice,likeajanitorfixingeverythingintheschool,notasateacher’.819They
hadtwosons,whohavesincereturnedtoPhnomPenhwithnowishtocontinueher
tailoringbusiness.Shecontinued:‘whenmyhusbandretires,Iwanttoretiretoo’.820
Chanmakesgownsandtwo-pieceensemblesinsilkandlaceforweddings,Buddhist
ceremoniesandevents,withthehelpofthreeCambodianseamstresses.Chanconfidedthat
herbusinesswasstablebutnotfullyprofitable;shereceivedmostordersduringthemain
Khmercelebrationsthatareconsideredauspicioustimestogetmarried,suchasCambodian
NewYearinthespringandtheWaterFestivalandtheBuddhistholidayPchumBeninthe
autumn.Tothequestion‘howmanytimeswouldacustomercometotheshoptobuy’,Chan
answered:‘mostlyoneortwotimesayear.Sometimestheyhavedifferentoccasionsinthe
year’.821
ChansourcedhersilktextilesonceortwiceayearinCambodia,keepingactiveconnections
withherhomeland.Clientsselectafabric,costingbetween70and100USDperyard,to
whichChanaddsthecostoflabour,about150USDforalacetopandsilksampotensemble.
816Chan’scaseisnotanisolatedoneintheimmigrantcommunityencountering‘theexistenceofabilingualbarrier’,as‘overhalfoftheCambodianpopulationreportthattheyspeakEnglish‘lessthanverywell’or‘notatall’.Adebiyiandal.,TheStateofCambodiaTownReport,10.817SokChan,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon,trans.MaryTan,April6,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.818Ibid. 819SokChan,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.820Ibid. 821Ibid.
338
Afullset,includingfabricsandtailoring,rangesbetween300to400USD.Asaresult,her
clientelehasremainedmostlylimitedtobetter-offmiddle-agedCambodianAmerican
women.Itremainsunaffordableforyoungerclients.Chanexplainedthatthemajorityofher
customerswouldonlycomeonceortwiceayeartobuyanewcustom-madeoutfitfora
specialoccasion.Womenusuallychoseaclassicsilktubeskirtinphamaungorholanda
fittedbodice,eitherinanembroideredfabricorlace.MaryTan,whocheerfullyadmitted
visitingSokChanfourtofivetimesayearandorderinguptosixsilkensembles,sounded
likeanexception.Marygavemoredetailsaboutherorders:‘sometimesChanstartsfrom
hercatalogueandsometimesshedesigns.Myoutfitisonlyfromherdesigns.Only
traditionalstyle’.822
SokChan’sworkshopappearsasasmallpocketofculturalinteractionswhere
womencanmeet,communicatetheirtasteforhighqualityfabricsandCambodian-style
dress,andengagewiththeirroots.Duringmyvisit,NancyLee,forty-fouryearsold,arrived
forafitting.WediscussedinEnglish.Shehadcommissionedasilkensemblefora
fundraisingeventforDreamBeyondFoundation,anon-profitorganisationshefoundedin
SantaAna,California.823NancyLeehadoptedforasophisticatedvariationofapurple
phamaungstyle,withanasymmetricbodiceinthicktwillsilk,ruffledatthebottomand
patternedingold,andamatchingtubeskirt[Fig.131].Intermsofdesigns,SokChanoffered
arangeofstylesinacataloguetochoosefrom,fromclassictomoreinnovativeshapes.
NancyLee’sconfidentchoicedemonstratedherabilitytoreworkCambodiandresscodesin
afashionableway.IntroducingKhmerfashionstyleasformalwearforfundraisingand
professionaleventsdepartsfromthemorecommonuseofCambodiandressintraditional
ceremonies.NancypursuedthedualgoalofexpressingherdeepappreciationforKhmersilk
822Ibid. 823NancyLee,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.
339
whileovertlypromotingCambodianidentityinpubliconanyoccasionpossible,throughher
dressedbody.
Fig.130SokChaninhershopChandaTailor,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April6,2017.
340
Fig.131SokChanadjustingNancyLee’spurpledressatChandaTailorworkshop,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
Inherstudyofethnicdressindiasporicmigration,fashiontheoristMargaret
Maynarddeterminedthatmovementsofpopulationhadcreatednewformsofexpressions
ofethnicidentity,whichwould’notmirrorpreciselypracticesinthehomeland,ratherusing
arangeofsourcestoshapenewwaysofdoingthings’.824NancyLee’stestimonyindeed
showshowdiasporicsilkconsumptionisinvestedwithanewsignificancethroughtravel
andconnectionswithCambodia.Sheexplainedhowsheregularlyboughthandwovensilk
yardageinselectedmarketsinPhnomPenhregardlessofthepriceandbroughtthemback
toherseamstressinLongBeachtocreatenewoutfits.825Similarly,SokChanpurchasesa
widerangeofhandwovensilkfabrics,solid-colouredphamaungandpolychromichol
yardages,aswellaslace,duringherannualCambodiantrips,workingwithaspecificlistof
824Maynard,DressandGlobalisation,72.825Lee,infomalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon.
341
suppliersandmiddlemen[Fig.132].ShementionedSuryamarket,Olympic,O'Russeyin
PhnomPenhasherpreferredmarkets.Sheadded:‘allthefabricsIbuyareproducedin
Takeo.TheyaremadethereandbroughttoPhnomPenh’with‘TakeoandPreytownas
numberone’inquality,butshedidnotvisitweaversdirectly.826Herclientstrustedherand
didnotaskforaformalcertificationoftheoriginsofthesilktheypurchasedasCambodian.
MaryTanalsohadstrongopinionsaboutthegoodsilkshopsinCambodia,findingproducts
fromKohDachofpoorquality,withwhichSokChanagreed.
Fig.132StacksofholpoaryardagesatChandaTailor,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
Theseseeminglymundanedebatesaboutthequalityandprovenanceofsilkstemfrom
longstandingtradeexchangesbetweenCambodiaanditsdiaspora,eversincethe
establishmentofrefugeecampsattheThaiborder.TerHorstdescribesthestoryofYoun
Malis,atextiledealerbasedattheCentralMarketinPhnomPenh,interviewedin2004,who
soldsilktotourists,includingnumerousCambodianAmericans.HersisterlivinginBoston
826SokChan,InterviewbyMagaliAnBerthon.
342
alsoorderedsilkscarvesandsampotholtosellintheUnitedStates.Inreality,YounMalis
sold‘machine-made[replicas]fromLaos,BurmaandThailand’whilepresentingthemas
Khmerproducts.827
Thisstoryofdeliberatelymisleadingpurchaserswithimportedmass-producedsilks,
comparedwiththeexampleofEmBun’speerstouchinghersilksampotatweddingsasking
whereshefoundit,suggestshowCambodianAmericanshavebeensearchingforan
authenticexperienceofCambodiansilkthatactivatesasenseofbelonging.Provenanceand
authenticityareconflatedthroughthepurchaseofsilkfromCambodiatoinitiateand
materialiseadirectconnectionwiththehomeland,withthepossibilityofelicitingan
emotional,nostalgicresponse.ChapterTwoaddressedissuesofauthenticityinthecontext
ofCambodiansilkcraftsproducedbyforeign-ownedNGOs.Herethediscussionisbrought
intothecontextoftheCambodianAmericanconsumer.TerHorsthasindeedarguedthat
duetotheconditionsoftheirexodus,Cambodianimmigrants‘framedadiasporic
consciousnessaroundthesilkindustryasauthenticKhmer’.828InourdiscussioninSok
Chan’sworkshop,NancyLeepraisedthebeautyofwhatshereferredtoas‘oursilk’,drawing
attentiontothelevelofcraftsmanship,andcomplainingthatithadbeenundervalued.The
noticeableuseofthepossessivepronounindicateshowshe,asaCambodianAmerican,
reaffirmsherKhmernessandsenseofpridethroughtheuseofcarefullysourcedartefacts.
Inhermind,thedefinitionofCambodiansilkisbroad.Itissilkpurchasedandmadein
Cambodia,tailoredinCambodiaTownbyaCambodianwomanintoaKhmerfashion
ensemble.Throughthistransaction,CambodiaTown,asanethnicneighbourhood,andits
inhabitantsaresymbolicallyincorporatedintothetransnationalmapofCambodianidentity.
Silkproductsareversatile‘evocativeobjects’,inSherryTurkle’swords,withthe
827TerHorst,WeavingintoCambodia,232-235. 828Ibid,232.
343
empatheticpotencytoembodyfluidandmultipleroles.829ChapterThreedocumented
weaversdemonstratingtheirattachmenttothetextilestheywove.InCambodiaTown,
testimoniesrevealthattheactofwearingsilkgarmentsalsocontributestothe
reconstructionofdiasporicimaginings.ToNancyLee,eachofherCambodiandresseswas
uniqueandsheworethemonlyonce,asopposedtoKamoninthepreviouschapterwho
wouldwearthesampotholshehadwovengainandagain.Asforthenewpurpledressshe
wasbuyingfromSokChan,shesaidthatafterwearingitforhereventshewouldthenkeep
itinhercloset,addingthatsilkskirtswere‘easytofold’.830Similarly,MaryTanconfessed:
‘SokChansaysthatIhavealotoftextilesinmyhouse!Ihavethreeclosetsofdressesfrom
Chanda.[…]Ihaveholandphamuong.Yousee,oneset,Iwearonlyonetime’.831
MarygrewupinCambodiaandhadaChineseVietnamesemotherandMalaysianfather.She
survivedtheKRregimeandarrivedinCambodiaTowninFebruary1982,thoughshehas
sincerelocatedtoOrangeCounty.LikemanyotherCambodianrefugees,shebroughtnone
ofherpreciousbelongingswhenshefledtotheUnitedStateswithherhusband,and
especiallynotextiles.Mary’spassionforsilkhasemergedfromherchildhood,asshe
rememberedseeingsilkfarmersspinningandreelingsilkthreadsintheareaofBanteay
Chmaarinthe1960s.Itseemslikelythatbecauseshesawsilkweavingasachild,inour
conversationsheoftenassertedthatthesilkgowns’mainmaterialswereinevitably
handwoven.SilkoccupiedanemotionalspaceinhermemoriesofCambodia,somuchso
thatwhenshereturnedtoherhomecountryforthefirsttimein1999sheboughtasmuch
silkasshecouldandwaspleasedtofindpreciousfabricsatanaffordableprice,bringingher
aformofsolace.
829SherryTurkle,EvocativeObjects:ThingsWeThinkWith(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,2007),5,9.830Lee,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon.831MaryTan,informalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.
344
ThetestimonyofCambodianAmericanweddingplanneranddesignerMenKovady
(‘Kaylene’)hasarticulatedfurthertheemotionalconnectionbetweensilk,memoryand
trauma.IfirstmetKayleneatherKhmerBridalboothatCTCF.Iwasstruckbyherdress,
oneofherdesigns,acreamwhiteandbluesilkensemblethatrevisitedthephamaungstyle
[Fig.133].Onalightweightcreamblouseprintedwithpaintedeffects,sheworea
sophisticatedpleatedsashthatasymmetricallycrossedherchest,adornedwithajewelled
brooch.Hersampotwasofthesameroyalblueandwornsimplyfoldedaroundthewaist.
SheagreedtobeinterviewedinEnglishandImetheragainathershoplocatedonPacific
HighwayinCambodiaTown.BorninPhnomPenhandsettlingintheUnitedStatesin1981
attheageoffive,Kayleneisaself-taughtdesignerwhocollaborateswithanumberof
CambodianseamstressesinLongBeachtocreatecustom-madeweddingdressesforrental
andpurchase.832Shealsoorganisesjewelleryandflowerarrangementsforherclients.Like
SokChan,MenKaylenereturnstoCambodiatwiceayeartosourcefabrics,garmentsand
accessoriesfromspecificvendorsinPhnomPenhwhichshesellsathershopinLongBeach,
fromKhmer-stylelacedaor(bodices)andsequinedphuyorsbaay(sashes)forthetopsto
polychromicsampothol,brocadedsampotsarabap,andplainsampotphamaungandchawng
kbunforskirtsandtrousers[Fig.134].
ArrivingfirstinKansaswithhermotherandsiblingstoreunitewithherfatherwhowas
alreadyintheUnitedStates,KaylenemovedtoCaliforniaafterhighschoolandsettledin
CambodiaTowninLongBeach.Afteruniversity,sheworkedasaninterpreterfortheUnited
CambodiaCommunityagencywhereshe‘Iwaslearningabout[her]ownculture’,
translatingforCambodianrefugeestellingtheirexperienceoftheKRregime.
Kaylenebecameemotionalinretellingherlifestory.Sheexplained:‘luckyIdon'tremember
muchaboutthewar.Idon'tremembermuchbecauseIwastooyoung[…]butIremember
thesadness,thecrying.Iremembersomeimagesyouknow?ButIdidn'tknowhowtoputit
832MenKaylene,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April11,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.
345
intowords’.‘Thememoryallcomesback.Itisjustthereyouknow’,shewhispered,‘andyou
don'tknowwhatitislike,whattriggersit’.833ToexplainherinterestinKhmerweddings,
KaylenetalkedaboutachildhoodmemoryofweddinginCambodiathatmarkedher:
‘Irememberthefirstweddingthatmymomrightafterthewar1979.AndIremembereverybodycriedsohard.[…]AndIwasawakenedbytheircriesbecauseIwasachild.AndIdon'tunderstandwhyuntillaterIlearnedthatthemajorityofpeoplethatweretherewereallwomenandchildren,andalltheirhusbands,theirlovedones,hadpassedaway.Andtheyrememberedtheweddingsongs’.834
Fig.133MenKayleneatherboothattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.
ShealsorecalledhowasaninterpretersheaccompaniedformerCambodianMinisterof
CultureChhengPhon(1930-2016)onhisvisittoCaliforniain1993.Sherememberedthatin
833Ibid. 834Ibid.
346
apublicspeechtotheCambodiancommunity,hecommendedtheimportanceofwedding
ceremoniesascelebrationsofallfivesenseswiththemusic,lavishclothesandflowers.835
ShewasstruckbyChhenPhon‘sreferencetotheforcedweddingsthathappenedduringthe
KRregime.Between1975and1979,hundredsofthousandsofceremonieswereorganised
invillagesbetweenwomenandmenwhowererandomlymatchedaspartofastate-
sponsoredprogramme.Suchatrocitiesnegativelyimpactedonthemeaningandthepractice
ofmaritalunionsinCambodiainthewakeofthedictatorship.836
Onamorepositivenote,herinterestinsilkwassparkedbyencounterswithhermother’s
friends:
‘Iseemymum'sfriendsthatcamesince1975andhowrefinedtheyareandthewaytheydressCambodian[…]thewaytheyputtogethertheclothes,itjustseemedsorefinedandsoelegant.[…]theytaughtme:"thisisthefinestsilk”.OrthesearethebestsilksmadefromBanteaySreiorfromKampongChamorfromKohDach,youknow.So,theyshowedmehowthethread,thesilk,howyoucancreatetheminadifferentway,howcanyoutouch,feelbythetextureofit’.837
Kayleneassistedhersisterwhoworkedasamake-upartistatweddings:‘Idiscovered[the
wedding]byaccident.Mysister,sheisinthebeautybusinessandIwasherdriver’.Tolearn
abouttheartofdressing,shealsoobserveddancetroupesperformingduringweddings:‘I
likedtowatchthedancershowtheydressed,theteacher,justfouryardofcloththeycan
makeitintobeautifulskirtsanystyletheywant’.838Sheeventuallystartedherownbusiness
835Itisnotfullyclearwherethisspeechwasgiven.KayleneMenwasmostlikelyreferringtoChhengPhon’svisittotheUniversityTheateratCalStateUniversity,LongBeachtoattendadanceperformanceinDecember1993.See‘CambodianDancerstoPerformSunday,’LATimes,December2,1993https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-12-04-ca-63781-story.html[AccessedJune1,2020]836Ina2011studyconductedwith222CambodianswhowerecivilpartiesattheExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodiaagainsttwoformerKRleadersNuonCheaandKhieuSamphan,morethanahalfoftheintervieweeswereforcedintomarriage.SeeJudithStrasserandal.,eds.,‘AStudyaboutVictims’ParticipationattheExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodiaandGender-BasedViolenceundertheKhmerRougeRegime,’TransculturalPsychosocialOrganizationCambodia(September2015):13.837Men,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.838Ibid.
347
as‘ahobby’sellingKhmerfashionandplanningweddingsinthe2010sanditthenbecamea
sustainableprofessionalendeavour.839
Fig.134EmbroideredsbaayandsolidsilksampotondisplayatKhmerBridal,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.
Inherdiscourse,KaylenelinkedthetraumaoftheKRregimetothesocialand
culturalpowerofmarriageintheimmigrantcontextofLongBeach.Hercommitmentto
creatingthemostlavishweddingceremonieshasbeencompoundedbyherpersonal
experienceofsnaam,whichmeans‘scar'inKhmeranddesignatesthemarkoftraumatic
pastmemories.Kayleneconsiderstheweddingasthebindingmomentthatbringsthe
839SeealsothewrittenportraitofMenKayleneinLongBeach’slocalpress:AnneArtley,‘LocalFemaleEntrepreneursMirrorGrowingTrendofDiversity,’LongBeachBusinessJournal,February26,2018https://lbbusinessjournal.com/local-female-entrepreneurs-mirror-growing-trend-of-diversity[AccessedDecember2,2020]
348
familyandthecommunitytogetherand‘tiesthepast,thepresent,andthefuture’.840
Similarly,Smith-HefnerhaspraisedtherichsophisticationofKhmerweddingsinthe
diasporaofBostondespitethe‘culturebeingaffected,evenhaunted,byrecenthistory’.841
Shesawthepopularityoftraditionalweddingsas‘adeliberateanddignifiedeffortby
Cambodianelderstore-createfamilies,community,andaKhmercultureintheUnited
States’.842
Dressplaysanessentialroleinthismomentofculturalreunionshapedbyfamilyloyalties.
