Saamaka u ii: Saramaccan medical plant kno ledge, practices ...

Saamaka uwii: Saramaccan medical plant knowledge,practices and beliefs for local health care in SurinameKlooster, C.I.E.A. van 't

CitationKlooster, C. I. E. A. van 't. (2022, February 17). Saamaka uwii: Saramaccanmedical plant knowledge, practices and beliefs for local health care inSuriname. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/3275069 Version: Publisher's Version

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Chapter 3

Herbal bathing: an analysis of variation in plant use among Saramaccan and

Aucan Maroons in Suriname

Charlotte I.E.A. van ’t Klooster1, Vinije Haabo2, Sofie Ruysschaert3, Tessa Vossen4, Tinde R. van Andel5,6

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 14:20, 2018

‘Some young people do not know about the herbal baths anymore... This is a great loss for the people living in the interior but also for the rest of the world who can use them. We have to make sure this knowledge does not disappear.’ (Toya Saaki, Saramaccan traditional knowledge holder, 2009)

1 Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands 2 Saramaka Project, Wageningen, the Netherlands3 World Wildlife Fund Guianas, Paramaribo, Suriname 4 ICLON, University Leiden, Leiden, the Netherlands 5 Department of Plant sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands 6 Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

Left page | Yeeye Haabo†, taking an herbal bath taangasinkiuwii for strength.


Abstract

Background: Herbal baths play an important role in the traditional health care of Maroons living in the interior of Suriname. However, little is known on the differences in plant ingredients used among and within the Maroon groups. We compared plant use in herbal baths documented for Saramaccan and Aucan Maroons, to see whether similarity in species was related to bath type, ethnic group or geographical location. We hypothesized that because of their dissimilar cultural background, they used different species for the same type of bath. We assumed, however, that plants used in genital baths were more similar, as certain plant ingredients (e.g. essential oils), are preferred in these baths.

Methods: We compiled a database from published and unpublished sources on herbal bath ingredients and constructed a presence/absence matrix per bath type and study site. To assess similarity in plant use among and within Saramaccan and Aucan communities, we performed three Detrended Correspondence Analyses on species level and the Jaccard Similarity Index to quantify similarity in bath ingredients.

Results: We recorded 349 plants used in six commonly used bath types: baby strength, adult strength, skin diseases, respiratory ailments, genital steam baths and spiritual issues. Our results showed a large variation in plant ingredients among the Saramaccans and Aucans and little similarity between Saramaccans and Aucans, even for the same type of baths. Plant ingredients for baby baths and genital baths shared more species than the others. Even within the Saramaccan community, plant ingredients were stronger associated with location than with bath type.

Conclusions: Plant use in bathing was strongly influenced by study site and then by ethnicity, but less by bath type. As Maroons escaped from different plantations and developed their ethnomedicinal practices in isolation, there has been little exchange in ethnobotanical knowledge after the 17th century between ethnic groups. Care should be taken in extrapolating plant use data collected from one location to a whole ethnic community. Maroon plant use deserves more scientific attention, especially now as there are indications that traditional knowledge is disappearing.

Keywords: Herbal baths, medicinal plants, Suriname, Maroons, Saramaccan, Aucan, traditional knowledge, traditional medicine

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Background

Since ancient times, people have believed that bathing in a spring, sea or river resulted in physical and spiritual purification and thereby in the improvement of one’s health. The ancient Greeks thought that certain natural springs or tidal pools were blessed by the gods and bathing in them would help to cure diseases (Paige and Harrison, 1987). In Christian baptism, pouring water is regarded as a symbol of transition and renewal in which a person makes the passage from physiological birth to social birth (Twigg, 2000). Early descriptions (297 AD) on Japanese culture refer to ritual baths after funerals for cleansing and purification (De Bary et al., 2001). Bathing can have many different meanings across cultures, varying from an individual act concerned with cleanliness and hygiene, to social acts related to rituals of purification and separation, or as a form of therapeutic practice (Twigg, 2000).

Ethnobotanical studies have reported on bathing as a form of medical treatment in many cultures worldwide, such as Africa (Olorunnisola et al., 2013; Diarra et al., 2015), Asia (Li et al., 2006; Zumsteg and Weckerle, 2007; Srithi et al., 2009), Europe (Pieroni and Giusti, 2002), South America (Bourdy et al., 2000; Valadeau, 2009) and the Caribbean (Van Andel et al., 2008; Ruysschaert et al., 2009; Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016). Herbal baths seem to promote not only people’s physical health but also their psychological well-being. However, people’s motivations for the inclusion of certain plant species in specific types of herbal baths, and regional variation in herbal ingredients remain largely understudied.

Herbal baths form a major part of the traditional medical practices of the Maroons, descendants of escaped enslaved Africans who fought for their freedom and settled themselves in the tropical rainforest of Suriname (Van Andel et al., 2013; Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016). Taken from different parts of Africa, their ancestors came from numerous ethnic and linguistic groups (Mintz and Price, 1992). Between 1658 and 1825, slave traders brought Africans to Suriname from many different regions and ethnicities in West and Central Africa, such as the Slave Coast (eastern Ghana to Benin), the Loango area (southern Gabon to northern Angola), Gold Coast (Ghana) and the Windward Coast (Ivory Coast, Liberia and Sierra Leone) (Eltis and Richardson, 2010; Van Andel et al., 2014). As a result of their distinct geographical origins, cultures and languages, enslaved Africans formed a heterogeneous group in Suriname (Van Andel et al., 2014). They brought along their own cultural heritage with values, knowledge and beliefs to the New World, where they became a new community and began to share a culture they themselves created (Mintz and Price, 1992). Since no names or origin of the enslaved Africans were registered upon arrival, linking the Surinamese Maroons to their African

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Chapter 3 | Herbal bathing: variation in plant use among Maroons

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heritage remains difficult (Hoogbergen, 1990).

Nowadays, six Maroon ethnic groups exist in Suriname (Fig. 1) with an estimated population of 127,000, which is 23% of the total population in the country (Price, 2013). The Saramaccans (pop. 58,000) and the Aucans (pop. 56,000) form the largest groups. Historically, these groups have not maintained extensive social contact with each other, as they settled among different major rivers separated by dense rainforest (Price, 1996; Van Velzen and Hoogbergen, 2011). They have lived quite isolated for centuries, which resulted in the development of their own cultures with own distinct languages (Saramaccan and Aucan), diet patterns and traditions (Price, 1975a).

Bigiston >

Brownsweg>

Pikin Slee > Mooitaki >

Figure 1 | Map of Suriname, with Maroon ethnic groups and research areas. Drawing by H.R. Rypkema, Naturalis Biodiversity Center.

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Maroons are well known for their traditional medicine, which usually contain a mixture of plant ingredients. Plant species used in Saramaccan and Aucan Maroon herbal baths have been the subject of recent ethnobotanical studies (Van Andel et al., 2008; 2011, 2013; Vossen et al., 2014). Even Maroons, who migrated to the Netherlands after Suriname became independent in 1975, claimed that herbal baths were essential for their well-being and part of their cultural identity (Van Andel and Westers, 2010). The variation of herbal baths and their plant ingredients among and within their different Maroon groups have not been studied in detail. Because most studies were conducted in a single Maroon community and hardly any data exists for the smaller Maroons groups, it is not clear how representative these studies are for Surinamese Maroons in general.

In this study, we compared plant use in six commonly applied herbal baths that were documented among the Saramaccan and/or Aucan Maroons: baths for adult strength (Van ’t Klooster, 2009; Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016; Ruysschaert, 2018), baby strength (Ruysschaert et al., 2009; Van ’t Klooster, 2009; Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016; Vossen et al., 2014;), skin disorders (Van ’t Klooster, 2009; Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016; Ruysschaert, 2018), respiratory ailments (Van ’t Klooster, 2009; Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016; Ruysschaert, 2018), spiritual ailments (Groenendijk, 2006; Van ’t Klooster, 2009; Van Andel et al., 2013; Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016; Ruysschaert, 2018) and genital steam baths (Van Andel et al., 2008; Van ’t Klooster, 2009; Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016;). In these studies, the baths were mostly described for one specific Maroon community, but no comparison was made among different Maroon groups.

The ancestors of Saramaccan and Aucan Maroons escaped from different plantations, owned by either English or Dutch masters (Aucans) or Portuguese Jews (Saramaccans), in different periods of time. The Saramaccan community developed around 1690-1710, followed by the Aucan community after 1712 (Price, 1976; Smith, 2002). Their geographic separation and limited contact have probably led to distinct ethnobotanical practices. To investigate these differences, our research focused on four main questions: 1) How are the six herbal baths prepared and by whom? 2) Which plant species are used in these herbal baths? 3) How do these plant species vary between the Aucan and Saramaccan Maroons and within these groups? and 4) Is similarity in plant use related to the type of herbal bath, ethnic group or geographical location?

We hypothesized that Aucan and Saramaccan Maroons used different plant species for the same type of herbal baths. We anticipated that especially spiritual baths would show a low similarity in plant species, based on the symbolic meaning of the most plant ingredients, which is more related to specific Maroon cultural histories

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than to pharmacological content (Van Andel and Ruysschaert, 2011; Van Andel et al., 2013). However, we also hypothesized that plants used in genital steam baths would show a larger similarity, based on the selection of plant ingredients containing certain active substances preferred in these baths, such as tannins and essential oils (Van Andel et al., 2008; Van Andel and Ruysschaert, 2011). We expected differences in plant species to be determined by the type of bath (application) and by ethnicity (cultural preference). Finally, we expected to find the most overlap in plant species for the genital baths within the Saramaccan community.

The outcome of this research will contribute to the overall knowledge of traditional health care practices among the Aucan and Saramaccan Maroons and could form a basis for further assessment of the medical effectiveness of bath treatments and the therapeutic potential of medicinal plants in general. Analysing the variation of Maroon traditional medical knowledge will not only contribute to a better understanding of their cultures and their strong relationship with nature, but also verify how representative plant use documented in a specific village is for the entire ethnic group. Our outcomes will clarify whether plant use within an ethnic group is uniform or variable.

Methods

Data collectionData on plant species used in herbal bath treatments were retrieved from published ethnobotanical fieldwork studies among Suriname Maroons (Van Andel et al., 2008; Ruysschaert et al., 2009; Van Andel and Ruysschaert, 2011; Van Andel et al., 2013; Vossen et al., 2014; Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016; Ruysschaert, 2018), and the original databases on which these studies were based, as these contain extra information on herbal baths (Table 1). We also added data from unpublished student reports (Groenendijk, 2006; Van ’t Klooster, 2009).

During these studies, information was gathered through semi-structured interviews and plant collection trips. Research and collection permits were obtained from the Surinamese Forest Service department (LBB), and oral or written prior informed consent from participants and the respective village authorities. The purpose and nature of the research were explained to respondents before the interviews took place. All studies from which we used data followed the Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE, 2017). Respondents knowledgeable on medicinal plants and their uses were identified through previous contact with community members and snowball sampling, and included laymen and traditional healers, males and females, young and older people. Other methods used were

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informal (group) conversations, free listing, participant observations, household surveys and assignment techniques (Martin, 2004). Topics included plants used for health promotion, disease prevention and cure, their growth forms, local names, parts used, mode of preparation, route of administration, health concerns and knowledge transfer.

Table 1 | Sources of ethnobotanical data used in the analysis.Ethnic group Location fieldwork Year Data source Nr. species in

herbal bathsNr. of respondents

Publication based on fieldwork

Saramaccan Brownsweg(Brokopondo Lake)

2005-2006 FieldworkRuysschaert

274 ca. 200 (Ruysschaert et al., 2009; Van Andel et al., 2013; Van Andel and Ruysschaert, 2001; Ruysschaert, 2018)

Saramaccan Pikin Slee(Upper Suriname River)

2009 Fieldwork Van ’t Klooster

69 20 (Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016; Van ’t Klooster, 2009)

Aucan Bigiston(Marowijne River)

2006 FieldworkVan Andel

87 3 Van Andel et al., 2008, 2013; Van Andel and Ruysschaert, 2011; Groenendijk, 2006)

Aucan (MooitakiTapanahoni River)

2013 Fieldwork Van Andel and Vossen

39 25 (Vossen et al., 2014)

Interview questions were pre-tested with the help of bilingual Surinamese key informants to check whether the questions were framed in correct Sranantongo, Saramaccan or Aucan and pertinent to the research. Some interviews were recorded with a voice-recorder and transcribed in Saramaccan to be discussed with informants to verify answers. Plant species not immediately familiar to the researchers were collected as botanical vouchers, identified and deposited at the National Herbarium of Suriname (BBS, all specimens), Naturalis Biodiversity Center (L, except the Brownsweg and Pikin Slee collections) and Ghent University (GENT, Brownsweg collections only). The definitions of the different herbal baths were documented during fieldwork, and afterwards checked with the key informants for correct interpretation.

