i

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ANIMAL AND RANGE SIENCE

(ANIMAL GENETICS AND BREEDING)

CURRENT TOPIC

ON

THE IMPACT OF GENETIC EROSION ON INDEGENEOUS

CATTLE BREEDS OF ETHIOPIA

By

DEJEN GIZAW

AUGUST 2013

HARAMAYA

I

Table of Contents

Table of Contents I

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS II

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. The Role of Indigenous Cattle of Ethiopia 4

3. Key Factors Contributing to the Erosion of Animal Genetic Resources 5

4. The current status of Ethiopian indigenous cattle breeds 8

5. THREATS TO INDIGENOUS ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES OF ETHIOPIA 10

5.1. Threads caused by breeding processes 10

5.2. Threads caused by climate change 14

6. Consequence of Cattle Genetic Erosion in Ethiopia 15

7. The Need to Conserve Indigenous Cattle Breeds in Ethiopia 15

7.1. Indigenous breed development/conservation programmes 16

7.2. Conservation of local indigenous livestock breeds 16

7.3. Conservation as method to prevent cattle genetic resource from erosion 17

7.3.1. Possible conservation strategies 17

8. REFERENCE 18

II

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

FANGR Farm Animal Genetic Resource

CSA Central Statistical Agency

DAGRIS Domestic Animal Genetic Resource Information

System

DNA Deoxy Ribo Nucleic Acid

ESAP Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

GDP Gross Domestic Product

IBC Institute of Biodiversity Conservation

ILRI International Livestock Research Institute

1

1. INTRODUCTION

Domesticated animals, especially livestock and poultry, are an important source of protein

in African countries. Increasing this protein resource requires the conservation of diversity

among indigenous livestock. In order to cope with an unpredictable future, genetic

reserves that are capable of readily responding to directional forces imposed by a broad

spectrum of environments must be maintained. Maintaining genetic diversity is an

insurance against future adverse conditions. In Africa, diversity among environments and

nutritional standards as well as challenges from multiple infectious agents requires diverse

breeds and populations (Dackson, 2008).

It is generally accepted that the highest amount of genetic diversity is in populations of

livestock is found in the developing world, where record keeping is poor but the risk of

extinction is high and is increasing. Recently, loss of genetic diversity within indigenous

livestock breeds has been a major concern

Agriculture (mainly crop and livestock production) is the mainstay of the Ethiopian

economy employing approximately 85% of the total population. Livestock production

accounts for approximately 30% of the total agricultural GDP and 16% of national foreign

currency earnings. In Ethiopia livestock production accounts for nearly 15 % of the total

GDP and about 40 % of the agricultural GDP. This does not include the contribution of

livestock to the national economy in terms of draught power, manure and transport

services (CSA, 2009).

Ethiopia has endowed with indigenous cattle gene resource distributed in country’s different agro

ecological zones. Ethiopia possessed first in African countries and about among tenth in

world, which has not been fully exploited. Cattle population, estimated at 53.99 million

heads, is found widely distributed across these diverse agro-ecological zones (CSA, 2013).

There are many indigenous breeds of cattle in Africa adapted to a wide range of ecological

conditions. This diversity, thus can serve as a genetic pool from which selection can be

made for suitable strains and lines (FAO, 1986b). Moreover, in Africa, indigenous

livestock breeds support the majority of smallholder rural farmers for whom these genetic

2

resources are important for improved nutrition, income and as investment assets. Africa’s

indigenous animals are, therefore, vital to the development of appropriate and sustainable

agricultural systems in Africa and other tropical regions.

Locally available breeds of livestock are important economic resources since they are

adapted to the existing production constraints such as feed shortages, prevalent diseases,

etc. The productivity of indigenous breeds is low compared to temperate breeds, but their

ability to survive and produce in the harsh and mostly unpredicted tropical environment is

remarkable. Among the domestic livestock species, cattle have significant contributions to

the livelihoods of the poor. They provide much of draught power for arable farm work.

Because they are adapted to the harsh conditions especially in semi-arid areas, they are

suitable for transhumant and nomadic pastoralists.

Having these potentials, Most of Ethiopian cattle distributed in dry land part of the

country. The genetic diversity within and among indigenous cattle breeds, and the genes

and gene combinations they carry, are useful for the future to respond to changing market

conditions, social needs, new knowledge of human nutritional requirements, threats to

animal health, and environmental changes in general (FAO, 1998).

