Rock Fragmentation by Blasting - Taylor & Francis eBooks

Rock Fragmentation by Blasting contains the papers presented at the 10th

International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting (New Delhi, India,

26-29 November 2012), and represents the most advanced forum on blasting

science and technology. The contributions cover all major recent advancements in

blasting and fragmentation, from realistic treatment of the target rock; modelling,

measurement and prediction of blast results; control of blast-induced damage,

to special blast designs applicable to civil construction and demolition projects.

The latest developments on environmental issues associated with blasting

operations such as vibrations, flyrock, and dust are also included.

Rock Fragmentation by Blasting provides the state-of-the-art in explosives

and blasting engineering, and will be a valuable source of information for

researchers and practitioners involved in these areas.

Pradeep K. SinghAmalendu Sinha

Editors

Pradeep K. SinghAmalendu Sinha

Editors

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ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE 10TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY

BLASTING, NEW DELHI, INDIA, 26–29 NOVEMBER 2012

Rock Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast 10

Editors

Pradeep K. Singh & Amalendu SinhaCSIR – Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, Dhanbad, India

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CRC PressTaylor & Francis Group6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCCRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government worksVersion Date: 20130321

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-203-38767-2 (eBook - PDF)

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Rock Fragmentation by Blasting – Singh & Sinha (Eds)© 2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Table of contents

Foreword xi

Organising Institution xiii

Committees xv

Sponsors xvii

Section 1 - KeynotesLessons from single-hole blasting in mortar, concrete and rocks 3F. Ouchterlony & P. Moser

Frontiers and challenges in numerical simulation of the blasting process using the combined finite discrete element method 15A. Munjiza, V. Divic & B. Mohanty

Innovations in blast measurement: Reinventing the past 23A.T. Spathis

Status of characterization of strength and fracture properties of rocks under dynamic loading 41K. Xia

Section 2 - Rock Mass Characterisation and FragmentationCrack formation in rocks due to action of cemented carbide bits 55C. Nariseti, B. Mohanty & M. Keskiniva

On the branching-merging mechanism during dynamic crack growth as a major source of fines in rock blasting 65F. Ouchterlony & P. Moser

Applied method integrating rock mass in blast design 77A.C. Sauvage

Limits blast design: Controlling vibration, gas pressure & fragmentation 85C.K. McKenzie

Blast optimisation through computer modelling of fragmentation, heave and damage 95P.C. Dare-Bryan, S. Mansfield & J. Schoeman

Use radar reflectivity as possibility for measurements of fragmentation during the blasting 105C. Drebenstedt & J. Ortuta

Influence of initiation point position on fragmentation by blasting in iron ore 111Y. Long, M.S. Zhong, Q.M. Xie, X.H. Li, K.J. Song & K. Liao

Fragmentation in production rounds and mill through-put in the Aitik copper mine, a summary of development projects 2002–2009 117F. Ouchterlony, P. Bergman & U. Nyberg

Drilling and blasting technics by underground magnesite mining at Slovakia 129V. Bauer

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A new tool for homogenization of jointed rock masses using wave propagation analysis 137H. Gasmi, S. Yahyaoui & E. Hamdi

SPH procedures for failure analysis of circular rock disk under distributed arc loading 145D. Deb & R. Pramanik

Section 3 - Blast DesignQuantification of the effect of inaccurate drilling on the risk of poor fragmentation and increased blast hazard 153E. Sellers, M. Kotze & M. Mthalane

Ultra-high intensity blasting for improved ore comminution 163G.F. Brent, M.D. Rothery, P.C. Dare-Bryan, S.J. Hawke, R. Gomez & I. Humeres

Development of engineering blasting techniques in China 171X.G. Wang

Investigation of blast design parameters to optimize fragmentation 181S.P. Singh & H. Abdul

Causes of toe formation at dragline bench and its remedial measures 187P.K. Singh, M.P. Roy, A. Sinha, B. Singh & V.K. Singh

Rockbursts provoked by destress blasting in hard coal longwall mining 193P. Konicek, K. Soucek, L. Stas & A. Przeczek

Burden and spacing influence in ground vibration attenuation at coal overburden blast 203V.L. Rosenhaim, J.F. Feijó, E. Munaretti & J.F. Koppe

The effects of delay time sequence and charge per delay on ground vibration: A case study 207U. Ozer, A. Karadogan, U. Kalayci, Z. Guclucan & M. Akgul

Numerical simulation for the influence of delay time on the rock fragmentation 213C. Yi, D. Johansson, U. Nyberg & J. Sjöberg

Effect of production blasts on waste dump stability 221P.K. Singh, M.P. Roy, R.K. Paswan, V.K. Singh, A. Sinha, V.K. Singh, P.K. Sinha & C.P. Singh

Blast optimization at Sindesar Khurd underground mine to improve productivity with reduced level of vibration 231A.K. Lal, M. Daripa, A. Kumar, V. Chittora, M.P. Roy & P.K. Singh

ECOFRO, an eco comparison tool for methods of rock fragmentation 241J.-F. Couvrat, J.-R. Dernoncourt & F. Martareche

Controlling vibrations caused by underground blasts in LKAB Malmberget mine 249Z.X. Zhang

Section 4 - Blast ModellingApplication of stochastic approach to predict blast movement 257W.D. Rogers & S.S. Kanchibotla

Modelling the extent of damage from fully coupled explosive charges 267I. Onederra, J.K. Furtney & E. Sellers

Simple models for the complex process of rock blasting 275J.K. Furtney, E. Sellers & I. Onederra

Computer modelling of cast blasting to calculate the variability of swell in a muckpile 283P.C. Dare-Bryan, B. Pugnale & R. Brown

A study of the effect of rock bridges on blast-induced wave propagation in jointed media 295A. Mortazavi & M. Sharafisafa

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Piston models for airblast due to the bulk movement of ground 301D.P. Blair

Modification of the RHT model for enhanced tensile response predictions of geologic materials 309A.S. Tawadrous, D.S. Preece & J.P. Glenville

A statistical model of fragmentation 325J. Zimmerling & R. Alkins

Definition of quality of materials fragmented by blast with use of the computer program 335N.N. Kazakov & A.V. Shlyapin

Section 5 - Blast Monitoring & InstrumentationA method to determine 3-D dynamic strain tensor based on displacement gradientsfrom blast vibration and field test results 341R. Yang & K. Ray

Measurement errors in vibrations from blasting 349P. Segarra, J.A. Sanchidrián, L.M. López & A. Llamas

The dynamics and fragmentation of blasted ore slices in scaled sublevel caving and slab models followed by accuracy analysis of the “Volume weight method” used for determination of ore content at loading 357A. Rustan

Burden movement in confined drift wall blasting tests studied at the LKAB Kiruna SLC mine 373M. Wimmer, A. Nordqvist, F. Ouchterlony, U. Nyberg & J.K. Furtney

Investigation of the relationship between blasting pile density and loader productivity 385A. Tosun, G. Konak, D. Karakus, A.H. Onur & T. Toprak

Advanced understanding of the mechanism of air-deck blasting: A numerical approach 391M.A. Abdalla, P. Hagan & D. Chalmers

A design of remote real-time calibration and vibration measurement platform based on the grid 397Y. Gao, X. Wang, G. Yang & G. Qu

Improving blasting operations using data management and analysis 403C.P. Parihar & S. Bhandari

The monitoring and analysis of vibrations generated by blasting in Fangmayu Iron Mine 411T.J. Tao, G.Q. Zhang & X.G. Wang

Section 6 - Blast VibrationsThe development of a trivariate statistical blast vibration model that seeks to respect both the difference between types of seismic waves and their attenuation rates 417W.J. Birch & T.J. White

Phase—the forgotten problem of blast vibration prediction 425W.J. Birch, L. Bermingham, S. Hosein, T.J. White & R. Farnfield

A comprehensive assessment of ground vibrations and structural damage caused by blasting 433P. Pal Roy

Measurement and analysis of vibration interrelated collapse process in directional blasting demolition of a high-rise frame-shear structure building 443X.Q. Xie, Y.S. Jia, C.W. Han, H.G. Wang & C.B. Liu

Study of blasting vibration effects based on energy input 449C. En-an, Z. Ming-sheng, H. Tie-zhu & W. Dan-dan

Concept of effective explosive weight per delay for prediction of vibration in open-pit blasting 457M.P. Roy, P.K. Singh, V.K. Singh, G. Senapati, A.K. Mishra & M. Jawed

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Comparison of two near-field blast vibration estimation models: A theoretical study 465S. Arora, P. Murmu & K. Dey

An equivalent simulation method for whole time-history blasting vibration 473J.H. Yang, W.B. Lu, M. Chen, P. Yan & P. Li

Evaluation of the effect of ground vibration due to blasting on adjacent structures in dam construction projects 483H.B. Amnieh & A. Siamaki

Analysis of peak particle velocity recorded at underground mine roof generated by nearby surface blasting: A case study 489A.K. Singh & A.K. Jha

ANN approach for blast vibration control in limestone quarry 495S.S. Rathore, S.C. Jain & S. Parik

Section 7 - Health, Safety & EnvironmentToxicity of blasting fumes as a function of time after blasting 503P.D. Katsabanis & K. Taylor

Fines and dust generation and control in rock fragmentation by blasting 511S. Bhandari

Techniques for the control of environmental blast impacts 521A.B. Richards & A.J. Moore

Parameters of dust-gas cloud spread resulting from a caving-in explosion 529K.N. Trubetskoy, S.D. Victorov, V.M. Zakalinsky, A.N. Kochanov & M.B. Etkin

Validation of underwater blast emissions modelling in relation to the protection of marine fauna 533R.A. Godson, A. Parker & S.C. Brown

Safety analysis of blasting near natural gas pipeline 541Y. Jinjie, L. Wanyou, W. Guizhu & C. Minhui

Theoretical considerations and control measures for dust reduction during building demolition by blasting 545Z.J. Li & B.X. Zheng

Quantification of the levels of risk of flyrock 549A. Blanchier

Analysis of blasting related accidents with emphasis on flyrock and its mitigationin surface mines 555A.K. Mishra & D.K. Mallick

Spatial distribution of flyrock using EDA: An insight from concrete model tests 563A.K. Raina, A.K. Soni & V.M.S.R. Murthy

Section 8 - Innovative Blasting TechnologiesShock initiation and malfunction of commercial explosives and accessories: An approach using the critical energy fluence 571P.D. Katsabanis

Evaluation of ANFO performance with cylinder test 579L.M. López, J.A. Sanchidrián, P. Segarra & M.F. Ortega

Research on performance of aluminum-fiber explosives 587M. Hong-hao, S. Zhao-wu & L. Xue-yan

Experimental research on bubble pulsation parameters in underwater explosion at unsteady pressure 593Z. Li, X. Su, H. Lin & L. Xue-jiao

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Measurement of borehole pressure during blasting 599G. Teowee & B. Papillon

Blasting using permitted P5 category explosive having higher air gap sensitivity with spacers for higher output 605M.O. Sarathy, N. Vidyasagar, S.K. Roy & R.R. Singh

Assessment of explosive charge factors in surface blasting using rebound hardness values of rocks 615C. Sawmliana, P. Pal Roy & R.K. Singh

Application of innovative techniques in blast design at RAM meeting its production targets 621R. Shrimali, P.K. Rajmeny, L.S. Shekhawat & A. Joshi