Data analysisSince most data was collected in the Saramaccan area, we selected herbal baths that were frequently used at the two Saramaccan locations (Brownsweg and Pikin Slee), and added the available data of the two Aucan locations (Mooitaki and Bigiston) for comparison. Each bath type should at least be used at two out of the four study sites to allow comparison. All plant species used in the six selected herbal bath

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types (baby strength, adult strength, genital steam baths, skin disorders, respiratory ailments and spiritual ailments) are listed in Additional file 1 with corresponding information on vernacular names, scientific names, family and collection numbers (when available).

We constructed a presence /absence matrix in Excel with all recorded plant species in rows and the type of herbal bath and the four different Maroon villages as columns. We entered a 1 in the cells when a species was used in a particular bath type and a 0 if the species was not used in that type of bath (Additional file 2). All plants used in a certain herbal bath type (per location) were used as the sample unit in our analysis. Unidentified plants were excluded from our analyses. All scientific names were checked and updated by means of The Plant List (The Plant List, 2013). All Maroon plant names were checked and updated following the latest spelling rules (Van ’t Klooster et al., 2003; Van Andel and Ruysschaert, 2011; Saamaka online dictionary, 2017).

To quantify similarity in herbal bath ingredients among the two Maroon groups (Saramaccan versus Aucan) and within these ethnic groups on village level, we utilized the Jaccard Similarity Index (Höft et al., 1999). This index is based on plant presence or absence in a community or in data sets, while relating the number of species in common with respect to the total number of species, expressed as JI = (c/a + b + c), where c is the number of species in common, a is the number of unique species of community A and b is the number of species solely of community B. Similarity coefficients vary from a minimum of 0 (when the communities do not share any species) to 1 (when all plants used are identical). The outcome is often multiplied by 100 to obtain percentages.

To visualize the similarity in plant use between our Saramaccan and Aucan Maroon study sites and the six herbal baths types, we performed a Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) on species level (Van Andel et al., 2012). We plotted the results of our DCA on the two main axes that caused the distribution of the data to visualize potential overlap and variation in plant use. To compare plant use within the Saramaccan population at the locations Pikin Slee and Brownsweg, we plotted the results of another DCA analysis (with Saramaccan data only) to visualize potential overlap and variation in herbal bath ingredients. Finally, we plotted the results of a third DCA analysis to visualize overlap and variation among all four locations. All DCA analyses were performed in the program PC-ORD version 5.32.

To see whether differences in plant use between the two Maroon groups could be caused by differences in the occurrence in plant species between the study sites, we

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first checked the ethnobotanical literature whether the species were used for other purposes by both Maroon groups, and if not the case, whether local names existed for these species in both Aucan and Saramaccan languages (Van ’t Klooster et al., 2003), as this indicates species’ occurrence in the specific Maroon territory. For species for which no ethnobotanical information existed for either Saramaccans or Aucans, we checked the geographical distribution in the floristic literature of Suriname and the Guianas (Pulle, 1932-1984; Görts-van Rijn, 1985-1996; Jansen-Jacobs, 1997-2011; Mota de Oliveira, 2012-2016) and online collection databases (Global Diversity Information Facilitation, 2017) to see whether they had restricted, patchy or wide distributions.

Results

Herbal bathsMaroons use herbal baths for both physical and spiritual cleansing. They form an important aspect of their cultural practices and daily life. Some herbal baths are made for one person, others for more people or the whole village. Herbal bath preparations and applications may be very elaborate. It is common to have a mixture of leaves in water standing in a plastic tub or a big earthen or wooden dish in front of the house for days to be used many times by one or more family members by adding new water to it before pouring the mixture over the head and/or body with a calabash (Crescentia cujete). Aromatic plant species, such as Campomanesia aromatica and Lantana camara, are often added to baths for overall body refreshment and their agreeable smell.

Herbal baths are mostly taken in the village, but also in the forest, at the riverbank or in the river itself. They can include the use of rum, kaolin (pemba), magical objects and spiritual sayings. Baths are prepared by male and female laymen for family use only, but also by herbalists and spiritual healers. The latter are believed to possess magical powers and use ritual instruments to contact the spiritual world to find answers to the problems perceived. A spiritual healer (obiaman) is often consulted when self-treatment or biomedical cures do not have the desired result. Spiritual healers should be paid in the form of goods (madyomina), such as pieces of cloth, soft drinks or other valuables, to make the herbal bath work. Although this compensation system still exists, healers increasingly request cash payment for their services.

Adult strengthFor Maroons, it is important to keep the body healthy and strong. Aucans refer to the strengthening baths as taanga sikin uwii and the Saramaccans as taanga

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sinkii uwii. These baths are used to give physical strength (taanga from ‘strong’) to the body (sinkii from ’skin/body’), by the use of different plant leaves (uwii from ‘leaves/weed’). The treatment is also taken when people feel tired or suffer from back aches and other body pains due to heavy physical work. Men prepare these baths mainly at the start of intensive manual labour, like cutting new fields for their wives or making a new boat. Women, who are responsible for maintaining and harvesting the fields, use these strengthening baths on a regular or even daily base. Baths are often prepared in house yards for family use, by adding different plants (twigs and leaves of trees and lianas, shrubs and herbs) to a metal barrel filled with water placed on a wood fire to heat up before use (Fig. 2). The mixture is poured on top of the head with a calabash, often leaving remnants of leaves on the body, which should not be washed away for the medicine to work properly. No data have yet been collected on the plant ingredients of this specific bath among Aucans.

Figure 2 | Saramaccan bath for adult strengthening, Pikin Slee, 2009. Picture by C. Van ’t Klooster.

Baby strengthNewborns are frequently bathed to improve their strength, to stimulate them being active and curious, and to start crawling and walking early. Mothers find this essential to be able to conduct their own daily activities. These baby baths, also known among Maroons as ‘waka snel’ (walk early), are prepared by boiling plants in small pots

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after which the hot decoction is diluted with cold water to make it lukewarm. The ingredients may be boiled again for several days, before the plants are replaced by fresh ones. Baby baths contain other plant species than strengthening baths for adults. They are used until the child is old enough to bathe by itself.

Respiratory ailments and skin disordersPhysical ailments such as cough, colds and headaches due to blocked sinuses are treated by taking a facial steam bath, prepared by boiling a mixture of herbs in water. The steam is inhaled while hanging over a bowl with a herbal decoction, the head covered with a piece of fabric. Some patients take this bath while covering themselves completely with a sheet bending over a large bucket. Sometimes a whole house is filled with steam, like a sauna. The Saramaccans refer to this type of steam bathing as suwa uwii (‘herbs for steaming/sweating’). Another type of herbal bath is used to treat skin conditions, varying from pimples, eczema and psoriasis to fungal infections. These baths, to which the Saramaccans refer as bita (‘bitter’), consist of a single plant or a mixture of species with a bitter taste. The plants are boiled in water in small pots on the fire after which the cooled decoction is applied to the body with a calabash. No records exist for the Aucans on these two types of herbal baths.

Genital steam bathsA very frequently used herbal bath among Maroons is the genital steam bath. Women use plant decoctions to clean, heal, refresh but also tighten the vagina, or to enhance sexual pleasure. They prepare this bath in their backyard kitchens, which are separated from their main house. Plants are added to water and boiled. Women sit on a bucket and let the steam enter their vagina; afterwards they wash their genitals with the somewhat cooled decoction. Such cleansing baths are often taken on a daily base (in the morning), while baths to enhance recovery after delivery are taken in the first few weeks after giving birth. Saramaccans refer to these baths as kete uwii (‘kete’ from kettle, ‘uwii’ from weed); muyee uwii, (‘muyee’ from woman) or wasiwoyo uwii (vaginal wash). Aucans know this genital bath also as ketee uwii and under the names gogo uwii (‘bottom herbs’) or uma patu (‘uma’ from woman, ‘patu’ from pot).

Spiritual bathsIn Maroon cultures, the spiritual world takes an important place in daily life. When an ailment cannot be cured by modern medicine or by self-prepared home medicines, it is said to have a supernatural cause, such as agitated water or forest spirits, ancestral spirits or witchcraft. In these cases, a spiritual healer or experienced family member needs to be consulted, who will reveal the supernatural cause and treat the person accordingly, often by a specific herbal bath. Spiritual baths are generally referred to ‘winti wasi’ (Aucan) or ‘obia uwii wasi’ or ‘gadu uwii wasi’ (Saramaccan).

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Spiritual baths have different names according to the causes targeted and type of spirits or gods (gadu) and magical powers (obia) involved. The herbal bath limbo baka (Saramaccan) is used to ward off evil, such as a yooka (malicious spirit of a deceased person) and magical poisons made and sent by people to harm someone. It is also used as protection to secure a safe travel or to attract luck or material welfare. Limbo baka literally means cleaning (limbo) one’s back (baka) from bad spirits. This treatment can be taken individually or together with family members. Saramaccan healers make this bath in a big earthen or wooden dish (Fig. 3).

Figure 3 | Spiritual herbal bath limbo baka, placed on a banana leaf, Pikin Slee 2009. Picture by C. Van ’t Klooster.

Persons who take this bath should stand barefoot on a banana leaf (Musa sp.), facing east for the best result. Circles of kaolin are sometimes drawn around the herbal bath to keep evil spirits out and show other villagers that this bath is related to obia (magical powers) or nature spirits like the air god Komanti. While taking the bath, the person has to apply water on the head and body with a small calabash. The bathing person and/or healer prays to the highest God, ancestral spirits and other gods to request for luck, good health and guidance. Bathing is often combined with spitting rum or water in different directions around the person.

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Another bath is wasi gadu, (‘wash gods’), which is often taking place on village level to ward off evil spirits or to honor good ones, frequently combined with ritual songs, prayers and offerings. Every village, family and related clan (‘lo’) has its own gadu that they need to take good care of. Paati wasi (Sa) is spiritual bath used to release a spirit that has a negative effect on one’s wellbeing. It can also eliminate bad feelings caused by a traumatic experience. This spirit is often recognized as a deceased family member, not necessarily of bad intentions. If it affects the person negatively, it needs to be separated (paati) from the person by taking the herbal bath on a crossroad in a forest trail. Both the paati wasi and limbo baka treatments (on family level) can be finalized in the river with an additional washing, during which persons are hit on their back with a bundle of leaves to expel the spirits from their bodies.

Most widely used plant speciesIn total, 349 plant species were used in the six herbal bath types. Table 2 shows the amount of species used per bath type for the different study sites. Due to the lack of data for Aucan baths, a comparison could not be made for all types. Of the 302 herbal bath species recorded among the Saramaccans, twelve were used in all of the six bath types (Cecropia sciadophylla, Chromolaena odorata, Commelina erecta, Gossypium barbadense, Lippia alba, Lantana camara, Rolandra fruticosa, Siparuna guianensis, Stachytarpheta cayennensis, S. jamaicensis, Tilesia baccata and Unxia camphorata). With exception of the cultivated G. barbadense, all these species are common in secondary vegetation. Thirteen species were used in five baths, 21 in four baths, 66 in two baths and 149 in just one type of bath. This means that 51% of the species (153 spp.) were used in more than one bath type. The fact that most species were recorded in Brownsweg is probably a result of a larger research effort (e.g. time spent in village, data sampling design), a stronger research focus on bathing, and the much larger population size in comparison with the three other study sites.