Thevariety,careandsophisticationofthechosensilkensemblesconveyasenseofluxury
duringtheceremony.Thebridalcouple,families,andguestsshowcase(orborrowforthe
occasion)theirfinestclothes.KhmerweddingsinCambodiausuallylastthreedays,
sometimesreducedtooneday,andtakesplaceatthebride’shome.Duringthattime,the
bridalcouplechangesintodifferentstylesofsilkensembles,ofteninmatchingcolours,upto
seventimes.Thebridepicksdifferenttypesoflaceorsequinnedaorblousewithasilk
sampotcarefullyfoldedaroundthewaistandheldbyagoldbelt,whichdemandsthehelpof
afamilymembertogetdressed.OneoftheensemblesmaybeaWestern-stylewhitegown.
Thegroomwearsdifferentstylesofsilkjacketswithasilksampotchawngkbuninshantung
orbrocade.
Thebridalcouple’sfinaloutfitsareinspiredbyCambodianregalattire,inKaylene’swords,
‘whenyoudresslikethekingandqueen’.843Itisoftenwornforthefinalweddingritualin
whichstringsaretiedroundthecouple'swrists.844InKaylene’sshop,theseensemblesfor
newlywedsweredisplayedsidebysideonmannequins[Fig.135].Thebridaldress
comprisesagoldensilkphuyfittedasymmetricallyfromtheshouldertothehipanda
840Men,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.841Smith-Hefner,KhmerAmerican:IdentityandMoralEducationinaDiasporicCommunity,xii. 842Ibid.843Men,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.844EdDavies,‘Cambodiancouplefinallytietheknotwithglitteringceremonyafterpandemiccurbsease,’Reuters,February3,2021https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/cambodian-couple-finally-tie-knot-with-glittering-ceremony-after-pandemic-curbs-2021-02-04/[AccessedAugust2,2021]
349
sampotsarabaphipwrapdrapedintheka’atkbalneakpleatingstyle.Thegroom’ssuit
includesawhitesilkrbaukaorpay(long-sleevedblouse)withasilkrbaukjacket,calledaor
kotrung,withagoldensequinnedcollar.845AweddingpicturefromGillianGreen’sseminal
bookTraditionalTextilesofCambodiashowsstrikinglysimilarensembles,illustratinghow
thisspecificstyle,inspiredbyroyalty,isintendedtoevokeanunchangingceremonial
weddingtradition[Fig.136].
Fig.135GroomensembleontheleftandbridedresstherightonmannequinsatKhmerBridalshop,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.
845Green,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,194.
350
Fig.136Brideandgroomphotographedontheirweddingday.InGreen,TraditionalTextilesofCambodia,194.
Kaylene’sworkatKhmerBridalplacesherinamediatorypositionintheCambodian
AmericancommunityofLongBeach,takingontheroleofkeeperofKhmerweddingrituals,
especiallyforyoungpeople,describingherselfas‘akeeperoftraditionshowingacertain
wayofdoingthings’.846Kaylenehaddevelopedherownstyle,slightlychangingthecodesof
Cambodianceremonialfashion.SheconsultedweddingfashiontrendsintheUnitedStates
andCambodia,lookingatsocialmediaandcelebrityweddings.Inhershopshechosewhich
textileproductstodistribute,towhichsheattachedspecificculturallyconservative
discourses.PositioningherselfasanauthorityonKhmerweddingfashion,Kaylenestated
that‘certainthingsyoushouldn'tmesswith’,criticisingthechangeoftasteinCambodiaas
muchastheAmericanisationofCambodianAmericanweddings.Sheregretteda‘lossof
846Men,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.
351
culture’throughthefollowingofcertaintrendssheconsideredinappropriateforsucha
ceremony.
EventhoughKayleneacknowledgedthatinLongBeachareathemajorityofherclients
enteredintointerracialmarriages,shepraisedthe‘veryunique[Khmer]artofdressing’that
is‘veryfeminineanddoesn'trevealtoomuch’.847Inthisweddingportrait,displayedonthe
shop’swalls,thenewly-wedcoupleposinginKhmer-styleoutfitsareaCaucasianAmerican
manandaCambodianAmericanwoman[Fig.137].848
Fig.137PortraitofformerclientsinaninterracialmarriageseenatKhmerBridal,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,2017.
847Men,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.848FashionscholarCherylSimhasstudiedethnichybridityindresspracticesinCanadaintheChinesediaspora,especiallyhowyoungbrideshaveexperiencedwearingChinesedressoramoreAmericanisedstyleattheirwedding.HerstudyshowsthewaysinwhichtheresearchonweddingdresspracticescouldbeexpandedintheCambodiandiasporainLongBeachbyconductinginterviewswithwomenabouttheirweddings.SeeCherylSim,WearingtheCheongsam:DressandCultureinaChineseDiaspora(London:Bloomsbury,2019),103-104.
352
MortlandhassuggestedthatCambodianAmericanweddingsaresituatedmomentsinwhich
genderdynamicsandreferencestoancestralwayshavebeenreinforced.Discourseson
appropriatefemaledressstemfromamorepervasiveconversationabouthowCambodian
women,especiallyasspouses,areexpectedtobehavewithobediencetotheirhusband,as
wellasintheirfamilyandthecommunity.849Despitethesocialrupturesresultingfrom
migration,thepersistenceofthesecodesofconductperpetuatingprescriptivefemaleroles
inthediasporamirrorgenderedpositionsincontemporaryCambodia.850
Throughherapproachtoweddingfashion,Kaylenehasreaffirmedandsharedheridealsof
modestyrootedintraditionalculturalrepresentationswhiledemonstratinganattachment
toaCambodiannessthatresistsAmericanisation.
StagingsilkattheCambodiaTownCultureFestival(CTCF)
ThissectionexaminessilkwearingpracticesinthecontextofCTCF2017,addressing
waysinwhichfestivalparticipantsnegotiateandperformtheirCambodianidentitythrough
silkdress.Consideringtheimpactofglobalisationonethnicrepresentations,Maynardhas
regardedethnicityasafluidprocessthatis‘flexibleindifferentplacesandatdifferent
times’,embeddedin‘day-to-dayculturaltransactionsandconnectedness’.851Ethnicdress
offerspossibilitiesofappropriationandresistance,butalsohybriditythroughexchanges
withotherminoritiesandeverydayWesternfashionstyles.Atfestivaltimes,theethnic
neighbourhoodcanbeseenasapublicspaceforthedisplayofethnicpridewhichproduces
849Mortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates,113-115.850SeeKatherineBrickell’sarticleonthepersistenceofgenderbiasinCambodia.Brickell,'Wedon’tforgettheoldricepotwhenwegetthenewone,’446-451.851Maynardhasarguedthatethnicityischangeable,referringtoanthropologistRichardJenkinswhopromotedthepotentialtransactionalnatureofethnicity.SeeMaynard,DressandGlobalisation,69;RichardJenkins,RethinkingEthnicity:ArgumentsandExplorations(ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications,1997),51.
353
specificformsofexpressionofCambodianheritage.CambodiaTownhasbecomethestage
fornumerouspubliceventssincethearrivalofthefirstwaveofrefugeesinthemid-1970s.
ThiscommunityengagementhascrystallisedaroundtheCambodianNewYearcelebrations,
whichtakeplaceinmid-April,followingtheTheravadaBuddhisttradition.InLongBeach,
thefirsteventofthiskindtookplaceinApril1976atWilsonHighSchool,gathering
Cambodiansandnon-Cambodiansaroundadanceperformance.852Quicklygaining
popularity,thiskeyeventhostedotherculturalperformancesandBuddhistritualsledby
localmonks.Itbecameanoutdooreventinthelate1980s,ultimatelymovinginthe1990s
toElDoradoRegionalPark,wherethousandsofCambodianAmericansfromCaliforniaand
allovertheUnitedStatesgathereveryyear.853CulturalheritagescholarOliviaCadaval
showedthatethnicfestivalshaveoftenbeenconsideredanextensionof‘the
neighbourhood’slong-standingtraditionofactivism’,whereindividualsfromthe
communitywouldassumeleadershiproles.854Throughthesenumerouseventspunctuating
thelifeoftheneighbourhood,CambodiaTownhasbecome‘thestageforimmigrantmodes
ofexpressionandexperimentation[letting]asenseofcommunityidentityandhistory
emerge’.855
Since2008,CambodiaTown’sprogrammeforCambodianNewYearhasincluded
CTCF.Thisopen-airfestivalhasbeencoordinatedbyCambodiaTownInc.,alocalnon-profit
organisationmanagedbyCambodianAmericansofLongBeachanddedicatedto
‘revitalizingtheneighborhoodbyattractingmorebusinesses,visitorsandtourists’and
supportingthe‘socialandeconomicwell-beingofresidentsandbusinessownersinCentral
LongBeach’.856SusanNeedham,aboardmemberofCambodiaTownInc.atthetime,
852NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,68.853Ibid,69.854OliviaCadaval,‘MakingaPlaceHome:TheLatinoFestival,’inCreativeEthnicity,SymbolsandStrategiesofContemporaryEthnicLife,ed.StephenSternandJohnA.Cicala(Logan,UT:UtahStateUniversityPress,1991),204.855Ibid,206.856‘Mission,’CambodiaTownhttp://www.cambodiatown.com/[Accessed25October2018]
354
initiatedtheprojectandremainedthemainorganiserforsevenyears.Shewasinspiredby
herexperienceattheFolkFestivalinLowell,Massachusetts,andwantedtocreateanevent
bringingtogetherthecommunityaroundCambodiaTown’smainstreetofAnaheim,where
anumberofCambodianAmerican-ownedshops,supermarkets,restaurants,andtailors
suchasChandaTailorarelocated.857CTCFhasbeenspecificallydesignedforaCambodian
AmericanaudiencecoordinatedbyCambodianTownInc.,thusavoidingthepitfallsof
‘stereotypingtraditionality’whichoftenoccursinmulti-ethnicfestivalscuratedby
folkloristsforageneralpublic.858ItattractsonaverageathousandCambodianandnon-
Cambodianvisitorseveryyear.
Inhisseminalworkonethnicgroups,anthropologistFredrikBarthhasdeconstructedthe
commonideathatethnicityshouldbecategorisedwithinstrictgeographicboundariesand
thatethnicgroupswouldonlyexistwithinlimitedsocialinteractionswithoutsideunits.859
Barthemphasisedinsteadthatethnicgroupswouldbedefinedas‘categoriesofascription
andidentificationbytheactorsthemselves’.860InthespecificityofCTCF,thefestival’s
attendeesareconsideredinthewaystheydefinetheirCambodianculturebycultivating
specificdiscourses,imaginings,andperformances,inwhichdressactivelyparticipates.
WhenIvisitedin2017,thefestivalwaslocatedonthecentralsquarenearMark
TwainLibraryonAnaheimstreet[Fig.138].Buddhistmonkswelcomedvisitorsforblessings
inashrinesetupfortheoccasion.AttendeescouldenjoyavarietyofKhmerfoodinthe
mainfoodstands,sittoeat,wanderinthealleystovisitstallshostedbylocalassociations
andshopowners,andwatchshowshappeningonthemainstage.Thefestivaldidnot
857Needham,InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon. 858Auerbach,‘TheBrokeringofEthnicFolklore,’224.859FrederickBarth,ed.,GroupsandBoundaries:TheSocialOrganizationofCultureDifference(LongGrove:WavelandPress,1998),10;AlsocitedinJenkins,RethinkingEthnicity:ArgumentsandExplorations,51.860Barth,ed.,GroupsandBoundaries:TheSocialOrganizationofCultureDifference,10.
355
includeacraftsection,ashasoftenbeenthecaseinethnicfestivals,suchastheHmong
InternationalNewYearinFresnoandtheAsianCulturalFestivalofSanDiego.861
Underabrightsun,thelibrary’sforecourtwasfilledbyanintensecrowdoffamiliesand
friendsmeeting,creatingalivelysocialfabric.Withmicro-historiescomemicro-sitesof
exploration.CTCFoffersaspecificlocationinwhichtoanalysetheintersectionofsilkwith
CambodianAmericancommunitylife.Inthiscase,thedividebetween'frontstage’and‘back
stage’performanceestablishedbyErwinGoffmantoaddressthevarietyofsocialroles
enactedinpublicandprivatearenasischallenged.862Participantsperformasagroupwhile
reclaimingtheirethnicidentityasindividualsinageographiclocationwherethese
expressionsareblurredandcrossed.Cadavalhasrightlyarguedthatculturalfestivalsin
immigrantcontextsoffer‘atemporarycentreofpower’,unifyingspaceand‘generating
action,duringwhichsymbolsandtraditionsaremanipulated,culturalformsaregiven
expression,relationshipsarenegotiatedandnewidentitiesareforged’.863
861AccordingtoNeedham,therewasanonlyoneunsuccessfulattemptin2012toinviteCambodiannationalstosellartisanalproducts,whichdidnotgarnermuchinterestfromtheattendees.NeedhambelievedthatCambodianAmericanlocalswouldrathershopinafewdedicatedstoresinLongBeachorwaittogotoCambodiathemselves.SeeNeedham,InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon.862ErvingGoffman,ThePresentationofSelfintheEverydayLife(Edinburgh:UniversityofEdinburghPress,1956),76-78. 863Cadaval,‘MakingaPlaceHome:TheLatinoFestival,’205.
356
Fig.138MapofCambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA,GoogleMaps,2018.
WearingsilkforceremonialandreligiousoccasionsiscustomaryinCambodia,apractice
reactivatedinthediaspora.Bymyownestimate,onlyaminorityofmaleandfemale
attendeesdressedinsilk:shirtsinavarietyofvividhuesformen,dressesandtubeskirts
forwomen.Visitors,andnotonlyCambodianAmericans,cladinthesesophisticated
patternedandsolid-colouredsilkgarmentswere,however,veryvisibleinthecrowd,and
overtlycommunicatedtheirtiestoCambodianculturethroughdressinasocialandpublic
space.Inthispicture,MaryTanisinamatchingbrightgreenensembleshecommissioned
fromSokChan,standingwithSusanNeedham,whoisalsodressedinamoreclassic
Cambodianstyle[Fig.139].Withherwhiteaorandcolourfulsampothol,Needham,asan
anthropologistfounderoftheCTCTandCamCHAParchives,providesanexampleofanon-
Cambodianculturalbrokerfollowinglocaldressprotocols.MaryTandisplaysherpassion
forsilkwiththisensemblepickedespeciallyforthefestival.Sheworeacustom-made
bodicewithanopennecklineandlongsleevesincrispsilkwithagreenandwhitecotton
kramatiedasymmetricallyontheshoulder.Hertubeskirtfeaturedapolychromichand-
CAMBODIA TOWN
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paintedfriezeofboldconfrontingpeacocksandstylisedfloralsonabrightacidgreen
groundwithred,yellowandgoldaccentsmimickinganikateffect.Sheexemplifiedhow
femaleattendeesintentionallyworestrikingvariationsoftheCambodianensembleofthe
fittedbodiceandtubeskirtinsolidhues,brocade,orhol,allremarkableforthecareand
playfulnessinvestedindressingupinbrightcolourcombinations,
Fig.139DrSusanNeedhamandMaryTanbothinCambodiandress,CambodiaTownCultureFestival.LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
Adozenwomen,probablyallintheirsixtiesanddressedalikewithalacyblouse,asilk
sampotholandasashwereinvitedbythefestivalasfirstgenerationofCambodianfemale
immigrantstoLongBeach[Figs.140a-b].ThemajorityofwomendressedinsilkatCTCF
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indeedappearedtobemoremature,anobservationconfirmedbySusanNeedham,who
statedthatyoungerpeopleseemedlessinterestedinCambodian-stylefashion.864
Figs.140a-bLeft:Femalefestival-goerwithamatchingsilkensembleandagreensilkensash.Right:Womendressedinthetypicalensemble:lacedaorandsilksampothol,attheCambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotographs,April2017.
Asmallernumberofmenwerewearingsilkgarments,mostlyshort-sleeveshirtsortailored
jacketsonblacktrousers.PasinChanou,onethefestival’smainorganisersandchairmanof
CambodiaTownInc.,woreagreensilkshirtboughtinCambodiaduringoneofhisannual
visits.MaryTan’shusband,aChineseCambodian,waswearingaturquoisejacketinshot
silk,matchinghiswife’soutfit[Fig.141].
864ThisgenerationaldivideaboutdressisalsoprevalentinCambodia.SeeKimSamathandYinVannithTouch,‘Whydowomenwearsexyclothesinpagodas?’
359
Fig.141MaryTan’shusbandwearingajacketinshotsilkandholdingagildedmokot,CambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
Atthefestival,dressalsoallowedtheexpressionofthepluralitiesofimmigrantlives.
Jenkinshasdemonstratedthatethnicidentityrespondstotwoprocessesofidentification.