Intelligent mine blasting and its components 627C.P. Wu, B. Yu & X.C. Yang

Analysis and calculation of the reliability of complex logical initiating network system 631S. Qi, X. Fang, T. Guo, T. Liu & D. Li

Section 9 - Demolition BlastingProtection control technology adopted by demolition blasting 639W. Hao

Time constrained demolition of brick and mortar constructed rail-bridge 645S.K. Mandal, C. Sawmliana, R.K. Singh & P. Pal Roy

Numerical simulation of explosive demolition of a shear wall structure apartment 651H.-S. Kim, S.-H. Cho, H. Park & C.-G. Suk

Controlled blasting demolition of 7 joint buildings at the same time in urban area 655Y.S. Jia, C.W. Han, H.G. Wang & C.B. Liu

Fine demolition blasting for a concrete cofferdam on a concrete dam spill surface 663X. Cheng-guang

Blasting demolition of single tower cable-stayed unsafe bridge totaling 163 m in length 669X. Jun, Q. Jinfen, Z. Mingan & C. Bin

Blasting of a reinforced concrete chimney in a high position and in a complex environment 673L. Guojun & L. Rui

Suggested tamping materials for short length blast holes in explosive demolition operations 677H.-M. Kang, M.-Y. Shin, S.-K. Kim, S.-H. Cho, H. Park & C.-G. Suk

Section 10 - Rock Damage & Wall ControlEstimation of blast-induced damage through cross-hole seismometry in single-hole blasting experiments 685L.F. Trivino & B. Mohanty

Reflections on the functionality of pre-split blasting for wall control in surface mining 697W.R. Adamson

A numerical analysis of the presplitting controlled blasting method 707M. Sharafisafa & A. Mortazavi

Wall control by blasting optimization at “Las Cruces” open pit copper mine (Spain) 715M. Rocha, I. Carrasco, J. Castilla, S. Cooper & M.D. Rodríguez

Assessment of blast-induced damaged zone and its control 725C.H. Ryu, B.H. Choi & J.H. Jeong

Pre-split blasting for final wall control in a nuclear power project 731G. Gopinath, H.S. Venkatesh, R. Balachander & A.I. Theresraj

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The division of damage area under blasting vibration in rock mass slopes 741H. Fei, J. Tian, G. Wang & Y. Xia

A case study on wall stability at Rampura Agucha Mine using electronic blasting systems 747V.P. Joshi, A. Tripathi, R. Konidina & V. Misra

Blasting vibration control based on whole time-history response prediction of high rock slope 753P. Li, W.B. Lu, J.H. Yang, M. Chen & P. Yan

Investigation into effect of blasting on slope stability in opencast coal mines 763N.R. Thote & Ch. Venkat Ramana

Section 11 - Blasting for Civil Construction ProjectsVibration modeling of three eDev™ tunnel rounds in the Citybanan tunnel in Stockholm 771A.T. Spathis & M. Wheatley

Monitoring ground vibrations for predicting overbreak threshold levels in underground drivages 787K. Dey & V.M.S.R. Murthy

Controlled blasting for a metro rail project in an urban environment 793H.S. Venkatesh, G. Gopinath, R. Balachander, A.I. Theresraj & K. Vamshidhar

A preliminary empirical model for prediction of response spectra of blast vibrationsat construction sites 803I.D. Gupta & G.R. Tripathy

Section 12 - Case StudiesA specialised blasting technique to maintain better safety and productivity in limestone minesof JK Cement Works 817P.C. Dhariwal

Investigation of borehole aqua stemming blasting 823W. Yunmin, L. Weizhou, Z. Xiliang & Pengli

A scientific perspective of blasting in hot holes and reactive ground 827S.St.J. Tose

Experimental research on the mechanism of reinforcing soft clay ground by blasting 833Z.Y. Zhang, Y.S. Ye, H.L. Meng, N.H. Yang, Z.Y. Deng & J.K. Li

Closed accurate delay blasting on the structure of the influence spectrum analysis 839J. Yang, S.B. Li, J. Liu & W.X. Gao

Safe blasting practice near pump house structures: A case study 845P.K. Satpathy & P. Kumar

Author index 851

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Foreword

The FRAGBLAST (International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting) symposia represent the worldwide gatherings of researchers and practitioners involved with the advancement in the subject of fracture and fragmentation of rock through the use of explosives and related high-velocity impact processes. Since inception in 1983, these symposia have provided ideal forum for sharing the latest state of scientific and technical knowledge on all aspects of rock fragmentation and blasting.

FRAGBLAST 10, the tenth in this series, follows the high tradition set by its predecessors (the first one was held in Sweden, followed at 3–4 year intervals, in USA, Austria, Australia, Canada, South Africa, China, Chile and Spain) and aspires to set a new benchmark. It highlights the latest findings by researchers from around the world, and seeks to identify the challenges ahead in our understanding of the blasting process, and its control for improved economics and safety. The topics covered in this edition are wide-ranging, from detonation physics, fragmentation and blast-induced damage and their control, blast design, initiation systems, demolition projects, to environmental issues such as vibration, noise and fly rock hazard. The topics covered also include special blast designs in both open pit and underground operations, pitfalls in blasting vibration analysis, case histories involving demolition blasting and special blasting operations.

This symposium also collates some key papers on numerical modelling of fragmentation and heave processes; rock mass characterization and strength properties under high strain rate and the need to measure them under confinement; up-to-date review of small-scale experimental studies, considered essential for understanding of rock fragmentation on a large scale; and instrumentation, tools, and procedures employed in studying explosive behavior and blasting performance.

The outreach of the symposium is further augmented by four workshops, preceding the main event, on Explosive Performance, Blasting Practice, Fragmentation Analysis, and Tunnelling by Drilling and Blasting. The aim of these workshops is to apprise practitioners and operators in the field about the basics of explosives science and technology and field practice under varying conditions, and just as importantly, share their varied experiences. We hope that the message to be conveyed from this FRAGBLAST is that significant progress has been made since the last Fragblast held in Spain. It is still believed that true control and prediction of fracture and fragmentation behaviour needs further probing and validation in laboratory and field with state-of-the-art blasting practices.

We would be remiss in our duty if we do not acknowledge the help and co-operation we received not only from all the members of our National Organizing Committee but also from the members of the Fragblast International Organizing Committee (FIOC). The members of FIOC as well as researchers at large helped by critically reviewing all the submissions, without which we would not have been able to maintain the high standard of publication that is now expected of all FRAGBLAST Proceedings. Lastly, organizing an event of this size and scope would not have been possible without the generous financial support by our sponsors, to whom we owe a debt of gratitude.

We wish the FRAGBLAST community gathered at New Delhi a fruitful and memorable conference.

November, 2012 Pradeep K. SinghNew Delhi Amalendu Sinha

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Organising Institution

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Committees

PATRONS

• Prof. Samir K. Brahmachari, Director General, CSIR and Secretary, DSIR, New Delhi• Mr. Partho S. Bhattacharyya, Chairman, CSIR-CIMFR, Research Council, Dhanbad• Mr. Satish Puri, Director General of Mines Safety, DGMS, Dhanbad• Mr. S. Narsing Rao, Chairman-cum-Managing Director, Coal India Limited, Kolkata

CHAIRMAN ORGANISING COMMITTEE

• Dr. Amalendu Sinha, Director, CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad

ORGANISING SECRETARY & CONVENOR

• Dr. Pradeep K. Singh, Senior Principal Scientist, CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE

Prof. W.L. Fourney University of Maryland, USAProf. José A. Sanchidrián Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, SpainDocent Agne Rustan Retired from Luleå University of Technology, SwedenProf. Hans Peter Rossmanith Technical University, Vienna, AustriaProf. Sushil Bhandari Earth Resource Technology Consultants, IndiaDr. Cameron K. McKenzie Blastechnology, AustraliaProf. Bibhu Mohanty University of Toronto, CanadaProf. Xuguang Wang Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, ChinaMr. R. Frank Chiappetta Blasting Analysis International, USAMr. Carlos P. Orlandi Enaex Servicios S.A., ChileProf. Finn Ouchterlony Montanuniversitaet Leoben, AustriaProf. Kunihisa Katsuyama (Retired from) Ehime University, JapanDr. William Robert Adamson Davey Bickford, ChileProf. Panagiotis D. Katsabanis Queen’s University, CanadaProf. Peter Moser Montanuniversitaet Leoben, AustriaDr. Ken Qian Liu Xstrata Nickel, CanadaDr. Ewan Sellers African Explosives, South AfricaDr. A.T. Spathis Orica, AustraliaDr. Dale S. Preece Orica Mining Services, USA

REVIEW COMMITTEE

Prof. W.L. Fourney University of Maryland, USAProf. José A. Sanchidrián Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, SpainDocent Agne Rustan Retired from Luleå University of Technology, SwedenProf. Sushil Bhandari Earth Resource Technology Consultants, India

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Dr. Cameron K. McKenzie Blastechnology, AustraliaProf. Bibhu Mohanty University of Toronto, CanadaProf. Xuguang Wang Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, ChinaMr. R. Frank Chiappetta Blasting Analysis International, USAMr. Carlos P. Orlandi EnaexServicios S.A., ChileProf. Finn Ouchterlony Montanuniversitaet Leoben, AustriaDr. William Robert Adamson Davey Bickford, ChileProf. Panagiotis D. Katsabanis Queen’s University, CanadaProf. Peter Moser Montanuniversitaet Leoben, AustriaDr. Ken Qian Liu Xstrata Nickel, CanadaDr. Ewan Sellers African Explosives, South AfricaDr. A.T. Spathis Orica, AustraliaDr. Dale S. Preece Orica Mining Services, USADr. Pradeep K. Singh CSIR-Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, IndiaDr. Amalendu Sinha CSIR-Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, IndiaDr. Alastair Torrance Kilmorie Consulting, AustraliaDr. Alexander Hennig RWTH Aachen University, GermanyProf. Ali Mortazavi Amirkabir University of Technology, IranProf. Ajoy K. Ghose Formerly, Indian School of Mines, IndiaMr. Akhilesh Joshi Hindustan Zinc Ltd, IndiaMr. Ashok Kumar Singh Central Mine Planning & Design Institute, IndiaDr. AymanTawadrous Orica Mining Services, USAProf. C. Niemann-Delius RWTH Aachen University, GermanyProf. Carsten Drebenstedt Technical University, Freiberg, GermanyDr. Catherine T. Aimone-Martin New Mexico Tech, USAProf. Charles H. Dowding Northwestern University, USAProf. Claude Cunningham Blasting Investigations and Consultancy, South AfricaDr. Essaieb Hamdi Ecole Nationale D’Ingénieurs, TunisiaDr. Geoff F. Brent Orica Research and Development, AustraliaDr. Italo Andres Onederra CRC Mining – The University of Queensland, AustraliaProf. John Kemeny University of Arizona, USADr. Lina M. López Universidad Politécnica de Madrid – E.T.S.I. Minas, SpainDr. Michael Noy Orica, AustraliaDr. Pablo Segarra Universidad Politécnica de Madrid – E.T.S.I. Minas, SpainDr. Pijush Pal Roy CSIR-Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, IndiaProf. R.N. Gupta Consultant in Geotechnical/Rock Engineering, India Dr. Roger Holmberg Secretary General, EFEE, MaltaDr. Ruilin Yang Orica USA Inc, USAProf. S.P. Singh School of Engineering, Laurentian University, CanadaProf. Stanley Vitton Michigan Technological University, USAMr. Vinay Kumar Singh Northern Coalfields Limited, IndiaDr. William Birch Blastlog Ltd, United Kingdom

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Sponsors

Diamond Sponsor

Coal India Limited

Platinum Sponsors

Solar Industries India Limited

Orica

Deepak Fertilisers & Petrochemicals Corporation Ltd

Hindustan Zinc Limited (Vedanta Group Company)

Tata Steel

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Gold Sponsors

Singareni Collieries Company Limited

Jindal Steel & Power Limited

Silver Sponsors

NMDC Ltd.