Table 2 | Number of plant species used per type of herbal bath, Maroon group and study site.Bath type Saramaccan Aucan Pikin Slee Brownsweg Total Bigiston Mooitaki TotalBaby strength 26 101 116 - 33 33Genital 26 149 160 45 - 45Respiratory 16 49 56 - - -Skin disorders 8 38 43 - - -Spiritual 17 151 155 49 12 59Strength adults 21 81 95 - - - Total number of plant species per location* 69 274 302 87 39 115* As species can be used in several types of herbal baths, this number is smaller than the sum of the species numbers for each bath type.

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Out of 115 plant species used by the Aucans, only Cyperus prolixus was used in all three types of baths (baby strength, genital and spiritual). A total of 20 (17%) species were applied in two baths, while 94 species were used in a single bath type. The higher number of species recorded for Bigiston can be explained by the fact that the research in Bigiston focused more on ritual practices, while that in Mooitaki on baby baths. A number of 68 plant species (19% of the total) were used by both Maroon groups, of which 58 (16%) for the same type of herbal bath (Table 3). Abuta grandifolia, Ertela trifolia, Inga stipularis, Ischnosiphon gracilis, Lueheopsis rosea, Nepsera aquatica, Philodendron hederaceum, P. perrottetii, Phthirusa stelis and Tripogandra serrulata were commonly used in herbal baths by both Saramaccans and Aucans, but not for the same bath type.

Table 3 | Plant species used by both Saramaccan and Aucan Maroons in the same type of bathing.Genital bath (28 spp.) Spiritual bath (20 spp.) Baby strength (17 spp.)Anacardium occidentale* Begonia glabra Arachis hypogaea*Campomanesia aromatica Campomanesia grandiflora Campomanesia aromaticaCampomanesia grandiflora Chromolaena odorata Chromolaena odorataCecropia obtusa Costus scaber Eleusine indicaCecropia sciadophylla Cyathula prostrata Gossypium barbadense*Citrus aurantiifolia* Eclipta prostrata Handroanthus serratifolius Clidemia hirta Eleusine indica Hiraea fagineaCopaifera guyanensis Euphorbia thymifolia Ischnosiphon puberulusCordia schomburgkii Heliotropium indicum Oryctanthus florulentusDavilla kunthii Indigofera suffructicosa* Paspalum conjugatumEclipta prostrata Ischnosiphon arouma Paullinia pinnataEuphorbia hirta Justicia pectoralis Portulaca oleraceaGossypium barbadense* Ocimum campechianum* Rolandra fruticosaInga edulis* Peperomia pellucida Stachytarpheta cayennensisLantana camara Piper bartlingianum Trema micranthaLippia alba* Scoparia dulcis Vismia macrophylla Mangifera indica* Selaginella parkeri Vouarana guianensisMarlierea montanaMelaleuca cajuputi

Senna quinquangulataStachytarpheta cayennensis

Miconia lepidota Uncaria guianensis Myrciaria floribundaPiper arboreumPiper marginatum*Psidium guajava*Siparuna guianensis Syzygium cumini*Vismia cayennensisVismia guianensis * Domesticated and cultivated species

Similarity in plant useThe similarity in plant use between the two Maroon groups, within the Saramaccan group (Brownsweg versus Pikin Slee) and within the Aucan group (Mooitaki versus Bigiston), is presented in Table 4. Generally, there was a very low similarity in plant use, varying between 3 and 16%. Saramaccan baths for respiratory ailments showed

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the highest similarity in plant ingredients and often contained fragrant species such as Citrus aurantiifolia, Cymbopogon citratus, Lantana camara and Siparuna guianensis.

Table 4 | Jaccard similarity coefficient to show the similarity in plant use between the Saramaccan and Aucan Maroons and within the Saramaccan and Aucan population.Bath type Saramaccan Aucan Saramaccan versus Aucan

Pikin Slee versus Brownsweg

Bigiston versus Mooitaki

Baby strength 0.09 0.13Genital 0.09 0.12Respiratory 0.16Skin disorders 0.07Spiritual 0.08 0.03 0.10Strength adults 0.07

When we plot the results of our DCA analysis, carried out for the three baths shared by the two Maroon groups, we see that plant species cluster by ethnicity rather than by type of herbal bath (Fig. 4). For both Maroon groups the genital and the baby baths are more similar in plant species than the spiritual baths, which confirm the results of the Jaccard index.

Nieuwe figuren zonder kaders om in te voegen in V2.

V2 pagina 111 (voor discussie):

Figure 4 | Family members (n=75) interviewed by the children (in percentages).

V2 pagina 79, 80 and 81:

Figure 4 | specific baths by the two Maroon groups. The closer the data points, the greater similarity in plant species. variables but serve to visualize variation and similarity in plant use.

45

28

20

3 31

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

mother grandmother father uncle aunt sister

0

50

100

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0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Herbal batho baby strengthΔ genital◊ spiritual

Populationnn Saramaccann Aucan

Figure 4 | DCA scatterplot showing similarity in bath use on species level (n=309). Data points indicate plant species used in specific baths by the two Maroon groups. The closer the data points, the greater similarity in plant species. Axes do not represent variables but serve to visualize variation and similarity in plant use.

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When the herbal bath species are compared within the Saramaccan population, we see considerable differences between the locations Pikin Slee and Brownsweg for the six types of baths they have in common (Fig. 5). All the baths for Brownsweg seem to cluster to the left, while the baths for Pikin Slee seem to cluster to the right side in the figure. Baby baths and genital baths are more similar in species composition than other baths.

Figure 5 | used in specific baths by Saramaccan Maroons at two different locations. Clustered data points indicate similarity in plant sused. Axes do not represent variables but serve to visualize variation and similarity in plant use.

0

50

100

150

200

250

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0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Herbal batho baby strengthΔ genital◊ spiritual respiratory§ adult strength ‒ skin disorders

Locationnn Brownswegn Pikin slee

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400 Herbal batho baby strengthΔ genital◊ spiritual respiratory§ adult strength‒ skin disordersLocationnn Brownsweg (Sa)n Pikin slee (Sa)n Bigiston (Au)n Mooitaki (Au)

Figure 5 | DCA scatterplot showing similarity in herbal bath type use on species level (n=302). Data points indicate plant species used in specific baths by Saramaccan Maroons at two different locations. Clustered data points indicate similarity in plant species used. Axes do not represent variables but serve to visualize variation and similarity in plant use.

To determine the similarities in plant use between the Maroon locations separately, we plotted the baths for all four study sites (Fig. 6). Again, plants clustered according to geographical location rather than per herbal bath, and to a lesser extent by ethnic group, as all Aucan baths group to the left and all Saramaccan baths to the right. This could indicate that each Maroon community (study site) has adapted its plant use to the species that were locally available, based on knowledge generated over centuries of relative isolation.

When we compared our data with literature on Saramaccan and Aucan plant uses, we found that apart from the 68 shared bath species, 177 spp. (51%) of the plant species used in our analysis were used by both Maroon groups for a variety of purposes, indicating species occurrence in both locations (Additional file 1). For

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the remaining 172 species, no additional Maroon vernacular names or plant uses were found to prove their existence in both areas. However, 29 of these species were common weeds or secondary forest plants, eight were common forest species and eight were known to be widely cultivated (e.g., Terminalia catappa and Syzygium malaccense), mostly known by their Sranantongo names, so these species have a high probability to occur in both Maroon areas. This would make it plausible that in total 64% (222 spp.) would occur in both places. Of the remaining 127 species, 35 spp. were not identified to species level or we had doubts about their identification by others, so comparison was not possible. For the residual 92 species, 15 species grow mostly in savanna areas that are close to the Saramaccan settlements, but far away from Aucan villages and three species (Ocimum gratissimum, Hymenocallis tubiflora and Rhizophora racemosa) were reported from Aucan areas only. The remaining 74 species (21%) were uncommon rainforest species (e.g., Diospyros cf. cavalcantei, Pouteria engleri) with patchy distributions. Due to the lack of detailed species distribution maps for rainforest trees in the interior of Suriname we could not verify whether these species occurred in both Maroon areas.

Figure 5 | DCA scatterplot showing similarity in herbal bath type use on species level (n=302). Data points indicate plant species used in specific baths by Saramaccan Maroons at two different locations. Clustered data points indicate similarity in plant species used. Axes do not represent variables but serve to visualize variation and similarity in plant use.

Figure 6 | DCA scatterplot showing similarity in herbal bath type use on species level (n=349). Data points indicate plant species used in specific baths by Saramaccans and Aucans at four locations. Clustered data points indicate similarity in plant species used.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Herbal batho baby strengthΔ genital◊ spiritual respiratory§ adult strength ‒ skin disorders

Locationnn Brownswegn Pikin slee

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Herbal batho baby strengthΔ genital◊ spiritual respiratory§ adult strength‒ skin disordersLocationnn Brownsweg (Sa)n Pikin slee (Sa)n Bigiston (Au)n Mooitaki (Au)

Figure 6 | DCA scatterplot showing similarity in herbal bath type use on species level (n=349). Data points indicate plant species used in specific baths by Saramaccans and Aucans at four locations. Clustered data points indicate similarity in plant species used.

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Discussion

Variation in plant use among the Aucan and Saramaccan MaroonsOur results show a large variation in plant use for herbal bathing among the four Maroon communities. This is partly in line with our hypothesis that plant use differs among Maroon groups as they had little opportunity for ethnobotanical exchange in the past centuries. We expected to find more similarity in genital baths, assuming that these plants would be selected on their pharmacological effect instead of their supposed symbolic or cultural meaning. This was the case to a certain extent (a similarity of 12%), as many of these baths contained species with essential oils (e.g., Campomanesia aromatica). Therefore, our hypothesis should be accepted, although the species overlap in baby baths was slightly higher (13%). Plant use was more strongly associated to ethnicity (Aucan or Saramaccan) than to type of bath. Both Maroon groups seem to use the same plant species for different treatments. For example, Eclipta prostrata is used by Aucans in bath for protection against bullets, while Saramaccans use it together with Attalea maripa in body scarification for aesthetic purposes (Van Andel and Ruysschaert, 2011).

The difference in plant use between Saramaccan and Aucan Maroons could be explained by the fact that their forefathers escaped from different plantations, with either, English, Dutch or Portuguese Jewish plantation owners, in different periods of time. While the Saramaccan community developed around 1690-1710 during the second wave of Maroons escaping the Portuguese Jewish plantations, the Aucan community was formed only after 1712, when Suriname was attacked by French admiral Cassard, which led to a new wave of runaways (Price, 1976; Smith, 2002). The two Maroon groups have settled along different rivers in the tropical rainforest, where they had to adapt to new surroundings. For centuries they had little contact, caused by the impenetrable stretches of forest between the rivers and by mutual distrust, and thus the exchange of ethnobotanical knowledge was limited (Price, 1996; Van Velzen and Hoogbergen, 2011). After a relative short stay at the plantations surrounded by people of mixed African origin, the runaways escaped per plantation into the interior (Price, 1976). In order to survive in the rainforests full of unknown species, Maroons had to rely largely on their own African knowledge to survive with little opportunities to exchange information with Indigenous and other Maroon groups (Van Velzen and Hoogbergen, 2011).

Van Andel et al. (2012) showed in their study on plants used in bitter tonics across the Atlantic that enslaved Africans in the New World had to reinvent their aphrodisiac mixtures in their new living environment. They used their knowledge and the local flora that was available to them. Enslaved Africans in Suriname searched for

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similar plants that they remembered from their homeland, but succeeded in this only for a small number of plant species. Instead of limiting themselves to their previously known plant species, they searched for new species to replace the African ingredients in their herbal treatments (Vossen et al., 2014). This is also illustrated by the fact that Maroons have used many African plant names to name botanically related species in Suriname (Van Andel et al., 2014).

A recent study conducted by Tareau et al. (2017) on medicinal and cosmetic plants used by urban youngsters in French Guiana also showed that bathing formed an important way of administrating herbal medicine. Most of the medicinal baths reported in our study correspond with the therapeutic functions of baths reported by Tareau et al. (2017). However, baths related to adult strength were not reported for French Guiana, although there are several Saramaccan communities in that country. Probably, baths for strength seem not that important for the French Guianese youth, reflecting their life styles in more urban settings.