Theexternaldefinitionisprovidedbyagrouporexternalindividual;theprocessthis
sectionhereaddressesistheinternaldefinition,when‘actorssignaltoin-orout-group
membersaself-definitionoftheirnatureoridentity’.865WhiletypicalCambodianensembles
werestillrelevantforeldersinthecommunity,alargenumberofvisitorsworeacotton
checkedkramascarfonWestern-stylecasualoutfitssuchasjeansandt-shirts.Affordable
andversatile,kramascarvesarecommonitemsintheCambodiandiaspora.866AtCTCF,this
clothhastheadditionalfunctionofsignallingthevisitors'senseofaffiliationwith
Cambodianidentity.CambodiaTownInc.hadcommissionedfromCambodiaaspecial
kramaembroideredwiththeCambodiaTownlogotosellinLongBeach.Inoticedabout
865Jenkins,RethinkingEthnicity:ArgumentsandExplorations,53.866Mortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates,233.
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fifteenpeople,mostlymembersoftheorganisingcommittee,whowerewearingthisdesign
[Fig.142].
Fig.142Dressedinred,womanparticipantwearingaCambodiaTownkramawithanembroideredlogoofCambodia,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
AtCTCF,someyoungerpeopledressedinsilkwerealsoquitevisibleinthecrowd.
TheywereeitherparticipantsintheparadeorKhmerclassicalballetdancersinvitedto
perform.OneofthemwasSokhomsanChakravatin,‘Chakra’,fourteenyearsold,whostood
outinthecrowdinhisdanceattire.Hewaswearingawhitefittedsilkshirtwithseamless
shoulders,aredshouldercloth(sbaay),andbrightorangesilkwrappedtrousersinthe
chawngkbunstyle.Hemovedslowly,holdingaredpleatedsilkfabricinhishand,akite-
shapedornamentcalledasloekpotoperformslowgestures[Fig.143].Hedancedforthe
CambodianAmericanveteranswhostoodaroundhiminablessingpostureinfrontofa
Buddhistshrine.Hethenperformedagainonthemainstagetorepresenthisdance
companyKAA(discussedbelow).
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Fig.143ChakraperforminginfrontofKhmerVeterans,CambodiaTownCultureFestival,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
BesidesChakra,youngparticipantsweredressedspecificallyfortheparade,thefestival’s
mostpopularevent,whichranonGundryAvenueneartheLibrary.Needhamand
Quintilianihaveunderlinedthatthefirstparadestemmedfrommobilising‘astronger
Cambodiancommunitythathaddevelopedpoliticaltiesaswellasthemultigenerational
andmulti-ethniccoalitionneeded’.867ParadesarenotpartofCambodianculture.Inthe
realmofpoliticalcultureintheUnitedStates,paradeshavebeendefinedinsteadby
historianMaryRyanas‘acharacteristicgenreofnineteenth-centurycivicceremony’,which
ritualisedacollectivemovementpubliclywalkingthecity’sstreets.868Throughthis
867NeedhamandQuintiliani,CambodiansinLongBeach,74.868ThehistoryofAmericanparadeshasgeneratedarobustcanonofscholarshiplookingatnationalism,identityformationandcivicexpressioninthepublicspheresincetheearlyRepublic.SeeMaryRyan,‘TheAmericanParade:RepresentationsoftheNineteenth-centurySocialOrder,’inTheNewCulturalHistory,ed.LynnHunt(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1989),131-154;SimonNewman,ParadesandthePoliticsoftheStreet:FestiveCultureintheEarlyAmericanRepublic(Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1997),3;DavidWaldstreicher,IntheMidstofPerpetualFetes:theMakingofAmericanNationalism,1776-1820(ChapelHill,NC:TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2012),3-14,
362
gathering,theparadersclaimedtheiraffiliationtoaspecificcommunitybymarchingin
unitsanddisplayingcodifieddecoration,symbols,andclothing.Bythelate1800s,these
marchesdevelopedintogatheringsrepresentingspecificethnicgroups’rightsand
identities,‘organisingthediversepopulationofthecityintomanageablecategories’.869
Moreover,culturalhistorianVanessaAgnewhasestablishedthatinthecontextofrefugees
andgenocidethereenactmentofhistory-themedscenesisaformofreappropriationofthe
pastwhosevalueliesin‘itscapacitytofindnewandinventivemodesofhistorical
representation’.870Agnewalsoarguedthat‘body-based’testimoniescombininghistorical
references,movementanddressaremoreinformativeaboutpresentrepresentationsthan
thepast.871WhatIwitnessedmyselfwasaprocessionofpeopleofferingtheembodied
performanceofareimaginedCambodianness,inabalancingactbetweenentertainment,
self-expression,storytellingandhistoricalreenactment.
TheCambodiaTownparadeconsistedofvolunteerswhohadappliedtoparticipate.The
firstgroupwassolelymale,andperformedrobamChhayYam,aKhmerfolkdancecommon
inCambodiainreligiousprocessionsbeforepeopleenterthepagoda.Participantswalkedat
adynamicpacetothemusic,playingdrumsandcymbals.Theyworecolourfulmasksand
weredressedinshinysilk-like(mostlikelysynthetic)costumes,abrightbluesatintunic
andredsatincalf-lengthpants,tiedatthewaistbyacottonkrama[Fig.144].
869Ryan,‘TheAmericanParade:RepresentationsoftheNineteenth-centurySocialOrder,’152-153. 870VanessaAgnew,'WhatisRe-enactment?,’Criticism,46,no.3(2004):335.871Ibid,328,335.
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Fig.144RobamChhayYam,performersattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
Thesecondgroup,maleandfemale,presentedtheparade’scentrepiece,thereenactmentof
KingJayavarmanVII’sruleduringtheKhmerEmpire.Thissectionwasledbytwomainmale
andfemaleperformersasthekingandqueen,proudlysittingonathronetogetherona
majesticwoodenfloatdecoratedwithgold-paintedornamentstoppedwithaparasoland
pulledbyseveralmendressedinwhite[Fig.145].Theyweresurroundedbyacrowdof
participants,someprecedingtheconvoyholdinglargecolourfulflagsandothersdressedas
soldierscarryinghand-paintedcardboardshields.
JayavarmanVIIisconsideredthegreatbuilderofthelatetwelfth-centuryAngkorianera,
defeatinginvasionsfromKingdomofChampa,convertingthestatetoMahayanaBuddhism,
andorderingtheambitiousconstructionofreligioussitesinAngkorWat.872Hefirstmarried
Jayarajadeviandthen,aftershedied,hersisterIndradevi.Performersdidnotseekhistorical
872Chandler,AHistoryofCambodia,55.ThereisasmallnumberofcarvedrepresentationsofJayavarmanVIIinarchaeologicalsitesandmuseumcollections,includingastonecarvedheadwithasmilingfaceheldattheGuimetMuseum,Paris.
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truthintheirattire,stemmingfromrepresentationsofdressdepictedonantiqueAngkorian
statues.Thevolunteerplayingthekingwasbare-chested,withametallicembroidered
collararoundhisneckandagoldsampotskirtgatheredtowardsthefrontandsecuredwith
ajewelledbelt.Heworeagoldenheadpieceandcuffsonhisupperarmsandwrists.The
queenwasdressedasanapsara,thefemaledancingdeityonAngkorianbas-relief,afamiliar
characterintheKhmerclassicaldancepantheon.Sheworeaskin-tonedfittedbodice
adornedwithalargeembroideredcollarandagreensampotsarabapinsilkandmetallic
threadwrappedaroundherwaistandpleatedintoacentralbandheldbyaredandgold
belt.Shealsoworeagoldheadpiecewithawhitefloweronherear,alongwithchunky
goldenbanglesonheranklesandwrists.
Certainparticipantshadsneakersandflip-flopsontheirfeetandsomeofthecostumes
lookedofpoorquality.Nevertheless,theoverallaestheticandenergyconveyedbyallthe
performersprevailed,turningtheprocessionintoaneffectivelivingpainting.Afterthemain
procession,theparadeclosedwithadozenofyounggirlscarefullydressedbytheirparents
insilkbustiersandmatchingsilksampotchawngkbun.WavingsmallflagsofCambodiawith
therecognisableAngkorWatsilhouette,theyweresupervisedbyahandfulofwomeninfull
Cambodianattire[Fig.146].Thegroupofearlyimmigrantelderlywomeninsampothol
closedtheparadeandthefestival-goersrejoinedthemainCTCFsquare.
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Figs.145ActorsperformingKingJayavarmanVIIandhisqueenonafloatattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,surroundedbytheircourt,April2017,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph.
Fig.146GroupofyounggirlsdressedinsilkbodicesandsampotchawngkbunattheCambodiaTownCultureFestivalparade,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
366
ForanthropologistPennyVanEsterik,theplayfulmake-believeofurbanethnicfestival
offersparticipantsthepossibilitytoreplaymythsandassertspecificvalues.Shestatedthat
‘whenthedreamisthreatened,thereisaneedtoworkthroughthemythsagain,andplay
themoutinaritualcontext’.873ThedecisiontoreconstructtheepiclifeofKingJayavarman
VIIthroughanembodiedparticipatoryapproachviathemarchincostumesandpropsisa
strongindicationofhowCambodianAmericansofLongBeachwishtoportraythemselves
inapublicspaceandreclaimamoredesirableheritage.874
KhmerantiquityandAngkorWatareusedtocrystalliseCambodia’shistoricalheritagein
theirpersonalnarratives.875Theparadereflecteddiasporicattachmenttothisimmemorial
past,showingdifferentsubjectpositionsandagenciesinrelationtoissuesoftraditionand
imagination.AngkorWat,bothasdecorandimaginedspace,hasbecomearecurringmotif
intheCambodianimmigrants’lives,especiallyduringCambodianNewYear.This
photographfromtheCamCHAParchivesshowsahand-paintedAngkorWatpasteboard
usedasabackdropfortheApsaradanceperformanceofHengLeng,beauticianandfounder
oftheCambodianArtPreservationGroup,fortheNewYearcelebrationsinLongBeachin
1980[Fig.147].
873PennyVanEsterik,‘CelebratingEthnicity:EthnicFlavorinanUrbanFestival,’EthnicGroups4(1982):224-25.874VanEsterik'sperspectivemirrorsAgnew’scommentthat‘reenactment’semancipatorygestureistoallowparticipantstoselecttheirownpastinreactiontoaconflictedpresent’:seeAgnew,'WhatisRe-enactment?,’328.875Mortland,GraceafterGenocide:CambodiansintheUnitedStates,151.
367
Fig.147ApsaraperformanceforCambodianNewYearinLongBeachinfrontofapaintedbackdropofAngkorWat,ca.1980.PhotographcourtesyofCamCHAParchives.
HistorianMichaelFalserhasdeterminedthatthemythologyofAngkorthatprevailedunder
theFrenchprotectoratewasreactivatedinCambodia’sdecolonisingperiodafterthe1950s.
Falserstatedthat‘theseimaginationswere[…]directlyincorporatedandcontinuedas
supposedlytrue,pureandoriginalelementsintoCambodia’sHobsbawmian,andhighly
creative,self-reinventionprocessasaneo-Angkoriannation-statebuiltuponarevived,pure
andauthenticantiquity’.876In1962QueenSisowathNeyrirathKossamak,Norodom
Sihanouk’smother,createdtheApsaradance(robamApsara)forhergranddaughter
PrincessNorodomBupphaDevi,theroyaltroupe’sfirstprimaballerina.877Inspiredbythe
876FalserhasarguedthatAngkorWathasbecome‘theperformativestageforCambodia’snewly‘imagined[decolonised]community’.’MichaelFalser,‘CulturalHeritageasPerformance:Re-enactingAngkorianGrandeurinPostcolonialCambodia(1953–70),’ inCulturesofDecolonisation,TransnationalProductionsandPractices,1945–70,ed.RuthCraggsandClaireWintlein(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2016),149.877TonyPhim-ShapiroandAshleyThompson,DanceinCambodia(ImagesofAsia)(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.2001),41.
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iconographyofAngkorWatbas-reliefsshowingapsara,celestialdancers,QueenKossamak
designedthischoreographyandcostumesforthemodernstage,inwhichperformers
materialiseoutofatemple’swalltodancebeforeretreatingagaininthestone.878In2010,
BupphaDevi(1943-2019)confirmed:‘thedelicateApsaradancewaspartofthere-
constructionandrevivalprogramme;howevercontrarytopopularybelief,ithasa
comparativelyrecenthistory’.879OnFigure148sheisperformingthisdanceinthecostume
imaginedbyhergrandmother.Hertight-fittingbodiceinanudecolouraimstomimickthe
sculptedfigures’nakedupperbodies.
Fig.148PrincessBupphaDeviperforminganapsarapiece,c.1960s.PhotographcourtesyofTheNationalArchivesofCambodia.
878MichaelFalser,AngkorWat–ATransculturalHistoryofHeritage:Volume1:AngkorinFrance(Berlin:DeGruyter,2020),217.879NorodomBupphaDevi,‘RoyalDancesofCambodia—RevivalandPreservation,’inBeyondtheApsara,ed.StephanieBurridgeandFredFrumberg(London:Routledge,2010),4.
369
TheCTCFparadedoesindeedchallengetheideaofthecontinuityofanauthenticandclearly
definedKhmerculturalheritage,butitdoessobyembracingasenseofinventionand
folkloreinapublicspace.Byre-enactingaroyalscenefromtheKhmerEmpireasbotha
playfulandaseriousendeavourwithnopretenceofrealism:theparticipantsdemonstratea
creativepositiontowardstheirsenseofethnicidentityusingsilk-likecostumesasvehicles
ofexpression.Thefestivalshowshowsilkhasenteredtherealmofperformanceto
accompanyandembodydiasporicimaginings.
Ritualsinmovement:SilkembodimentinKhmerclassicalballet
Thischapter’sfinalsectionfocusesontheembodiednatureofKhmerclassicaldance
practice,itscodifiedartofdressingandcomplextypologyofsilkdressandhowithas
developedintheCambodiancommunityofLongBeach.Itisbasedonworkingspecifically
withyoungfemalemembersoftheKAAdancecompanyinApril2017andFebruary2018,
usingethnographicmethodsthatcombinedinterviews,participantobservationandauto-
ethnography,tograspsilkcostumes’shiftingculturalvalueinadiasporiccontextinrelation
toissuesofloss,memory,andidentity.Tounderstandthesignificanceofclassicaldancefor
theCambodiandiaspora,theexactnatureofthislossdeservesdetailedattention.
InCambodia,dancersareeithercivilservantswhobelongtotheRoyalBalletofCambodia
orareperformersforthetouristindustry;youngCambodianAmericanswhojoindance
classesareoftenencouragedbytheirparentsorarecuriousabouttheirheritage.Howdoes
thecombinationofperformanceandsilkembellishedgarmentsparticipateinthere-
appropriationand‘re-membering’ofaculturedisruptedbyconflict,displacementand
immigration?880
880Theterm‘re-membering’isborrowedfromanthropologistBarbaraMyerhoff,whoworkedinparticularwithelderlyJewishpopulationsofSouthernCalifornia:‘Tosignify(a)specialtypeofrecollection,theterm‘Re-membering’maybeused,callingattentiontothereaggregationofmembers,thefigureswhobelongtoone’slifestory’.SeeBarbaraMyerhoff,‘LifeHistoryAmongthe
370
ThedescriptionoftheApsaracostumeintheprevioussectionunderlinestheimportanceof
dressintheperformanceofKhmerclassicalballet.Thisartformreliesonhighlyelaborated
costumes.Garmentsaremadeofseparatehandmadepiecesincolourfulshimmeringsilk
satin,velvetorbrocadethatisheavilyadornedwithgoldthreadembroideryandstudded
withsequins.Accessories(crowns,belts,bangles,necklaces)arealsomadeofgoldorsilver.
SpecificcharactersperformingtalesfromtheReamkeralsowearpaintedmasks.Colour
schemesdependontheroles.Figures149a,bandcshowthetypologiesofdifferent
costumes(maleandfemale,giantandmonkey)aspartofapromotionalUNESCO
publicationdedicatedtoprotectedintangibleheritageartandcraftformsinCambodia.The
picturesillustratethecomplexityofthesecostumesandthelevelofcraftsmanship
necessaryforeachpiecefromsilksampotsarabap(brocadedhipwraps),silksatinbodices,
andasequinnedsilkvelvetsbaay(dancesash)wornovertherightshoulderfortheprincess
andapsararolestochawngkbuntrousersorsilkbreeches,embroideredpaddedjackets,
andpanelledbeltsfortherolesoftheprinceandthegiant.
Elderly:Performance,VisibilityandRe-membering,’inACrackintheMirror.ReflectivePerspectivesinAnthropology,ed.JayRuby(Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1982),111.
371
Figs.149a-b-cL-R:Maleandfemalerolesincostume;Giant(Yeak);Monkey(Sva)incostume.PhotographscourtesyofUNESCO,2004.