Essel Mining & Industries Limited

National Aluminium Company Limited

Jaiprakash Industries Limited

Manganese Ore (India) Limited

Uranium Corporation of India Limited

EMTA Group of Companies

Sarda Mines Pvt. Ltd.

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Bronze Sponsors

Gujarat Mineral Development Corporation

IDL Explosives Limited

J.K. Cement

Hutti Gold Mines Limited

V.V. Mineral (VVM)

Navbharat Group of Companies

JSW Bengal Steel Ltd

Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited

Lunch Sponsor

Ganesh Explosive Pvt. Ltd

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Section 1 - Keynotes

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Lessons from single-hole blasting in mortar, concrete and rocks

F. Ouchterlony & P. MoserDept Min. Res. & Petr. Engng, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Austria

ABSTRACT: Due to the complexity of multi-hole blasting rounds, single-hole blasting has often been used in order to understand the fragmentation mechanisms. This paper reviews and reanalyzes single-hole blasting, in and rock like materials in small- to full-scale primarily from the point of view of dynamic breakage observations, breakage geometry and fragmentation. The paper ends with a list of common observations and an attempt to link breakage level in blasting to responsible crack types and character of the sieving curve.

How do blast-holes in a row and between rows interact or interfere with each other, construc-tively and destructively, in the breakage? If delay times are too long cracks have time to propagate and rigid body movement has time to develop so that shearing and tearing of neighboring unfired holes could occur etc. These holes will function improperly, fragmentation becomes coarser and the breakage irregular.

Many tests in various scales have been made to define the delay where fragmentation in bench blasting is finest and the recommended delays vary widely; inter-hole (in-row) 3–30 ms/m of bur-den and inter-row 7–70 ms/m, see e.g. Bhandari (1997).

Numerical simulations based on first principles are still far from being able to model the fragmentation processes so well that the effect of timing could be studied. Thus model scale testing is still attractive, see recent work on speci-mens with 2–3 rows of holes. The effects of short in-row delays in the range 0–2.1 ms/m of spacing, where shock-wave interactions were expected to enhance fragmentation, have e.g. been studied (Johansson & Ouchterlony 2012, Petropoulos

1 INTRODUCTION

A bench blasting round (Fig. 1) is by definition built up of a sequence of blast holes fired within a short overall time, often within 0,5 s.

An image of a blasting round gives an idea of the physical process, Figure 2. With a trained eye you can see the swelling of the burden volume, the extensive cracking of the bench face, blast fumes of different color and thus chemical composition shooting through the burden at isolated points, the uneven stemming ejections again with differently colored fumes, a confined toe movement giving an impression of quasi-static bending of the burden and the lateral bending of the face caused by each blast-hole. Some gases shooting out from the face may even get pulled back by the under pressure inside the round.

Figure 1. Geometry of bench blast (Olofsson 1991).

Figure 2. Single row blast with electronic detonators.


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et al. 2012). Schimek et al. (2012) made a com-parison of the fragmentation when using either the 2 ms/m delays or infinite delays, i.e. shooting the rows hole by hole. The observed effects have in both cases been rather smaller than expected so studying the long delay region is still of interest.

In order to obtain a better basis for interpret-ing future blasting tests and numerical simulations an extensive literature survey is being made of the simplest possible blast geometry; a single hole under bench like conditions. This paper reports parts of it.

2 SINGLE-HOLE BLASTING TESTS

Thousands of single-hole tests have been made in small- to full-scale. They may roughly be divided into the following geometries or cases, see Figure 3:

1. With toe, with or without subdrilling (3D)2. No toe, a) though-going hole (2D) or b) not

(3D)3. Asymmetric face, no toe, though-going hole

(3D)4. Small blocks or cylinders

− a) with asymmetric hole (2D–3D)− b) with symmetric hole (1D–2D).

Thus 1D to 3D indicates the geometrical complexity.

It is clear that case 1 (Fig. 3) simulates only the opening hole in a new row in the bench blast whereas case 3 (Fig. 4) is more representative of all the side holes that follow in the blast and hence of a bench blast itself. Relatively few tests have been made with this geometry.

Case 2, i.e. case 1 without subgrade, represents slab blasting in which a horizontal joint has relieved the toe confinement. It models the more easily bro-ken column part of a blast-hole in the bench.

Case 4b with a symmetric, often through-going hole in specimens with cylindrical or square cross section differs from the other cases in several ways. Firstly the hole is surrounded by ‘free faces’, which facilitates the breakage, unlike case 1 (1 free face) or case 3 (2 free faces). Secondly, the breakage geometry normally equals the whole specimen geometry.

Extensive testing with such specimens of case 4b has been reported by Reichholf (2004), Grasedieck (2006) and Johansson (2008) e.g. Ouchterlony & Moser (2006) compared such model blasting tests with full-scale bench blasts in the same rock mate-rial and found many similarities. Case 4b lies out-side the scope of the present manuscript.

We can divide the remaining tests into three groups, those that measure;

− breakage geometry and fragmentation post blast,

− this + blast damage/cracking behind the hole or− mainly the dynamics of the breakage.

The last group focuses on understanding the mechanisms of breakage. The former focus on the results and how they change with an input variable; burden, hole diameter, charge size Q, explosive etc., parameters that enter into normal blast design.

The most common result parameters are

Bcrit = critical burden (m) orQcrit = critical charge (kg)Mh = total broken (breakage) mass (kg)2α = breakage angle for opening hole (º)2β = breakage angle for side-hole (º)Wb = breakage width on bench face (m)Vb = breakage volume of single hole (m3)x50 = median fragment size (mm) including com-

plete sieving curves.

The severity of the blasting is often expressed in terms of the specific charge q (kg/m3). In bench blasting where the breakage volume is more or less determined by the design, there Vb ≈ B × S × H, the nominal specific charge. Then qnom = Q/Vb has the character of a governing input parameter.

In single-hole blasting Vb is however a result parameter that like 2α varies widely. Thus qbroken = Q/Vb is a mixed input-result parameter and not directly comparable with qnom. In some cases x50 = f(qbroken) is determined with the hope of Figure 3. Case 1, half of model with toe and subdrilling.

Figure 4. Case 3, bench with stepped face, breakage angle 2β.


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achieving a prediction equation like the Kuz-Ram eqn (Cunningham 1983). It is not however because qbroken is not an independent input parameter. Things get even more confused when qnom and qbroken are used side by side as equivalent blast descriptors, as happens.

Small-scale the models may be made of mortar, concrete or rock. The material being either virgin or artificially jointed. In half- and full-scale rock inhomogeneity, schistosity, natural jointing, blast damage cracks and geometrical imperfections complicate the breakage and our interpretations.

Even without the latter complications there are so many parameters to choose; material, H, B, subdrilling, hole diameter, explosive etc. that a comparison of different model tests is difficult and a scaling to full-scale conditions is well-nigh impossible. Yet the small- and full-scale results have much in common.

2.1 Dynamic breakage observations

Field & Ladegaard-Pedersen (1971) report single-shot tests in 60 × 60 × 85 mm blocks of PMMA with 30 mm deep, Ø1.5-mm bore-hole with a 4 mm bottom charge and a 15 mm burden, see Figure 5. The burden of B = 15 mm was chosen so that it would yield a conical boulder loosening from the face.

Three types of special tests were made and com-pared with free, straight face shots:

1. Spall plates of PMMA or steel were added to the bench face to swallow the reflected stress waves.

2. The bench face was shaped to either concentrate or disperse the reflected stress waves (Fig. 5).

3. The model was immersed in a liquid with the same impedance as PMMA, effectively moving the free faces of the block to large distances.

The presence of 3-mm spall plates suppressed crack growth towards the front face and no boul-ders were formed. The face shaping of (a) a double triangle bulge or (b) a concave circular 3-mm deep

dent reflects waves away from the hole and led to no break out. The convex bulge (c) concentrates the reflected waves towards the blast-hole and more damage and break-out occurred than for the straight face. Depending on the face geometry the radial crack pattern around the blast-hole looked different.

Field & Ladegaard-Pedersen (1971) conclude that: “All the experiments described in this section give further support to the view that the reflected stress wave is instrumental in determining the pat-tern of fracture”. At last they drive an argument about the difference in break-out angle between a concentrated (bottom) charge and an extended (column) one and conclude that “… The break-out angle would tend to be at its largest for shots with a large burden and charge length”. The anticipated effect of increasing burden is contradicted by most testing.

Wilson & Holloway (1987) did a thorough study of single-hole breakage in 8 concrete blocks of either 0,125 or 1 m3 in size. Two blocks with two holes, #9 and #10, were also shot, i.e. they reported 10 tests. Test #10 was special in that momentum traps with the same purpose as the spall plates were used on all sides but the burden face, see Figure 6.

The bore-holes were Ø = 6.4 mm (except test #7) and 10–20 cm deep. The holes were filled with 1.5–5 g of fully coupled, bottom detonated PETN under a stemming of clay and sand of about 1/3 of the hole length. Wilson & Holloway (1987) used strain gauges, accelerometers, crack gauges and high speed photography (35 000 frames/sec) to observe the dynamic breakage. The bench face was covered with a 1” × 1” grid of lines and the top surface with a set of concentric circles at a 1” radial distance, centered at the bore-holes to help the image interpretation. Figures 7 and 8 show two frames.

Figure 5. Blocks used by Field & Ladegaard-Pedersen (1971). Figure 6. Test #10, Wilson & Holloway (1987) figure 1.


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for many of the finer fragments from the break-age volume.

f. When the radial cracks reach the bench face and relieve the slabs, a release wave propagates back to the middle of the slab and the stresses oscil-late strongly.

g. At the bottom of the blast-hole the fixation causes the cracks emanating from the bottom to angle down toward the face.

h. The cracks near the top of the blast-hole grow faster and reach the face first. The circumfer-ential, cratering cracks on the face but near the bottom were caused when the slower cracks from bottom region reached the face. These cracks would only grow as long as there is suf-ficient gas pressure to drive them.

Winzer et al. (1983) summarize similar work by Winzer et al. (1979) in large limestone blocks with bedding planes and closed fractures. They agree on the time line of the fragmentation process given above and add:

i. The fracture pattern on the free face is well developed before the expected time of arrival of radial cracks from the blast-hole.

j. Gas venting occurs through already open cracks relatively late in the process, indicating that the majority of fractures observed on the bench face are not gas pressurized.

k. In blasted faces from production-scale shots, fractures are observed to have initiated at, and propagating from joints and bedding planes.

With these observations we have a good descrip-tion of the sequence of events during the fragmen-tation process from single blast holes and focus on the blast results reports.

