Modern Asia – COMM2377 Brenda Mattick – Major Essay

18/05/2015 – 2194 words Hien Nguyen Thu – s3461784

RMIT

UNIVERSITY

CAMBODIA - POSTCOLONIALISM

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Table of Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 2

Definitions ..................................................................................................................... 2

The sudden rise of 'Khmerization' ................................................................................. 4

Cultural identity in a converged world .......................................................................... 7

The New ‘Colonialism’ – Neocolonialism ................................................................... 7

The ‘New Postcolonialism' – Convergence Culture .................................................. 11

Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 13

References ................................................................................................................... 14

Statement of Authorship

RMIT electronic submission of work for assessment

I declare that in submitting all work for this assessment I have read, understood and agree to the

content and expectations of the Assessment declaration.

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Introduction

When you mention Cambodia, most people will instantly think of ‘a place of rumor, myth and

legend’. After all, it is ‘the only nation in the world that proudly adorns the national flag with a ruin’

– Angkor Wat (A&E Television Networks 2007). In short, Cambodia is popularly known for its past

glories and everlasting wars. After 90 years, it achieved independence from French in 1953 only to

fell back to 'Year Zero' under Khmer Rouge regime. Finally achieved peace in 1991 (BBC 2015),

Kingdom of Cambodia still suffers from unstable politics despite booming economy thanks to

agricultural and tourism industries. With temples destroyed, books burnt and scholars massacred,

most of Cambodian heritage has survived through storytelling, songs and dances (Thomas n.d).

Accordingly, this essay will attempt to explore the influence of postcolonialism on Cambodian

performance art. During the past three decades, it has fueled nationalism that soothes war-

traumatized Cambodians and helped maintaining cultural autonomy in a converging world.

Definitions

Before moving on with my argument, I would like to clarify some key concepts. First of all, I found

the definition of colonialism as ‘the extension of a nation's sovereignty over territory beyond its

borders by the establishment of either settler colonies or administrative dependencies’

(‘COMM2377 Week 2 Notes’ 2015) relevant in Cambodia context. Colonizers of Cambodia do not

limit to Western empires, hence Cambodian's postcolonialism attempts to resist not only

Occidental's but also its powerful neighbors’ (China, Vietnam, Thailand, India) discourses. As for

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postcolonialism, I prefer the open definition of Dallas Baptist University (n.d) as ‘a study of the

effects of colonialism on cultures and societies’ and its three stages: resistance to the 'cultural

inferiority' enforced by the West; the struggle for social, cultural & political autonomy and a

growing awareness of cultural hybridity. These stages makes up the framework for this essay.

A major theme in postcolonial discourses is nationalism, which ‘is an ideological movement for

attaining and maintaining the autonomy, unity and identity of a nation’ (Smith 1991). Gellner

(1964) also claims ‘Nationalism is not the awakening of nations to self-consciousness; it invents

nations where they do not exist – but it does need some pre-existing differentiating marks to work

on’. These ‘pre-existing marks’ constitute the cultural and historical identity that nationalism bases

on to build a national identity. Smith (1991) states that ‘the stronger and more persistent the pre-

existing ethnic identity, the more likely was any nation that might emerge to be based on that

identity’. In Cambodia case, ‘that identity’ dates back to the heyday of Angkor Wat.

As debates go on about whether we have ever been out of colonialism, I believe that for

postcolonial states, winning independence at least accomplishes ‘indirect means of control’ –

neocolonialism (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d) instead of meaningless bloodshed. Neocolonialism is

still unravelling and no experts can declare whether ‘direct’ or ‘indirect’ is less devastating. For this

essay, I intend to focus on cultural imperialism – ‘domination and hegemony’ of a country’s culture

over others (Banerjee 2002) – rather than capitalism of politics.

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The sudden rise of 'Khmerization'

After colonialism, 'Third World' nations found an urgent need to establish national identity and

emphasize traditions and cultural knowledge developed outside the West (Young 2003).