TheSiameseinfluenceonKhmerclassicalballet,includingcostumes,possiblysincethe
dominationofAyutthayaKingdomorlaterunderKingAnDuong’sruling,hasbeenadebate
inscholarshipsincetheearlytwentiethcentury.881Nonetheless,untiltheearly1900s,this
century-oldartformblossomedattheRoyalCourtofCambodia:royaldancerswereall
female,livingintheconfinesoftheroyalpalaceinPhnomPenhandperformingsolelyupon
theKing’srequest.WiththeestablishmentoftheFrenchprotectorate,theroyaltroupe
touredinFrancein1906,performingatMarseille’sColonialExposition,whichmarksthe
pointatwhichthisartform,originallysacredandprivate,becameadiplomatictoolwithin
Westerncolonialcultures.882Asstatedearlier,undertheSangkum,QueenKossamak‘re-
designedthecostumesandornaments,[…]revisitedtheoldrepertoire,aswellasengaging
innewcreations’.883SheworkedwithartistsfromtheUniversityofFineArtsofPhnom
881HideoSasagawa,‘Post/colonialDiscoursesontheCambodianCourtDance,’SoutheastAsianStudies,42,no.4(March2005):418-39;PaulCravath,EarthinFlower:theDivineMysteryofCambodianDance-Drama(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1985),150–152. 882TonyPhim-ShapiroandAshleyThompson,DanceinCambodia(ImagesofAsia)(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.2001),41;Sasagawa,‘Post/colonialDiscoursesontheCambodianCourtDance,’SoutheastAsianStudies,422.883SuppyaHeleneNut,UniversityofNottinghamAsiaResearchInstitute,TheRoyalBalletofCambodia:FromRitualtoaNationalIdentity,January9,2019https://theasiadialogue.com/2019/01/09/the-royal-ballet-of-cambodia-from-ritual-to-a-national-identity/[AccessedAugust29,2021]
372
Penh.Shesupervisedthecostumedesignandtheembroidererswholivedintheroyal
palaceandworkedonsite.884
DespitethepoliticalupheavalsinCambodiainthe1970s,danceremainedapowerful
culturalpracticeuntil1975.885Theterm‘royaldance’changedtorobamboran,whichmeans
‘ancientdance’.886In1975theKRregimeputastoptothepractice,killingabout90percent
ofthestudents,teachers,andperformers,especiallyattheRoyalBalletandtheRoyal
UniversityofFineArts.887AreportcommissionedbythePeople’sRevolutionaryTribunal
forthetrialofKRleadersPolPotandIengSaryforgenocidestatedthat‘oftheonehundred
ninetyfiveclassicaldancers,menandwomen,onlyforty-eightremainalive.Ofthefifty-four
dancersoftheballetcorps,onlyfourescapeddeathbyamiracle’.888
Dancepracticeinpost-genocideCambodiaandinthediasporaresumedinreactiontothis
massivehumandestructionandlossofknowledge,because,asformerMinisterofCulture
ChhengPhoncontended,itwas‘theonlywaytofightemotionalillness'.Thedamagewas
alsomaterial.Trainedasadancerandactor,ChhengPhonreturnedtoPhnomPenhin1981
forthefirsttime.He‘foundtheschoolofdanceinruins,theirantique,ivory-inlaidmusical
instrumentsburnedandthefabulouslyvaluableroyalcostumesandheaddressesofgold
andgemsstolen’.889InterviewedfortheKhmerDanceoralhistoryprojectproducedbythe
CenterforKhmerStudiesin2009,SimMontha,formerdancerandcostumedesignerforthe
884JeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘InterviewwithLimSylvainandSimMontha,’NewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollectionshttps://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/fe8700a0-343a-0131-b8a9-3c075448cc4b[AccessedAugust30,2021] 885Sasagawa,‘Post/colonialDiscoursesontheCambodianCourtDance,’437.886TheEnglishtranslationchangedto‘ClassicalKhmerBallet’,anappealingtitleforinternationalaudienceswhicheraseddirectallusionstoroyalty.887LanDong,‘CambodianAmericanPerformingArtsandArtists,’126.;JudithCoburn,‘DancingBack:DecimatedbytheKhmerRouge,BruisedbyPoliticalChaosandThreatenedbyaFrenzyofModernMaterialism,WilltheSoulofanAncientCultureSurvive?’LATimes,26September1993.[AccessedApril1,2019]888HowardDeNike,JohnQuigley,andKennethRobinson,eds.,GenocideinCambodia:DocumentsfromtheTrialofPolPotandIengSary(Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2012),326.889Coburn,‘DancingBack:DecimatedbytheKhmerRouge,BruisedbyPoliticalChaosandThreatenedbyaFrenzyofModernMaterialism,WilltheSoulofanAncientCultureSurvive?,’4.
373
RoyalBalletsince1990,recalledthatblockprintsmadebyartiststobepresseddirectlyon
thecostume’sfabricandoutlinethemotifswithpowderweredestroyedduringthe
dictatorshipandneverreplaced.890Sincethen,embroiderershavemostlyworkeddirectly
onthefabric,visuallycopyingthemotifs.
Theuniversityeventuallyreopened,withonedepartmentdedicatedtoclassicalandfolk
dance.891AnthropologistToniPhim-ShapiroandarthistorianAshleyThompsonfoundthat
Khmerdancerspractisedinverychallengingconditions,tryingtorecreatefromscratchthe
largetypologyofcostumesrequiredforeachrole,searchingfordiscardedgarmentsin
PhnomPenh.‘Theydancedwithtatteredbitsofclothandcardboardcrownsascostumes’,
replacingthelavishsilkensembles.892Thedesperationtokeepthepracticealiveenergised
dancerstokeeppractisinganddressingup,eveninrags.
Fromthe1990s,PrincessBupphaDeviworkedtirelesslyforthepreservationofKhmer
classicalballetandtraineddancersattheRoyalBallet.Costumeshavecontinuedtobe
producedbyhandbylocalartisansanddesignersassociatedwiththeRoyalBallet.893
UNESCOsupportedthiseffortbyinscribingtheartformintheListoftheIntangibleCultural
HeritageofHumanityin2003,ensuringitsconservationasawhole.894Itprotected
choreography,trainingtechniques,andthevariouscraftsassociatedwithcostume-making,
suchasembroidery,silkweaving,jewelleryandmask-making.895
890JeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘InterviewwithLimSylvainandSimMontha.’891In1980,theacademicinstitutionreopenedastheSchoolofFineArts.Itwasreinstatedwithuniversitystatusin1989.Thetitle‘Royal’wasreappliedin1993withthereturnofthemonarchy.892Phim-ShapiroandThompson,DanceinCambodia(ImagesofAsia),43. 893JeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘InterviewwithLimSylvain,’NewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollectionshttps://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/26f0c810-3451-0131-067b-3c075448cc4b[AccessedAugust30,2021] 894RoyalballetofCambodiaRepresentativeList(2008)Dir.UNESCOhttp://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/royal-ballet-of-cambodia-00060[AccessedJune18,2017]895UNESCOandCambodiaMinistryofCultureandFineArts,InventoryofIntangibleCulturalHeritageinCambodia(PhnomPenh,2004),11,23-25.
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DancealsoresumedinrefugeecampsattheThaiborderandinimmigrant
communitiesestablishedoutsideCambodia,illustratingthecrucialimportanceofthisart
forminKhmerculture.896Figure150,aphotogivenbyalocaldonortoCamCHAPcentre,
showsthreeyoungCambodianAmericansinLongBeachin1977dressedinmakeshift
jewelleryanddanceattireasevidenceofcreativityandresourcefulness.Thewomenare
wearingsampotchawngkbunandbodicesinabrightorangethatisnottheusualjeweltone
usedfordancetextiles,andmetallicprintedfloralfabricsfromThailand(informationfrom
SusanNeedham)tomakeupforwovensampotsarabap.Whilethegildedaccessories
(collarsandbelts)aremuchlessrefinedthanhandcraftedpiecesfromtheRoyalBallet,the
decoratedsbaaymimicksmoreadequatelytherichlythree-dimensionalembroidered
effectsseeninFigures149a-b-c.
LocaldancecompaniesplacedgreatemphasisonfindingmaterialsthatmatchedKhmer
danceaestheticsascloselyaspossible,andinthelate1970sThaitextileswereeasiestto
findandlookedsimilarenough.897TherearesubtledifferencesbetweenThaiand
Cambodianformsofdance-drama.Forinstance,SimMonthaexplainedthatsilkcoloursare
brighterandbolderinThaidancecostumescomparedtoCambodiandancewhichfavours
darkertones.Embroidereddecorationssuchastheflamemotifaresimilarinbothcultures
butplacedoncostumesinadifferentway.898Cambodiandancepractitionersremainseton
assertingtheirdistinctivestyle.899However,liketheCTCFparadeandChhengPhon’s
testimonyaboutrevivingdanceinPhnomPenh,presentingperformancecostumesevenas
imperfectreproductionsremainedessential.
896Chan,Survivors:CambodianRefugeesintheUnitedStates,59.897Needham,InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon.898JeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘InterviewwithLimSylvainandSimMontha.’899 LathReaksmeyfromKhmerArtsAcademyshowedmesampotsarabapmadeinThailanddonatedtotheorganisationfromanotherdanceassociationanddatingfromthe1980s.Thefabricswerebright,withcolours(orange,yellow)thatwereunusualforCambodiandancecostumes,brocadedwithsyntheticlaméthread.Reaksmeywasconsideringusingthemforlessformalrepresentations.
375
Fig.150DancersincostumesandaccessoriesmadefrommaterialsfromThailand,c.1977,LongBeach,CA.PhotographcourtesyofCamCHAParchives.
KhmerArtsAcademy(KAA)dancestudioinLongBeachwasfoundedbySophiline
Shapiro(néeCheam)andherhusbandJohnShapiroin2002.900Sophilinewasbornin1967
inCambodiaandwasonlyeightwhentheKRcameintopower[Fig.151].Shesurvivedthe
dictatorshipbutlostherfatherandtwoofherbrothers.901SheenrolledinthefirstKhmer
classicalballetclassofthenewlyreopenedUniversityofFineArtsunderartistProeung
Chhieng’sleadershipandstartedhercareerattheRoyalBalletin1981.Sophilinerelocated
toCaliforniain1991andbeganteachingdanceindifferentCambodiancommunitiesinthe
area.902SheworkedatArtsofApsarainLongBeachbeforefoundingherowncompany.In
900NEANationalHeritageFellowship2009:SophilineCheamShapiro,NationalEndowmentsfortheArtshttps://www.arts.gov/honors/heritage/fellows/sophiline-cheam-shapiro[AccessedJune10,2020] 901SheisalsoformerMinisterofCultureChhengPhon’sniece.902SeveralKhmerclassicalballetdancecompanieshaveexistedinLongBeach,suchastheCambodianArtPreservationGroup,whichwasactiveinthe1990s,andSpiritofKhmerAngkorTroupeinthe2000s.SeeFigure147showingHengLeng’sperformancefortheCambodianArtPreservationGroup.
376
2006sheresettledinCambodiawhereshefoundedthecompanySophilineArtsEnsemblein
Takhmao,KandalProvince.
Fig.151SophilineCheamShapiroin2009.PhotographcourtesyofAlanGovernor/MastersofTraditionalArts.
In2017,KAA'smanagementroleshavebeenpassedtoLathReaksmey,twenty-seven,and
OkKhannia,twenty-four,bothtrainedbyShapiro.TheideabehindKAAwastoprovidea
welcomingspaceforyoungCambodianAmericansandhelpthemreconnectwiththeir
parents'upbringingwhiletransmittingtheartofclassicaldance.Dancereunitesthepeople
andcultureinthehomelandwithdiasporiccommunities,linkingcommunitytocommunion.
ThisideacanalsobeseeninthewaythatProeungChhienghasspokenabouthisdance
troupecomingfromCambodiatoperformtotheUnitedStatesforthefirsttimeaftertheKR
377
attheLosAngelesFestivalin1990:‘Wemightbeseparatedbytheforest,butwecomefrom
thesamemother’.903
Aboutconnectionandcommunity,danceanthropologistJudithHameracitedthe
bittersweetexampleoftheSemfamily,aCambodiandancercouplewiththreechildrenwho
hademigratedtoLongBeachafterlivingasrefugeesontheThaiborderinSite2.Struggling
withtheiridentityandmemorylossduetoforcedexodus,thecouple’stestimonieswere
oftenapproximateandmarkedbydefiance,whichHameraarguedemphasisedtheir
fetishisationofCambodianculturethroughdance.904Shesuggestedthat‘dancewasthe
technologyBenandMay[Sem]deployedtosurvive’asapersonalritualforreassurance.905
Inherinterview,KAAinstructorOkKhanniaofferedapositivecounterparttothisaccount,
statingthatsheisteachingmorethananartisticpractice,participatinginaresilient
movementof‘healingforCambodians,movingforwardandflourishingtogether’.906Bornto
KRrefugeeparentsintheUnitedStates,Khanniabelongstothesecondgenerationof
Cambodianimmigrants.Asaninstructor,shehostschildrenofthethirdgeneration,mostly
younggirlsfromfourtoseventeenfromtheLongBeacharea,ensuringthecontinuanceof
SophilineShapiro’slegacy[Fig.152].ThemajorityofstudentsareofCambodianoriginorof
mixedheritage.KhanniabelievesthatparentswhobringtheirchildrentoKAAhopeto
increasetheirawarenessofCambodiancultureasawhole,fromthepracticeofdanceitself
tothelanguage,food,music,anddress.
903JeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘InterviewwithProeungChhieng,'NewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollections[TC22:19]http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/53cc0780-3451-0131-246e-3c075448cc4b[AccessedJuly18,2020]904Hamera,DancingCommunities:Performance,DifferenceandConnectionintheGlobalCity,150.905Ibid,168.906OkKhannia,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach,California.
378
Fig.152OkKhannia(centreleft)teachingaweeklyclassatKhmerArtsAcademy,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,February2018.
Textilesanddressplayanessentialroleindancepracticeintheirinteractionwiththe
movingbody.Fordancerehearsals,studentsarerequiredtowearapracticesuit,usuallya
silkblouse(aorlakhaoun)andadanceskirtworninakbunstyle.Itcanbeexpensivetobuy
inthefewtextileshopsinLongBeach,sotheyareallowedtobringacottonorsynthetic
sampotinstead[Fig.153].907Forperformancesonstage,silkisconsideredtheonly
appropriatematerial.DescribingthequalitiesofsilktextilesneededforCambodianclassical
dancing,instructorsKhanniaandReaksmeyexplained:‘Ithastobestrong,sturdy,flexible,
andtightlywoven’.908
Tothequestion‘whydoyouthinkthatsilkissoimportant?Whynotcottonor
linen?’,Khanniaexplained:
907AccordingtoKhannia,apracticesilksampotcancostupto60USD.908OkKhannia,andLathReaksmey,InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.
379
‘It'sjustthefeelingofthematerialputsyouinadifferentplacefromcotton,whichissomethingyouwouldprobablyweareveryday.Somethingthat'scomfortabletoyou,butsilkisthisluxuryandthiselegance.Itisveryelegant.SoIthinkthat'swhyitmakesyoufeelallsilkyandjustveryconfident’.909
Khannia’sresponsecombinestheembodiedfeelingofsilkandtheluxurystatusassociated
towearingthismaterial.Iaskediffakesilklikepolyesterwouldfeelthesame,towhichshe
answered:
‘Itwouldn'tfeelthesame.Andthewaythatthisiscateredtoyourbodycomparedtobuttonsandzippers,allofthatfeelingcomesfromgettingdressedandgettingyourselfintothatcharacterandembodimentofthatspirit.[…]Onceyou'veputonacrownorevenjustyourshirt,oryourjewelry,oryourskirt,whateveritisthatyou'reputtingonasacostumepiece,youhavetoassumetherole.[…]That'swhysilkissoamazing,becauseyouaretransformingyourselfandyoucan'tgetthatwithcottonright’?
ThisresonateswithSabrinaSun’stestimony,anineteen-year-oldadvancedstudent.She
foundgettingdressedforperformancechallengingbecauseofhowtightlyitiscorsetedto
thebody,makingitdifficulttomoveandbreathe.Sabrinaonlyassociatedsilkwith
performance,andpreferredtorehearseinacottonsampot.However,sheconcededthat
dressinginsilk‘helpedhertogetintocharacter’andfeelreadytoperformthedifferent
rolesoftherepertoire(apsara,princeorgiant).910
Theintricacyandlavishnessoftheembellishmentsappliedontothefabricsremainessential
elementsofthecostumes’aesthetic.However,Khannia’sanswersprovidesomeinsights
intotheimportanceofchoosingsilkoverothergroundmaterialsintermsoffeel,sheen,
handandprestige.Therefore,thissectioncontendsthatitisthecombinationofsilk,colours
andintricatemetallicembroideryworkthatgivescostumestheirvalue.
Moreover,inKhmerclassicalballet,thecostumeddancerre-enactsarepertoireof
dance-dramatalesfromKhmerEmpiremythology.Inthissense,itisthecombinationof
gesturesanddressthatcreatesthechoreographythroughthebody.Hamerahasindeed
909 Ok,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon. 910SunSabrina,InformalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon,April6,2017,LongBeach,CA,USA.
380
suggestedthat‘performersweartechnique,whatevertheirgenealogicalparticulars,like
clothes–notlikecostumesorprops,thoughthismayalsobetrue–butliketheclothesof
lovedoneswhohavepassedon’.911Followingthismetaphor,itcouldthusbearguedthatin
Khmerballet,thesilkcostumesthatidentifyspecificcharactersareactivatedthrough
movement,andthusthesebecomeclothesthatlinkthedancertotheirsacredCambodian
ancestors.
Fig,153DanceclasswithstudentsinsilkgarmentsforpracticeatKhmerArtsAcademy,CambodiaTown,LongBeach,CA.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
AtKAA,handwovensilkhipwraps,headpieces(mokot)andmetallicjewelleryfor
performanceonstagewereorderedbySophilineCheamShapirointheearly2000sfroma
CambodianworkshopwhichhadhistoricallyalsoworkedwiththeRoyalBallet.These
911Hamera,DancingCommunities:Performance,DifferenceandConnectionintheGlobalCity,8.