2.2 The breakage angle and breakage mass

The breakage geometry for cases 1–2 is reasonably triangular with a couple of modifications. Breakage in cases 1 and 2b usually leaves a socket near the toe. The flanks of the breakage aren’t completely straight either, Figures 1 and 7. Nevertheless the breakage angle 2α between the flanks gives a good idea about the breakage geometry.

Table 1 gives a set of data using a constant charge size Q with the range values arranged in order of increasing burden B. In some cases an equivalent breakage angle was computed from the weighed breakage masses, assuming straight flanks, i.e. 2αmass = 2 ⋅ atan[Mh/(ρB2H)] and in one case from the breakage width, 2αwidth = 2 ⋅ atan(0.5 ⋅ Wb/B). A typical curve of 2α(B) looks like in Figure 9.

The breakage in Figure 9 up to B = 43 mm consists of a ‘full crater’ with two flank cracks

Figure 7. Top (lower) and face (upper) of test #8, 1421 μs after detonation. Wilson & Holloway (1987) figure 4C.

Figure 8. Face of test #3, after 764 μs with crack network initiated at the face. Wilson & Holloway (1987) figure 5C.

The following is an excerpt from Wilson & Hol-loway’s (1987) summary:

a. The fractures formed early in the event play a very important part in the fragmentation. These are first the radial cracks emanating from the blast-holes (Fig. 7) and second the crack net-work formed on the bench face by the tensile tangential stress formed from wave reflection at the face (Fig. 8).

b. If the loading is intense enough spall fractures will form below the surface, roughly orthogonal to the radial fractures.

c. The fractures propagating inward from the bench face provide the first relief for the bur-den. Meanwhile those outwardly propagating radial fractures that are favorably oriented with respect to the front of the reflected wave will dominate and define the breakage angle.

d. From here on the energy to create additional fracture surface comes from the gas pressure remaining in the blast-hole and penetrating into the cracks. Few new cracks are formed during this period.

e. The burden in these specimens of virgin mate-rial forms a slab like element that is supported at the ends till the radial cracks reach the bench face. At mid-span it is broken or weakened by the crack network. This network is responsible


7

Figure 9. Breakage angle data, Storugns limestone, Nie (1988).

Table 1. Data for breakage angle vs. burden, B (m) in linear fit.

Case(no)

B(mm/m)

2α range(°)

2α linear fit(°) Reference

1 20–451 158–133m 151–117B Bhandari (1975a,b)

1 20–45 147–135w 144–39B Bhandari (1975a,b)

2a 15–65 160–120m 160–620B Vutukuri &Rustan (1983)

2a 5–43 151–128 151–490B Nie (1988)2b 180–430 153–110 Neg slope Bilgin et al.

(1999)2a 0.1–0.92 150–180 151+24B Persson et al.

(1969)1 1.0–4.2 159–140m 166–7B Nie (1988)1 3.0–5.1 153–113 207–18B Bilgin (1991)1 1.4–3.0 148–115 180–22B Bilgin et al.

(1993)1 0.9–2.8 137–101 175–53B Pham (2011)

Notes 1: mm, 2: m, m: mass based, w: breakage width based.

breaking out. For larger burdens only one crack flank breaks out. One column in Table 1 gives linear fits to angle data when the breakage is ‘acceptable’ (two flanks). The slope is negative, if not always significantly so, in all cases except the tests of Persson et al. (1969) in Misterhult granite. See Figures 10 and 11.

The Misterhult craters are concave (bowl-shaped) with very flat flank angles near the blast hole. A breakage angle calculation based on break-age mass or width would obviously have given smaller values. A comparison of the Bhandari data in Table 1 indicates a certain concavity in his cra-ters too.

Figure 10. Breakage angle data, Misterhult granite, (Persson et al. 1969).

Figure 11. Misterhult ‘crater’. Persson et al. 1969, figure 1c.

Instead of doing repeated tests with holes that are parallel to the free face but have different bur-dens Wimmer (2007) drilled angled holes into small mortar blocks and in drift walls in a mine with the aim of finding the critical burden or ‘blastability’ of the rock/mortar. The holes were bottom initi-ated and the ensuing craters were measured with stereophotogrammetry. He found that as the bur-den gets progressively deeper the sections of cra-ters go from flat and bowl shaped via triangular to funnel shaped (convex), see Figure 12.

Wimmer (2007) also defines a shape factor SF = 2 ⋅ section area of breakage/(Wb ⋅ B) − 1 to describe this change in shape. For small burdens the crater is shaped like an isosceles trapezoid (SF > 0) and near the critical burden it becomes triangular (SF = 0) or even funnel-shaped (SF < 0).

In Nie’s (1988) model tests (case 2a) the craters are quite triangular shaped and the breakage mass Mh increases ∝ B1.75 as long as both flanks break out, i.e. till B = 43 mm, and then Mh drops suddenly to almost half when B = 45 m, see Figure 13.

The B-exponent of 1.75 < 2.0 expresses that the breakage angle decreases with increasing burden. The full-scale shots in Storugns limestone follow a similar trend, Mh ∝ B1.5 until B = 4.2 m and then Mh drops to zero when B = 5.0 m.

The maximum in the Mh(B) curve is not as dis-tinct in other cases. For Bhandari’s (1975a,b) tests


8

in mortar models with a toe (case 1) Mh peaks at B = 40 mm. It is still a substantial fraction of the maximum though when B = 45 or 50 mm, 2/3 or more. Bilgin (1991) also found a smoother maxi-mum when blasting in 9-m benches with iron ore, see Figure 14. The breakage volume (Vb = Mh/ρ) peaked when B = 4.0 m and was still 2/3 of that when B = 5.6 m.

One may speculate that it is the influence of the confined toe (case 1) that causes this behavior. The full-scale shots at Storugns (case 1) may be more like case 2 because of the existence of a closely spaced sub-horizontal jointing that ‘frees’ the toe breakage.

Figure 12. Progression of crater flank shapes with increasing burden. Wimmer et al. (2008), figure 1.

Figure 13. Breakage mass, Storugns limestone, Nie (1988).

Figure 14. Breakage volume, Dirge mine, Bilgin (1991).

2.3 Fragmentation

The Swebrec distribution (Ouchterlony 2005, 2009) often does an excellent job in fitting the siev-ing curves from blasting tests at all scales. Here an extension of the basic version with 4 parameters is used.

P(x) = A/{1 + [ln(xmax/x)/ln(xmax/x50)]b}with A ≤ 1 or 100% and x ≤ xmax. (1)

When A = 100%, x50 denotes the median frag-ment size, P(x50) = 50%. When A < 100%, x50 cor-responds to P(x50) = (A/2)%. If A > 50% the real median could easily be calculated but not when A < 50%. xmax denotes the max fragment size and b is a curvature exponent to be determined by the fitting.

Fitting P(x) to the single-hole subset of Bhandari’s (1975a,b) case 1 test data for mortar and granite where B = 20–50 mm one obtains a tendency illustrated by the sequence of curve fits in Figures 15 to 17.

The critical burden is around Bcrit ≈ 55 mm. For burdens B < 0.5 ⋅ Bcrit the whole data set is excel-lently reproduced by the basic Swebrec function (A = 100%). The coefficient of determination is frequently r2 ≥ 0.995. This is called curve type 1 or regular breakage or fragmentation, see Figure 15.

When B > 0.5 ⋅ Bcrit the fits with A = 100% become progressively worse and the fragmenta-tion becomes one of dust and boulders, i.e. some large discrete blocks (boulders) and a tail of finer material (dust). This is called curve type d + b or marginal breakage. If one or more data for the


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Nie’s (1988) case 2 test data for Storugns limestone where B = 5.4–55 mm show the same behavior, see Figures 18 to 20.

So do the extensive case 2 test data of Vutukuri & Rustan (1983), see Table 2. The Swebrec function with A < 100% fits the dust tails of the d + b cases quite well.

This excellent fit of the Swebrec function to the dust tails occurs for numerous other test data:

− Rustan et al. (1984), case 2 mortar tests with stemmed holes.

Figure 15. Test #12, Ø6.4 mm, B = 25 mm, Bhandari (1975a,b).



larger mesh sizes are removed so that only the tail remains, the Swebrec function with A < 100% gives a remarkably good fit, see Figures 16 and 17 for which B = 35 mm, A = 100% and r2 = 0.9997 and B = 40 mm, A = 25.9% and r2 = 0.9985 respectively.

Figure 18. B = 5.5 mm, A = 100%, r2 = 0.9976. Nie (1988).

Figure 19. B = 30.2 mm, A = 63.8%, r2 = 1.0000. Nie (1988).

Figure 20. B = 42.9 mm, A = 2.0%, r2 = 0.9921. Nie (1988).

CH001_Paper 206.indd 9CH001_Paper 206.indd 9 10/3/2012 8:35:06 PM10/3/2012 8:35:06 PM

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− Yang & Rustan (1983), case 2 mortar slab tests with jointing.

− Wimmer (2007), case 4a mortar block shots with partial breakage.

− Micklautsch (2002), case 4b, mortar block sur-rounded by eight intact blocks.

− Johansson & Ouchterlony (2012), five-hole row shots in mortar with a confined face, etc.

An important point is brought home by the test data of Efremov et al. (1980). They made smaller blocks of sand-cement; either 50 × 50 × 50, 50 × 50 × 100, 60 × 60 × 100 or 100 × 100 × 100 mm in size. These sub-units were then assembled into a slab model of size 300 × 300 × 100 mm, see Figure 21, to simulate the effect of open joints in a rock mass.

Efremov et al. (1980) made two tests series with this set-up; 1) slabs 1–5 blasted with a constant charge but sub-units of various sizes and 2) slabs 6–10 with 72 50 × 50 × 50 mm sub-units were blasted with charges of different sizes.

For all slabs there are sub-unit blocks that are intact after blasting. These are clear cut cases of ‘dust and boulders’. The entry ‘fines tail’ in Table 3 refers to the relative number of fragmented blocks. The intact sub-units are always boulders, some-times moderately fragmented sub-units would also be boulders.

The column with A-values refers to the values obtained from the fitting. In most cases the A-values pick up the independent fines tail calculations reasonably well and the r2-values are in most cases quite high. This substantiates the previ-ous interpretation of diagrams like Figures 16–17 and 19–20 as consisting of a Swebrec like fines tail (dust) and larger individual blocks (boulders).

For a given charge size (slabs 1–5) the smaller the sub-unit blocks, generally the larger the number of intact ones after blasting. Thus the open joints attenuate the waves and the smaller blocks may also be stronger than the larger ones (Efremov et al. 1980).

For a given size of building block (slabs 6–8) a quadrupling of the charge increases the number of broken blocks by a factor two or less. The fines

tail is in all ten cases except slab #2 less than 50%. Hence (except for slab 2) x50 doesn’t react at all to the changes made in the testing! It is follows that x50 is not an especially representative descriptor of a dust and boulders fragmentation. The same may be concluded for Micklautsch’s (2002) test results.

To compare Nie’s (1988) model-scale fragmenta-tion data with other blasting data one may define qequiv = Q/(H ⋅ B2), an equivalent specific charge, to avoid the contradictions in using qbroken = Q/Vb.

This corresponds to a breakage angle of 2α = 90º for the opening hole (case 2b) or S = B for the side holes (case 3). It would be possible to calculate a qnom based on a constant average breakage angle (opening hole) or a nominal spacing value S = 1,3B e.g. for side holes. This would however only shift the data by a constant in the log-log diagram below.