Herbal bath treatments seem to have evolved over time, not only during the enslavement period, but especially after the formation of independent communities in the isolated forests. Since the runaways that formed the current Aucan and Saramaccan communities came from different plantations, and lived in geographically isolated areas without roads, they had little opportunity to share their plant use knowledge gained during and after the period of enslavement. Therefore, the current overlap in plant species could be a result of a more recent knowledge exchange. A comparative analysis between data of Van Andel and Havinga (2008) and our data showed that 69% (47 of the 68) of the plant species used by both Maroon groups are nowadays sold on markets in Paramaribo. It is plausible that exchange is currently taking place at the markets, where hundreds of Maroon women sell their herbal medicine to city-dwelling Maroons of different ethnicities. From Paramaribo, Maroons transfer their newly acquired knowledge to the forest communities when visiting their family in the hinterland. For example, the aromatic tree Melaleuca cajuputi, originally from Australia, was introduced to eastern Suriname via French Guiana. It has become invasive along the Marowijne River close to Albina, and is known locally as Albina uma (Au). This tree, originally planted by Catholic nuns in French Guiana for its essential oil, became popular in Suriname for its Eucalyptus-like scent to treat symptoms of cold and bronchitis. Nowadays, the leaves of this tree are sold in Paramaribo to use in genital steam baths for their refreshing smell. The Saramaccans also know this plant under the name Albina uma, which shows that exchange of knowledge among Maroons takes place in Paramaribo (Van Andel and Ruysschaert, 2011).

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Variation in plant use within the Saramaccan ethnic groupOur results clearly show that plant use within the Saramaccan group is also location specific, as Saramaccan bath ingredients differed substantially between the two study sites. The plant species in baby baths and genital baths showed a stronger similarity than the other baths, but overall there was little overlap between Pikin Slee and Brownsweg. Our research findings support earlier studies by Van Andel et al. (2013) and Van ’t Klooster et al. (2016) that showed that many plant species used in herbal baths were not bath-specific, as most of them were used in more types of baths. Brownsweg and Pikin Slee are surrounded by similar tropical rainforest vegetation (Van Andel et al., 2009), although near Pikin Slee the primary forest is more extensive. However, since most species used occur in secondary forest or open vegetation around villages, the variation in plant use could not be justified by differences in vegetation alone.

The explanation for the dissimilarity in plant use between the two study sites can probably be found in the social structure of Maroon culture. Although the Saramaccans have a common cultural background, the Upper Suriname River area, where Pikin Slee is located, has been characterized as very traditional and the center of Saramaccan cultural traditions (Terborg, 2001). Not only in geographical but also in social sense, this area has been quite isolated (Terborg et al., 2005). Traffic between Brownsweg and Pikin Slee still takes several hours by bus and boat, limiting the amount of ethnobotanical knowledge exchange.

Maroon societies, with their own paramount chief and local government, are characterized by a matrilineal relationship structure with social units called matriclans (lo’s) and matrilineages (bees). While the first Saramaccan clan was formed in 1690 (Smith, 2001), nowadays approximately twelve clans are in existence. Their social identity, rights to land and associated resources, and social obligations are all determined by these bees and secondarily to these lo’s they belong to (Thoden van Velzen, 1990). It was recently shown that knowledge of plant species is generally widespread, but the details of the processing and administration methods is often kept within family groups (Van ’t Klooster et al., 2016). Furthermore, restrictions in plant use do exist for certain matrilineages, families or even for a whole village. This could explain the difference in plant use within the Saramaccan community and between the two Maroon groups, although the plant species themselves occur mostly in both localities.

Although a number of studies have been conducted among Maroons in neighboring countries like French Guiana (Fleury 1991; 1996) and Brazil (Albuquerque, 2001; Voeks and Leony, 2004; Franco and Barros, 2006; Monteles and Pinheiro, 2007;

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Barosso et al., 2010; Crepaldi and Peixoto, 2010; Gomes and de Ferreira Bandeira, 2012; Mota and Dias, 2012; Oliveira et al., 2015; de Santana et al., 2016; Zank and Hanazaki, 2017), publications on medicinal plant uses and knowledge held by traditional Maroon communities in primary forests are still scarce. A recent study by De Santana et al. (2016) conducted among the Afro-Brazilian Salamina community living in an isolated region of Bahia, reported a considerable amount of medicinal plant knowledge. However, little plants were used from the surrounding old-growth tropical forests. The large number of cultivated exotics and weedy plants found by De Santana (2016) was also reported in other publications on Maroon communities (Gomes and de Ferreira Bandeira, 2012; Zank and Hanazaki, 2017). Zank and Hanazaki (2017) suggest that the focus on disturbance species reflects the environmental conditions and history of the Brazilian Maroon region. The Surinamese Maroons still have access to primary rainforest, although they also make use of domesticated plant species such as mango or cotton leaves and cultivate some wild species in their home gardens (Van Andel and Havinga, 2008). To get a better overview in the differences and similarities in Maroon plant use, further research should be conducted among Maroons that live in remote, forested areas in the Guianas and Brazil, using similar methods and sample efforts at all study sites. This type of research will gain more insights in shared cultural knowledge than is now possible with the scarce information currently available for Suriname. These data could then be compared to Maroon studies in deforested or urban communities in these countries.

Limitations of this studyBecause of the differences in scientific approach, data collection methods and sampling effort at the study sites in Suriname, hard claims on shared ethnobotanical knowledge cannot be made. For such claims, it is essential that the same research methods are used at each study site, so that a cultural consensus model could be developed as showed by Reyes-Garcia et al. (2003). The differences in research methods at the two Saramaccan locations may have influenced the number of recorded plant species per bath type in our comparative study. The larger sampling effort in Brownsweg probably gives a more complete representation on plant use. We are aware that our body of data on Aucan plant use is much smaller and thus less representative. The current data is therefore not sufficient to assess cultural knowledge on population level, especially for the Aucans. Data from Bigiston were mainly retrieved from one traditional healer (Groenendijk, 2006), although his knowledge was quite extensive. There is a substantial group of Aucans living along the Cottica River near the coast, where no ethnobotanical research has been carried out so far. More research among Aucans would probably yield more used species and somewhat higher Jaccard indices. However, since almost half of the 115 species used by the Aucans in our study were not used by the Saramaccans, differences in

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plant use between the two groups are certainly visible. For the other four Maroon groups (Kwinti, Paramaccan, Boni and Matawai) almost no data exist on medicinal plant use.

Conclusion

Our study on herbal bathing practices and plant ingredients showed little similarity between Saramaccan and Aucan Maroon groups, even when the same bath types were examined. Plant use appeared to be strongly influenced by study site and then by ethnicity, but less by application. Due to isolation and adaptation processes, Maroon plant use kept evolving over time and space. Whether this will continue and how, depends on the level of contact and knowledge exchange between Maroon communities. Due to migration to the capital and higher accessibility of the interior, their social environment will likely continue to change in the future. Our research showed substantial differences in plant use among Maroons communities with regard to six herbal baths, but little is known on similarities in the many other herbal medicine practices among these groups. Our results further suggest that care should be taken in extrapolating plant use data collected in one location to an entire ethnic group. We hope that our study will contribute to the conservation of Maroon biocultural knowledge and will create awareness to the elaborate traditional medical practices of Surinamese Maroons.

Online supplementary filesTable A2 | Presence (1) and absence (0) matrix (DCA) with plant species used per herbal bath type per Maroon community as well as location. This supplementary file can be found in the online version at https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0216-9

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Tabl

e A

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lant

spec

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with

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s ala

tus (

Aubl

.) Pu

lleT

KP0

020

dagu

yes

i (Sa

)[1

]

1sa

ka si

i (Au

)

Chr

omol

aena

odo

rata

(L.)

R.M

. Kin

g &

H. R

ob.

SRU

0714

- (A

u), f

elu

uwii

(Sa)

[3],

[2]

1

Chr

ysob

alan

us ic

aco

L.T

KP0

089

kady

usii

(Sa)

[7]

[e

]C

hrys

ophy

llum

cain

ito L

.T

VA53

13ste

rapp

el (D

u)1

**

[c]

Citr

us a

uran

tifol

ia (C

hrist

m.)

Swin

gle

TVA

4773

lem

iki (

Au),

lem

iki (

Sa)

[1]

1

Clib

adiu

m su

rinam

ense

L.SR

U06

39nd

eku

(Sa)

[2]

1

wel

i kon

ami (

Au)

C

libad

ium

sylv

estre

(Aub

l.) B

aill.

SRU

0916

neku

(Sa)

[2]

1

wey

kon

ami (

Au)

C

lidem

ia ca

pite

llata

(Bon

pl.)

D.D

onT

VA48

64w

asdu

ku (A

u)[1

]

[a]

Clid

emia

hirt

a (L

.) D

. Don

KV

P003

8fu

kufu

ku u

wii

(Au)

, sop

u uw

ii (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Coc

cocy

pselu

m g

uian

ense

(Aub

l.) K

. Sch

um.

TK

P007

7w

omi z

au za

u pa

tu (S

a)[2

]

[g]

Coc

colo

ba sp

. SRU

0926

SRU

0926

apuk

u ta

tai (

Sa)

**

[d]

Coc

colo

ba sp

. SRU

0987

SRU

0987

wal

utu

(Sa)

**

[d]

Coc

os n

ucife

ra L

. -

koko

noto

(Sa)

[1]

1

koko

onto

(Au)

C

oloc

asia

escu

lenta

(L.)

Scho

ttT

VA84

9ta

ya (A

u)[1

]

1ta

ya (S

a)

Com

meli

na d

iffus

a Bu

rm.f.

TVA

5051

wet

i/guu

n ga

do d

ede

(Au)

[1]

1

wet

i gad

u-de

de-m

i-de

de (S

a)

Com

meli

na er

ecta

L.

TK

P003

0ga

du-d

ede-

mi-d

ede

(Sa)

[2]

1

wet

i/gru

n ga

do d

ede

(Au)

Cop

aifer

a gu

yane

nsis

Des

f.IV

L008

0pa

nsum

uti (

Au);

kupa

wa

(Sa)

***,

[2]

1

Cor

dia

sago

tii I.

M. J

ohns

t.SR

U09

72m

atu

kiki

i (Sa

)**

[g

]C

ordi

a sch

ombu

rgki

i A. D

C.

TVA

5421

koo

uwii

(Au)

, kas

a uw

ii (S

a)[1

]1

Tabl

e A

1 | C

ontin

ued

3

88


Spec

ies w

ith

auth

oriz

atio

n C

olle

ctio

n nu

mbe

rVe

rnac

ular

pla

nt n

ames

wit

h lo

cal l

angu

ages

(d

atab

ase)

Ref

eren

ces

Spec

ies i

n A

u/Sa

are

a (d

atab

ase)

Spec

ies i

n

Au/

Sa a

rea

(lit

erat

ure)

Vern

acul

ar p

lant

na

mes

wit

h lo

cal

lang

uage

s (lit

erat

ure)

Spec

ies n

ot re

port

ed in

A

u/Sa

are

a, re

fere

nce

to

occu

rren

ce/ g

row

thfo

rmC

ordi

a sp

.K

VK

0089

lele

ti (S

a)[2

]

[d]

Cor

dylin

e fru

ticos

a (L

.) A.

Che

v.T

VA50

56m

an ta

si uw

ii (A

u)[1

]

1be

ingi

tasi

(Sa)

C

oryt

hoph

ora

labr

icula

ta (E

yma)

S.A

. Mor

i & P

ranc

eAR

V00

81m

uyee

bai

klak

i (Sa

)**

[g

]C

ostu

s sca

ber R

uiz &

Pav

.T

VA48

09le

bi si

ngav

u (A

u), (

be)

sang

aavu

(Sa)

[1]

1

Cos

tus s

pira

lis (J

acq.

) Ros

coe

TK

P008

6sa

ngaa

vu (S

a)[2

]

[g]

Cou

toub

ea ra

mos

a Au

bl.

KV

K01

08lo

koti

bita

(Sa)

[1]

[e

]C

resce

ntia

cujet

e L.