381
preciousacquisitionsincludedabouttwelvesampotsarabapwithgoldenbrocaded
geometricflowersandlatticepatterns:eachcolour(darkblue,green,purple,white,gold
andorange)isassociatedwithaspecificcharacter[Figs.154-155].Thecompanyalsoownsa
collectionofsolid-colouredsampotchawngkbun;afewsilkcollars;ahandfulofsolid-
colouredpleatedsashes(pahom)andtwofullmaleensembleswithembroideredwinged
paddedjackets[Fig.156].Thecompletesetisownedbythedancecompanyasagroupand
keptwithgreatcare,wornbystudentsfortheirshowsinlocalvenues.912Thiscollectionof
textilesoperatesasthemateriallegacyofthemasterteachertohersuccessors,becominga
repositoryoftheknowledgepassedontoanewgeneration.Onthetransmissionofclothes
intimesofmourning,Stallybrasshassuggestedthatintheprocess,‘identitiesare
transferred[…]fromamastertoanapprentice’.913ThroughthisgiftfrommasterSophiline
toKhannia,Reaskmeyandtheirstudents,dancerscarryaresponsibilitytohonourtheartof
Khmerclassicalballetandensureitssurvival.Textileartefactsbecomehere‘inalienable
possessions’–inanthropologistAnnetteWeiner’sdefinition,‘symbolicrepositoriesof
genealogiesandhistoricalevents,theirunique,subjectiveidentitygivesthemabsolutevalue
placingthemabovetheexchangeabilityofonethingforanother’.914
912AccordingtoKhanniaandReaksmey,itwouldcostabout200USDforabrocadedsilksampotandbetween300to500USDforanembroideredsbaay.OkKhanniaandLathReaksmey,InformalconversationwithMagaliAnBerthon,February17,2018,LongBeach,CA.913PeterStallybrass,'WornWorlds:Clothes,MourningandtheLifeofThings,’inCulturalMemoryandtheConstructionofIdentity,ed.DahnBen-AmosandLilianeWeissberg(Detroit,MI:WayneStateUniversityPress,1999),38.914AnnetteB.Weiner,InalienablePossessions:TheParadoxofKeeping-While-Giving(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1992),33.
382
Figs.154-155Left:SetofsilksarabaptextilesbelongingtoKhmerArtsAcademypurchasedinCambodiabySophilineCheamShapiro,2017;Right:Close-upofashimmeringsilksarabappatternedwithscale-likegoldmotifs,February2018.Author’sphotographs.
Fig.156Prince’sfullcostumeinsilkpurchasedinCambodiabySophilineCheamShapiro.Author’sphotograph,April2017.
383
Stallybrassaddedthatinmourning,thepersonhasgonebut‘theclothesare
preserved;theyremain.Itisthebodiesthatinhabitthemwhichchange’.915Thisnotioncan
becompellinglyappliedtotheKhmerballet,forwhicheachgarmentisproducedina
genericsize,followingtheprincipleof‘onesizefitsall’.916Eachpieceisusedandreused
throughtimeuntilitwearsout,indefinitelyattributedtoonedanceraccordingtohisorher
levelofskillsandmerit,andeachtimespecificallyfittedtothedancer’sbodybeforethe
performance.
Thetransformativequalityofsilkisparticularlysignificantinthepreparationprocessprior
totheperformance.Thedancersneedatleastoneortwopeopletohelpthemdress.Fora
femaleperformer,thesilkbodiceisfittedandtightlystitchedonthedancer’sbodyona
cottonundershirtwithwhitethread.Theembroideredsashisthenstitchedoverthebodice,
asshownhereintheimageofKhanniapreparingforarepresentation[Fig.157].Partofthe
KhmerDanceoralhistoryprojectin2009,thispictureisastillfromafilmshowingthe
dressingprocessforadanceperformanceinSiemReap.Here,thesilksampotfabricis
foldedintoaskirt,pleated,drapedaroundthewaistandsewnontothebodicetokeepitin
place[Fig.158].917Takinguptoseveralhours,costumingisanintegralpartofthedancer’s
physicalandmentalmetamorphosisintomythicalfiguresoftheKhmerEmpirepantheon.918
Onstage,thesuccessionofshimmering,colourful,lavishsilkensemblesprovidesasensorial
experienceofotherwordlybeauty[Fig.159].
915Stallybrass,'WornWorlds:Clothes,MourningandtheLifeofThings,’38.916Ok,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.917EileenBlumenthal,‘TheCourtBallet:Cambodia’sLoveliestJewel.’CulturalSurvivalQuarterly14,no.3(September1990):35-38.https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/court-ballet-cambodias-loveliest-jewel[AccessedonJuly12,2018]918Ok,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.;SeealsoJeromeRobbinsDanceDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary,‘Make-upandcostumes,2009-01-13/15,’NewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollections.http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/3ef7d750-0381-0131-9fd1-3c075448cc4b[AccessedJuly20,2020]
384
Fig.157OkKhanniagettingdressedforaperformance,2016.PhotographcourtesyofKhmerArtsAcademy.
Fig.158Pleatingofthesilkskirtonadancerbeforeaperformance,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary.‘Make-upandcostumes,2009-01-13/15’.CourtesyofNewYorkPublicLibraryDigitalCollections.
385
Fig.159KhmerArtsAcademystudentsandinstructorsperformingSeasonsofMigrationattheTuTuFoundation,Torrance,CA,2017.PhotographcourtesyofKhmerArtsAcademy.
Thethemeofidentityandbodilymetamorphosisthroughdresshasalsobeenpartof
diasporicdanceproductions.919ForthepieceSeasonsofMigration,createdin2005,
SophilineCheamShapiroaddressedtheimmigrantexperienceofculturalclashinfour
movements:euphoria,rejection,adjustmentandequilibrium.For‘Rejection’,Sophiline
reimaginedtheusualcombinationofthefittedbodice,pleatedsampotsarabapandthehip-
lengthdrapedsbaaytorepresentthecharacterNeangNeak,theprincess-snake.Shecreated
anexaggeratedlylongsbaay,aboutthreetimeslongeritwouldtypicallybe,to‘symbolise
theserpent’stailandallshecarrieswithherfromthepast’.920Thiscustom-madesashwas
madetoexacerbateafeelingofothernessandmirrorastoryoftheimmigrantexperience.
Byplayingwithitsunusuallengthasatailslidingontheground,steppingonitandtryingto
tearit,thedancerconveyssensationsofdistortionandexaggerationintheperformance,
919SeeAmandaRogers,‘AdvancingtheGeographiesofthePerformingArts:InterculturalAesthetics,MigratoryMobilityandGeopolitics,’ProgressinHumanGeography,Vol.42,4(2018):558-560.920ToniPhim-Shapiro,‘Cambodia’s‘SeasonsofMigration,’DanceResearchJournal40,no.2(Winter,2008):61.
386
embodyinghercharacter'sstruggleswithhernewenvironment[Figs.160a-b].Thishybrid
‘sbaay-tail’materialisesthewayinwhichdressisusedtotranscendthedancer’sidentity
andbody.
Fig.160aNeangNeakpiecefromSeasonsofMigration,performedbyKeoKunthearomdancingwithherextendedsbaay,choreographedbySophilineCheamShapiro,Jakarta,August2009.
Fig.160bDetailofthelongsbaay,SeasonsofMigrationbySophilineCheamShapiro,Jakarta,August2009.
387
Whatdoeswearingsilkfeellikefromtheinside?Thissectionconcludesby
discussingthematerialandexperientialnatureofsilkfromthedancers’perspective.
AnthropologistsMukulikaBanerjeeandDanielMillerhaveofferedamodelofanembedded
ethnographicdescriptionofawomandrapingaroundherbodyapallu–theupperhalfofa
sarithatcoversthechest,andfallsovertheshoulder,thatisoftenhighlydecorated.921
Drapingrequiresskilltokeeptheclothinplace.Negotiatingmodestyandfemininity,Indian
womenusetextilesasaninterfacebetweenthebodyandtheoutsideworld.922
TheCambodiansampotandIndiansariarebothuncutclothsarrangedaroundthebody
withdrapingtechniques.IrecordedmyautoethnographicexperienceofaCambodiandance
classinwhichImyselfputonasampotchawngkbun.IwasdressedbyKhannia,who
wrappedafulllengthofsturdyredsilkfabricaroundmywaist,firmlyholdingeachside.She
steppedbackafewfeettocreatetensioninhergrasp.Shethenstartedtorolltheedgesof
theclothfromtoptobottomintoalongrodshape,passingitbetweenmylegstowardsmy
back.Thehipwrapwassecuredwithacordandametallicbeltpassedaroundmywaist,
holdingthedrapedelementsofthetrousers.Thetopofthehipwrapwasthentuckedin
closertomybelly.Mybodyfeltcontainedinthefabric,whichsimultaneouslyallowedand
restrainedmymovements.Thetextilecoversthebodywhilefocusingattentiononthehead,
arms,hands,legs,andfeet,whicharethemostimportanttothechoreography[Fig.161].923
Beingtightlyheldinthesilktrousersmodifiedmyposture,pushedmetoarchmyback,
keepmybellytuckedinandmychestopen.Iamnodancer,soIstruggledtositonthefloor,
getbackonmyfeet,turnandtwistgracefullywithmylegsandhipsinthesampotchawng
kbun.Iperformedeachgestureaspreciselyaspossible,followingmasterdancer
921MillerandBanerjee,TheSari,23-44.922Ibid,25.;SeealsoSuzanneKüchlerandDanielMiller,ClothingasMaterialCulture(London:BloomsburyAcademic,2005),15.923IamposinginthispicturewithLathReaksmey,myinstructorfortheday.SeealsoHamera,DancingCommunities:Performance,DifferenceandConnectionintheGlobalCity,154.‘Toreproduceclassicalstories,thebodyofthedancerbecomesacomplexintertextastheeyes,head,fingers,wrists,torso,legsandfeetallspeakthroughtheirspecific,fixedrepertoryofposesatthesametime’.
388
Reaksmey’slead,feelingthestrainonmyjointsandhearingtherustlingsoundofsilk.Itwas
surprisingtosweatwhileperformingremarkablyslowmovements.
Ialsoobservedthestudentsgettingdressedintheirpracticesampot.Khanniaemphasised
‘thesenseofprideinKhmerness’,and‘thejoyandexcitement’shehadnoticedinher
youngeststudentswhentheydresstodance.924Forexample,Sabrinarecognisedfeeling
proudofbeingCambodianandmoreconnectedtoherfamilywhenshedances.Sheadded:
‘especiallywhenIperformformyelders,itcanbeemotional’.925Byreshapingnew
dynamicsofculturalidentificationandtransmission,danceprovidesaperformativespace
whereyoungstudentsmaterialiseadirectconnectiontothecultureoftheirparentsand
exploretheirownidentitythroughdressandmovement.
Fig.161MagaliAnBerthondressedinasampotchawngkbunfordancepracticewithinstructorLathReaksmey.Author’sphotograph,February2018.
924Ok,InterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon. 925Sun,InformalinterviewwithMagaliAnBerthon.
389
Conclusion
PerformingartsscholarDianaTaylorhasstressedthatthestudyof‘embodied
practiceasanepistemeandapraxis’offers‘awayofknowingaswellasawayofstoringand
transmittingculturalknowledgeandidentity’.926Thischapterhasdemonstratedhow
diasporiccommunitieshaveusedsilktextilessparingly,butwithgreatintent,asatoolof
expressionandsignifierofCambodianidentity,especiallyduringpublicevents.In
importantculturalmomentssuchastheCTCFparade,celebratingtheNewYear,wedding
ceremoniesanddance,thewearingofsilkdressoffersanintimateexpressionofnational
identity,tangiblyengagingintheimaginingofatransnationalversionofCambodiathat
wouldbehealed,powerful,andreconciled.Movingawayfromnostalgicreenactments,
Cambodianimmigrantshavenonethelessfigurativelyconflatedpastandpresentby
embodyingkeyfiguresfromthegloriousKhmerpast,fromapsaratokingsandqueens,and
referringtotheemblematictempleofAngkorWat.
Hameraarguesthat‘performativitybecomesallatonceaculturalconvention,value,and
signifierthatisinscribedonthebody–performerthroughthebody–tomarkidentities’.927
Khmerclassicalballetdancersindeednegotiatewithaseriesofcomplexworldsthrough
theirbodies.Symbolically,theyaremediatorsbetweenearthandheaven,betweenapre-KR
gloriouspastandapost-civilwarpresentthatismarkedbytrauma,globalisationand
transnationality.InLongBeach,dancersalsonegotiatebetweentheirAmericanand
Cambodianidentity.Dressisatooltoreinforcenotionsofculturalprideandbelonging,used
toremodelthedancers’relationshiptotheircommunity.Silkmaterialismorethana
surfaceorashellenvelopingthebodies.Thefabricplaystheroleofinterfacebetweenthe
926DianaTaylor,TheArchiveandtheRepertoire:PerformingCulturalMemoryintheAmericas(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2003),278.927Madison,Soyini,andJudithHamera,TheSAGEHandbookofPerformanceStudies(ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,2013),xviii.
390
performers’innerselfandtheoutsideworld,acontactzonetoreconnecttotheircultureof
originwhilesimultaneouslyperformingwhatisconsideredtheepitomeofCambodianness
foranaudience.
OperatingthroughthelensofCambodiandiasporicgroupshasallowedmetoexaminethe
destructivepatternsthathaveaffectedCambodianculture,butalsotoconsideritspotential
reconstruction.CambodianAmericanhistorianSuchengChanpraises‘thestrengthofthe
Cambodianpeople’,whichshines‘despitetheunremittingassaultsontheirautonomy,the
people,culture,andsocietyofCambodia’.928Additionally,ethnicidentityscholarVichet
Chhuon,whohaslivedinLongBeach,underlinedthat‘beingCambodianmeansbeinga
survivor,anactivist,comingfromanincrediblyresilienttraditionofpeople’.929Thetermhas
appearedonseveraloccasionsintheinterviewsIconductedinCambodiaTown,especially
inthosebyKhanniaOkandSusanNeedham.Interestingly,theterm‘resilience’also
designatesamechanicalpropertyoftextiles,theircapacitytospringbacktotheiroriginal
shape.Inthediasporicrealm,silkweavingintheearlydaysofdisplacementandthe
continuationofdresspracticeshavebeendynamictoolstoembodymomentsofcollective
resilience,inadualmovementofaffirmationandresistance.
928Chan,Survivors:CambodianRefugeesintheUnitedStates,1.929PatriciaLeighBrown,‘TraumaRootedinGenocide,CambodianYouthConfront‘HistoricalForgetting,’’KPCC-NPR,March28,2013https://www.scpr.org/news/2013/03/28/36565/embargoed-trauma-rooted-in-genocide-cambodian-yout/[AccessedSeptember21,2018]
391
Conclusion
Thisthesishasestablishedthehistoriographyandgeographyofsilkproductionand
thewaythesehaveinformedthecontemporaryCambodiansilkscape.Settingupthis
metageographicalframeworkinChapterOneallowedmetotracehowmaterialresources,
tradeanddistribution,aswellasweavingskills,humanexperienceandsocialidentities,
havebeenreshapedthroughtimeandspaceuptothepost-conflictera.Toaddressa
globalisedcontemporarycontext,thethesishasidentifiedthreefieldsofexplorationto
outlinedynamicsofloss,exchanges,andrevitalisationofsilkpractices,weavingknowledge,
andmodesofdress.Theseare:themajorforeign-backedNGOsandcraftcompanies
involvedinthesectorandtheirfounders,weaversworkingintheseorganisationsandas
independent,andCambodianrefugeesandmembersoftheCambodianAmericandiaspora
inLongBeach,California.Silkwasalsoexaminedunderseveralforms:asanetworkof
actorsandchainofproduction,afibrecomingfrombombyxmorigoldencocoons,afabric
wovenanddyedfollowingancestraltechniques,especiallywiththepolychromichol,and
finallyagarmentoraccessorypurchasedinCambodiabyCambodians,foreigntourists,and
indiasporiccommunities.Themacroandmicroperspectivesonsilkanditsroleinthe
craftingofdiscoursesonCambodia’sculturalheritageallowedthechallengingofbinaries,
suchasauthentictraditionversusinnovation,lossandrecovery,theglobalandthelocal,
craftsmanshipandindustrialisationandthecolonialandpost-colonial.Thisthesisdirectly
andcriticallyengageswithawiderangeoforganisationsandhumanandmaterialactorsof
theCambodiansilkscape,inacomprehensiveefforttohighlighttheiragencyinthe
revitalisationoftheCambodiansilkinthepost-conflictera.
392
Keyconclusionsandoriginalcontributions
TheoverarchingconceptualargumentdevelopedinthisthesisisthattheCambodian
silksectorisregardedasasilkscape,thatis,anetworkofexchanges,funding,goods,
materialsandactorsthatexceedsthebordersofCambodia.ExpandingAppadurai’s
theorisationofflowsand-scapesanimatingandformingglobalinteractions,the
examinationofCambodiansilkproductionunderatransnationaldynamicperspectiveisa
newcontributionthatprovidestheadequateframeworktoexplorethepost-conflictera.
Thedestructiveyearsofcivilwarandgenocideinthe1970sindeedcreatedavoidin
nationalleadershipwhenCambodiarestartedtheprocessoftherestorationofpeaceinthe
early1990s.Thereopeningofthecountrytoforeigninvestmentandhumanitarianaid,
whichfoundinterestandvalueinrelaunchingthesilksector,createdamajordisjuncturein
thecontinuationofthepracticeandsignificanceofsilk.Therefore,asmyresearch
demonstrates,theCambodiansilkscapeprovidesacommonplatformtolocatenumerous
stakeholders–Cambodianweavers,middlemen,craftcompanies,internationalNGOs,
sponsoringagenciesandconsumers(locals,touristsandCambodiansindiasporic
communities).Duetoaheavilydeclinedworkforceandthehighshare(99percent)of
importedsilkusedtosupportthenationalproduction'sneeds,localsilkfarmerswerenot
exploredindepthinthisstudy.