Overshadowed by Khmer Rouge’s crimes, colonial misdeeds seem less significant than nationalism

for postcolonial Cambodia. The sudden nostalgia for Angkorian roots is what Heder (2007, cited in

Simpson 2007) called ‘Khmerization in Cambodian nationalism’. This is the aforementioned first

stage of postcolonialism – ‘resistance to the 'cultural inferiority' enforced by the West’. It was

necessary. Haunted with genocide nightmares and suffering from hardships in the process of

rebuilding a nation, Cambodians appreciated reminders of their proud heritage and some 'escape

from reality'.

The creation of ‘Apsara’ court dance responded to this ‘Khmerization’ movement in the 1960s

when Cambodia entered its first years of independence. ‘Apsara’ was created by a royal order from

the King, choreographed by the Queen and performed for the first time by a princess who

impersonated Mera, the legendary founder of Cambodia. (Asian Traditional Theatre and Dance

n.d). It took a lot of inspiration from Angkor's relics to demonstrate the magnificence of the ancient

Khmer civilization - the pride of Cambodians. Its name, for example, comes from Cambodian

graceful dancer figurines carved in Angkor Wat.

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Figure 1. ‘Apsara Mera’ court dance (Reproduced from Cambodian Television Network

International 2013)

On the other hand, when Cambodian leaders branded 'Apsara' court dance as a 'tradition', they did

not want to acknowledge that the legendary creation of the Cambodia has been danced in a heavily

Siamese-influenced way (Hideo 2005). The resemblances in the slow-moving, graceful movements

and costumes of court dancers in Cambodia’s ‘Apsara Mera’ court dance in Figure 1 and Thailand’s

‘Manohra Dance of Sacrifice by Fire’ court dance Figure 2 are remarkable. The costumes that

‘Apsara’ dancers put on are similar to the sculptures in Angkor ruins. However, those sculptures

depict an idealized divine world and there is no solid proof what ancient dancers wore. Hideo

(2005) found out that Cambodian Ministry of Information published a book to propagate

Cambodian culture to foreign countries, in which they admit that Cambodian court dance is

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influenced by other countries. Nonetheless, they also claim to preserve ‘Apsara’ dance as a

‘tradition’ since Angkorian culture spread to Siam before the Siamese influence.

Figure 2. ‘Manohra Dance of Sacrifice by Fire’ court dance (Reproduced from The traditional Thai

Puppet Theatre 2012)

As I have said above, Cambodia’s colonizers include Thailand, hence its postcolonial discourses

resist the Siamese cultural domination. This resonates with Chadha & Kavoori’s (2000) argument

that for the sake of establishing a distinguishable and ‘desirable national culture’, traditions tend to

be romanticized.

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Cultural identity in a converged world

The New ‘Colonialism’ – Neocolonialism

Diving into the interrelated modern world still dominated by the West because of economic and

developmental necessity, Cambodia aims to hold tight to its ‘Cambodia-ness’ as the leverage

against cultural imperialism. All Oriental states trying to construct their postcolonial relationships

with the Occidentals share this system (Brian & Chang 2002). Occidentals do not hold back in

generating shelves of cultural texts about Cambodia filled with sensational past war crimes and

present urban evils. ‘The sheer knitted together strength of Orientalist discourses’ (Said 2003)

continues to bulldoze Cambodian’s cultural richness. And unlike colonial lead bullets, this cultural

silent killer of neocolonialism is impossible to dodge.