TVA

4734

gaan

kuy

a (S

a)[2

]

1ka

abas

i (Au

)

Cro

tala

ria m

icans

Lin

kK

VK

0101

yoyo

(Sa)

[1]

1

apuk

u ba

asi (

Au)

C

roto

n m

atou

rens

is Au

bl.

SRU

1008

mat

umbu

udu

(Sa)

[2]

[g

]C

roto

n tri

nita

tis M

illsp

.K

VK

0086

piki

neng

elel

eti (

Sa)

[2]

[a

]C

upan

ia h

irsut

a R

adlk

.AR

V00

65ga

wen

ti (S

a)[2

]

[g]

Cyan

thill

ium

cine

reum

(L.)

H.R

ob.

TVA

5086

saba

na u

wii

wet

i ede

(Au)

[1]

[a

]Cy

athu

la p

rostr

ata

(L.)

Blum

eT

VA54

35m

aput

uput

u (A

u), t

emek

u (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Cym

bopo

gon

citra

tus (

DC

.) St

apf

TVA

4839

situu

ngaa

si (S

a)

[1]

1

lun

gasi

(Au)

Cy

peru

s odo

ratu

s L.

GBA

0084

ahun

(Sa)

**

[e]

Cype

rus p

rolix

us K

unth

TVA

5554

gaan

and

uu (A

u)[2

]

1m

asak

usak

u (S

a)

Dav

illa

kunt

hii A

. St.-

Hil.

KV

K00

79di

atet

ei (A

u) fa

ya ta

tai (

Sa)

[1]

1

Dav

illa

nitid

a (V

ahl)

Kub

itzki

TVA

5234

diat

e (A

u)[1

]

1fa

ya ta

tai (

Sa)

D

esmod

ium

bar

batu

m (L

.) Be

nth.

SRU

0882

map

inda

pind

a (S

a)**

1

uma

pind

a pi

nda

(Au)

D

esmod

ium

cf.

inca

num

DC

.C

VK

35m

apin

dapi

nda

(Sa)

[1]

[a

]D

iclip

tera

sp.

KV

P003

6da

guka

kauw

ii (S

a)[7

]

[d]

Dico

ryni

a gu

iane

nsis

Amsh

offSR

U05

73sin

dyap

eetu

(Sa)

[6]

[e

]D

ieffen

bach

ia c

f. seg

uine

(Jac

q.) S

chot

tT

KP0

058

donk

e w

iwiri

(Sr)

1[2

]

1pi

kin

donk

en (A

u)

Dio

spyr

os c

f. ca

valca

ntei

Soth

ers

GBA

0064

baak

a pa

u (S

a)[2

]

[g]

Dio

spyr

os g

uian

ensis

(Aub

l.) G

ürke

SRU

0083

baak

apau

(Sa)

[6]

[g

]D

ipte

ryx

odor

ata

(Aub

l.) W

illd.

SRU

0392

tonk

a (S

a)[1

]

[b]

Dol

ichan

dra

ungu

is-ca

ti (L

.) L.

G.L

ohm

ann

SRU

0948

awaw

e ha

nsa

(Sa)

[2]

1

kwai

taka

nan

ga (A

u)

Dol

ioca

rpus

bre

vipe

dice

llatu

s Gar

cke

SRU

0808

faya

tata

i (Sa

)**

[g

]D

olio

carp

us p

arae

nsis

Sleu

mer

SRU

0822

faya

tata

i (Sa

)**

[g

]D

olio

carp

us sp

.C

VK

85fa

yata

tai (

Sa)

*

[d]

Dry

pete

s var

iabi

lis U

ittie

nK

VP0

004

fung

upau

(Sa)

**

1at

ila k

oko

(Au)

D

uroi

a aq

uatic

a (A

ubl.)

Bre

mek

. C

VK

72m

aam

aado

su (S

a)[2

]

1fa

nkob

a (A

u)

Eclip

ta p

rosta

ta (L

.) L.

SRU

0718

(um

a) lu

(i)sa

(Au)

, tot

obia

(Sa)

[1],

[2]

1

Eleu

sine i

ndica

(L.)

Gae

rtn.

KV

K00

91m

angr

asi (

Au),

mas

igas

iga

(Sa)

[1],

[2]

1

Ephe

dran

thus

gui

anen

sis R

.E. F

r.G

BA00

45m

amba

(Sa)

[7]

[g

]

Tabl

e A

1 | C

ontin

ued

3


89


Spec

ies w

ith

auth

oriz

atio

n C

olle

ctio

n nu

mbe

rVe

rnac

ular

pla

nt n

ames

wit

h lo

cal l

angu

ages

(d

atab

ase)

Ref

eren

ces

Spec

ies i

n A

u/Sa

are

a (d

atab

ase)

Spec

ies i

n

Au/

Sa a

rea

(lit

erat

ure)

Vern

acul

ar p

lant

na

mes

wit

h lo

cal

lang

uage

s (lit

erat

ure)

Spec

ies n

ot re

port

ed in

A

u/Sa

are

a, re

fere

nce

to

occu

rren

ce/ g

row

thfo

rmEr

tela

trifo

lia (L

.) K

untz

eK

VK

0161

was

kon

dee

uwii

(Au)

, ko

fimez

a (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Eryn

gium

foet

idum

L.

KV

K00

85m

uyee

kw

entu

(Sa)

[2]

1

uma

kwen

tu (A

u)

Esch

weil

era

colli

na E

yma

GBA

0034

man

bai

klak

i (Sa

)**

[g

]Eu

geni

a sp

. ARV

0030

ARV

0030

guja

ba-m

atu

(Sa)

**

[d]

Euge

nia

sp. G

BA00

81G

BA00

81gu

jaba

-mat

u (S

a)**

[d

]Eu

geni

a sp

. SRU

0856

SRU

0856

logo

sofu

ta (S

a)[2

]

[d]

Euge

nia

sp. S

RU10

25SR

U10

25m

uten

e (S

a)**

[d

]Eu

phor

bia

hirt

a L.

SRU

0715

adya

si (A

u), b

obi b

obi (

Sa)

[1]

1

Euph

orbi

a th

ymifo

lia L

.SR

U06

20ol

igon

(Au)

, tje

mbe

uw

ii (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Eu

terp

e oler

acea

Mar

t.IV

L014

8pi

na (S

a)[1

]

1po

dosii

(Au)

Fi

cus s

chum

ache

ri (L

iebm

.) G

riseb

.SR

U09

49fin

iuw

iikat

u (S

a)[1

]

1bu

sunk

in k

atu

(Au)

G

eisso

sper

mum

seric

eum

Mie

rsSR

U07

88bi

ta (S

a)[7

]

1ab

onga

bita

(Au)

G

ossy

pium

bar

bade

nse L

.C

VK

57le

bi k

atun

(Au)

, bem

auuw

ii (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Gou

pia

glab

ra A

ubl.

IVL0

037

kupi

(Sa)

[6]

[g

]G

uare

a go

mm

a Pu

lleK

VK

0111

kodj

o ud

u (S

a)[2

]

1ko

djo

udu

(Au)

G

uatte

ria sc

ande

ns D

ucke

TVA

4984

kiin

tong

o (A

u)[1

]

[g]

Gua

tteria

scho

mbu

rgki

ana

Mar

t.K

VK

0214

pepe

kusa

tu (S

a)[1

]

[b]

Gus

tavi

a he

xape

tala

(Aub

l.) S

m.

KV

K02

24w

ata

wan

u (S

a)**

[b

]H

andr

oant

hus s

erra

tifol

ius (

Vahl

) S.O

. Gro

se -

giiin

-ati

(Au)

, giii

n-ha

ti (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

H

eiste

ria ca

ulifl

ora

Sm.

GBA

0002

bofo

nya

(Sa)

**

1bw

aban

dé (A

u)

Heli

anth

us sp

. -

zonn

eblo

em (D

u)1

[2]

[d

]H

elico

nia

psitt

acor

um L

.f.T

VA56

19ap

unku

pal

ulu

(Au)

[1]

1

akat

a pa

lulu

(Sa)

H

eliot

ropi

um in

dicu

m L

.K

VK

0211

kom

anti

uwii

(Au)

, kok

oode

n (S

a)[1

], **

1

Hib

iscus

bifu

rcat

us C

av.

TVA

5026

yook

aoko

o (A

u)[1

]

[a]

Hira

ea fa

gine

a (S

w.) N

ied.

CV

K92

- (A

u), a

latu

pau

(Sa)

[3],

[1]

1

Hirt

ella

pani

cula

ta S

w.SR

U07

19an

di k

em b

ai d

ai (S

a)[1

]

1at

yant

esi (

Au)

H

irtell

a sp

.C

VK

112

baso

ouw

ii (S

a)*

[d

]H

ymen

aea

cour

baril

L.

SRU

0706

Alo

kisi

(Sa)

[1]

1

loka

(Au)

H

ymen

ocal

lis tu

biflo

ra S

alisb

.T

VA50

83bu

si ay

un u

wii

(Au)

[1]

[f

]H

yptis

lanc

eola

ta P

oir.

CV

K33

dyan

afay

a (S

a)[2

]

1ku

nopu

uw

ii (A

u)

Hyp

tis m

utab

ilis (

Ric

h.) B

riq.

SRU

1036

gadu

pay

pina

(Sa)

**

1pi

kin

neng

e la

nsi (

Au)

H

yptis

recu

rvat

a Po

it.SR

U10

32to

ne u

wii

(Sa)

[2]

[a

]Ic

hnan

thus

bre

viscr

obs D

öll

TVA

5432

pen

pen

gaas

i (Au

)[7

]

[e]

Tabl

e A

1 | C

ontin

ued

3

90


Spec

ies w

ith

auth

oriz

atio

n C

olle

ctio

n nu

mbe

rVe

rnac

ular

pla

nt n

ames

wit

h lo

cal l

angu

ages

(d

atab

ase)

Ref

eren

ces

Spec

ies i

n A

u/Sa

are

a (d

atab

ase)

Spec

ies i

n

Au/

Sa a

rea

(lit

erat

ure)

Vern

acul

ar p

lant

na

mes

wit

h lo

cal

lang

uage

s (lit

erat

ure)

Spec

ies n

ot re

port

ed in

A

u/Sa

are

a, re

fere

nce

to

occu

rren

ce/ g

row

thfo

rmIm

pera

ta b

rasil

iensis

Trin

.T

VA52

91tifi

ede

(Au)

[1]

1

mon

sony

o (S

a)

Impe

rata

cont

racta

(Hum

b., B

onpl

. & K

unth

) Hitc

hc.

SRU

0938

sé u

wii

(Sa)

[2]

[e

]In

digo

fera

suffr

utico

sa M

ill.

KV

K02

37in

igo

(Au)

, ini

go (S

a)[1

], **

1

Inga

alb

a (S

w.) W

illd.

GBA

0093

abon

kini

(Sa)

[1]

1

lebi

wek

o (A

u)

Inga

capi

tata

Des

v.K

VK

0046

wak

i (Sa

)**

[g

]In

ga ed

ulis

Mar

t.SR

U08

35te

tei w

eko

(Au)

, tat

ai w

aki (

Sa)

[1]

1

Inga

late

riflor

a M

iq.

SRU

0877

wak

i uw

ii (S

a)[2

]

[g]

Inga

sp.

CV

K38

wak

i (Sa

)[2

]

[d]

Inga

stip

ular

is D

C.

KV

P003

1ba

aka

wek

o (A

u), d

yebe

(Sa)

***,

**

1

Inga

virg

ulto

sa D

esv.

KV

K00

78fin

i wak

i (Sa

)[5

]

[g]

Ipom

oea

bata

tas L

. -

sutib

atat

auw

ii (S

a)[1

]

1pa

tata

tete

i (Au

)

Ipom

oea

sp.

- ku

sai b

atat

a ta

tai (

Sa)

[2]

[d

]Ip

omoe

a til

iace

a (W

illd.

) Cho

isyK

VP0

016

pata

t (Sr

)1**

[a

]Isc

hnos

ipho

n ar

oum

a (A

ubl.)

Kör

n.SR

U03

30(g

aan)

bab

adua

(Au,

Sa)

[1]

1

Ischn

osip

hon

grac

ilis (

Rudg

e) K

örn.