Sincethe1990s,internationalfundershaveemergedasessentialstakeholdersofthe
Cambodiansilkscape.OrganisationsunderUNESCO’spioneeringinput,followedshortlyby
amajorityofEuropeanandJapanese-sponsoredNGOs,wereabletoaccessneweconomic
venturesbysecuringfundingandimplementingambitiouscapacity-buildingtraining
programmeswithruralcommunities.ThecasesoftheInstituteforKhmerTraditional
Textiles(IKTT)andArtisansAngkor(AA),foundedrespectivelybyMorimoto(Japanese)
393
andMaisonnave-Couterou(French),forLaLiguepourl’Enseignement,haveshowndifferent
responsestothesepoliticalandeconomicchanges.WhileIKTThasfosteredhigh-end
artisanalproductionthatemphasisesthepreservationoftheholtechnique,locallyproduced
silkfibre,andnaturaldyes,AAhasflourishedinasocialentrepreneurshipmodel,providing
qualitysouvenirgoodsmadeofimportedsilk,brightcoloursandcontemporarydesigns.
Thedevelopmentofsilkproductsbybothcompanieshasbenefitedfromtouristsarrivingto
visitAngkorWat.
Ontheotherhand,thisthesishasshownexamplesofCambodian-ownedcraftprojects–
ChinKoeurofSilkAssociationsofCambodiaandNgornVannthaofColorSilk–which
benefitedindifferentwaysfromthetransnational,governmentalandhumanitarian
investmentsdiscussedabove.Thatsaid,thesetwoCambodianwomen,bothoperatingfrom
Takeoprovince,havesuccessfullydevelopedbusinessesstandingatoppositeendsofthe
silkscape.ChinKoeurbuiltaprojectfromtheearlyUNESCOtrainingshereceivedin1995,
embracingthepositionofweaverturnedmiddlemanandsourcingsuppliesofraw
materials,commissioningotherweaversinsurroundingareasandpayingthembythepiece.
Herorganisationhasexpanded,yetperpetuatedthehierarchicalrelationshipbetween
middlemanandweaverscreatingproductsforaCambodiandomesticmarket.Ngorn
Vanntha,notamakerbutfromafamilyofsilkweaversandtraders,hasincorporatednew
globaldynamicsbyemphasisingsocialentrepreneurship,socialmediaandexportmarkets,
combinedwithweavingandsericulturetrainingprogrammesinTakeo,sponsoredbythe
MaybankFoundation,aMalaybenefactor.
Theexplorationofaselectionofthesevariousstakeholders’perspectiveshasalso
exposedwiderdiscoursesofheritage,culture,anddevelopmentthatlocatesilktextiles
withinCambodianandglobalframes,thusreevaluatingthenarrativeofsilkproduction
revivalasalinearsuccess.TheheritagisationofCambodia’smainarchaeologicalsiteswas
394
linkedtothepeacerestorationeffort,withtheinvolvementofUNESCOandpartnering
countries,especiallyFranceandJapan.SupportforCambodianartsandcraftsfollowedin
the1990s.Thedeclineofsilkfibreproductionandweavingworkforceinthe1970-80s
encouragedtheinterventionofforeigninvestorsandsponsorsand,toalesserdegree,the
Cambodiangovernment.Thenecessitytorevitalisesilkpracticeswasreinforcedby
discoursesemphasisingsilkasanancienttraditiondatingfromthegloriousKhmerEmpire
era.WhilethegoalwastosupportlocalCambodiansilkweavers,linkinghumanitarian
effortsandpovertyreductiontothediscoursesoftraditionandheritagepreservation
(supportedbyorganisationssuchasAAandIKTT)openedthewaytoaproductiondestined
toelitecustomersandforeigntourists.Theattemptsatrevitalisinglocalsericultureand
weavingwithinthisreconfiguredparadigmchangedthemakers’strategiesofrawmaterial
sourcingandsales,relyingonthemediatingroleofNGOsandcraftcompanies.Independent
weaverswhodidnotjointheseschemeswouldcontinuetoworkintheirvillageswith
middlemen.
Moreover,thismonolithicnarrativeofpreservingtraditionsfromextinctionmayalsobe
disputedinrelationtonotionsoftraditionalcrafts,authenticityandownershipwhichwere
outlinedearlyinthethesisinChapterOne.Thevariousmaterialfactorsandprocessesof
silk-making,fromfibresourcingtoweaving,skillstransmissionandproductdistribution,
haveshownotherrealitiesofthecontemporaryCambodiansilkscape.Forinstance,local
sericulturehasbeensupersededbyextensivefibreimportsfromChina,Vietnamand
Thailand.Moreover,despitemajorinvestmentbycraftNGOsandtransnationalagencies,
ruralweavershavefacedthefastexpansionofthegarmentindustry,whichhasencouraged
themtoabandontheirtraditionalactivitytobecomefactoryworkers.
ThereformationoftheCambodiansilkscapeinthepost-KReramaterialisesthecomplex
dynamicsofstrategiesthatcombineheritageandpreservationpoliciestobuildpeaceand
development.Silksectorpolicymakershavetargeted‘underprivilegedpopulationgroups–
395
mainlywomenlivinginfarmhouseholds–withfewalternatives’,consideringthatweaving
cangenerateinvaluableincomethroughtheproductionofhighvalue-addedtextile
products.930Discoursesadvocatingfortheemancipationofnon-Westernpeoplefitinto
whatMignolohasidentifiedasthe‘rhetoricofmodernity’thatisarticulatedfroma
Eurocentricperspective.Itperpetuatespatternsofcoloniality;andtraditionandmodernity
areinfactconflatednotions.931TheexampleofAAshowcasesthewaysinwhichthese
discoursesmaterialisedintospecificcrafttrainingprogrammes,productdesign,and
marketingstrategiestoproducesilkgoodsappealingtoaninternationalclientele.This
approachresonateswiththecolonialmethodsemployedduringtheFrenchprotectorate,by
GeorgesGroslierwiththeSchoolofCambodianArtsinthe1920s.
TheCambodiancraftheteropia(asanalysedinChapterThree),undertheauthorityof
internationalstakeholders,solidifiedthedefinitionofsilkasanationalandtraditionalcraft;
andweaversarethesuppliersofsuchtraditionalartefacts.Thereconfiguredparadigmof
thesilkscapeappearsasatransnationaliterationofkhsae,thepatron-clientsocialstructure
thatanimatesCambodiansocietythatresumedaftertheKRregime.Inthishierarchical
socialstructure,weaversremainatthemarginsofleadershipandentrepreneurship,trading
theirdependenceonmiddlementoattachthemselvestocraftorganisations.
Thesesocio-economicdevelopmentprogrammesoftenfailtooffersustainablealternatives
toinequitablepatronisingrelationshipsthataredetrimentaltothemakers.Despite
importantinternationalinvestmentsinthesector,bythe2010ssystemicissueswerestill
plaguingitsexpansion,withfragiledomesticsericulture,ahighlevelofrelianceon
importedsilkfibreandunevenstandardsinthequalityofproducts.The2016NationalSilk
Strategyobservedafragmentedandpoorlycoordinatedsectorthatreliedsolelyonsmall
andmediumenterpriseswithlittlegovernmentalsupport,preventing‘theemergenceof
930CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,5. 931Mignolo,‘Delinking,’456,472.
396
well-definedvaluechainstagesfromsericulturetoweavinganddesign’.932The2014census
recordedthat,caughtbetweenthemiddlemenandcraftcompanies’monopolisiticroles,low
incomeandthetemptationofruralexodus,thenumberofweaversdeclinedfrom20,000in
2005tolessthan5,000.
Whathasappearedhereisthattopromotespecificdiscoursesistoestablishpower
dynamicsunderwhichspecificrepresentationsandactionsoperate.Despitebeingthe
bearersofknowledge,thesepopulationsremainvoicelessandspokenfor.Thisthesishas
demonstratedthatitisessentialtocriticallyconsiderthespacegiventoindigenous
perspectivesandrecentrethedebateonmarginalvoices.Themethodologicalapproachto
achieveapolyvocal,morebalanced,representationofthedifferentactorsanimatingthe
Cambodiansilkscapewasmultifold.First,theuseoforaltestimoniesandethnographic
researchhashelpedrevealthesimilaritiesbetweenweaversasasocialgroup,asmuchas
theirdifferences,inthewaystheydealwithgenderandfamilydynamicsandeconomicand
educationalchallenges,aswellastheirdependenceontheangkar(organisationorNGO)or
themiddleman.Inthereversalofestablishedhierarchies,agencymaytakedifferentforms
inresistance,butalsoinadaptation.TheinterviewsandfieldworkdescribedinChapter
Three,especiallyinTakeoprovince,offerastudyoffemaleweavers’negotiationwiththe
stereotypedgenderednormsimposedonthem,whichresonateswithDerksandBrickell’s
keyfindingsonconditionsforCambodianruralwomen.Weavingknowledgewaspassedon
towomenfromtheirmother,grandmotheroranotherfemininefigureintheirvillage.Inthe
interviews,weavingappearsasoneofthefewoptionsavailablewithfarmingandworking
atthegarmentfactory.MostoftheweaversIinterviewedinTakeoandSiemReapprovinces
consideredthatweavingalsoofferedthemthepossibilityofworkingfromhomeand
continuingtocarefortheirchildren–orgrandchildren,inthecaseofPon,inPhnomChisor.
932CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,1.
397
Beyonddiscussingtheireconomicandfamilyconstraints,theseweavershaveshownagency
viasubtlesignsofcontestationagainstthecostofrawmaterialsortherelationshipwiththe
middlemen,empowermentandresistancethroughtheirdesignchoices,expressionsoftaste,
asenseofvocation,andstrategiestoincreasetheirincome.Theoraltestimonieshavebeena
usefulresearchmethodtopursuesubjectivitiesgroundedinlivedexperiences,ratherthan
factualhistoricalevidence,tosupplementmyobservationsonthefield.Amongthe
unexpectedoralsourcesIrecordedinCambodia,Pheach,atraineeattheCaringforYoung
Khmer(CYK)trainingcentreinTrapaingKrasainginTakeo,stoodoutforhergenuine
passionforsilkconnectedwithherchildhoodmemoriesofdiscoveringpidanhangingsat
thelocalpagoda.Shefeltshewashonouringherupbringingbycontinuingtoweaveand
receivingfurthertraining.ChendafromKramaYuyu(KY)wastheonlyonetodiscussthe
physicalpainofworkingatthefactory,andhowitaffectedherlegs,whichpromptedherto
movetoSiemReaptoreturntoherweavingactivities.Thesestoriesmayseemanecdotal,
buttheinterlacingofmultiplerealities,expectationsandself-reflectivestatements
deliveredbytheseweavershaveprovidedanessentialalternativetothestakeholders’
reductivediscourses.
Second,whiletheCambodiansilkscapeisamajorconceptualcontributioninthis
thesis,theuseofActionResearch(AR)isamethodologicalcontributionwhichprovides
novelwaysofexploringweavers’agenciesintermsofpraxis.TheARexperimentwasa
majorcatalystinmyresearchtoarticulatetacit,embodied,memory-based,and
collaborativeformsofknowledgetakingplaceinholweavingintheconfinesoftheKrama
Yuyu(KY)workshop.AppliedtoCambodiansilkpractices,thismethodologyaimedtoinvert
thecommonhierarchyofknowledgethatplacesscholars,NGOs,andgovernmentalbodies
asexpertstoconsiderhowknowledgeinitsdifferentformsisowned,inherited,and
disseminatedbytheweavers.TheprojectdirectlyengagedwithChenda,Thearyand
TomokofromKY,toconsiderthewaysinwhichtheycouldtogetherremobilisetheirskills
398
andproduceaseriesofsampothol.WhiletheARprojectfocusesonasmall-scaleendeavour
whichshoulddirectlybenefitaselectedgroupofparticipants,italsoprovidedrichmaterial
forresearchsuchasdescriptionsofmakingprocesses,photographs,filmfootage,
interviews,andfoursampothol.PeriodsofobservationanddocumentationwithChenda,
Thearyandtheirteamattheirworkshopshowedtheleveloftechnicalskillsandartistry
necessarytocompleteeverystepofhol,fromwarpingsilkthreadstotyinganddyeingweft
threadsinsuccessivedyebathstoweavingontheloom.Thepreciseandlengthy
descriptionsofthesestepsinChapterThreehaveprovidedawrittentranscriptofthe
gesturesandunspokendynamicsbetweentheweaversattheworkshop.Moreover,
interviewsbetweenChenda,ThearyandtheirmotherChendyhaveilluminatedthe
mechanismsofsilkweavingapprenticeship,whichstartsatayoungageinfamilies.These
informalmethodsofskillstransmissioninthehouseholdorvillagecommunityhavebeen
thefoundationofsilkweavingasacottageactivity.Acloseexaminationoftheseexchanges
revealsthatChendaandChendy,inparticular,positionedthemselvesfromaplaceof
authority,clearlyarticulatingtheirrelationshiptomaterials,textileprocesses,andskills
learning.Weavingisalsocollectiveworkinwhichweaversareinterdependent.Thiswas
demonstratedintheteamworkbetweensistersChendaandTheary,inhowThearyreached
outforadvicetoChendy,andintheirrelianceonotherweaversintheworkshopforthe
warpingprocess.Exploringacontextofdrasticcultural,social,andeconomicchallengesin
silkproduction,thisthesishasaddressedthere-orientingofthissenseoflosstowardsa
positivefutureformaking.ThedocumentationandcreationoffoursampotholbyChenda
andThearyatKYparticipatesdirectlyinthiscreativeoutput.
Thestudyoftheweavers’handskillsandbodymemoryhasofferedanotherlayerof
knowledgeaboutsilkasanembodiedpracticethatincludesCambodiansfromdiasporic
communities,beyondtheirpositionofconsumers.Embodimentisathemerunningacross
399
thisthesistoexploreculturethroughidentity,makinganddress,andthelinkingoftheseto
social,physicalandmaterialrealms.InChapterThree,embodimentemergedthroughthe
physicalexperienceofweaving.FilmwasusedinthevideosWarpandWeftasa
methodologytospecificallycapturethisexperienceofsilkweavinginmovement,showing
bodiesandgestures–forexample,untanglingandfoldingthewarpthreads,ordyesstaining
theweavers’hands.InChapterFour,issuesofembodimentinformedthewaysinwhich
CambodianimmigrantsofLongBeach,Californiahaveconsideredandre-evaluatedsilk
clothesasametonymforCambodianculturalidentity.Wearingthesegarmentssparkeda
senseofculturalidentificationandbelonging,playingintoCambodianAmericanimaginings
ofthehomeland.Here,silkclothesareusedastoolsforembellishment,representation,self-
expression,andpride.IntheemotionscommunicatedbyweddingdressmakerMenKaylene
andavidbuyerMaryTan,silkhasappearedasanostalgicdevicetoovercomethetraumaof
displacementandloss.
ChapterFourdemonstratedhowinteractionsbetweensilktextilesandthebody–the
femalebodyinparticular–areexperiencedonanindividualandsensorylevel,asmuchas
onasociallevelwiththecommunity.Onekeyexampleoftheseinteractionsisthemoments
ofperformanceanddanceduringtheannualculturalfestivalinLongBeachthatreinforce
theembodimentofthehistoryandculturalvaluesthattiethelocalCambodianAmerican
communitytogether.InthereenactingofthehistoricalmythsoftheKhmerEmpire,
performancehelpstoreconnectCambodianculturetothecountry’simaginedlegendary
past.Thesereenactmentshaveshownthecrucialimportanceofdress,evenwiththe
shortageofsilkfabrics,aswasthecaseinthepost-KRera,toembodythesemomentsina
waythatisbothinventiveandrespectfulofancientbeliefsandrepresentations.By
embodyingcelestialfiguresfromtheKhmerpantheon,theballetdancersandstudentsfrom
theKhmerArtsAcademyfurtherthissymboliccontinuitybetweenCambodianhistoryand
thepresent,throughtheirbody,movement,andthesilkfabric.Followinganapprenticeship
400
deliveredfromamastertostudents,dancerspursuethelegacyofthosewhodisappeared
duringtheKRregime.Asasecondskin,silkgarmentsbecomeintimatedevicesactivatedby
thebodythroughperformance.Theywrap,modelandholdthedancingbodiesinadialogue
betweenthedancersthemselvesandtheiraudience,reconnectingCambodianAmericans
withfamilyandcommunityroots.
Challengesandreflections
Aselectionoftheoriessuchasmetageography,Actor-Network-Theory,Hobsbawm’s
inventedtraditionsandcraftsassitesofembodiedlearningwerehelpfulinthisthesisto
analysehowthreadsofsilkknowledgeandCambodianculturalidentityhavebeen
sustainedthroughouthistory.TheintegrationofCambodiansilkpracticesinto
contemporarydebatesonglobalisation,decoloniality,knowledgeandidentityformation
demandedtobeputindialoguewithprimarymaterialscollectedduringperiodsofin-depth
fieldresearch.ThiscriticalapproachaimedtoexpandthestudyofCambodiantextiles
beyondwhatalreadyexistedinliteraturewhichrevolvedinparticulararoundCambodian
silkasatraditionalpractice,thesignificanceofmotifs,andweavingandnaturaldyes
techniques.