Figure 22 is a plot of x50 vs. qequiv. It shows that, except for two unexplained data given by

Table 2. Character of breakage (regular = 1, d + b or PB) for case 2a test results from Vutukuri & Rustan (1983).

B, mm 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 65 70

Aerated concrete −1 1 1 1 1 1 d + b d + b d + b 69.02

Magnetic mortar 1 1 1 d + b d + b d + b PB 49.8 − −Kallax gabbro 1 1 d + b d + b 36,7 − − − − −Öjebyn granite 1 1 d + b d + b PB PB 47.7 − − −Henry quartzite 1 1 d + b d + b d + b 41.5 − − − −Loussav. magnetite 1 1, d + b d + b d + b PB 40.6 − − − −

Notes 1: not tested, 2: Bcrit in mm, PB: partial breakage.

Figure 21. 300 × 300 mm frame, 100 mm deep filled with 50 × 50 × 50 or 50 × 50 × 100 mm blocks. Open joints. Shaded blocks were crushed by blast of model 6, 2 × 36 = 72 blocks.


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Table 3. Swebrec curve fits to fines from Efremov et al. (1980).

Slab#—expl.

Sub-unit blocks(mm) No. of blocks Intact after

Fines tail, %

A,% r2

1–3 g 100 × 100 × 100 9 5 43.1 43.1 0.9782–3 g 50 × 50 × 100 36 14 61.5 25.6 0.9993–3 g 60 × 60 × 100 25 16 36.4 50.2 0.9974–4 g 50 × 50 × 50 72 52 28.0 27.7 0.9935–3 g Mixed sizes 39 30 25.5 89.7 0.9941–5 ave Mixed sizes 181 117 38.9 39.2 0.9966–1 g 50 × 50 × 50 72 62 14.3 16.6 0.9947–2 g 50 × 50 × 50 72 60 16.8 10.6 0.9968–4 g 50 × 50 × 50 72 52 28.0 27.5 0.9939–2 g 50 × 50 × 50 72 54 25.0 25.4 0.99810–4 g 50 × 50 × 50 72 43 39.6 30.4 0.997

Note: Slabs 9–10 had 2 holes each with 1 or 2 g of PETN in.

the open circles, there is a fair range 2 < qequiv< 30 where the median fragment size is well described by x50(mm) = 200/qequiv

1.4, a straight line in the log-log diagram. The straight line continues into the region where the d + b behavior starts, qequiv ≤ 3.3 kg/m3 (B ≤ 30,2 mm). When qequiv ≤ 1.9 kg/m3 (B ≤ 39,7 mm) the d + b is quite pro-nounced with fines tails less than 20% and x50 doesn’t react at all to changes in qequiv.

The size of Nie’s (1988) case 2 models was 100 × 100 × 300 mm. The height H ≈ 100 mm and Bcrit ≈ 55 mm set an upper limit to x50 and xmax. See the shot in Figure 23 with B = 42,9 mm (qequiv = 1.6 kg/m3) and the A = 2% fines tail in Figure 20.

An analysis of Bhandari’s (1975a,b) single-hole shots in mortar yields a curve like Figure 22 but with more scatter. There is a nearly straight por-tion given approximately by x50(mm) = 400/qequiv

1,5

Figure 22. Plot of fragment size vs. spec charge.

Figure 23. Extreme dust and boulders breakage, Nie (1988).

and an upper limit defined by x50 < 70 mm. In these case 1 tests H = 76 mm and B crit ≈ 55 mm.

A similar behavior was found (Johansson et al. (2007, Fig. 16) when shooting Ø140 × 280 mm mortar cylinders with a through-going symmet-ric hole (case 4b). The upper x50-limit of 70 mm coincides with splitting the cylinder in 4 pieces by radial cracking.

Figure 24. Swebrec fit to single-hole blast fragmenta-tion data from Storugns when B = 4,2 m. Nie (1988).


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2. It is better to use an equivalent specific charge, qequiv = Q/(H ⋅ B2) or a nominal one e.g.

3. The reflected stress wave at the bench face is important for the breakage and the reflection conditions are influenced by factors like face shape, blast damage cracks and confinement.

4. A network of cracks forms on the bench face after radial cracks around the blast-hole form but before these radial cracks reach the sur-face, if the load level is sufficient.

5. Blasting gases do not penetrate the surface crack network and the radial cracks only partially.

6. Old joints and fractures are sources of new cracks but act also as crack stoppers.

7. Blast damage from previous rows improves the fragmentation and may help to decrease the scatter in the results as well, see Johansson et al. (2012).

8. Single holes behind a stepped bench face sim-ulate a bench blast better than a hole behind a straight face. The latter corresponds to the opening hole in a row, the former to the side holes.

9. The breakage angle 2α for an opening hole lies in the range 110–180° irrespective of geom-etry and scale and it normally decreases with increasing burden B.

10. The breakage volume or ‘crater’ is roughly triangular in 2D cases, more bowl-shaped in 3D and may go through a shape change from bowl- to funnel-shaped with increasing burden when an angled hole is drilled into a face.

11. Concentrated bottom charges tend to give smaller breakage angles than extended, col-umn charges.

12. During breakage in small blocks, the crack flanks that determine the crater tend to turn away from the free face when they get too close to the corners of the model.

13. The breakage mass Mb (or volume Vb) for 2D cases has a pronounced peak and drops quickly as the burden increases beyond this point. In 3D cases the peak is smoother and the drop not as pronounced.

14. In model-scale for 2D and 3D cases:− the breakage is regular when B < 0.5 ⋅ Bcrit,

meaning that the sieving curve follows the basic Swebrec distribution quite well and

− when B > 0.5 ⋅ Bcrit the breakage gets to be of dust and boulder character (marginal break-age) and the dust tail is well described by the Swebrec distribution down to fines amounts as low as 2%.

15. The fines tail is probably mainly attributable to the branching-merging mechanism active at the tips of running radial cracks (Ouchterlony & Moser 2012).

Table 4. Levels of breakage.

Breakage level

Responsiblecrack types

Type of sieving curves

Marginal Radial cracks with branching-merging

Dust and boulders (d + b) with Swebrec fines tail

Regular +surface network Whole Swebrec function

Intense +spalling More Rosin-Rammler like

This dust and boulders fragmentation behavior has not been encountered for the relatively few cases full-scale bench blasts where we have sieving data (Ouchterlony & Moser 2006, Ouchterlony 2009, Ouchterlony et al. 2006, 2011). It doesn’t occur either for Nie’s (1988) full-scale single-hole shots in Storugns limestone. Not even for B = 4,2 m when critical value lies in the range Bcrit = 4–5 m.

One could speculate that a) the irregularity of the pervasive jointing and blast damage in full-scale benches would blur a sharp transition from regular to marginal (d + b) breakage and that b) the specific charge in a production blast mostly is chosen so as to avoid boulders. An armor stone blast or an open pit blast with long stem plugs would on the other hand probably yield d + b breakage, visible also in a full-scale fragmentation curve. Whether the larg-est rock mass blocks are smaller or larger than the pattern B × S would have an influence too.

It would surely be unwise to draw conclusions about regular full-scale blast fragmentation from small-scale tests with dust and boulders behavior. If the model-scale blasting gives a fragmentation that is well described by the Swebrec distribution (with A = 100%) we can at least say that the fragmentation behaviors in small- and full-scale are similar and then such conclusions would have more validity.

3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

A limited selection of fragmentation results from single-hole blasts have been reviewed and reanalyzed in this paper. The complicated subject of influence of jointing has been largely avoided and will be pur-sued in the ongoing review from which the material in this paper has been taken. Some of the conclu-sions below follow from the references given but have not been explicitly discussed in the paper.

We summarize that, in single-hole blasting:

1. One should not use the specific charge q = Q/Vb (kg/m3) as an independent input param-eter because the breakage volume Vb is a blast result.


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16. When the breakage is marginal x50 ceases to be good descriptor of the fragmentation and model-scale results with marginal breakage should not be compared with regular fragmen-tation in full-scale.

17. In full-scale the division between regular and marginal breakage is blurred by the presence of joints and blast damage where new cracks may initiate and growing cracks stop.

As one conclusion and in analogy with this sum-mary it is tempting to define the following levels of breakage during blasting of rock, mortar and concrete in small-scale:

In conclusion, there are very important lessons to learn from single-hole blasting in mortar, con-crete and rock; and the summary above is only a partial list of insights to be gained from these studies.

REFERENCES

Bhandari, S. 1997. Engineering Rock Blasting Operations. Rotterdam: Balkema.

Bhandari, S. 1975a. Studies on fragmentation in rock blasting. PhD thesis. Sydney: Univ NSW.

Bhandari, S. 1975b. Burden and spacing relationship in the design of blasting patterns. 16th US Symp Rock Mechs: 333–343. Minneapolis: Univ Minn.

Bilgin, H.A. 1991. Single hole test blasting at an open pit mine in full scale: A case study. Int. J. of Surface Min-ing and Reclamation 5: 191–194.

Bilgin, H.A., Pasamehmetoglu, A.G. & Özkharaman, H.T. 1993. Optimum burden determination and fragmentation evaluation by full scale slab blasting. In H-P Rossmanith (ed.) Fragblast 4, Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 337–344. Rotterdam: Balkema.

Bilgin, H.A., Kilic, M., Yesil, N. & Esen, S. 1999. Investigation of selected blast design parameters by model scale tests. Unpubl. man. in English from Dept of Mining Engng. Ankara: Middle East Techn Univ.

Cunningham, C.V.B. 1983. In R. Holmberg & A. Rustan (eds) Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting 2: 439–453. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn.

Efremov, E.I., Komir, V.M., Myachina, N.I., Nikoforeva, V.A., Rodak, S.N. & Shelenok, V.V. 1980. Influence of the structure of a medium on fragment-size composition in blasting. Soviet Min-ing Sciences (1): 23–28.

Field, J.E. & Laadegaard-Pedersen, A. 1971. The impor-tance of the reflected stress wave in rock blasting. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 8: 213–226.

Grasedieck, A. 2006. The natural breakage characteristics (NBC) of rocks in blasting. PhD thesis, 217 pp. Leoben, Austria: Montanuniv., Dep. of Mining Engng & Mineral Economics.

Johansson, D. 2008. Fragmentation and waste rock com-paction in small-scale confined blasting. Licentiate thesis 2008:30. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn.

Johansson, D. 2011. Effect of confinement and initiation delay on fragmentation and waste rock compaction; Results from small-scale tests. PhD thesis, Div. Min. & Geotech. Engng. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn.

Johansson, D., Ouchterlony, F. & Nyberg, U.2007. Blast-ing against aggregate confinement, fragmentation and swelling in model scale. In P. Moser et al. (eds), Proc 4th EFEE World Conf. on Expl. and Blasting: 13–26. UK:EFEE.

Johansson, D. & Ouchterlony, F. 2012. Shock wave inter-actions in rock blasting—the use of short delays to improve fragmentation in model-scale. Man. accepted for publ. in Rock Mechs & Rock Engng. See also Johansson (2011).

Miklautsch, A. 2002. Experimental investigation of the blast fragmentation behaviour of rock and concrete. Dipl. work: 161 pp. Leoben, Austria: Montanuniv., Dep. of Mining Engng & Mineral Economics.