Meanwhile, people now have access to countless information sources, all of which are versions of

truth. The explosive growth of the Internet as a vast knowledge spring results in the illusion that

few stones are left unturned. The ‘danger of a single story’ – cultural misconceptions that arise ‘if

we hear only a single story about another person or country’ that novelist Chimamanda Adichie

(TEDGlobal 2009) warns us about – is evident with Cambodia. The kingdom has yet to grown out of

the past’s shadow. Most of its popular media materials continue to use ‘war’ as an endless source

of inspiration. The recent 'groundbreaking' film ‘The Last Reel’ (2014) chose 'A lost film, buried

beneath Cambodia's killing fields, reveals different versions of the truth' as its hook. Foreign

directors are stubborn in finding only human-trafficking, crime and poverty ‘exotic’ enough to

report (Barton 2007). In the Holywood film 'City of Ghosts' (2002), an American con man escapes to

Cambodia and discovers a hostile environment where you lower your guard for a minute and the

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next moment you end up black and blue and penniless. After watching the film and ignoring

everything else that I know about that gentle country, there is only one word stuck in my mind

about Cambodia – ‘pettiness’. The film got a not-bad-at-all 6/10 rating on IMDb (2015) and ‘the

danger of a single story’ has become a real threat (Figure 3).

Figure 3. An audience’s review of ‘City of Ghosts’ film (Reproduced from IMDb 2015)

What few audience are aware of is that the production team spent $10,000 on making a particular

location look filthier than it originally was (Barton 2007). The center-periphery world order seems

to have not change much despite winnings of independence. The rich stays in power and voice of

the poor gets smaller. However, Barton (2007) said,

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And although they may be getting good reviews in the West, they are not pleasing

the government, film industry professionals or Cambodian cinema goers.

These neocolonial threats are well aware of and counteracts have already been in place. Despite

obstacles slowing them down, proactive youths are taking action with the help from the

government. 'Change is in the air' as Barton (2007) put it. Film schools are being sponsored by the

royal family and a new generation of directors is in the making. This reflects the second stage of

postcolonialism: ‘the struggle for social, cultural & political autonomy’. Straubhaar’s (1991)

statement that given the choice, audiences prefer their national programs based on linguistic and

cultural context speaks for Cambodians.

Furthermore, film and printed industries are not strengths of Cambodia. The 1st novel ever printed

in Cambodia was in 1938 after the French introduced printing techniques to Cambodia (AsianInfo

n.d). Songs, dances and martial arts, on the other hand, are Cambodian traditions and have been

enriched for centuries. Traditional performance art connects to Cambodian people' roots and

resonate with their values. This is evident in the documentary 'Angkor’s Children'.

It is a documentary about Cambodia's cultural renaissance and hope. The story follows three bright

young women belonging to the first post-genocide generation. They pioneer in healing war scars

and bringing attention from the world to Cambodia through their arts (Portsmouth Public Media

2014). It is refreshing that Lauren Shaw – ‘Angkor’s Children’ director – found

represent and tell the world of young Cambodians who want to come out of genocide

and want the world to know that their country is not just a country of tears and it is

really a country of hope

more urgent of a story than poverty and crime (Emerson College n.d). Srey Pov, a famous ‘Smot’

singer and one of the three characters, helps the usually reserved Cambodians (Ebihara, Mortland

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& Ledgerwood 1994) unleash their welled up emotions with her Buddhist poetry chanting (Figure

4).

Figure 4. Angkor’s Children Preview (Reproduced from Season of Cambodia 2013)

‘Smot’ is an essential part of Cambodian cultural identity since Cambodia is a Buddhist country. It

connects to Cambodians the way no colonial and neocolonial discourses can. As Srey Pov said,

‘Smot is like voice of Cambodia’ (James 2014). Even though most Khmer youths prefer ‘karaoke and

pop music’, Srey Pov revives ‘Smot’, spreads Khmer culture to the world and passes her talent to

the next generation (Season of Cambodia 2013). Her ‘art and advocate’ have become the ‘vehicles

of change’ (Portsmouth Public Media 2014) that not only accelerate national recovery but also

ensure its cultural autonomy.