Mignolohasarguedthatdelinkingthemodernity/colonialityparadigm‘meanstochangethe
termsandnotjustthecontentoftheconversation’.933Forme,thishasalsoinvolvedcreating
thespacetoreflectonmypositionasaresearcherintermsofvoiceandapproach.Ifounda
tremendous–andhumbling–valueinworkingwithresearchquestionsthatmaintaina
positionofopennessinacknowledgingandemphasisingformsofknowledgeaboutsilkthat
areembeddedinpractice,thebody,memory,andculturalandfamilydynamics.My
approach,therefore,hasbeenaboutdevelopinganepistemologicalmodelthatcombinesa
933Mignolo,Walter,'DELINKING',CulturalStudies21,no.2(March2007),459.
401
pluralityofperspectivesbyfirstaddressingthedominanthistoric,geo-politicalnarratives
onsilkandpost-conflictCambodia,movingintowhatMignolodefinesasthe‘geo-politicsof
knowledgeemergingfromdifferenthistoricallocationsoftheworldthatenduredtheeffects
andconsequencesofWesternimperialandcapitalistexpansion’.934Thispolyphonyof
material,human,andhistoricvoiceshasrevealedpocketsofagencyandknowledgefor
weaversandwearersintheactsofmakingandperforming,aswellasindiasporicliterature
andmoreinformalformsofexchangesinthecommunity.
Withperiodsofobservation,recordingoraltestimoniesinCambodiaandLongBeach,
California,andcollaboratingwithsilkweaversatKY,thisthesishasbroughtadiversityof
perspectivestotheforefront.Thetaskdidnotcomewithoutchallenges.Ikeptinmind
Hamera’srecordofherincompleteandunsatisfyingcollaborationwiththeSemfamilyin
LongBeach,whichprovidedaninvaluableexampleofethnographicresearchasan
imperfectbalancingactofacceptanceandadaptability.Bearinganethicalresponsibilityto
respectthelivingcommunitieswithwhomIhaveworked,workingintheKhmerlanguage
withdifferenttranslatorsaddedtothisdifficultyintheinterviewstoclarifyanddevelop
someofmyinterlocutors’answers.
ThisthesishasdiscussedmyroleasaresearcherandthedifferentpositionsIhave
embraced,suchasparticipantobserver,interviewer,co-convenoroftheARproject,and
autoethnographerthroughtakingadancelesson.IntheARproject,Ihadtofindthe
appropriatepositiontoaccompanyweaverswithoutsubstitutingmyownexperienceto
theirs.ThiswasachievednotbybeingtrainedinholweavingbyChendaandTheary,but
instead,byfosteringtheirpracticeandfindingtherequiredfundingtoproducefoursampot.
Moreimportantly,thethesishasintentionallyopenedsubstantialspacesfortheaccountsof
weavers,wearersanddancersgatheredinthefieldinCambodiaandtheUnitedStatesto
illuminatethemultiplelayersthatformtheCambodiansilklandscape.Attheintersectionof
934Ibid,460.
402
historyandgeography,andinresponsetothecolonialityofknowledgeprevalentin
Cambodianscholarship,thisstudyaddressestheremembranceandrecoveryofdifferent
andfragmentedformsofknowledgeaboutCambodiansilkproduction,andintegratesthe
CambodianAmericandiasporaterritory.
Futureresearch
ThisstudyofcontemporaryCambodiansilkheritageandpracticeshasopenedrich
avenuesforfurtherresearch.Intermsofmethods,autoethnographyandfilmcouldbe
amplifiedasresearchpracticestohighlightfurthertheembodiedandphysicalaspectsof
dyeingandweavingsilkcloths.Intermsofactorsofthesilkscape,thethesis’corefocushas
beentransnationalsponsors,craftcompaniesandtheirfoundersinChapterTwo,silk
weaversinChapterThree,andCambodianAmericanconsumersinChapterFour.
ConsumersinCambodia,bothlocalsandtourists,offerscopeforfurtherstudybecausethey
areactiveagentsinthesilkscape.Exploringtheirroleswouldcomplementtheknowledgeof
thedynamicsoperatingintheCambodiansilknetworkthathavebeenexposedinthis
thesis.Foreign-ownedorganisationsmostlytargettheexportandtouristmarkets.
Examiningthelocalmarketfurtherwouldprovideadditionaldataonthemiddlemen’s
relationshipswithretailersandthehabits,tasteandprofileofdomesticconsumers.
Whilethethesishasdiscussedkeynumbersaboutsilkfibreproductioninthetwentiethand
twenty-firstcenturiesintheIntroductionandprovidedgroundknowledgeonthe
specificitiesofCambodiansilk,sericulturecouldbeanotherareaforfutureresearch.
FollowingterHorst’sextensiveworkonhowCambodianintermediariesofChineseethnic
descentsourcedsilkfibreinVietnam,moreresearchcouldbededicatedtothegeopolitical,
ethnographicandembodiedstudyofsericulturepracticesinCambodia.Inthelastcensus,
datingfrom2016,therewerelessthanahundredsilkproducersleftinCambodia,mostly
403
locatedinBanteayMeanchey,OddarMeancheyandSiemReapprovinces.935Sericultureisa
family-basedcottageindustrywhichmostlyinvolvesmen,incontrastwithfemale-
dominatedsilkweavingactivities,andoftenledinadditiontootherfarmingactivities.936
Moreover,thesesilkfarmingprovincesaregeographicallyclosetoThailand,whichisbotha
majorsilkcompetitorofCambodia,withmoredevelopedindigenoussericultureintheSurin
area,andakeydestinationforCambodianruralexodusandimmigration.
Furtherresearchontheseterritorialtensionsandthedifferentgenderdistribution,aswell
asissuesofskillstransmissioninsericulturethroughkinship,embodiedknowledge,and
bodymemory,couldrevealfurtherimportantfacetsoftheCambodiansilkscapebybuilding
onthisthesis’newapproachestosilkhistoriesandgeographies.
935CambodiaMinistryofCommerceandITC,CambodiaNationalSilkStrategy,5.936TauchAtakama,‘Rencontrerdesproducteursdeversàsoie/cocons,identifierdespersonnesàinterviewer,faireunétatdeslieuxdelasituationsurplace,’unpublishedreport,25May2018.
404
Appendices
A1.Khmer[phonetic]-Englishglossaryofterms
andan:warping
angkar:organisation,NGO
anlounh:stripedsampot
aor:tunic,shirt
aorlakhaoun:silkblousefordancepractice
baitung:green
boklakangkar:NGO
bunthea:skeinofikatsilk
champoo:anatoseeds,naturaldyestuffgivingabrightorangecolour
chongkiet:weftikatsilk(seealsohol)
chorchung:patternedhemofasampot
ChoulChnamThmey:NewYear
con:child
dokdua:silkcocoon
garuda:eagle-headedmythicalcreature
hol:weftikatsilk
jhmaunkandal:middleman
kabbas:cotton
kadep:cap
kbun:fourmetresofwovenfabric,wrappedtrousers(seesampotchawngkbun)
kemi:chemical
khai:loom(alsotbanhkraneat)
khaimacin:semi-automaticsteppingweavingmachine
khieu:blue
405
khmeikhieu:BlueKhmers;referstoCambodianslivinginthediaspora(alsoanekachun
khmer)
khmeinkhmein:youngster,youth
khsae:cords,threads;alsoreferstonetworkofpatron-clientrelationships
khum:commune
kinnari:wingedhumanmythicalcreature
kiri:unitofweightequallingtwokilograms
kiet:totie,alsotodesignateatypeoftie-dyetextileproducedbyMalaycommunities
knar:onebobbinrepresentingoneportionofanikatpattern,spool
koem:patterndesign/weavestructure(onlyappliestosilk)
komnat:cloth
kraham:red
krola:pattern
krama/kroma/kramar:cottonplaidscarf
kramasaut:silkscarf
kansaengdai:handkerchief
khmau:black
krom:rough
kromsamaki:solidaritygroup,ruralcooperativeduringthe1980sVietnameseoccupation
krusaa:family
leakkhmer:cochinealred
loeung:yellow
makleua:ebonyfruit,naturaldyestuffgivingablackcolour
nak-naga:mythicaldragonorsnakefigure
nat:cloth
406
nylon:nylon,fishingwire
pdai:husband
phamaung:sampotinsolid-colouredsilk
phuy:longembroideredscarfforwedding
phum:village
pibaak:difficult
pibaakchet:unhappy
pidan:pictorialikathangingrepresentingthelivesoftheBuddha
pkachuu:pink
poar:colour
praing:bristlebrush
proh:man
prohut:garciniatreebark,naturaldyestuffgivingabrightyellowcolour
prolung:smooth
propun:wife
ptean:lengthunit
ptey:warp
robam:dance
roumtchak:factory
saamyok:synthetic
saart:beautiful
sabaychet:happy
sampot:hipwrap,tubeskirt
sampotchawngkbun:longlengthofsampotwornaswrappedtrousers
sampotsarabap:silkhipwrapbrocadedwithgoldorsilverthreads
407
sampotrbauk:hipwrapinapatterneddamask
sampotsamloy:onelengthofsampotwornasahipwrap
sau:white
saut:silk
sbaay:embellishedasymmetricalsilksashwornforweddingceremoniesandKhmer
classicalballet
sbekcheung:shoe
sdoegkiet:frametotieweftyarnintheholprocess
slaaksnaam:mark,trace,signoftrauma
sliekpeak:dress
srei:woman
srok:district
srouel:easy
tangkartauch:florallattice
taksmin:ironmordant
tchaktamani:reed
thkor:weavingharnessthroughwhichthewarpisthreaded
umba:sewingthread
yantra:ritualisticsymbolwhichincorporatesSanskritwriting
yeay:grandmother;elderlywoman(alsolokyeay)
wat:temple
408
A2.Technicalglossaryofweaving
-Beam:Abeamisanyofthehorizontalrollersonwhichthewarpyarnorfinishedclothis
woundandsecured.Themainbeamisfittedontothebackoftheloom,andtheclothbeam
isfitteddirectlyunderwheretheweaverissitting.
-Beaming:Methodicallywindingthefullwidthofthewarpyarnswithoutentanglingthe
threadsonabeamplacedontheloom,keepinganeventensionintheprocess.
-Brocade:Richlydecoratedwoventextilepatternedwithsupplementaryweftthreads,often
madeofsilverorgold,tocreatetheillusionthatsectionshavebeenembossedintothe
fabric.
-Brocatelle:Ajacquardweavefabricrelatedtobrocade,brocatelleispatternedinhigher
reliefwithathickerandheavierhand.
-Heddle:Usuallymadeofmetallicwireorfinecords,heddlesareloopsattachedtotheshaft
ofaloominwhichwarpthreadsarepassedthroughtofollowspecificweavestructures,
whenshaftswillliftupanddown.
-Ikat:DerivingfromtheMalaywordmengikat,or‘totie’,ikatisatextiletechniqueinwhich
thewarporweftthreads,orbothforthedoubleikat,aretie-dyedincomplexmotifsbefore
weaving.
Theweftikattechniqueisrealisedinsuccessivestages:theweftthreadsaretiedfollowinga
pre-determinedmotiftoallowcertainsectionstotakethedyeandotherstorepelit.After
oneroundoftyinganddyeing,theprocessisrepeatedwithadifferentcolourtocreatein
theendapolychromicpatternontheweftthreads.Oncethisstepiscompleted,theweft
threadsaretransferredtosetsofspoolsandwoventhroughthewarpthreadsontheloom
tocreatetheweftikattextile.
ForthepolychromicCambodianhol,someareasareleftinwhiteundyedsilkandthenthe
weavertypicallyproceedstothedyeinginthisorder:red,yellow,andblue.Redoverdyed
withbluegivesdarkpurple,blueoveryellowgivesgreen.
409
-Lacdye:DeepredcolorantindigenoustoSoutheastAsia,obtainedfromthecrudeshellac
resinexcretedbythelacinsectLacciferlacca.
-Mordant:Achemicalormetalliccompoundusedindyeingtofixthecoloringmatterin
naturaldyes.
-Mulberry:Treefromthemorusspecieswhichprovidesleavesuponwhichbombyxmori
silkwormsfeed.
-Polyvoltine:SpeciesofBombyxmorisilkmothwhichproducesmorethanonebroodof
eggsinayear.
-Reed:Securedbythebeatertothefrontoftheloom,areedisaframewithverticalnarrow
openingsthatresemblesalargecomb.Itspacesthewarpthreadsevenly,createsaguidefor
theshuttle,andhelpspackthewovenweftthreadstogether.
-Sericulture:Cultivationofsilkcaterpillarsintendedtoproducesilkthreads,especially
fromthedomesticatedspeciesofBombyxmori.
-Shotsilk:Alsocalledchangeantorchangeablesilk,ataffetasilkfabricmadefromwarpand
weftyarnsoftwocomplementaryorcontrastingcolours,producinganiridescent
appearance.
-Silk:Aprotein-basedfibre,silkisacontinuousfilamentobtainedfromthecocoonsof
differentspeciesofmothsandarachnids.Incommercialuse,themostcommontypeofsilk
comesfromthedomesticatedbreedofBombyxmorispecies.
-Skein:Bundleofsilkthreads
-Sleying:Passingwarpendsthrougheachdentofthereedtoseparatethethreadsevenly
-Twill:Weavestructurecarriedoutonminimumthreeshaftscharacterisedbydiagonal
linesrunningatanglesbetween15°and75°,interlacingthewarpstocreateadiagonalridge
acrossthefabric.
-2-1twill:Irregulartwillweavestructuremadebyliftingtwowarpendsverticallyover
410
weftpicksandbyfloatingoneweftpickhorizontallyoverwarpendsonthreeshaftsonthe
loom.
-Warp:Alsocalled‘ends’,thethreadswhichliealongthelengthofthefabric.Warpmustbe
preparedinadvanceandputontheloom.
-Warping:Preparingthewarp,thefirststageofweaving,consistsofarrangingapredefined
numberofwarpthreadsfollowingthedesiredlengthoftheweaving.
-Weft:alsocalled‘filling’,thethreadswhicharepassedhorizontallyontheloomtocreate
theinterlacingoftheyarnswithwarp.
-Wefttying:Stepoftheikatprocesswhichconsistsofplacingweftthreadsflatonaframeto
proceedtothetyingstage,followingpre-definedpatternsbeforeproceedingtothedyeing
stage.
411
A3.VisuallexiconofCambodiantextiles
Batiksarung:hipwrapskirtmadeincottondecoratedwithIndonesianbatik-stylemotifs.
Chorchung:supplementaryweftpatternslocatedatthebottomofasampotphamaung.
412
Kiet:tie-dyedsilktextilewornasaheadscarfbyChamMalayMuslimcommunities.
Kramasaut:plaid-patternedsilkhipwrap,ofteningreen,red,andwhite,sometimes
combiningasilkwarpandacottonweft.
413
Krama:cottonorpolyesterginghamwovenscarf.
Sampotphamaung:solid-colouredweft-facedtwill(ortaffeta)fabric,whichsometimes
incorporatesashotsilkeffectwithweftandwarpthreadsincontrastingcolours.
414
Sampotanlounh:stripedsilkorcottontextile.
Sampothol:polychromicweftikatsilkhipwrap,usuallyinsixcolourswhite,yellow,red,
blue,green,andpurple.
415
Sampotholpoar:two-toneweftikatsilkinbrightchemicaldyes.
Sampotsarabap:supplementaryweftpatternedsilkbrocadedwithmetallicthreads
featuringgeometricandstylisedfloralelements.
416
Sampotrbauk:patternedsilkwithsupplementaryweftthreadsincontrastingcolours.
Holpidan:figurativepolychromicsilkweftikatusedasadecorativeandauspiciouswall
hangingoftenfeaturingBuddhistscenesandsymbols.
417
A4a.Informationsheetandconsentformsfortheinterviews
INFORMATION SHEET
STUDY OF THE SILK SECTOR IN CONTEMPORARY CAMBODIA
We are sending you this information sheet because we would like to invite you to take part in our study.
Please take time to read this information and ask us any questions you may have or if anything is unclear.
What is the purpose of the study?
In today’s Cambodia, local artisans produce silk according to traditional knowledges and skills while mass-
produced garments represent eighty percent of total exports. This culturally-valued practice faces the
challenge of a fast-industrializing economy. How to mobilize this living knowledge and examine it in
regards to Cambodia’s historiography? This study aims to fill a gap in current knowledge about Cambodian silk in terms of production, craft, and use from the point of view of the producers and the main actors involved in the field. Along with the analysis of contemporary craft production we hope to provide a fuller picture of the history of silk and its importance in Southeast Asia. The study will also provide an analytical model that can be applied to the study of other craft communities.
Who is organising and funding the research?
The project is a major component of the PhD research being undertaken by Magali An Berthon under the supervision of Dr Sarah Cheang and Dr Martina Margetts. The research is based in the History of Design Department at the School of Humanities, Royal College of Art, London. The research is partially self-funded and supported by Techne / AHRC scholarship. It will result in a written thesis that will be examined for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Magali An Berthon has a wide experience of interview-based research in the field of textiles and crafts in Southeast Asia. This study has been approved by the Royal College of Art Research Ethics Committee.
Why have I been asked to take part?
We aim to interview different actors contributing to sericulture and the preservation of silk craftsmanship in Cambodia today: makers (mulberry tree farmers, silk farmers, textile dyers, weavers, and seamstresses), stakeholders involved in the field (business owners, manufacturers, governmental officials, and NGOs project managers), textile experts (museum curators, conservators, and historians). We hope to interview a wide variety of men and women: some still active and others who are retired. We will select participants according to their profession, their background, their geographic location in different parts of Cambodia, their motivation to take part in this project and upon recommandation.