Nie, S. 1988. New hard rock fragmentation formulas based on model and full-scale tests. Licentiate thesis 1988:02 L. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn. See also.

Nie, S. & Rustan, A. 1987. Techniques and procedures in analysing fragmentation after blasting by photo-graphic method. In W. Fourney & R.A. Dick (eds), Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blast-ing: 102–113. Solon, OH: SEM.

Olofsson, S.O. 1991. Applied explosives technology for construction and miming. Ärla, Sweden: Applex.

Ouchterlony, F. 2005. The Swebrec© function, linking fragmentation by blasting and crushing. Mining Tech-nology (Trans. Inst. Min. Metal A) 114: A29–A44.

Ouchterlony, F. 2009. Fragmentation characterization; the Swebrec function and its use in blast engineer-ing. In J. Sanchidrián (ed), Proc. Fragblast 9, Proc 9th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 3–22. London: Taylor & Francis Group.

Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2006. Likenesses and differences in the fragmentation of full-scale and model-scale blasts. Proc. Fragblast 8, 8th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 207–220. Chile: Editec S.A.

Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2012. On the branching-merging mechanism during dynamic crack growth as a major source of fines in rock blasting. Submitted to Fragblast 10 conf.

Ouchterlony, F., Olsson, M., Nyberg, U., Andersson, P. & Gus-tavsson, L. 2006. Constructing the fragment size distribu-tion of a bench blasting round, using the new Swebrec func-tion. Proc. Fragblast 8, 8th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 332–344. Chile: Editec S.A.

Ouchterlony, F., Nyberg, U., Olsson, M., Vikström, K., Svedensten, P & Bergsskolan i Filipstad. 2010. Opti-mal fragmentation in quarries, field tests at Långåsen. Swebrec rpt 2010:2. Luleå: Swedish Blasting Research Centre at Luleå Univ. Techn. In Swedish.

Persson, P.A., Laadegaard-Pedersen, A. & Kihlström, B. 1969. The influence of borehole diameter on the rock blasting capacity of an extended explosive charge. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 6: 277–284.

Petropoulos, N., Johansson, D. & Ouchterlony, F. 2012. Fragmentation under different confinement condi-tions and the burden behavior-small scale tests. Sub-mitted to Fragblast 10 conf.


14

Pham, V.H. 2011. Research on the determination of suit-able blasting parameters using for low bench blasting in the condition of Vietnam. PhD thesis, Fakultät Geowissen-schaften, Geotechnik & Bergbau, 212 pp. Freiberg, Germany: TU Bergakademie.

Reichholf, G. 2003. Experimental investigation into the characteristic of particle size distributions of blasted material. PhD thesis, 223 pp. Leoben, Austria: Monta-nuniv., Dep. of Mining Engng & Mineral Economics.

Rustan, A. Vutukuri, V.S. & Naarttijärvi, T. 1983. The influence from specific charge, geometric scale and physical properties of homogeneous rock on fragmen-tation. In R Holmberg & A Rustan (eds), Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting 1: 115–142. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn.

Rustan, A., Yang, Z.G., Öqvist, J. & Bergqvist, S. 1984. Optimal delay times between decked charges in blastholes. A theory and model blast study. Res. rpt TULEA 1984:22, Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn.

Schimek, P., Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2012 Experi-mental blast fragmentation research in model-scale bench blasts. Submitted to Fragblast 10 conf.

Vutukuri, V.S. & Rustan, A. 1983. Influence of physical properties of rock and rock-like material on blastabil-ity in crater and slab blasting. A literature and model study. Rpt FG 8221. Kiruna: Swedish Min. Res. Found, See also Rustan et al. (1983).

Wilson, W.H. & Holloway, D.C. 1987. Fragmentation studies in instrumented concrete models. In G Herget & S Vongpaisal (eds), Proc. 6th ISRM Int. Cong. Rock Mechs 1: 735–741. Montreal: ISRM.

Wimmer, M. 2007. An experimental investigation of blastability. Swebrec rpt 2007:1. Luleå: Swedish Blasting Research Centre at Luleå Univ. Techn. See also Wimmer et al. (2008).

Wimmer, M., Moser, P. & Ouchterlony, F. 2008. Experimental investigation of blastability. In H. Schun-nesson & E. Nordlund (eds.). Proc. MassMin2008, 5th Int. Conf. & Exhib. on Mass Mining: 645–655. Rotterdam: Balkema.

Winzer, S.R. 1978. The firing times of of MS delay blast-ing caps and their effect on blasting performance. NSF rpt APR 77-05171. Baltimore MD: Martin Marietta Labs.

Winzer, S.R., Anderson, D.A. & Ritter, A.P. 1983. Rock fragmentation by explosives. In R Holmberg & A Rustan (eds), Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting 1: 225–249. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn.

Yang, Z.G. & Rustan, A. 1983. The influence of primary structure on fragmentation. In R Holmberg & A Rustan (eds), Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting 2: 581–603. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn.


References

Lessons from single-hole blasting inmortar, concrete and rocks

Bhandari, S. 1997. Engineering Rock Blasting Operations.Rotterdam: Balkema.

Bhandari, S. 1975a. Studies on fragmentation in rockblasting. PhD thesis. Sydney: Univ NSW.

Bhandari, S. 1975b. Burden and spacing relationship in thedesign of blasting patterns. 16th US Symp Rock Mechs:333–343. Minneapolis: Univ Minn.

Bilgin, H.A. 1991. Single hole test blasting at an open pitmine in full scale: A case study. Int. J. of Surface Miningand Reclamation 5: 191–194.

Bilgin, H.A., Pasamehmetoglu, A.G. & Özkharaman, H.T.1993. Optimum burden determination and fragmentationevaluation by full scale slab blasting. In H-P Rossmanith(ed.) Fragblast 4, Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on RockFragmentation by Blasting: 337–344. Rotterdam: Balkema.

Bilgin, H.A., Kilic, M., Yesil, N. & Esen, S. 1999.Investigation of selected blast design parameters bymodel scale tests. Unpubl. man. in English from Dept ofMining Engng. Ankara: Middle East Techn Univ.

Cunningham, C.V.B. 1983. In R. Holmberg & A. Rustan (eds)Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting 2:439–453. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn.

Efremov, E.I., Komir, V.M., Myachina, N.I., Nikoforeva,V.A., Rodak, S.N. & Shelenok, V.V. 1980. Influence of thestructure of a medium on fragment-size composition inblasting. Soviet Mining Sciences (1): 23–28.

Field, J.E. & Laadegaard-Pedersen, A. 1971. The importanceof the reflected stress wave in rock blasting. Int. J.Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 8: 213–226.

Grasedieck, A. 2006. The natural breakage characteristics(NBC) of rocks in blasting. PhD thesis, 217 pp. Leoben,Austria: Montanuniv., Dep. of Mining Engng & MineralEconomics.

Johansson, D. 2008. Fragmentation and waste rock compactionin small-scale confined blasting. Licentiate thesis

2008:30. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn. Johansson, D. 2011.Effect of confinement and initiation delay onfragmentation and waste rock compaction; Results fromsmall-scale tests. PhD thesis, Div. Min. & Geotech. Engng.Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn. Johansson, D., Ouchterlony, F. &Nyberg, U.2007. Blasting against aggregate confinement,fragmentation and swelling in model scale. In P. Moser etal. (eds), Proc 4th EFEE World Conf. on Expl. andBlasting: 13–26. UK:EFEE. Johansson, D. & Ouchterlony, F.2012. Shock wave interactions in rock blasting—the use ofshort delays to improve fragmentation in model-scale. Man.accepted for publ. in Rock Mechs & Rock Engng. See alsoJohansson (2011). Miklautsch, A. 2002. Experimentalinvestigation of the blast fragmentation behaviour of rockand concrete. Dipl. work: 161 pp. Leoben, Austria:Montanuniv., Dep. of Mining Engng & Mineral Economics.Nie, S. 1988. New hard rock fragmentation formulas basedon model and full-scale tests. Licentiate thesis 1988:02L. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn. See also. Nie, S. & Rustan, A.1987. Techniques and procedures in analysing fragmentationafter blasting by photographic method. In W. Fourney & R.A.Dick (eds), Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation byBlasting: 102–113. Solon, OH: SEM. Olofsson, S.O. 1991.Applied explosives technology for construction and miming.Ärla, Sweden: Applex. Ouchterlony, F. 2005. The Swebrec©function, linking fragmentation by blasting and crushing.Mining Technology (Trans. Inst. Min. Metal A) 114: A29–A44.Ouchterlony, F. 2009. Fragmentation characterization; theSwebrec function and its use in blast engineering. In J.Sanchidrián (ed), Proc. Fragblast 9, Proc 9th Int. Symp.on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 3–22. London: Taylor &Francis Group. Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2006. Likenessesand differences in the fragmentation of full-scale andmodel-scale blasts. Proc. Fragblast 8, 8th Int. Symp. onRock Fragmentation by Blasting: 207–220. Chile: EditecS.A. Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2012. On thebranchingmerging mechanism during dynamic crack growth asa major source of fines in rock blasting. Submitted toFragblast 10 conf. Ouchterlony, F., Olsson, M., Nyberg, U.,Andersson, P. & Gus-tavsson, L. 2006. Constructing thefragment size distribu-tion of a bench blasting round,using the new Swebrec func-tion. Proc. Fragblast 8, 8thInt. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 332–344.Chile: Editec S.A. Ouchterlony, F., Nyberg, U., Olsson,M., Vikström, K., Svedensten, P & Bergsskolan i Filipstad.2010. Optimal fragmentation in quarries, field tests atLångåsen. Swebrec rpt 2010:2. Luleå: Swedish BlastingResearch Centre at Luleå Univ. Techn. In Swedish. Persson,P.A., Laadegaard-Pedersen, A. & Kihlström, B. 1969. Theinfluence of borehole diameter on the rock blasting

capacity of an extended explosive charge. Int. J. RockMech. Min. Sci. 6: 277–284. Petropoulos, N., Johansson, D.& Ouchterlony, F. 2012. Fragmentation under differentconfinement conditions and the burden behavior-small scaletests. Submitted to Fragblast 10 conf.

Pham, V.H. 2011. Research on the determination of suitableblasting parameters using for low bench blasting in thecondition of Vietnam. PhD thesis, FakultätGeowissen-schaften, Geotechnik & Bergbau, 212 pp.Freiberg, Germany: TU Bergakademie.

Reichholf, G. 2003. Experimental investigation into thecharacteristic of particle size distributions of blastedmaterial. PhD thesis, 223 pp. Leoben, Austria: Montanuniv.,Dep. of Mining Engng & Mineral Economics.

Rustan, A. Vutukuri, V.S. & Naarttijärvi, T. 1983. Theinfluence from specific charge, geometric scale andphysical properties of homogeneous rock on fragmentation.In R Holmberg & A Rustan (eds), Proc. 1st Int. Symp. onRock Fragmentation by Blasting 1: 115–142. Luleå: LuleåUniv. Techn.

Rustan, A., Yang, Z.G., Öqvist, J. & Bergqvist, S. 1984.Optimal delay times between decked charges in blastholes.A theory and model blast study. Res. rpt TULEA 1984:22,Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn.

Schimek, P., Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2012 Experimentalblast fragmentation research in model-scale bench blasts.Submitted to Fragblast 10 conf.