In present time this Ethiopia’s diversified cattle population has been endangered due to

various reasons faced to them Sheko( Takele et al 2009) and Ogaden cattle breeds.

Successful livestock development program in the future will require both enhancement of

productivity and maintenance of local breeds. Adapted genetic material must form the

foundation for improving food and agricultural production systems. Sustainable utilization

of livestock genetic resources is related to a broad range of issues including the number,

distribution and density of the animals over the available land and production systems.

Genetic diversity is the basis for present day diversified living systems and future genetic

improvement needs. This diversity should be properly utilized, improved and conserved.

Conservation and improvement strategies ought to be based on proper genetic

characterization in association with phenotypic characterization

3

In order to ensure proper conservation and utilization of indigenous breeds, it is necessary

to evaluate genetic variations that exist within and among breeds. A large proportion of

indigenous livestock populations in the developing world have yet to be characterized or

evaluated at phenotypic and genetic levels (Hanotte and Jianlin, 2005).

Sheko ( Takele et al 2009) and Ogaden (DAGRIS, 2007) cattle breeds of the country are at

risk due to the cross border livestock market, breeding strategy where farmers keep only

female cattle for milk production and most of bull that are superior in the herd selected for

market purpose. According to Kerstin and John (2004) Crossbreeding is causing severe

damage to the pureness of the Borana cattle blood. Both the above mentioned cattle breeds

are good for beef production. Another reason in the country Ethiopia is that local breeds

are low in performance in producing milk and meat so that semi intensive and intensive

producers and small holder farmers need to keep high producing cattle these are cross bred

milk producers and beef cattle (DAGRIS, 2007).

The main cause of the extinction and endangering these cattle genetic resources is the

absence of proper genetic identification, the risk of loss of surviving genetic diversity is

high, unwise use of indigenous cattle resources, there is no documentation and the

preferable use of exotic breed and cross breeding strategies for improvement and market

oriented production animal product and by products. The objective of this paper is to

To review the different status of indigenous cattle breeds found in the country

Show the way how can indigenous cattle genetic resources are conserved for the

successful conservation

To recommend the means to minimize the genetic erosion on indigenous cattle

4

2. The Role of Indigenous Cattle of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is considered a center of diversity for animal genetic resources in general and to cattle

in particular. Indigenous cattle breeds in Ethiopia are a valuable source of genetic material

because of their adaptation to harsh climatic conditions, their ability to better utilize the limited

and poor quality feed resources and their tolerance to a range of disease found in these regions.

Despite the significant contribution of cattle to the country, little attention is given to identify,

characterize and conserve the diversity of the various classes of livestock (Zewdu, 2010).

According to Kerstin (2004) indigenous breeds have the following benefits:

Contribution to the preservation of the global diversity

Securing livestock-keepers’ livelihoods that almost fully depend on cattle,

Preserving the cultural heritage of the clans and enhancing their cultural distinctiveness

by securing continuous traditional livelihoods with cattle production; keeping browsers

like goats and camels do not go hand in hand with the traditional way of life.

Securing the equilibrium between culture and economic improvement through

incentives. Maintaining the culture must be economically feasible for the clans.

Facilitating to find opportunities in order to diverse livestock-keepers’ sources of income

through the participation in conservation initiatives and resulting compensation

payments.

According to Kerstin and John (2004) the Borana cattle in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia

have unique traits that make them suitable for the harsh environment in the lowlands and have

ever been part of the pastoralists’ identity. Almost all the traditional and cultural rites of the

pastoralists in these areas revolve around the Borana cattle, which are also the main source of

their income. However, genetic erosion of this cattle breed has been occurring at unabated rate

due to lack of incentives for conservation and driving factors such as population pressure,

ecological changes, natural catastrophes and adverse economic conditions. This depletion

contributes immense threats to the livelihoods of the local pastoral communities. Thus

conservation efforts of these important animal genetic resources (AnGRs) by governments and

other stakeholders would ensure not only the well-being of the pastoralists but also prevent

losses in genetic materials for future use.

5

Furthermore, keeping traditional cattle is not only important as a kind of insurance (as capital

wealth accumulation) but also as source of money for urgent needs (e.g. farmers sell cattle for

paying school fees or doctors’ bills). Moreover, male cattle are needed for draft power, without

which it is almost impossible for farmers to cultivate larger plots (Kerstin and John, 2004).