Your participation
We believe that you have something important to say that will contribute to our study. We trust that the interview will provide you with an opportunity to share your experience, of the difficulties and the pleasures of your working in the field of silk. We will arrange an interview with you and will audio record / and or film the interview. It may last between one and two hours.
If you agree to take part, please sign a consent form.
418
INTERVIEW CONSENT AND DATA PROCESSING STATEMENT
If you consent to being interviewed and to any data gathered being processed as outlined below, please print and sign your name, and date the form, in the spaces provided.
• This project STUDY OF THE SILK SECTOR IN CONTEMPORARY CAMBODIA is being conducted by Magali An Berthon, research student at the Royal College of Art, London. It is partially self-funded and supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council Techne scholarship. The project is a major component of the PhD research under the supervision of Dr Sarah Cheang and Dr Martina Margetts.
• All data will be treated as personal under the 1998 Data Protection Act, and will be stored securely in a password protected area on my desktop computer.
• Interviews will be recorded by the researcher and transcribed by an independent transcriber who has signed a confidentiality agreement.
• Copies of interview tapes and transcripts used for the PhD will be offered to the Royal College of Art Data History of Design Archive under the same secured conditions. Data will be stored in Google Drive, for which the department has a security agreement.
• A copy of your interview transcript will be provided electronically/hard copy, free of charge, on any written request.
• Data collected may be processed manually and with the aid of computer software.
• Your personal details such as phone number and address will not be revealed to people outside the project.
• You will still be free to withdraw at any time and we will not ask you to give any reasons if you choose to do so.
• Participation consent: Please tick the appropriate boxes. □ YES I agree to be interviewed. □ NO I refuse to be interviewed.
• Confidentiality and publication consent: Please tick the appropriate boxes.
• □ I may be identified in reports made available outside the research team and the AHRC, and in publications. Your words and image may be used in publications, reports, web pages, videos, and other research outputs.
• □ My words and image may be used provided that they are anonymised.
• □ I may not be identified in reports made available outside the research team and the AHRC, nor in any publications. My words and image may not be used.
Please print your name:........................................................................
Signature:.................................................... Date:........................
Contact for further Information: Magali An Berthon [email protected]
Dr. Sarah CheangSarah Cheang [email protected]
Royal College of Art Kensington Gore, London SW7 2EU
419
CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT STUDY OF THE SILK SECTOR IN CONTEMPORARY CAMBODIA
I ____________________________, an interpreter working with Magali An Berthon, agree to the following:
a) I will take all possible steps to protect the information I receive during the process of interpreting during the researching, interviewing and filming with the makers, manufacturers, and experts in the silk industry in Cambodia.
This means that I will not disclose any personally identifying information to anyone, unless: compelled to disclose specific information under a court order or competent of court.
b) I will not talk about or write about any of the individuals’ names in any meetings or in any documentation including emails about the research project.
Interpreter_______________________________________
Signature
Name: Date: Place:
Witness/second signature (Magali An Berthon, project coordinator)
Signature
Name: Date: Place:
424
A5.ChartprovidedbyTomokoTakagiwiththetentativecostandtimetablefortheActionResearchholproject,July20,2017.
Update20July2017Sampot Hol Project2017ⅠMaterial / Equipment
Iron Comb for Hol used $30Stand for making small bundle $15Fine silk Mok3 (3thread) for Warp 1kg $60/kg=$60Fine silk Mok8 (8thread) for Weft (2kg=1kiri) 1.5kg for 3kbun$55/kg=$82.5
Dye MaterialNatural Dye and Chemical Dyeetc warp dying in Takeo $7 / 1kgChemical dye powder $0.125×27packs=$3.375String for tie $5
ⅡProcess around 1month? for 1kbun 3hole for this project1.Preparing Warp about 6days for 3 kbun
1. Dying and Boiling Fine Silk Mok3 with ash water for warp done ( black : $7 /kg)2. Rolling silk bundle to spool 5days/1person(Theary) done 1-3. Arrange 1day/2persons 21July(fri.)1-4. Rolling warp beam/ comb 0.5day/6persons / 0.5day/2persons 24July 8:30-9:00am1-5. Making heddle 3days/1person (Chenda or Theary) 25-27July
Warp: Chemical dyeWeft: chemical dye onlyғA/ chemical and natural dye mix
2. Preparing Weft Koem(about 20 knar)/kbun*3kbun 17.5-23.5days? Before tying 4days?
2-1. Boild Fine Silk Mok8 with ash water 0.5days/2persons/3kbun done (Kim,Chamroen)2-2. Rolling silk bundle to spool 3day/1person /3kbun 0.5kg(Theary)done,0.5kg(Kim) done 2-3. Making small bundles 2.5day/1person/3kbun 171knar/done (Chenda)
A:Koem217Knar=1Bunteah(=1pattern), 4Bunteah=1Kbun(=1hol)1Kanar=100thread=200weavings, 4weaving/1kanar
※100thread/knar*3bunteah+140thread/knar1bunteah36knar=3.5hr-40knar
B:Koem513Knar=1Bunteah(=1pattern), 4Bunteah=1Kbun(=1hol)1Kanar=140thread=280weavings, 4weaving/1kanar
C:Original 17Knar=1Bunteah(=1pattern), 3Bunteah=1Kbun(=1hol)1Kanar=140thread=280weavings, 4weaving/1kanar
Koem(about 20 knar/bunteah*3-4bunteah=1kbun) 4.5-6.5days*3kbun=13.5-19.5days2-4. 1St Tying pattern 8days/1person/kbun Koem-A(2)
1st bunteah=17knar (Chenda done) 2nd-4th bunteah (Theary done) 2days/bunteah※2nd-4th bunteah are followed 1st.bunteah.
1St Tying pattern 8days/1person/kbun Koem-B(5)1st bunteah=13knar (Chenda done) 2nd-4th bunteah (Theary done) 2days/bunteah※2nd-4th bunteah are followed 1st.bunteah.
1St Tying pattern 2-3days/1person/kbun Koem-C(original) 25-27July1st bunteah=17knar (Chenda doing) 2nd-3rd bunteah (Theary doing) 2days/bunteah
2-5. 1st. Dying 0.5days/1person/kbun Koem-C 25-27July (Natural Dye and Chemical Dye both) Koem-A (Chenda,Chantra pink chemical done) o.5days2-6. 2nd . Dying 0.5days/1person/kbun Koem-B25-27July (Natural Dye and Chemical Dye both) Koem-A (Chenda,Chantra yellow chemical done) 2hr ※before 2nd. Dye cut some tied peaces (Chenda done) 1.5hr2-7. Tying 2nd then 3rd. Dying . 6days/1person/kbun Koem-B,A 25-27July (Natural ye and Chemical Dye both) 2nd.tying Chenda 2bunteah (done 2.5days)+Theary 2buntheah(done3days)
Koem-A (Chenda,Chantra green chemical done) o.5daysafter dry cut string (Chenda done) 0.5days
2-8. Rolling to Knar 0.5days/1person/kbun Koem-A 25-27July ※Depend on design3. Weaving Koem(about 20 knar)/kbun 10-15days/kbun 28Julyӗ
KoemA=17Knar*4bunteahKoemB=13Knar*4bunteah KoemC=17Knar*3bunteah
425
A6.ExcerptsfromtheinterviewsconductedinCambodiaandtheUnitedStates
Tobenoted:M.standsforMagali.Iusetheinitialsofthetranslatorinthetranscripts.Khmer
termsthatIwasabletoidentifyappearinitalics.
1. AtCaringforYoungKhmercentre,translatedbyRothmono,TrapaingKasaing,
Takeoprovince,August3,2017.
AmSai:
‘M:Andhowdifficultisittolearnpidan?
[Rothmonotranslates]
A:Pibaakpibaak.
R:Shesaysthatlearningpidanisthemostdifficult,therearearesomanypictures.
M:Motifs?
R:Yes,motifs.
M:Andso,itwashardforhertolearnthat?
[Rothmonotranslates]
R:Pibaak.
M:Itwasherfirsttimetomakepidan?
[Rothmonotranslates]
R:Yes,itisherfirsttime.Shesaysthatshehasdonemanyprogrammesalready,butthisis
thefirstonewhereshestartedlearningpidan’.
NowSaraem:
‘M:So,whatwasshedoingbefore?
R:Shesaysthatoneofthereasonsshedecidedtolearnweavingisbecauseshehasnever
learneditbeforeandwantedtoexperienceit.Shethendecidedtocome.
426
[Rothmonotranslates]
R:Shehasdonemanykindsofsmallbusiness:rearingchicken,cows,doingfarming,selling
thingsatthemarket.
M:OK,sofarmingandselling.Andisshestilldoingthatorissheaweaverfulltime?
[Rothmonotranslates]
R:Shesaysshestoppedallexceptdoingfarm.Shehasstoppeddoingeverythingelse,the
selling.Andnowsheisdoingthisfulltime’.
Pheach:
‘M:Anddoesshelikeweaving,doessheenjoythepractice?15:44
[Rothmonotranslates]
R:Shesaidthatnotonlyshelikesit,butshelovesit.Becauseit'scustoms,it'sKhmer.It's
Khmercustoms.ItistheidentityofCambodia.Shereallyreallylovesweaving.
M:Ohok,doesshewearhol,doessheownsampotkbunthatshehaswovenherself?16:38
[Rothmonotranslates]
R:No,shedoesn't.Whenevershefinishesonepiece,shejustsellsit.
M:So,sheisproudtobeaweaver.
[Rothmonotranslates]
R:Yes,sheis.
M:Doyouthinkshewillteachherdaughters,herchildren?
[Rothmonotranslates]
R:Shewillteachthemeventhoughtheymightwanttowork.Butshewillteachthemthis
becauseshelovesit!’
427
2. InterviewsofChenda,ThearyandChendy,translatedbyYu,atKramaYuyu,Ta
Poukvillage,SiemReapprovince,July26,2017.
Chendy:
‘Y:Yes,sheisdisappointedthatwearelosingthehol,thetraditionalCambodianhol.Soit
comesonlyfromThailand,importedfromThailandbutdifferentdesignanddifferent
quality.ShesaysthatyouhavetoconservethistobringupabouttheCambodianholorsilk
sothatthenewgenerationwillknowaboutit.Becausenowtheyounggenerationtheydon't
knowmuchaboutit.
M:Yes.Andwheredidshegetthesilkfibre?
[Yutranslates]
Y:TheygetthesilkfromTakeobutalsosomefromVietnam.Shesaystheymakeitfrom
China.
M:So,didsheeverusethelocalsilk,thegoldensilk?
[Yutranslates]
Chendy:Otmien.
Y:Theydidn'thavesome.Shesaysthatbeforetheyusedtohavebutnownomore,because
theprocesstoobtainsilkfromthecocoonisdifficult,andittakessolong.Nownoonedoes
itanymore’.
Chenda:
‘Y:Shesaysit'salsodifficulttobringbackthememorytomakethehol.Forthekramashe
candoit,butfortheholshehadtoresearchandlearnalot.
M:So,whatdidshehavetodo?
[Yutranslates]
Y:Forthehol,tolearnagainhowtomake,whenshedidnotremember,sheaskedher
motherortheauntieinTakeoprovincetogetmoreinformationonhowtomakeit.
428
M:Andwhatdidsheask,whatwerethequestions?
[Yutranslates]
Y:Sheaskedonlyaboutdyeingcolours,betweennaturaldyeingandchemicaldyes.She
wantedtoknowabouthowtodoit.
M:Andforthetyingpartsheremembered.
[Yutranslates]
Chenda:Tchaa.
Y:Yes,tyingsheremembered’.
Theary:
‘M:Doyoutheythinkaboutanythingwhentheypracticeweaving?Dotheydream,dothey
thinkaboutgroceryshopping,or...?
[Yutranslates][Everyonelaughs]Thearysaysthatsometimesshethinksaboutotherthings,
butIdon'tknowwhatshe'sthinkingabout.So,Itoldher,maybeshe'sthinkingabouther
boyfriend.
[Thearyexplains]Shesaysthatsometimeswhileshe'sworkingshe'sthinkingit'stakingso
longandthecostoftheholisverycheap.So,thensheputsitdownandjustwalksaway.And
afterthatshehasthedesiretoworkonitagain,soshegoesbacktoit’.
3. InterviewsofSoAi,YuonSophon,Kamon,Pon,andChinKoeurtranslatedby
PromChak,invillagesinPhnomChisor,Takeoprovince,March17,2018.
SoAi:
‘Anddoessheenjoyweaving,isitsomethingsheenjoysdoingorisithard?
[P:inKhmer]cholchet?
[Interviewee:inKhmer]
429
P:Shelikesthatjobbecausethisisthejobshehaslearnedalongtimeagoandisstilldoing
that.Buttheproblemnowisthatherhealthisnotsogood.
M:AndhasshebeentoPhnomPenhtoseetheshops?
[P:inKhmer]
[Interviewee:inKhmer]
P:Never.Onlysellstheproductiontothemiddleman’.
YuonSophon:
‘P:Shesaid:before,likeeveryhousehadaloom,butnotonlyoneloom,buteventhree
loomsalso,inthepast.
M:Really?Inthehouses,likehermomhadthreelooms?
P:Butnowthewomengotoworkforthefactory.
M:Wouldsheworkforthefactory?
[P:inKhmer]
[Interviewee:inKhmer]
P:TheChinesefactory.
M:Butifshehadajobthere...?
[P:inKhmer]
[Interviewee:inKhmer]
P:No,shewouldn't’.
Kamon:
‘M:Andso,forexamplethispiece,whoorderedthispiece?
[P:inKhmer]
[Interviewee:inKhmer]
430
P:Thisisapieceforher.Notforsale,becausethisisforaweddingpartysoshepreparesfor
herself.
M:Oh,notforsale!
[Interviewee:inKhmer]
P:Butthepattern,shecopiedfromtheneighbors.Butthisisjustforhertowearfora
wedding’.
Pon:
‘P:ShemarriedjustbeforePolPotregime.
M:BeforePolPot.AndshewasaweaverbeforePolPot?
[P:inKhmer]
[Interviewee:inKhmer]
P:Shejustlearnedatthattime.Studyatschoolalsoandlearnedweaving.
M:AndthenPolPotarrivedanditstopped.SonobodyinthisvillagewasweavingduringPol
Pot.
P:No’.
ChinKoeur:
‘M:Andanotherquestionis,wheredoesshegetthematerials?
[P:inKhmer]
[Interviewee:inKhmer]
P:ShesaysshegoestoPhnomPenhandbuysinPhnomPenh.Andalsothedyeingalsofrom
PhnomPenh.ButsheknowsthattheproductscomefromVietnamandThailand.
M:FromVietnamandThailand.Howmuchwouldbesautkilo?
[P:inKhmer]
[Interviewee:inKhmer]
431
P:Onekilogramisseventydollars’.
4. InterviewsofOkKhannia,SokChan,andKayleneMen,CambodiaTown,Long
Beach,California,April2017.
OkKhannia(April6,2017):
‘K:Asakid,whenIwasgettingdressed,myveryfirstcostume...Iwasscaredbecauseitwas
myveryfirstperformance.Butitfeltreally...Mymomwastheredressingmeformyfirst
performance.That'stheonlytime,right!Itjust...Havingyourmomknowingwhatsheis
doing,andthisissomethingthatyourmomisteachingyou,andyou'renotteachingyour
mumhowtohandlethingsorwhatacashierissaying,youknow,itwasadifferent,a
reversal,arolereversal.AndthatwasformeCambodianAmerican,myparentsdon'tspeak
alotofEnglish.Itwasnice,becauseitwaslike:“OhI'mbeingtaughtsomethingbymy
parents.”[…]Toseeherhelpingmyfriendsanddressingthem,itwasawonderfulfeeling.It
mademefeelbeautiful,Iwasreallyexcited.Ijustfeltso:‚ThisisCambodianclothes!Thisis
myclothes!’.Ilovedit,Ifellinlovewithit.SometimesI'dbewalkingaroundinthestreetsto
thestoreinmykbun’.
SokChan,translatedbyMaryTan(April6,2017):
‘Mary:Sometimesshestartsfromhercatalogueandsometimesshedesigns.Myoutfitis
onlyfromherdesigns.Onlytraditionalstyle.
M:Doyouthinksheisgoingtocontinuesellingsilk?
SokChan:Idon'tknow.(Otdonte).Iwanttoretire!
M:When?
S:Infiveyears.Pramchnaam.
M:Andafteryouwillclosethebusiness?
432
S:Ithinkso.
M:Nobodywilltakeoverthebusiness?
S:Idon'tknow(Otdonte).Whenmyhusband(pday)retires,Iwanttoretiretoo.
M:Andshehasnooneinthefamilywhowantstocontinue?
S:Ote.Allofmykidsareworking,butnotintextiles’.
MenKaylene(April11,2017):
‘K:Iseesomeoftheweddingplanners,inCambodiainmajority,goforthetrends,goforthe
money.Andsomeofthemtheydon’t,culture,value,theylostitbecausetheywanttokeep
themoney,thetrendsandfindawaytomakeitmoretrendy.ButIseethatit’salossin
culturetoo.Trendsandmixandmatch,andalmostmakethebridelikeadragqueenand
that’stome,notappropriate,especiallyfortheonethatdoesn’tknow.Itoldthem:Icando
thisbutthisisnotme.Youcantaketheclothesanddothatbutifyouwantittobe
Cambodian,thisisthetraditionalway.AndthenIamvery,howdoyoucallthat…not
uptight...
M:Veryspecific?
K:Veryspecific!’
433
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