Vutukuri, V.S. & Rustan, A. 1983. Influence of physicalproperties of rock and rock-like material on blastabilityin crater and slab blasting. A literature and model study.Rpt FG 8221. Kiruna: Swedish Min. Res. Found, See alsoRustan et al. (1983). Wilson, W.H. & Holloway, D.C. 1987.Fragmentation studies in instrumented concrete models. InG Herget & S Vongpaisal (eds), Proc. 6th ISRM Int. Cong.Rock Mechs 1: 735–741. Montreal: ISRM. Wimmer, M. 2007. Anexperimental investigation of blastability. Swebrec rpt2007:1. Luleå: Swedish Blasting Research Centre at LuleåUniv. Techn. See also Wimmer et al. (2008). Wimmer, M.,Moser, P. & Ouchterlony, F. 2008. Experimentalinvestigation of blastability. In H. Schunnesson & E.Nordlund (eds.). Proc. MassMin2008, 5th Int. Conf. &Exhib. on Mass Mining: 645–655. Rotterdam: Balkema.Winzer, S.R. 1978. The firing times of of MS delay blastingcaps and their effect on blasting performance. NSF rpt APR

77-05171. Baltimore MD: Martin Marietta Labs. Winzer,S.R., Anderson, D.A. & Ritter, A.P. 1983. Rockfragmentation by explosives. In R Holmberg & A Rustan(eds), Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation byBlasting 1: 225–249. Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn. Yang, Z.G. &Rustan, A. 1983. The influence of primary structure onfragmentation. In R Holmberg & A Rustan (eds), Proc. 1stInt. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting 2: 581–603.Luleå: Luleå Univ. Techn.

Frontiers and challenges in numericalsimulation of the blasting process usingthe combined finite discrete elementmethod

Figure 12. Evolution of the collapsing raster together

with specific CPU time as a function of the number of

contactors.

Figure 13. Speedup using MPI parallelization—total

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Applied method integrating rock mass inblast design

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Limits blast design: Controllingvibration, gas pressure & fragmentation

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Blast optimisation through computermodelling of fragmentation, heave anddamage

Figure 16. Base Case #2—Vector plot at 0.75 seconds.

Figure 17. Base Case #2 at 16 seconds.

Table 5. Amount of material collected on catch

benches.

Design Base case #1 Base case #2

Area on 1st catch bench (m 2 ) 118 112

Area on 2nd catch bench (m 2 ) 161 123

Total area on catch benches (m 2 ) 279 235

Percentage change of area against base case #1 (%) 0 −16

Use radar reflectivity as possibility formeasurements of fragmentation during theblasting

Figure 15. Complete analysis of blasting second after

second for quarry Seifsdorf.

Influence of initiation point position onfragmentation by blasting in iron ore

Table 4. Field test data with iron content of about 40%.

Initiation position Top Bottom Central

Number of holes 7 7 7

Single-hole charge (kg) 152 152 152

Volume excavated (m 3 ) 2817 2743 3024

Boulder yield (%) 15.92 13.53 13.94

Table 3. Field test data with iron content of about 30%.





Boulder yield (%) 7.28 5.37 6.04

Table 2. Field test data with iron ore content of 25%.





Boulder yield (%) 8.63 6.32 6.78

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Figure 8. Comparison between numerically-evaluated

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SPH procedures for failure analysis ofcircular rock disk under distributed arcloading

Figure 6. Axial stress-displacement curve of the

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Quantification of the effect ofinaccurate drilling on the risk of poorfragmentation and increased blast hazard

Figure 13. Effect of drilling deviation with 10% stand

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Causes of toe formation at dragline benchand its remedial measures

Figure 15. Blast design and charging paptern for

dragline bench blast when full width is to be blasted.

Figure 16. Blast design when half part at free face side

of dragline bench is to be blasted.

Figure 17. Blast design when half part at high wall side

of dragline bench is to be blasted.

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Rosenhaim, V.L. & Munaretti, E. & Feijó, J.F. & Koppe,2012. Blast Optimization and Vibration Control at aMulti-Seam Coal Mine, Brazil. Proceedings of the ISEE’s38th Annual Conference on Explosives & Blasting Technique.Nashville, TN, USA.

The effects of delay time sequence andcharge per delay on ground vibration: Acase study


Numerical simulation for the influence ofdelay time on the rock fragmentation

Table 2. Comparison of X max and X 50 results for eachX2-section after row #2 shots.

Delay time [μs] X21 X22 X23 X24 X max [cm 2 ] X 50 [cm 2] X max [cm 2 ] X 50 [cm 2 ] X max [cm 2 ] X 50 [cm 2 ]X max [cm 2 ] X 50 [cm 2 ]

0 7.55 0.305 5.57 0.316 6.80 0.268 5.95 0.152

28 2.17 0.125 3.59 0.176 3.87 0.186 1.79 0.182

37 2.45 0.093 0.85 0.095 1.60 0.104 1.60 0.122

46 0.47 0.090 4.63 0.138 1.42 0.096 1.32 0.099

56 1.42 0.102 8.97 0.169 1.89 0.127 2.93 0.130

73 0.47 0.093 3.30 0.119 1.42 0.090 0.66 0.094

86 1.51 0.092 0.66 0.090 0.57 0.090 0.38 0.093

146 2.17 0.094 1.42 0.090 0.57 0.090 1.60 0.093

Petropoulos, N., Johansson, D. & Ouchterlony, F. 2012.Fragmentation under different confinement conditions andthe burden behavior—small scale tests. Fragblast 10. Proc.10th Intnl Symp on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, NewDelhi, India (submitted).

Riedel, W., Thoma, K., Hiermaier, S. & Schmolinske, E.1999. Penetration of reinforced concrete by BETA-B-500,numerical analysis using a new macroscopic concrete modelfor hydrocodes. In SKA (ed.), Proceedings of the 9thInternational Symposium on Interaction of the Effects ofMunitions with Structures: 315–322, Berlin.

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Chen, S.R. 2011. Delay time optimization in blastingoperations for mitigating the vibration-effects on finalpit walls’ stability. Soil Dynamics and EarthquakeEngineering, 31: 1154–1158. Tatsuya, H., Gento, M. & Kou,S.Q. 2000. Optimum delay interval design in delayblasting. Fragblast, Int J Blast Fragm 4(2): 139–148.Vanbrabant, F. & Espinosa, A. 2006. Impact of short delayssequence on fragmentation by means of electronicdetonators: theoretical concepts and field validation.Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting-Fragblast 8: 326–331. Santiago: Editec SA.

Effect of production blasts on waste dumpstability

CMPDIL project report for Jayant opencast mine, Singrauli(M.P.), 2007.

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Blast optimization at Sindesar Khurdunderground mine to improve productivitywith reduced level of vibration

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ECOFRO, an eco comparison tool formethods of rock fragmentation

1. SYNDUEX (2008): “study of the environmental impact ofindustrial explosives in quarries and public works, carbonand energy balances».

2. EFEE 18–20 sept 2011 (Synduex 2011): Environmentalimpact of blasting in quarries and public works ».

3. ADEME: Guide des facteurs d’émissions V6.1—Juin 2010,Entreprises et Collectivités

4. Code de calcul DETHEO CALC 098 Nitro-Bickford(EPC-Group).

5. CO 2 emissions per kWh from electricity and heatgeneration:CO 2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION Highlights(2010 Edition) page107) from IEA Statistics

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– Blasting-Related Carbon Monoxide Incident in Bristow,Virginia, International Society of Explosives Engineers(ISEE) 2004 à New Orleans USA, R.J. Mainiero—J.H. RowlandIII—M.L. Harris.

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Controlling vibrations caused byunderground blasts in LKAB Malmbergetmine


Application of stochastic approach topredict blast movement

Table 2. Grade and cost parameter assumptions.

Scenario HG grade (g/t) LG grade (g/t) Mining cost($/t) Processing cost ($/t)

1 4 0.8 5 20

2 0.8 0.4 5 50

Table 3. Cost of dilution, ore loss and misclassified ore.

Scenario Dilution cost ($/t) Ore loss cost ($/t)Misclassified ore cost ($/t)

1 25 150 120

2 55 30 15

Figure 16. Determination of the most economic post

blast ore boundary (envelope %).

6 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

The aim of the paper is to introduce a stochas

tic approach to estimate the post blast ore/grade

boundaries and its impact on mine economics. A case studywas used to demonstrate that, if

consistent blast movement can be achieved, pre

viously monitored movement vectors (along with

their inherent variability) can be used to estimate

the post blast ore/grade boundaries and hence

minimise the necessity to continually measure blast

movements for every blast. It was shown that a stochasticapproach to pre

dict blast movement is a quick and effective method

for ore boundary adjustment and can be imple

mented by site engineers/geologists even before

blasting. This approach is in its inception and has a

number of limitations. For example, it does not

account for variability in blast design inputs, rock

mass conditions and does not take into account

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Modelling the extent of damage from fullycoupled explosive charges

Figure 10. Modelling results of scenario 4.

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Figure 29. Colour contour of particle displacement

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(middle) and blast 2 section 1 (bottom), showing wedges

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Definition of quality of materialsfragmented by blast with use of thecomputer program

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A method to determine 3-D dynamic straintensor based on displacement gradientsfrom blast vibration and field testresults

Figure 10. Maximum shear strain from test blast.

Table 3. Directional cosines of the normal vector of the

peak maximum shear strain plane.

Peak max.

shear strain

(μ strain) At time (s) Cosine to x-axis Cosine to y-axisCosine to z-axis

4000 1.593 0.242 0.093 0.964

the peak shear plane and they are the average of

those in Tables 1 and 2 since the peak shear plane

subtends equal angles (45°) with the maximum

principal directions of ε 1 and ε 3 .

It is interesting to note that the peak shear

strain happened at the same time as the maximum

compressive strain. This is because at this time

instance equation (9) yields the maximum shear

value.

6 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The derived strain quantities from the dynamic

strain measurement may be used to describe

potential blast damage to the high walls or rock

slopes. Such quantities are more meaningful to

a rock mechanics engineer than PPV only. The

dynamic strain measurement is useful to further

our understanding of vibration control for blast

damage.

It is recommended that more sensors (moni

toring locations) be used to improve the

measurement accuracy. With eight monitor

ing points, it is estimated that the error could

potentially be reduced to a factor of 1542/

1 1 21 1 12 9 1 1 542 21 9 C = − ( ) !/ ! ! / compared

to four sensor monitoring. For the current tests,

potentially fifteen equations were used for 9 vari

ables. This means that the least-square solution is

obtained from 5005 sets of solutions because:

C 15

9 15 6 9 5005= = ! ! ! (10)

Yang, R., 2010, Method to calculate 3-D dynamic strain

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Investigation of the relationship betweenblasting pile density and loaderproductivity


Advanced understanding of the mechanismof air-deck blasting: A numericalapproach

Figure 11. Travelling waves between stemming and the

bottom of the hole.

Figure 12. Downward spread of the detonation products. Theexplanation for the attenuation of ground

vibration resulting from placing an air-deck at the

bottom of blasthole could be derived from track

ing the maximum pressure wave’s behaviour at the

early stage of detonation. The model showed that the wavetended first to

travel downward through the air gap to rock mass

below the blasthole where a portion of the energy

was absorbed. As a result, the energy of the reflected

wave to the stemming was reduced as illustrated in

Figures 11 and 12. This action repeated through

out the ringing process so it might contribute to

the reduction of ground vibration.