C

VK

69pi

kin

baba

dua

(Au,

Sa)

[1]

1

Ischn

osip

hon

petio

latu

s (Ru

dge)

L.A

nder

sson

TVA

5037

swam

pu p

ikin

wei

man

(Au)

***

[g

]Isc

hnos

ipho

n pu

beru

lus L

oes.

GBA

0059

baba

dua

(Au)

; pik

ibab

adua

(S

a)[4

], [2

]1

Isert

ia p

arvi

flora

Vah

lK

VK

0092

detto

l (Sr

)1 [2

]

[g]

Ixor

a co

ccin

ea L

.T

VA25

70fa

yalo

bi (S

r)1

[2]

[c

]Ix

ora

sp.

KV

K02

13de

ttol (

Sr)1

[2]

[d

]Ja

troph

a cu

rcas

L.

KV

K02

40po

oka

(Sa)

[2]

1

kaka

noto

(Au)

Ja

troph

a go

ssypi

ifolia

L.

SRU

0915

pook

a (S

a)[2

]

1ka

kano

to (A

u)

Justi

cia p

ecto

ralis

Jacq

. SR

U07

12to

ne u

wii

(Au)

, pap

a uw

ii (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Ju

sticia

secu

nda

Vahl

SR

U06

38bu

du u

wii

(Sa)

[2]

[a

]La

ntan

a ca

mar

a L.

SRU

0627

ango

man

gam

aka

(Au)

, m

akam

aka

(Sa)

[1],

[2]

1

Lepi

daga

this

alop

ecur

oide

a (V

ahl)

R. B

r. ex

Gris

eb.

SRU

0721

tem

eku

(Sa)

[7]

[e

]Li

cani

a lep

tosta

chya

Ben

th.

KV

K01

29ba

soo

(Sa)

**

1ba

so (A

u)

Lica

nia

octa

ndra

(Hoff

man

ns.,

ex S

chul

t.) K

untz

eAR

V00

02ad

yady

ina

(Sa)

**

[g]

Lica

nia

sp.

SRU

0859

tsyaw

aya

(Sa)

**

[d]

Lica

ria g

uian

ensis

Aub

l.G

BA01

39ap

isi (S

a)[6

]

[g]

Lind

saea

sp.

KV

K01

05bi

ibii

uwii

(Sa)

[2]

[d

]Li

ppia

alb

a (M

ill.)

N.E

.Br.

ex B

ritto

n &

P.W

ilson

GBA

0070

bobi

fyof

yo (A

u), p

iipiip

au (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Lo

ncho

carp

us ch

ryso

phyll

us K

lein

hoon

teSR

U08

60nd

eku

(Sa)

[1]

1

neko

(Au)

Lo

reya

mesp

iloid

es M

iq.

SRU

0826

atos

ikoy

o (S

a)**

[a

]

Tabl

e A

1 | C

ontin

ued

3


91


Spec

ies w

ith

auth

oriz

atio

n C

olle

ctio

n nu

mbe

rVe

rnac

ular

pla

nt n

ames

wit

h lo

cal l

angu

ages

(d

atab

ase)

Ref

eren

ces

Spec

ies i

n A

u/Sa

are

a (d

atab

ase)

Spec

ies i

n

Au/

Sa a

rea

(lit

erat

ure)

Vern

acul

ar p

lant

na

mes

wit

h lo

cal

lang

uage

s (lit

erat

ure)

Spec

ies n

ot re

port

ed in

A

u/Sa

are

a, re

fere

nce

to

occu

rren

ce/ g

row

thfo

rmLu

dwig

ia er

ecta

(L.)

H. H

ara

SRU

0901

kont

aka

futu

(Sa)

[2]

[e

]Lu

dwig

ia h

ysso

pifo

lia (G

. Don

) Exe

llC

VK

105

kont

aka

futu

(Sa)

*

[e]

Ludw

igia

ner

vosa

(Poi

r.) H

. Har

aK

VK

0084

kont

aka

futu

(Sa)

[2]

1

para

nam

klem

(Au)

Lu

dwig

ia o

ctova

lvis

(Jac

q.) P

.H. R

aven

KV

P001

8ko

ntak

a fu

tu (S

a)[2

]

[e]

Lueh

eops

is ro

sea (D

ucke

) Bur

ret

TVA

5109

lebi

bak

a (A

u), m

aau

(Sa)

[1]

1

Lyco

podi

ella

cern

ua (L

.) Pi

c. S

erm

.T

KP0

039

amoo

ma

(Sa)

[6]

1

amom

an (A

u)

Lygo

dium

vol

ubile

Sw.

- -

(Au)

[3]

[a

]M

abea

piri

ri Au

bl.

SRU

0946

gaan

lele

ti uw

ii (S

a)**

[g

]M

acro

lobi

um sp

.C

VK

39lo

koti

(bita

) (Sa

)*

[d

]M

angi

fera

indi

ca L

.T

VA51

28m

anya

(Au,

Sa)

[1]

1

Man

soa

allia

cea

(Lam

.) A.

H. G

entr

yIV

L003

0ag

bone

nget

atai

(Sa)

[1]

1

ayun

tete

i (Au

)

Map

roun

ea g

uian

ensis

Aub

l.K

VK

0080

kisa

ngul

a (S

a)[2

]

1bi

sang

ola

(Au)

M

arlie

rea

mon

tana

(Aub

l.) A

msh

.SR

U10

33ba

kabe

si (A

u), s

troom

(Du)

1**

*, *

*1

M

atay

ba c

f. ar

bore

scens

(Aub

l.) R

adlk

. C

VK

74ga

wen

ti (S

a)*

1

basa

kom

anti

udu

(Au)

M

aurit

ia fl

exuo

sa L

.f. -

muu

si (S

a)[2

]

1m

oisib

on (A

u)

May

aca

sp.

TVA

5444

wat

a am

oom

a (A

u)**

*

[d]

Mela

leuca

caju

puti

Pow

ell

TVA

5474

albi

na u

ma

(Au)

, ala

bina

um

a (S

a)**

*, *

*1

Mico

nia

cilia

ta (R

ich.

) DC

.SR

U10

09ko

dyita

nda

(Sa)

**

[g]

Mico

nia

grat

issim

a Be

nth.

ex

Tria

naSR

U08

76ko

dyita

nda

(Sa)

**

[g]

Mico

nia

latif

olia

(D. D

on) N

audi

nSR

U09

35m

atu

bonu

uw

ii (S

a)[6

]

[g]

Mico

nia

lepid

ota

Schr

ank

& M

art.

ex D

C.

TVA

4889

mus

upu

(Au)

, mam

a le

na (S

a)**

1

Mico

nia

pras

ina

(Sw.

) DC

.SR

U08

69m

atap

i[2

]

1su

ku to

obi (

Au)

M

iconi

a ra

cem

osa

(Aub

l.) D

C.

TVA

5482

yaak

opi (

Sa)

[1]

1

obia

uw

ii (A

u)

Mico

nia

sp.

- ko

dyita

nda

(Sa)

*

[d]

Mico

nia

tom

ento

sa (R

ich.

) D. D

on e

x D

C.

TVA

5461

mus

ude

baas

a (A

u)[1

]

1pi

pa p

au (S

a)

Micr

opho

lis g

uyan

ensis

(A. D

C.)

Pier

reSR

U07

87ah

wa

pau

(Sa)

**

[g]

Micr

otea

deb

ilis S

w.K

VK

0102

eiw

iti w

iri (S

r)1

[2]

[a

]M

ikan

ia co

rdifo

lia (L

.f.) W

illd.

SRU

0944

aki n

deku

(Sa)

[2]

[a

]M

imos

a m

yria

deni

a (B

enth

.) Be

nth.

var

. myr

iade

nia

KV

P008

0ak

aam

aka

(Sa)

[2]

[g

]M

imos

a pu

dica

L.

KG

P002

2se

emai

(Sa)

[2]

1

seem

ai (A

u)

Mom

ordi

ca ch

aran

tia L

. C

VK

52ba

kulu

sopo

lopo

(Sa)

*

[a]

Mon

trich

ardi

a ar

bore

scens

(L.)

Scho

ttT

VA51

48m

oko

mok

o (S

a)[1

]

1m

okom

oko

(Au)

M

ourir

i cra

ssifo

lia S

agot

ARV

0054

topi

(Sa)

**

[g]

Mus

a sp

.T

VA51

22ba

kuba

(Sa)

[1]

1

baan

a (A

u)

Mus

a x

para

disia

ca L

.T

VA62

08

baku

ba (S

a)[1

]

1ba

ana

(Au)

Tabl

e A

1 | C

ontin

ued

3

92


Spec

ies w

ith

auth

oriz

atio

n C

olle

ctio

n nu

mbe

rVe

rnac

ular

pla

nt n

ames

wit

h lo

cal l

angu

ages

(d

atab

ase)

Ref

eren

ces

Spec

ies i

n A

u/Sa

are

a (d

atab

ase)

Spec

ies i

n

Au/

Sa a

rea

(lit

erat

ure)

Vern

acul

ar p

lant

na

mes

wit

h lo

cal

lang

uage

s (lit

erat

ure)

Spec

ies n

ot re

port

ed in

A

u/Sa

are

a, re

fere

nce

to

occu

rren

ce/ g

row

thfo

rmM

yrcia

ria fl

orib

unda

(H. W

est e

x W

illd.

) O. B

erg

KV

P008

3bu

si ng

uyab

a (A

u),

logo

sofu

uta

(Sa)

[1],

[2]

1

Nee

a ov

alifo

lia S

pruc

e ex

J.A.

Sch

mid

tG

BA00

97ta

tai b

ijapa

u (S

a)**

[g

]N

epser

a aq

uatic

a (A

ubl.)

Nau

din

SRU

0868

saba

nauw

ii (A

u), a

tabu

li (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

N

icotia

na c

f. ta

bacu

m L

.K

VK

0244

taba

ku (S

a)[1

]

1ta

baka

uw

ii (A

u)

Nym

phae

a ru

dgea

na G

. Mey

TK

P006

2ha

nguk

uyee

(Sa)

**

[d]

Ocim

um ca

mpe

chia

num

Mill

.C

VK

41su

mee

uwii

(Au)

, bon

u-uw

ii (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Ocim

um g

ratis

simum

L.

TVA

5060

man

sum

e uw

ii (A

u)[1

]

[f]

Old

enla

ndia

cory

mbo

sa L

.K

VK

0104

loko

ti bi

ta (S

a)**

[a

]O

lyra

latif

olia

L.

CV

K10

1da

gu-a

lisi (

Sa)

*

[e]

Orm

osia

cout

inho

i Duc

keT

VA52

89ag

i (Au

)**

*

[g]

Ory

ctant

hus a

lveo

latu

s (K

unth

) Kui

jtT

KP0

085

piki

fouk

aka

(Sa)

**

[g]

Ory

ctant

hus fl

orul

entu

s (R

ich.

) Tie

gh.

TK

P005

4pi

kin

fook

aka

(Au)

, pik

i fou

ka

ka (S

a)**

*, [3

], **

1

Ory

za sa

tiva

L.T

VA55

83ku

li al

isi (S

a)[1

]

1al

isi (A

u)

Pach

ira n

ervo

sa (U

ittie

n) F

ern.

Alon

soG

BA00

67yo

ngoo

(Sa)

**

[g]

Parin

ari c

ampe

stris

Aubl

.SR

U10

04fu

ngu

pau

(Sa)

[2]

1

fung

u (A

u)

Park

ia n

itida

Miq

.SR

U05

47ga

an p

au (S

a)**

1

dodo

misi

nga

(Au)

Pa

rkia

pen

dula

(Will

d.) W

alp.

SRU

0965

ahw

a (S

a)[1

]

1kw

atak

ama

(Au)

Pa

rkia

ulei

(Har

ms)

Kuh

lm.

SRU

0792

awha

(Sa)

[6]

1

kwat

akam

a uw

ii (A

u)

Pasp

alum

conj

ugat

um P.

J. Be

rgiu

sK

VP0

017

long

gaa

si (A

u), p

ipap

au a

hun

(Sa)

[1],

[2]

1

Passi

flora

foet

ida

L.K

GP0

016

sinde

kim

akud

ya (S

a)**

[a

]Pa

ssiflo

ra sp

. -

piki

mak

udya

(Sa)

*

[d]

Paul

linia

pin

nata

L.