According Kerstin and John (2004) another important reason for conservation of the local breeds

is the multiple use of their various traits in uncertain situations, for instance, in case of climate

change, catastrophes, loss of resistance due to changing environment, protection failures (Tsetse

controlling) etc. Equally important is the fact that the preserved breeds might possess qualities

that are not yet known but which could be of some use in the future.

3. Key Factors Contributing to the Erosion of Animal Genetic

Resources

According to FAO (2003a) the main cause of genetic erosion is the growing trend of global

reliance on a very limited number of modern breeds suited for the high input-high output needs

of industrial agriculture. Since about 50 percent of the total variation at the quantitative level is

between breeds, utilizingutilizing just a few breeds would eliminate a considerable amount of

variation in the species, in addition to the loss of unique gene combinations existing in those

breeds.

The trend towards fewer breeds has been facilitated by the biotechnologies that make possible

worldwide access to germplasm, and the improvement and easy movement of highly selected

breeds. The result to date is that a large number of breeds and strains which were highly adapted

to very specific environmental and feeding conditions are now threatened or extinct. During the

history of domestic livestock breeding, all over the world, a very large number of breeds have

been created, and many breeds have disappeared (FAO, 2003a).

For the past 100 years there has been a high increase in the rate of extinction of breeds and

varieties which has been larger than the rate of formation of new breeds. There are several

6

primary factors responsible for diminishing animal genetic diversity, in particular in developing

countries, but many of these factors apply to developed countries as well. The introduction of

exotic germplasm of non-adapted is followed by rapid spread through indiscriminate

crossbreeding. This has frequently arisen through wrong advice, based in many cases on biased

and misleading comparisons between the indigenous breed and the exotic breed. The result has

been that some indigenous breeds or local varieties have been lost or have their numbers greatly

diminished. Changes in preferences to other breeds have occurred because of short term social

and economic influences. These may arise from agricultural policies promoting rapid solutions

that are not sustainable in the long term, or from changes in the market requirement (Cardellino,

2003).

According to Hiemstra et al. (2006) Livestock production systems and agricultural practices have

changed in ways that have had a major impact on the use, exchange and conservation of farm

animal genetic diversity. The loss of genetic diversity is closely associated with a transition of

small-scale, often largely subsistence modes of agriculture to larger-scale industrialized or semi-

industrialized forms.

The natural as well as human made disasters have played a significant role in erosion of genetic

diversity and associated knowledge system. In the event of such disasters, institutional

arrangements have to be created for rehabilitation of the elite breeding traites through improved

access of affected local communities to ex-situ germ plasm collection as well as related

knowledge. The linkage between in-situ and ex-situ conservation policies will imply close

coordination and partnership between formal and informal breeders, community leaders and

planners

Historically, epidemics, inter- or crossbreeding, civil conflict and migration of people caused

extinction of breeds or strains. Indiscriminate interbreeding or crossbreeding and civil conflicts

are in fact the major causes of breeds or strains being classified as 3 at risk in Africa (Rege

(1999), for cattle. Small effective population size is a result of genetic erosion. Small populations

are at risk if no measures are taken. The estimation of the effective population size offers the

7

possibility to use one objective indicator for monitoring and planning purposes (Falconer and

Mackay, 1996)

The rate of inbreeding increases as effective population size decreases. An effective population

size of less than 50 for a given strain or breed, leads to high inbreeding coefficients (F>1%) per

generation and results in decreasing reproductive and productive performance. Such populations

are vulnerable to sudden or persisting environmental threats. Comprehensive breeding

programmes or simple action plans for the genetic improvement of local populations avoiding

genetic erosion are absent in most African countries (Wollny, 1995).

Small populations face inbreeding, genetic drift (Pronounced effects of random genetic drift that

lead to erratic fluctuations in allele frequencies) and high susceptibility to catastrophes, diseases

and environmental stochasticity (Kefyalew et al., 2011c). The consequence of the inbreeding

process is the reduction in the genetic variability within a population and in performance mainly

in traits that are associated with the fitness of an individual (Maiwashe et al., 2006).

The impact on genetic diversity of cattle species, however, has not been analyzed yet. No ex ante

or ex post impact studies are currently available, which have analyzed the distorting effects of

subsidies on the competitive advantage of indigenous breeds in the market place. In general,

crossbreeding was and still is perceived as “the way forward” to improve productivity of

indigenous livestock under smallholder conditions and development policies has largely ignored

adapted FAnGR (ILRI, 1999a).