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The ‘New Postcolonialism' – Convergence Culture

The third stage of postcolonialism is ‘a growing awareness of cultural hybridity’. Postcolonial

discourses represent not only a nation’s ‘tradition’ but also its 'multiculturalism' and

'transnationalism'. In our interconnected world, it is no longer easy to divide countries into ‘the

colonizer’ and ‘the colonized’. The impact of countries still vary greatly but as globalization is

unstoppable, cultural convergence is also inevitable. The ‘new postcolonialism’ is that all cultures

are unique and equal in the way that each of them is a 'hybrid'. This resonates with ‘The Third

Space’ theory coined by Bhabha (1994) where the colonizers and the colonized cultures intertwine.

Governments might be skeptical about this trend but for commoners, it is unreasonable not to

practice another culture’s art just because it is not their homeland’s tradition. They are proud of

their roots and want to preserve their traditions. On the other hand, they want to explore and

develop ‘new traditions’.

Being the top rated evening entertainment and second most popular activity in Siem Riep behind

visiting Angkor Wat, Phare Cambodian Circus (2015) is an example of this trend. During their five

minute introduction clip, I caught glimpse of theatrical dramas inspired by Cambodians’ everyday

life, hip hop street dance moves, classical ballet techniques and even traditional court dance’s

shadow amid circus juggling and tumbling tricks (Figure 5). It screams ‘contemporary’ – a graceful

blend that is ‘uniquely Cambodian’ yet ‘daringly modern’ (Phare Cambodian Circus 2015).

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Figure 5. Phare Cambodian Circus Introduction (Reproduced from Phare Productions 2013)

Nine children and their art teacher founded the troupe after leaving a Khmer Rouge refugee camp.

Understanding that ‘the healing process starts when they know who they are and how to express

themselves’ (Portsmouth Public Media 2014), Phare Cambodian Circus share the gift of the art with

disadvantageous children. Its missions also involve ‘revive Cambodian art scenes’ and ‘make

worldwide arts connections with Cambodia’ (Phare Productions 2013). The story of this talented

circus troupe is also the tale of the whole Cambodia – wounded by wars but generously giving each

other a hand to stand up and move towards to the future.

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As the division between ‘self’ and ‘the other’ is gradually deconstructed, Bhabha’s ‘cultural

hybridity’ and the ‘third space’ theory are becoming more relevant than the ‘binary system of

colonizer-colonized’ of Said. As Professor Paul Fry said in his post-colonial lecture (Open Yale

Courses 2009),

While the structure of power can’t be overthrown anytime soon, there nevertheless is

a way of living at least of keeping one’s sense of humor within the existing structure

of power, while giving ‘the man’ a hard time

Conclusion

Nothing reflects the changing balance of power clearer than arts. With a painful history and the

impending neocolonialism, postcolonial Cambodian performance art is a powerful tool to heal the

nation, build nationalism as well as preserve cultural sovereignty in a converging world. With 60%

of its population under 21 years old (Portsmouth Public Media 2014), the future of Cambodia’s

cultural landscape will be vibrant, dynamic and boundless.

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References

‘COMM2377 Week 2 Notes’ 2015, course notes for COMM2377 Modern Asia, RMIT University,

Melbourne, viewed 14 May 2015, Blackboard@RMIT.

A&E Television Networks 2007, Hindu Temples: Angkor Wat (Cambodia) - a Documentary, video

recording, viewed 8 May 2015, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h8QBxNzQvNI>.

Asian Traditional Theatre and Dance n.d, ‘The Twentieth Century’, Asian Traditional Theatre &

Dance, viewed 29 April 2015, <http://www.xip.fi/atd/cambodia/the-twentieth-century-2.html>.

AsianInfo n.d, ‘Cambodian Literature’, AsianInfo, viewed 29 April 2015,

<http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/cambodia/pro-literature.htm>.

Banerjee, I 2002, ‘The Local Strikes Back?’, Sage Publications, London.

Barton, C 2007, ‘Cambodia film makers aim to rebuild tattered image’, The Phnom Penh Post,

viewed 3 May 2015, <http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/cambodia-film-makers-aim-

rebuild-tattered-image>.

BBC 2015, 'Cambodia profile - Timeline', BBC, viewed 30 April 2015,

<http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13006828>.