TVA

4907

feifi

fing

a (A

u), f

eifi

finga

uw

ii (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Paul

linia

sp.

TVA

5014

fejfi

fing

a (A

u)**

*

[d]

Pepe

rom

ia p

elluc

ida

(L.)

Kun

thSR

U06

26ko

nsak

a uw

ii (A

u, S

a)[1

]1

Pe

pero

mia

qua

dran

gula

ris (J

.V.Th

omps

.) A.

Die

tr.T

VA51

18ga

an ti

bi (A

u)[7

]

1ko

nsak

a uw

ii (S

a)

Pepe

rom

ia ro

tund

ifolia

(L.)

Kun

thSR

U09

17tis

iyi (

Sa)

[1]

1

piki

n ku

ku (A

u)

Pfaffi

a gl

omer

ata

(Spr

eng.

) Ped

erse

nSR

U07

13ko

ndol

inga

(Sa)

[2]

1

kini

kini

(Au)

Ph

enak

ospe

rmum

guy

anne

nse (

A.R

ich.

) End

l. ex

Miq

.SR

U04

75pa

lulu

(Sa)

**

[g]

Philo

dend

ron

defle

xum

Poe

pp. e

x Sc

hott

TVA

5100

asya

n te

tei (

Au)

[1]

[g

]Ph

ilode

ndro

n he

dera

ceum

(Jac

q.) S

chot

t K

GP0

004

ayee

uw

ii (A

u), a

baas

a (S

a)[1

]1

Ph

ilode

ndro

n in

signe

Sch

ott

SRU

0692

boon

tapu

(Sa)

**

[g]

Tabl

e A

1 | C

ontin

ued

3


93


Spec

ies w

ith

auth

oriz

atio

n C

olle

ctio

n nu

mbe

rVe

rnac

ular

pla

nt n

ames

wit

h lo

cal l

angu

ages

(d

atab

ase)

Ref

eren

ces

Spec

ies i

n A

u/Sa

are

a (d

atab

ase)

Spec

ies i

n

Au/

Sa a

rea

(lit

erat

ure)

Vern

acul

ar p

lant

na

mes

wit

h lo

cal

lang

uage

s (lit

erat

ure)

Spec

ies n

ot re

port

ed in

A

u/Sa

are

a, re

fere

nce

to

occu

rren

ce/ g

row

thfo

rmPh

ilode

ndro

n lin

naei

Kun

thIV

L013

6bo

onta

pu (S

a)**

[g

]Ph

orad

endr

on p

erro

ttetii

Nut

t.T

VA54

85ka

ntya

nkam

a (A

u), p

iki f

o ka

ka (S

a)[1

]: *

1

Phth

irusa

pyr

ifolia

(Kun

th) E

ichl

erSR

U08

11pi

kifo

ukak

a (S

a)**

[g

]Ph

thiru

sa st

elis (

L.) K

uijt

TK

P004

3pi

kin

foo

kaka

(Au)

, pi

kifo

ukak

a (S

a)[1

], **

1

Phyll

anth

us a

mar

us S

chum

ach.

& Th

onn.

TVA

4870

ahen

i (Sa

)[1

]

1fin

ibita

(Au)

Ph

yllan

thus

urin

aria

L.

SRU

0865

finib

ita (S

r)1

[2]

[a

]Ph

ysal

is an

gula

ta L

.SR

U09

12av

atet

e (S

a)**

1

afat

ete

Au)

Pi

nzon

a co

riace

a M

art.

& Z

ucc.

SRU

0833

faya

tata

i (Sa

)**

[g

]Pi

per a

dunc

um L

.T

VA49

32ga

anm

a ud

u an

u (A

u)[1

]

1tis

iyi (

Sa)

Pi

per a

noni

foliu

m (K

unth

) Ste

ud.

TVA

5018

ampu

ku u

wii

(Au)

[1]

1

kaba

na u

du (S

a)

(Au)

, gab

ana

udu

(Sa)

(A

u), g

aban

a ud

u (S

a)

Pipe

r arb

oreu

m A

ubl.

SRU

0985

piki

n ka

mik

indi

(Au)

, m

alem

beto

ko (S

a)[1

]1

Pipe

r bar

tling

ianu

m (M

iq.)

C. D

C.

GBA

0003

blak

a ku

laka

teng

a (A

u);

kula

kate

nge

(Sa)

[4],

**1

Pipe

r cf.

avell

anum

(Miq

.) C

. DC

.SR

U09

86ku

laka

teng

a (S

a)**

[g

]Pi

per h

ispid

um S

w.SR

U09

23m

alem

beto

ko (S

a)**

[g

]Pi

per m

argi

natu

m Ja

cq.

TK

P000

9m

alem

bele

mbe

(Au,

Sa)

[1],

[2]

1

Pipe

r pelt

atum

L.

KV

K02

38ga

an m

alem

bele

mbe

(Sa)

[2]

[a

]Pi

per s

p.

TVA

5107

book

o ki

ndi (

Au)

[5]

[d

]Pi

tyro

gram

ma

calo

mela

nos (

L.) L

ink

KV

K00

93w

eti b

aka

(Sa)

[2]

[a

]Po

rtul

aca

oler

acea

L.

KV

K00

98po

sen

(Au)

, bem

be (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Po

uter

ia c

f. cu

spid

ata

(A. D

C.)

Baeh

niK

VK

0204

akar

a (S

a)[7

]

[g]

Pout

eria

engl

eri E

yma

ARV

0022

awa

pau

(Sa)

[6]

[g

]Pr

ados

ia su

rinam

ensis

(Eym

a) T

.D.P

enn.

TVA

4977

kim

boto

(Au)

***

[g

]Pr

otiu

m h

epta

phyll

um (A

ubl.)

Mar

chan

dT

VA48

16tin

gi m

oni (

Au)

[1]

1

busi

kade

a (S

a)

Pseu

dopi

ptad

enia

suav

eolen

s (M

iq.)

J.W. G

rimes

ARV

0042

piki

mii

siki (

Sa)

[2]

1

piki

nmisi

ki (A

u)

Psid

ium

acu

tang

ulum

Mar

t. ex

DC

.SR

U09

19al

asa

(Sa)

[6]

[g

]Ps

idiu

m g

uaja

va L

.T

VA51

29ng

obay

a (Au

), gu

yaba

uw

ii (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Ps

idiu

m g

uine

ense

Sw.

TVA

5439

liba

ngob

aya

(Au)

[5]

[g

]Ps

ycho

tria

apod

a St

eyer

m.

SRU

0341

aka(

ntas

i?) (S

a)[6

]

1m

anay

entin

tin (A

u)

Psyc

hotri

a ca

pita

ta R

uiz &

Pav

.SR

U09

33da

anda

n uw

ii (S

a)[2

]

[a]

Psyc

hotri

a offi

cinal

is (A

ubl.)

Rae

usch

. ex

Sand

with

SRU

0924

wom

i bob

i fiofi

o (S

a)**

[g

]

Tabl

e A

1 | C

ontin

ued

3

94


Spec

ies w

ith

auth

oriz

atio

n C

olle

ctio

n nu

mbe

rVe

rnac

ular

pla

nt n

ames

wit

h lo

cal l

angu

ages

(d

atab

ase)

Ref

eren

ces

Spec

ies i

n A

u/Sa

are

a (d

atab

ase)

Spec

ies i

n

Au/

Sa a

rea

(lit

erat

ure)

Vern

acul

ar p

lant

na

mes

wit

h lo

cal

lang

uage

s (lit

erat

ure)

Spec

ies n

ot re

port

ed in

A

u/Sa

are

a, re

fere

nce

to

occu

rren

ce/ g

row

thfo

rmPs

ycho

tria

sp.

KV

K01

03as

anti

(Sa)

[2]

[d

]Ps

ycho

tria

ulvi

form

is St

eyer

m.

SRU

0911

azau

nsap

atu

(Sa)

[1]

1

dubi

nsap

atu

(Au)

Q

uassi

a am

ara

L.T

VA47

84kw

asib

ita (S

a)[1

]

1kw

asib

ita (A

u)

Rene

alm

ia a

lpin

ia (R

ottb

.) M

aas

TVA

4747

gaan

mas

usa

(Au)

[1]

1

gaan

mas

isa (S

a)

Rene

alm

ia fl

orib

unda

K.S

chum

.T

VA54

46ba

aka

mas

usa

(Au)

[1]

1

piki

n m

asisa

(Sa)

Re

neal

mia

gui

anen

sis M

aas

SRU

0900

piki

n m

asus

a (S

a)[2

]

[g]

Rene

alm

ia sp

.K

VK

0245

gaan

mas

usa

(Sa)

[2]

[d

]Rh

izop

hora

race

mos

a G

.Mey

.T

VA51

34m

angu

(Au)

***

[f

]Rh

ynch

anth

era

gran

diflo

ra (A

ubl.)

DC

.SR

U09

07du

ku (S

a)[2

]

[e]

Ricin

us co

mm

unis

L.K

VK

0242

kaap

ata

(Sa)

[1]

1

kaap

ata

(Au)

Ri

nore

a fla

vesce

ns (A

ubl.)

Kun

tze

SRU

0843

gaan

kik

ise (S

a)**

[g

]Ro

land

ra fr

utico

sa (L

.) K

untz

e C

VK

31dy

adya

uw

í (Au

), bo

okop

angi

(S

a)[1

]: *

1

Sacc

haru

m o

fficin

ale L

.T

VA18

78ty

eni (

Sa)

[1]

1

tjen

(Au)

Sa

cogl

ottis

gui

anen

sis B

enth

.G

BA01

60ga

nmas

agon

(Sa)

[6]

[g

]Sc

heffl

era

sp.

- at

apel

e (S

a)**

[d

]Sc

leria

seca

ns (L

.) U

rb.

SRU

0699

keng

eesi

(Sa)

[2]

[a

]Sc

opar

ia d

ulcis

L.

SRU

0612

was

kon

de u

wii

(Au)

, lem

be

kond

e (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Sela

gine

lla n

ovae

-hol

land

iae (

Sw.)

Sprin

g C

VK

66ok

okoo

wa

(Sa)

*

[g]

Sela

gine

lla p

arke

ri (H

ook.

& G

rev.)

Spr

ing

SRU

0982

man

saka

man

g (A

u), o

koko

wa

(Sa)

[6],

**1

Senn

a la

tifol

ia (G

.Mey

.) H

.S. I

rwin

& B

arne

bySR

U08

57am

ooat

awe

(Sa)

**

[a]

Senn

a oc

ciden

talis

(L.)

Link

TK

P007

1ko

mat

isang

u (S

a)[2

]

1m

isi k

onde

uw

ii (A

u)

Senn

a qu

inqu

angu

lata

(Ric

h.) H

. S. I

rwin

& B

arne

byK

VK

0109

mam

ataw

e (A

u), a

moo

ataw

e (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Senn

a re

ticul

ata

(Will

d.) H

.S. I

rwin

& B

arne

byT

KP0

011

yonv

oudu

(Au)

1[2

]

1ny

ufod

u (A

u)

Senn

a sp

. -

okob

uka

(Sa)

**

[d]

Sim

aba

orin

ocen

sis K

unth

TVA

5403

tu e

de (A

u)**

[g

]Si

mar

ouba

am

ara

Aubl

.SR

U01

12ad

onisi

do (S

a)[6

]

[g]

Sipa

runa

gui

anen

sis A

ubl.