Crossbreeding may increase the overall genetic diversity as it introduces new genes in the

population and new genotypes (e.g. synthetic breeds). However, the major threat to the adapted

indigenous breeds in Africa is indiscriminate or irrational crossbreeding. Crossbreeding can be

considered as “a necessary evil” as it delivers the much desired fast growth in livestock

productivity and at the same time threatens the indigenous breeds through breed replacement

(Solomon et al., 2008).

8

Major causes threatening diversity of genetic resources in Ethiopia include poorly designed and

managed introduction of exotic genetic materials, droughts and consequences of drought

associated indiscriminate restocking schemes, political instability and associated civil unrest, and

weak development interventions (Nigatu et al., 2004). The effects of the misguided and

uncontrolled introduction of exotic genes and that of interbreeding among indigenous breeds

might require application of molecular genetics for purposes of precision. In extreme scenarios,

however, it could have a drastic effect leading to extinction of a breed within few generations

(ESAP, 2004).

The lack of valuation of FAnGR could be considered as another significant factor contributing to

genetic erosion. A national policy should promote and enable the valuation of the genetic

resources for two main reasons: a defined value can be instrumental in providing an incentive for

conservation and, secondly, supporting the identification of the optimum allocation of funds for

promoting in-situ conservation. Providing incentives to intensify the use and development of

local breeds could well be a sustainable strategy. Attaching values to unique traits of specific

breeds, i.e. genes or gene combinations, however, is a very difficult task. In principle, a

quantifiable value of a gene or a gene combination carried by indigenous populations is

determined by how rare the gene is and its perceived future usefulness. Economic values are

useful with regard to making decisions about the allocation of resources to promote and develop

FAnGR.

A high estimated value of an existing genetic resource for future use may draw the attention of

national policy makers. In the absence of economic estimates for indigenous or local populations

or unique traits, governments or international donors are much less likely to provide financial

incentives to farmers to promote conservation. Actual programmes are based on economically,

socially and politically biased arguments, which are detrimental to the conservation of FAnGR

diversity. This is the situation we are facing in the conservation of FAnGR (Nigatu et al., 2004).

4. The current status of Ethiopian indigenous cattle breeds

Ethiopian cattle genetic diversity is currently under threat mainly due to extensive planned as

well as indiscriminate cross breeding, and to some extent interbreeding among the local

9

populations. Increasing human migration, trade, cultural and social interactions exacerbate

interbreeding between adjacent indigenous breeds. Well-meant genetic improvement programs,

commercialization and subsidies favor indiscriminate crossbreeding. Loss of genetic diversity

increases the risk of difficulties in subsistence for the millions of livestock keepers who depend

on these resources to secure their livelihoods.

For the development of appropriate breeding strategies and sustainable use of the genetic

diversity, it is essential to characterize the phenotype and genotype of the various cattle breed

types. Some African indigenous cattle breeds have been lost before they were characterized and

their unique attributes recognized (Rege, 1992). The current classification of the Ethiopian

indigenous cattle breeds is primarily based on some morphological attributes such as body size,

horn shape and size, coat color and hump size and their geographical distribution.

Developments in communication and advances in biotechnology (especially AI) have accelerated

the international movement of germplasm, thereby shifting local attention to the more specialised

exotic breeds. Consequently, indiscriminate crossbreeding with and/or replacement by exotic

germplasm represent serious threats to indigenous populations. Moreover, interbreeding among

indigenous breeds as a result of increased intermingling, through trade and social exchanges of

previously isolated populations, and effects of protracted civil wars, worsened by drought and

famine in some regions, represent additional pressures on indigenous African animal genetic

resources (AGR). Unfortunately, inadequate attention has been given to evaluating these

resources or to setting up realistic and optimum breeding goals for their improvement (Kefyalew,

2013). As a result, many African AGRs are endangered and, unless urgent concerted efforts are

taken to conserve them, may be lost even before they are described and documented.