Bhabha, HK 1994, The Location of Culture, Routledge, New York.

Brian, LM & Chang, LA 2002, ‘Locating Asian Values in Asian Journalism: A Content Analysis of Web

Newspapers’, International Communication Association.

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Cambodian Television Network International 2013, Apsara Mera (Full Show), video recording,

viewed 12 May 2015, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=InIgkoUP9_U>.

Dallas Baptist University n.d, ‘Key Terms in Post-Colonial Theory’, Dallas Baptist University, viewed

2 May 2015, <http://www3.dbu.edu/mitchell/postcold.htm>.

Ebihara, MM, Mortland, CA & Ledgerwood, J 1994, Cambodian Culture since 1975: Homeland and

Exile, Cornell University Press.

Emerson College n.d, ‘Lauren Shaw Talks About Her Film Project Angkor’s Children’, Emerson

College, viewed 10 May 2015, <http://www.emerson.edu/videos/lauren-shaw-talks-about-her-

film-project-angkors-children>.

Encyclopedia Britannica n.d, ‘Neocolonialism’, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., viewed 1 May 2015,

<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/408815/neocolonialism>.

Gellner, E 1964, Thought & Change, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.

Hideo, S 2005, ‘Post/colonial Discourses on the Cambodian Court Dance’, Southeast Asian Studies,

vol 42, no 4, Tokyo.

IMDb 2015, ‘City of Ghosts’, IMDb.com, Inc., viewed 2 May 2015,

<http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0164003/>.

Index Mundi 2014, ‘Cambodia Demographics Profile 2014’, CIA World Factbook, viewed 2 May

2015, <http://www.indexmundi.com/cambodia/demographics_profile.html>.

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James, K 2014, ‘Keeping an endangered Buddhist art form alive’, Deutsche Welle, viewed 16 May

2015, <http://www.dw.de/keeping-an-endangered-buddhist-art-form-alive/a-17644920>.

Open Yale Courses 2009, 22. Post-Colonial Criticism, video recording, viewed 10 May 2015,

<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UarXGSuyyrw&index=2&list=PLQNPnR3eKunOtKuNSzAjKCih

Be0gZjMN3>.

Phare Cambodian Circus 2015, homepage, viewed 3 May 2015,

<http://www.pharecambodiancircus.org/circus/>.

Phare Productions 2013, Phare, The Cambodian Circus, video recording, viewed 5 May 2015,

<https://vimeo.com/69407295>.

Portsmouth Public Media 2014, NH Filmmaker Interview Series - #11 Lauren Shaw, video recording,

viewed 16 May 2015,

<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NWSp15UwMW0&list=UUkWwzBkUQ5GEKICCeHA2bYQ&in

dex=6>.

Said, E 2003, Orientalism, Penguin Books, London.

Season of Cambodia 2013, Angkor's Children - Preview (2013), video recording, viewed 28 April

2015, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7caZJqhvzM>.

Simpson, A 2007, Language and National Identity in Asia, Oxford University Press.

Smith, AD 1991, National Identity, Penguin Books, New York.

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Straubhaar, JD 1991, ‘Beyond Media Imperialism: Asymetrical Interdependence and Cultural

Proximity’, Critical Studies in Mass Communication.

TEDGlobal 2009, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: The danger of a single story, video recording, viewed

16 May 2015,

<http://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story?language=en#t-

15527>.

The Last Reel 2014, homepage, viewed 8 May 2015, <http://www.thelastreel.info/>.

The Traditional Thai Puppet Theatre 2012, Rabam Kinnaree Thai traditional dance Thailand, video

recording, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yw-s9QrlP9Q>.

Thomas n.d, ‘Prosecuting the Crime of Destruction of Cultural Property’, Genocide Watch, viewed

30 April 2015,

<http://www.genocidewatch.org/images/Cambodia_Prosecuting_the_Crime_of_Destruction_of_C

ultural_Property.pdf>.

Young, RJC 2003, Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, New York.