SRU

0618

feba

uw

ii (A

u), f

ebe

pau

(Sa)

[1],

[2]

1

Smila

x sch

ombu

rgki

ana

Kun

th -

agba

gom

aka

(Sa)

[1]

1

agw

ago

mak

a (A

u)

Sola

num

am

erica

num

Mill

.SR

U07

07A

gom

a uw

ii (S

a)[2

]

1go

ma

uwii

(Au)

So

lanu

m le

ucoc

arpo

n D

unal

SRU

0619

agbo

pau

(Sa)

[2]

1

man

anga

(Au)

So

lanu

m sp

. -

wom

iagb

opau

(Sa)

*

[d]

Sola

num

stra

mon

iifol

ium

Jacq

.T

PK00

48m

atun

ga m

aka

(Sa)

[2]

1

bigi

mak

a (A

u)

Sola

num

subi

nerm

e Jac

q.K

GP0

012

mak

a (S

a)[2

]

[a]

Tabl

e A

1 | C

ontin

ued

3


95


Spec

ies w

ith

auth

oriz

atio

n C

olle

ctio

n nu

mbe

rVe

rnac

ular

pla

nt n

ames

wit

h lo

cal l

angu

ages

(d

atab

ase)

Ref

eren

ces

Spec

ies i

n A

u/Sa

are

a (d

atab

ase)

Spec

ies i

n

Au/

Sa a

rea

(lit

erat

ure)

Vern

acul

ar p

lant

na

mes

wit

h lo

cal

lang

uage

s (lit

erat

ure)

Spec

ies n

ot re

port

ed in

A

u/Sa

are

a, re

fere

nce

to

occu

rren

ce/ g

row

thfo

rmSp

erm

acoc

e ala

ta A

ubl.

SRU

0910

jonk

u gb

egbe

(Sa)

**

[a]

Spha

gnet

icola

trilo

bata

(L.)

Prus

ki

CV

K45

azok

opam

pa (S

a)*

[a

]Sp

igeli

a an

thelm

ia L

.SR

U07

10(a

)don

goom

a (S

a)[2

]

1fo

to d

uung

uma

(Au)

Sp

ondi

as m

ombi

n L.

SRU

0883

mom

be (S

a)[1

]

1m

ope

(Au)

St

achy

tarp

heta

caye

nnen

sis (R

ich.

) Vah

lSR

U10

13al

atul

abu

(Au,

Sa)

[1],

[2]

1

Stac

hyta

rphe

ta ja

mai

cens

is (L

.) Va

hlSR

U06

22al

atul

abu

(Sa)

[2]

[a

]St

igm

aphy

llon

sinua

tum

(DC

.) A.

Juss

.SR

U09

08dy

anga

(futu

)tata

i (Sa

)[2

]

[a]

Stru

chiu

m sp

arga

noph

orum

(L.)

Kun

tze

KV

K01

10se

igot

o (S

a)[2

]

1bo

bi fy

u fy

u (A

u)

bobi

fyu

fyu

(Au)

, ba

aká

muy

ee (S

a)

Stru

than

thus

syrin

gifo

lius (

Mar

t.) M

art.

- -

(Au)

[3]

1

piki

fow

u do

ti (S

a)

Swar

tzia

cf.

schom

burg

kii B

enth

.C

VK

65bu

gubu

gu (S

a)*

[g

]Sw

artz

ia sp

. C

VK

58ho

gipa

u (S

a)*

1

aya

udu

(Au)

Sy

mpl

ocos

gui

anen

sis (A

ubl.)

Gür

keK

VP0

015

ba-a

pa (S

a)[2

]

[g]

Syne

drell

a no

diflo

ra (L

.) G

aert

n.K

VP0

035

wol

o ta

pik

i a g

ajde

den

du

(Sa)

**

[a]

Syzy

gium

cum

ini (

L.) S

keel

sT

VA51

52dy

amu

(Au,

Sa)

***,

**

1

Syzy

gium

mal

acce

nse (

L.) M

err.

& L

.M. P

erry

TVA

1149

pom

erak

(Sr)

1 [2

]

[c]

Tabe

rnae

mon

tana

het

erop

hylla

Vah

lSR

U09

28bo

bi b

obi (

Sa)

**

[g]

Tabe

rnae

mon

tana

siph

ilitic

a (L

. f.)

Leeu

wen

b.SR

U09

18ka

piiw

a-uw

ii (S

a)[1

]

[g]

Tabe

rnae

mon

tana

und

ulat

a Va

hlK

VK

0022

kete

nge

posu

(Sa)

[1]

[b

]Ta

lisia

micr

ophy

lla U

ittie

nAR

V00

57sip

adun

gu (S

a)**

[g

]Ta

mar

indu

s ind

ica L

. -

tam

arin

de (N

l doo

r Sa

info

rman

t)[1

], [2

]

1ta

mal

en (A

u)

Tapi

rira

guia

nens

is Au

bl.

TVA

5311

daan

liba

(Au)

[1]

1

danl

iba

(Sa)

Te

ctaria

sp.

KV

P009

2m

akok

o ta

baku

(Sa)

**

[d]

Term

inal

ia a

maz

onia

(J.F

.Gm

el.)

Exel

l C

VK

104

anag

osut

i (Sa

)[7

]

1an

agos

uti (

Sa)

Te

rmin

alia

cata

ppa

L.T

VA18

53am

anda

pau

(Sa)

[1]

[c

]Te

trace

ra a

sper

ula

Miq

.T

KP0

042

dègi

bon

bon

(Sa)

**

[g]

Tetra

gastr

is al

tissim

a (A

ubl.)

Sw

art

GBA

0080

sali

(Sa)

**

1tin

gi m

oni (

Au)

Te

trapt

erys

stylo

pter

a A.

Juss

.SR

U10

05 -

(Sa)

**

[g]

Thely

pter

is lep

rieur

ii (H

ook.

) R.M

. Try

onSR

U09

27al

alal

abu

(Sa)

**

[g]

Theo

brom

a ca

cao

L.T

VA11

95su

kuat

i (Sa

)[1

]

[c]

Tibo

uchi

na a

sper

a Au

bl.

KG

P001

4bo

mbo

kasa

(Sa)

[2]

[e

]Ti

bouc

hina

gra

ndifo

lia C

ogn.

SRU

0716

was

duku

(Sa)

[2]

[e

]Ti

lesia

bac

cata

(L.)

Prus

ki

TK

P000

7ag

bo n

eku

(Sa)

[1]

1

piki

n ne

nge

sant

u (A

u)

Tabl

e A

1 | C

ontin

ued

3

96


Spec

ies w

ith

auth

oriz

atio

n C

olle

ctio

n nu

mbe

rVe

rnac

ular

pla

nt n

ames

wit

h lo

cal l

angu

ages

(d

atab

ase)

Ref

eren

ces

Spec

ies i

n A

u/Sa

are

a (d

atab

ase)

Spec

ies i

n

Au/

Sa a

rea

(lit

erat

ure)

Vern

acul

ar p

lant

na

mes

wit

h lo

cal

lang

uage

s (lit

erat

ure)

Spec

ies n

ot re

port

ed in

A

u/Sa

are

a, re

fere

nce

to

occu

rren

ce/ g

row

thfo

rmTr

attin

nick

ia c

f. la

wra

ncei

Stan

dl.

TVA

4926

aluw

au (S

a)[1

]

1bi

gi m

usat

ika

(Au)

Tr

ema

micr

anth

a (L

.) Bl

ume

CV

K83

tont

ontik

i (Au

), pi

ikut

upau

(S

a)[1

]1

Trip

ogan

dra

serru

lata

(Vah

l) H

andl

osT

KP0

032

lebi

gad

oded

e (A

u), b

e ga

du-

dede

-mi-d

ede

(Sa)

[1],

[2]

1

Unc

aria

gui

anen

sis (A

ubl.)

J.F.

Gm

el.

SRU

0107

popo

kain

anga

(Au)

, pa

paka

ihun

ya (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Uno

nops

is ru

fesce

ns (B

aill.

) R.E

. Fr.

SRU

0803

mam

ba (S

a)**

1

busis

unsa

ka (A

u)

Unx

ia ca

mph

orat

a L.

f.SR

U06

17ka

nfu

(bita

) (Sa

)**

, *

1fu

ku fu

ku b

ita (A

u)

Viro

la su

rinam

ensis

(Rol

. ex

Rottb

.) W

arb.

IV

L007

8sip

adu

(Sa)

[1]

1

mut

omba

(Au)

Vi

smia

caye

nnen

sis (J

acq.

) Per

s.SR

U08

71w

eti b

aka

pind

ya p

au (A

u, S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Vi

smia

gui

anen

sis (A

ubl.)

Per

s.T

VA47

70le

bi b

aka

piny

a (A

u), b

e ba

ka

pind

ya p

au (S

a)[1

], [2

]1

Vism

ia m

acro

phyll

a K

unth

TVA

5402

- (A

u), g

aan

be b

aka

piny

a pa

u (S

a)[3

], [2

]1

Voua

capo

ua a

mer

icana

Aub

l.SR

U07

91bo

anti

(Sa)

**

[g]

Voua

rana

gui

anen

sis A

ubl.

TVA

4939

bigi

ting

imon

i (Au

), sin

gaba

asi

(Sa)

[1],

[2]

1

Wal

ther

ia in

dica

L.

SRU

0629

dusu

sum

a (S

a)[2

]

[a]

Xylo

pia

discr

eta

(L.f.

) Spr

ague

& H

utch

.T

VA47

36pe

drek

u (S

r)2

***

1

kuny

e (S

a)

Xylo

pia

frute

scens

Aub

l.SR

U07

20ku

ndye

e (S

a)[2

]

[d]

Zing

iber

offi

cinal

e Ros

coe

- ad

jindj

a (S

a)[1

]

1dj

indj

a (A

u)

Zing

iber

sp.

KV

P009

3da

gu a

dyin

dya

(Sa)

**

[d]

Zing

iber

zer

umbe

t (L.

) Ros

coe

ex S

m.

TVA

5084

djin

dja

mas

usa

(Au)

[1]

1

awoo

neng

e sa

ngaa

vu

(Sa)

Zygi

a ca

tara

ctae (

Kun

th) L

. Ric

o -

dyab

ee (S

a)*

[g

]Zy

gia

inae

qual

is (W

illd.

) Pitt

ier

TVA

5007

koia

wek

o (A

u)[1

]

[g]

Zygi

a la

tifol

ia (L

.) Fa

wc.

& R

endl

eT

VA50

04bu

asim

an w

eko

(Au)

[1]

[g

]Lo

cal l

angu

ages

abb

revi

ated

: (Au

) = A

ucan

, (D

u) =

Dut

ch, (

Sa) =

Sar

amac

can,

(Sr)

= S

rana

n To

ngo,

and

info

rmat

ion

shar

ed b

y: 1

= Sa

ram

acca

n in

form

ant,

2= A

ucan

info

rman

t (if

nece

ssar

y)

Col

lect

ors:

ARV

= A

. Ver

meu

len,

CV

K =

C. v

an ’t

Klo

oste

r, G

BA =

G. B

avay

, IV

L =

I. va

n de

r Lin

den,

KG

P =

K. G

ajap

ersa

d, K

VK

= K

. van

Ker

ckho

ve, K

VP

= K

. van

de

Putte

, SRU

= S

. Ru

yssc

haer

t, T

KP

= T.

Kop

pert

, TVA

= T

. van

And

el, -

= n

ot c

olle

cted

.Re

fere

nces

: [1]

Van

And

el a

nd R

uyss

chae

rt (2

011)

, [2]

Ruy

ssch

aert

et a

l. (2

009)

, [3]

Vos

sen

et a

l. (2

014)

, [4]

Gro

enen

dijk

(200

6), [

5] V

an A

ndel

et a

l. (2

008)

, [6]

Van

’t K

loos

ter e

t al.

(200

3),

[7] V

an A

ndel

et a

l. (2

014)

, * =

Van

’t K

loos

ter,

unpu

blish

ed fi

eldw

ork

data

, **

= Ru

yssc

haer

t, un

publ

ished

fiel

dwor

k da

ta, *

** =

Van

And

el, u

npub

lishe

d fie

ldw

ork

data

Occ

urre

nce/

grow

th fo

rm: [

a] c

omm

on w

eed/

sec

fore

st sp

ecie

s, [b

] com

mon

fore

st sp

ecie

s, [c

] wid

ely

culti

vate

d, [d

] unc

erta

in id

entifi

catio

n, [e

] sav

anna

(onl

y Sa

ram

acca

n), [

f] c

oasta

l are

a (o

nly

Auca

n), [

g] ra

info

rest.

Tabl

e A

1 | C

ontin

ued

3


97

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Transcript of Saamaka u ii: Saramaccan medical plant kno ledge, practices ...