Borana cattle status

According to Kerstin and John (2004) one reason for dwindling global AnGRs is the trend for

increased intensification and industrialization of production systems based on uniform genetic

resources. To meet the growing demand for animal products high yielding “exotic” 10 breeds are

10

increasingly imported and are interbred with local breeds, replacing the local breeds in some

regions. This is not the case in the Ethiopian Borana zone where the replacement of the Borana is

more due to other local breeds or other species such as goats and camels. Farmers were asked

several questions about their attitude towards keeping exotic breeds, crossbreeding of exotic with

Borana breeds, crossbreeding of local cattle with Borana and about their awareness of a decrease

in Borana cattle and pasture. It came to light, that to 78% of all interviewed farmers in Ethiopia

view crossbreeding with other local breeds as very important, whereas only 15% consider exotic

breeds as important for crossbreeding with Borana. Keeping “pure” exotic breeds in the herd is

preferable to only 15% of the Borana pastoralists. In contrast, 96% of the farmers view keeping

Borana cattle in the herd as vital. For 37% of the interviewees it is evident that the Borana breed

is facing decreasing numbers and 59% agreed that it is increasingly becoming harder to find pure

Borana cattle on the local markets.

5. THREATS TO INDIGENOUS ANIMAL GENETIC

RESOURCES OF ETHIOPIA

5.1. Threads caused by breeding processes

Genetic introgression

In both domestic and wild animals, genetic introgression between invasive organisms with exotic

germplasm and local populations would enhance genetic homogenization, leading to the

disintegration of the components of genetic diversity generated by divergent adaptation to

heterogeneous habitats (Randi, 2008). Introgressive hybridization among local, wild and invasive

populations together with habitat degradation and loss of ecological structure as well as

unsustainable selective pressures for adaptation to global climate changes, over exploitation and

loss of community structure, are major threats to conservation of animal genetic resources

(Randi, 2008). In Ethiopia, genetic introgression has occurred between Simien fox and Ethiopian

wolfs, the trepidation of genetic introgression between Walia ibex (Capra walie) and domestic

goats (Capra hircus) (Kefyalew et al., 2011a) at and near the national parks are becoming some

of the problems which threat both wild and domestic indigenous animal genetic resources.

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Inbreeding

Loss of genetic diversity and an increase in inbreeding rates are also critical genetic issues to be

considered in animal genetic resources. Inbreeding and loss of genetic variation are inevitable

consequences of small population sizes (Frankham et al., 2002). The extent to which a

population becomes inbred or loses genetic diversity over time depends on a number of factors,

including immigration, effective population size, generation length, and selection intensity.

Small populations face inbreeding, genetic drift (Pronounced effects of random genetic drift that

lead to erratic fluctuations in allele frequencies) and high susceptibility to catastrophes, diseases

and environmental stochasticity (Kefyalew et al., 2011c) and inbreeding reduces fitness and

increases the risk of population extinction.

Significant impacts of inbreeding depression on extinction risk in populations with carrying

capacities of up to two thousand individuals have been noted. Increased inbreeding rates also

have a strong and significant effect on overall population growth rate of small and isolated

populations and are associated with inbreeding depression (Smith et al., 1998). Moreover, an

increased rate of inbreeding also means an increased risk of loss of genetic diversity and a

reduced additive genetic variance is expected. Small population size animals and the primary

factors contributing to extinction are habitat loss, introduced species, overexploitation and

pollution. These factors are caused by humans, and related to human population growth

(Frankham et al., 2002). The consequence of the inbreeding process is the reduction in the

genetic variability within a population and in performance mainly in traits that are associated

with the fitness of an individual. High inbreeding rates have higher contribution to overall

inbreeding of all the populations and hence inbreeding.

Crossbreeding

Crossbreeding may increase the overall genetic diversity as it introduces new genes in the

population and new genotypes (e.g. synthetic breeds). However, the major threat to the adapted

indigenous breeds in Africa is indiscriminate or irrational crossbreeding. Crossbreeding can be

considered as “a necessary evil” as it delivers the much desired fast growth in livestock

productivity and at the same time threatens the indigenous breeds through breed replacement

12

(Solomon et al., 2008). Rege and Gibson (2003) suggest that, the use of exotic germplasm,

changes in production systems, producer preference because of socio-economic factors, and a

range of disasters (drought, famine, disease epidemics, civil strife/war) as the major causes of

genetic erosion. Tisdell (2003) suggested major causes for threats of animal populations which

are development interventions, specialization (emphasis on a single productive trait), genetic

introgression, the development of technology and biotechnology, political instability and natural

disasters.

Major causes threatening diversity of genetic resources in Ethiopia include poorly designed and

managed introduction of exotic genetic materials, droughts and consequences of drought

associated indiscriminate restocking schemes, political instability and associated civil unrest, and

weak development interventions (Nigatu et al., 2004). The effects of the misguided and

uncontrolled introduction of exotic genes and that of interbreeding among indigenous breeds

might require application of molecular genetics for purposes of precision. In extreme scenarios,

however, it could have a drastic effect leading to extinction of a breed within few generations

(ESAP, 2004).

Effects of Crossbreeding on Animal genetic Resources in Ethiopia

Indigenous livestock are well adapted to tropical conditions and have high degree of heat

tolerance, which are partly resistant to many of the diseases prevailing in Ethiopia and have the

ability to survive long periods of feed and water shortage. These attributes have been acquired

through natural selection over hundreds of generations. They are all essential for successful

animal production (Rege and Lipner, 1992). Indigenous stocks represent a genetic resource

which should not only be conserved for future use, but should also be fully exploited for short-

term benefits (Rege and Lipner, 1992).

Due to the low genetic potential of indigenous cattle, milk, meat production and productivity

remain low in Ethiopia. Improvement of the genetic potential of indigenous cattle was achieved

by cross breeding with high producing cattle of temperate origin. Of course, crossbreeding was

and still is perceived as “the way forward” to improve productivity of indigenous livestock under

13

smallholder conditions and development policies has largely ignored the adapted farm animal

genetic resources (ILRI, 1999).

In Ethiopia, crossbred cattle mainly cross of zebu with Holstein-Friesian cattle have been used

for milk production for decades (Negussie et al., 1998). However, crossbreeding with exotic

breeds clearly is a major factor contributing to the erosion of locally adapted animal genetic

resources. Crossbreeding also results inconsistent and rapid loss of genetic diversity by dilution

of the autochthonous genetic makeup. Therefore, designing of a crossbreeding program in

Ethiopia needs to take into consideration a mechanism that ensures conservation of animal

genetic resources (Aynalem et al., 2011).

Even indigenous genotypes may well be adequate and able to respond sufficiently to reasonable

economic improvements in their production system (Workneh et al., 2003), trends of improving

indigenous cattle already exist in Africa and the population of pure indigenous cattle breeds is

likely to diminish, because of crossbreeding or neglect of local animal genetic resource (Rege,

1992). As a result, some of the animal genetic resources are endangered, and unless urgent

concerted efforts are made to characterize and conserve these breeds, they may be lost even

before they are described and documented (Zewdu et al., 2008).

Loss of genetic diversity increases the risk of the subsistence for the millions of livestock

keepers who depend on these resources to secure their livelihoods (Fedlu et al., 2007). Unique

germplasm is threatened by replacement of breeds with more productive or popular stocks,

dilution of breeds through crossbreeding programs, and decreased diversity within highly

selected breeds or lines that have a small number of breeding individuals (FAO, 2007). The

application of artificial insemination (AI) in indigenous cattle using semen from exotic cattle

breeds is, for instance, resulting in unforeseen substitution of indigenous genes by exotic genes

(ESAP, 2004; IBC, 2004). The application of these technologies for germplasm propagation and

dissemination may contribute to the erosion of diversity.

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5.2. Threads caused by climate change

Challenges such as climate change underline the importance of retaining a diverse portfolio of

livestock breeds (FAO, 2007b). Livestock production both contributes to and is affected by

climate change. There are evidences that livestock and environmental trade-offs are currently

substantial and that these will increase significantly in the future as a result of the increased

demand for livestock products from the growing population

.

Some of the most important impacts are those associated with land use change for feed

production both for ruminants and monogastrics, which have significant simultaneous impacts on

a range of environmental dimensions (land use, emission of gases , water cycles, nutrient

balances, biodiversity) (FAO, 2007b). Moreover, livestock mitigation measures could include

technical and management options to reduce emissions from livestock as well as the integration

of livestock into broader environmental service approaches. Adapting to global climate change is

likely to present a serious challenge to many livestock producers over the coming decades.

Climate change is adding to the considerable development challenges and this will require more

efficient animal production systems, careful husbandry of natural resources and measures to

reduce waste and environmental pollution (FAO, 2010). Climate change impacts such as rising

temperatures and declining rainfall in combination with other stresses could result in the shifting

of ecological zones, loss of flora and fauna and an overall reduction in ecological productivity.

There is compelling evidence that in response to on-going changes in regional climates, species

are already shifting their ranges, altering their phenology, changes in population dynamics,

fluctuation in population growth rates and alters ecosystem functioning and that some species are

facing extinction, or have become extinct. In addition to the physiological effects of higher

temperatures on individual animals, the consequences of climate change are likely to include

increased risk that geographically restricted rare animal breed populations will be badly affected

by disturbances (Hoffmann, 2010).

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6. Consequence of Cattle Genetic Erosion in Ethiopia

The locally adapted indigenous breeds in developing countries have low absolute production

figures but often productivity turns out to be high if the production environment and the level of

input are taken into consideration. Indigenous breeds produce and reproduce despite the

sometimes very harsh environmental conditions, and are considered an important asset since they

have developed over time valuable adaptive traits. This productivity in harsh environments is

critically important since the vast majority of the world cannot sustain high input-high output

systems.

The disappearance or reduction of these locally adapted animal populations will force rural

populations to migrate to already overcrowded urban areas, increasing food insecurity and

provoking irreversible social disintegration of rural communities. Since there is a large

interdependence between the livestock and the crop components in low-input production

systems, the loss of local breeds will also have negative effects on the yield of local crops.

Traditional production systems may disappear and agricultural communities change activities or

migrate. Natural disasters such as drought and diseases, and wars and other forms of political

unrest and instability reduce livestock numbers.

7. The Need to Conserve Indigenous Cattle Breeds in Ethiopia

It is clear that the depletion of genetic resources is a consequence of economic change and

development. Therefore, is there an inevitable conflict between the desire to conserve the present

variety of genetic resources and the need to concentrate increasingly on a narrow range of

genotypes in the interests of more efficient production? To a certain extent there is. Because of

the competitive nature of livestock farming, it is clear in certain circumstances that more

productive individuals, strains or breeds will tend to replace less productive ones.

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7.1. Indigenous breed development/conservation programmes

The genetic improvement of selected indigenous breeds is a major objective of one country

programme. In many cases, a local breed which remains static in the face of competition and

changing requirements will not survive. According to FAO (1998) Breed improvement

programmes, tailored to fit the conditions in which the breeds are farmed, will therefore be

planned and implemented.

7.2. Conservation of local indigenous livestock breeds

Domestic farm animals are crucial for food and agriculture, having a share of 30% to 40% of the

agricultural sector’s global economic value. Around 2 billion people depend at least partly on

farm animals for their livelihoods (FAO, 2000). According to FAO (2000), 16% of animal

breeds used for agricultural production have been lost since the turn of the last century and

further 30% are currently at risk of becoming extinct and the rate of extinction continues to

accelerate. The depletion of a breed, even if the breed in question is not yet recognized as being

endangered, provides justification for conservation efforts because its loss results in a worsening

condition for the farmers. This worsening can be in the form of income reduction and food

shortage but also traditional drawbacks.

The conservation of local breeds should be considered whenever the development of animal

production systems is discussed. This essay concerns the importance of breed conservation with

particular reference to Africa. Indigenous genotypes may well be adequate and able to respond

sufficiently to reasonable economic improvements in the system. Over many generations they will

have evolved to perform various functions under local conditions. For example, indigenous cattle

can provide fuel, manure, traction, meat and milk and will probably have resistance to local

diseases. Breeding stock would be locally available and their purchase would create cash flow

and contribute to the confidence, willingness to innovate and prestige of competent breeders.

Local breeds can be improved by selection, without the admixture of imported genetic material.

However, it is difficult to predict whether the results would justify the investment. The strategy

most likely to work, though the organizational problems may be insuperable, is a nucleus

17

breeding scheme, whereby participating breeders contribute their best females to a central unit

and are entitled to purchase stud males from the unit (Kerstin, 2004)

7.3. Conservation as method to prevent cattle genetic resource from

erosion

7.3.1. Possible conservation strategies

Conservation techniques can be divided in in-situ2 and ex-situ. According to FAO, ex-situ

techniques are further divided in cryo-conservation of genetic material3 on the one hand and the

maintenance of live animals outside their production system on the other hand. It is widely

accepted that in the case of conserving AnGRs, in-situ conservation is most beneficial from

many points of view. This is because in-situ conservation enables animals to adapt to changing

environmental conditions and endemic diseases, and thus increases the probability that their

genes might be valuable for utilization, in other countries and also in the future. The maintenance

of live herds allows for selection and improvement of populations for future needs within the

constraints of a changing environment. Furthermore in-situ conservation is most likely to benefit

the farmers. In case of ex-situ conservation, a benefit flow from the involved institutions or the

government to the farmers is difficult to achieve and farmers’ rights would most likely be left

unconsidered.

18

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