5 CONCLUSIONS

The paper has shed light on the mechanism of air

deck blasting from a numerical point of view. The

analysis of the AUTODYN modelling of the three

positions of air decks resulted in character results.

Regarding blasting with an upper air deck, it was

found that the greatest portion of the energy was

released within a very early time of the detona

tion life span. This could explain the formation of

cracks network around blast holes. The history records ofblasting simulation

with a middle air deck revealed a comparatively

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The monitoring and analysis of vibrationsgenerated by blasting in Fangmayu IronMine

Table 2. The forecast value of three components of blastingvibration velocity.

Charge

weight (kg) Distance (m) Vertical component (cm/s)Longitudinal component (cm/s) Transverse component (cm/s)

100 50 1.51 1.33 1.70 150 0.30 0.23 0.31 250 0.14 0.10 0.14

200 50 2.12 1.91 2.42 150 0.42 0.34 0.45 250 0.20 0.15 0.20

300 50 2.59 2.37 2.98 150 0.51 0.42 0.55 250 0.24 0.19 0.25

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Concept of effective explosive weight perdelay for prediction of vibration inopen-pit blasting


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Fines and dust generation and control inrock fragmentation by blasting

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Techniques for the control ofenvironmental blast impacts

Figure 17. Fume plume model. This page intentionally leftblank

Parameters of dust-gas cloud spreadresulting from a caving-in explosion

1. Romashov A.N. (1980) Peculiar effect of large-scaleunderground explosions. M.: Nedra Publishers. 5–12 (inRussian).

2. Victorov S.D. (1996). Technique and software for theestimation of the formation and spreading of a dustgascloud resulting from bulk blast at an open pit/ GornyZhurnal, 5. 50–52. (in Russian).

Validation of underwater blast emissionsmodelling in relation to the protectionof marine fauna


Safety analysis of blasting near naturalgas pipeline

vibration frequency of structure, resonance will

occur and there would be significant amplification

of stress. Therefore, blasting near a tunnel pipeline

is more dangerous to tunnel pipeline than a sim

ply buried one. Of course the vibration amplitude

of blasting will be lower for the tunnel pipeline.

Therefore, the criterion recommended for this case

would be 1.0 cm/s.

5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

• Blasting near natural gas pipeline will producedifferent vibration levels in terms of distance and chargeweight employed.

• Protection Law of Petroleum and Natural Gas Pipelinestipulates that blasting or seismic exploration operationsin the vicinity of a pipeline (i.e. 200 m) must apply toAdministrative Department (Clause 35), and furtherstipulates blasting must not regulate that to banblasting operations must not be carried out within 1000 mof a tunnel pipeline (Clause 33). These regulations appearreasonable.

• To protect the safety of natural gas pipeline, thevibration amplitude must not exceed 3.0 cm/s for simplyburied pipeline, and 1.0 cm/s for tunnel pipeline.

• The secondary geologic hazard in terms of damage to insitu rock of cannot be ignored, especially for high andsteep slopes.

Theoretical considerations and controlmeasures for dust reduction duringbuilding demolition by blasting

Figure 3. Photograph of foam filling up to 2 m depth

contained by oilcloth on each floor of the building prior

to demolition. Figure 4. The blasted west tower at theTianhe town in Guangzhou.

Quantification of the levels of risk offlyrock

Figure 4. Probability of death, France—INED 2008. This pageintentionally left blank

Analysis of blasting related accidentswith emphasis on flyrock and itsmitigation in surface mines

Bajpayee, T.S., Rehak, T.R., Mowrey G.L., & Ingram D.K.2004. Blasting injuries in surface mining with emphasis onflyrock and blast area security, Journal of SafetyResearch, vol. 35: 47–57.

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Kecojevic, V., Radomsky, M. 2005. Flyrock phenomena andarea security in blasting-related accidents, SafetyScience, Vol. 43: 739–750.

Konya, C.J. & Walter, E.J. 1990. Surface Blast Design.Prentice Hall Inc., NJ: 303.

Little, T.N. 2007. Flyrock Risk, EXPLO Conference,Wollongong, NSW, 3–4 September 2007: 35–43. Ludwiczak, J.T.1985. Determining the Blast area, The journal ofExplosives Engineering, Vol-2(2): 20–23. Lundborg, N.,Persson, A., Ladegaard-Pedersen, A., & Holmberg, R. 1975.Keeping the lid on flyrock in open pit blasting,Engineering and Mining Journal, May 1975: 95–100. Mishra,A.K., & Gupta, R.N., 2002. Design of blast using highresolution camera, Proc. of 7th International Symposium onRock Fragmentation by Blasting (Fragblast-7),Metallurgical Industry Press, Beijijng: 378–389. Mishra,A.K. & Rout, M. 2011. Flyrocks—Detection and Mitigation atConstruction Site in Blasting Operation, WorldEnvironment, Vol. 1(1): 1–5. Raina, A.K., Chakraborty,A.K., Choudhury, P.B. & Sinha, A. 2011. Flyrock dangerzone demarcation in opencast mines: a risk based approach,Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, Vol.70(1): 163–172. Sheridan, R.A. 2002. Precautions againstflyrock. Explosives Information Bulletin. ExplosivesInspectorate, Safety and Health Administration, QueenslandGovernment: 3. This page intentionally left blank

Spatial distribution of flyrock usingEDA: An insight from concrete model tests

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Shock initiation and malfunction ofcommercial explosives and accessories: Anapproach using the critical energyfluence

Figure 11. Energy fluence vs. pressure at different

durations.

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Evaluation of ANFO performance withcylinder test

Figure 12. Ratio of Gurney energy delivered versus

expansion ratio; continuous curves are used for C-50

tests, and dashed ones for C-100 experiments.

One linear fit for unconfined ANFO (Esen et al.

2005b) and other linear fit for rock confinement.

The linear fit for rock blasting data including the

VOD registered in the cylinder test at present

work, has a R 2 > 0.9. This means that the con

finement conditions during rock blasting affects

to the velocity of detonation in a similar way of

cylinder test. Figure 12 shows the ratio E G /E G maxversus the expansion ratio v/v 0 . More than 99% of theGurney

energy is delivered before v/v 0 = 7 for all the tests.

This energy represents between 40 and 43% of the

available energy; such figures are the ratio of the

mean of the Gurney energies for C-50 and C-100

to heat of explosion obtained with the thermo

dynamic code W-Detcom. Table 7 summarizes

existing data for ANFO cylinder test with 100 mm

diameter. It can be seen that for ANFOs with dif

ferent densities and VODs, the Gurney energy is

ranged between 1.626 to 2.017 MJ/kg.

Table 8. Summary of Gurney and available energies.

Source ρ (kg/m 3 ) D (m/s) E G (MJ/kg) n δ (%) E G /E 0 (%)

Nyberg et al. 2003 902 4317 1.86 1 – 48 850 4000 1.626 34.3% 42 776 4086 2.017 2 8.1% 52

This work 830 3879 1.66 5 3.0% 43

ρ: explosive density; D: VOD; E G : Gurney energy; n:

number of tests; E G /E 0 : ratio of the Gurney energy tothe

heat of explosion.

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Research on performance of aluminum-fiberexplosives

Figure 11. Stress strain curves.

Figure 10. Compressing result of TAF-1.

strengthen the structure of explosives, and it could

be suggested that increasing the Al-fiber content

would produce a stronger effect.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Air blast and underwater explosion experiments

show that Al-fiber can efficiently increase the peak

value of pressure and explosion heat. Results of

underwater explosion indicate that Al-fiber could

prolong attenuation time, increase specific shock

wave energy, and increase/generates attenuation

time. These effects are identified with the view that

shock wave energy is concentrated in the attenua

tion time zone. Thus, it can be concluded that Al

fiber may used in explosives to enhance pressure

and energy output. A strength test shows that explosiveswith Al

fiber are high in strength, and possess a higher

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Measurement of borehole pressure duringblasting

Figure 13. Piezoelectric output voltage from Site B. Thispage intentionally left blank

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and abrasive of rocks, Part-3:101–103. Kahraman, S. Bilgin,N. and Feridnoglu, C. 2003. Dominant rock propertiesaffecting the penetration rate of percussive drills.International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences,40:711–723. Kidybinski, A. 1968. Rebound number and thequality of mine roof strata.. International Journal ofRock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 5:283–292. Kutuzov, B.N.1979. Classification des roches d’apres leur explosibilitepor les decourvertes, Gornyl, Zurnal, Moscow. Langefors,U. and Kihlstrom, B. 1976. The Modern Technique of RockBlasting. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 438. Lilly,P.A. 1986. An empirical method of assessing rock massblastability. Large openpit Mining Conference, Newman, TheAusIMM, 89–93. Mathews, J.A. and Shakesby, R.A. 1984. Thestatus of the Little Ice Age in southern Norway:relative-age dating of Neoglacial moraines with Schmidthammer and lichenometry. Boreas, 13:333–346. Muftuoglu,Y.V. Pasamehtoglu, A.G. and Karpuz, C. 1991. Correlationof powder factor with physical and rock properties androtary drill performance in Turkish surface coalmines.Proceeding of the 7th International Society of RockMechanics Symposium, 1:1049–1051. Poole, R.W. and Farmer,I.W. 1978. Geotechnical factors affecting tunnellingmachine performance in coal measures rock. TunnelsTunnelling, Dec. 27–30. Rustan, A. and Nie, L.S. 1987. Newmethod to test the rock breaking property of explosives infull scale. Proceeding of the Ist. International Symposiumon Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Keystone, Kolorado,36–47. Rustan, A., Vutukuri, V.S. and Naarttijarvi, T.1983. The influence from specific charge, geometric scaleand physical properties of homogeneous rock onfragmentation. Proceeding of the 1st InternationalSymposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Lulea,Sweden, 115–142. Scott, A. 1996. Blastability and blastdesign. Rock Fragmentation by Blasting—Fragblast 5. Ed.Mahanty, Motreal, Canada, pp. 27–36. Sheorey, P.R. Bharat,B.D. Das, M.N. Mukharjee, K.P. and Singh, B. 1984. Schmidthammer rebound data for estimation of large scale in-situcoal strength. drilling performances with rock properties.International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining SciencesGeomechanics Abstract, 21:39–42. Young, R.P. and Fowell,R.J. Assessing rock discontinuities. Tunnel & Tunnelling,June:45–48.

Application of innovative techniques inblast design at RAM meeting itsproduction targets

Table 1. Rational blast design vis a vis litho-units.

Rock type Burden Spacing Sub-grade Charge length StemmingColumn Powder factor (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (t/kg)

GBSG 4 5.5 1 6.6 4.4 3.975

Amphibole 4 4 1 6.6 4.4 3.77

Pegmatite 4 5.5 1 6.6 4.4 3.51

GMS/ore 3 3 1 7.7 3.3 1.68

Figure 8. PPV vs. Scaled distance for Nonel and EDD. Figure9. Use of plastic funnel and stemming gravel. This pageintentionally left blank

Intelligent mine blasting and itscomponents


Analysis and calculation of thereliability of complex logical initiatingnetwork system


Protection control technology adopted bydemolition blasting


Numerical simulation of explosivedemolition of a shear wall structureapartment

Table 1. Physical properties of the target structure.

Property Concrete Reinforcement

Young’s modulus (MPa) 2.94 × 10 4 3.92 × 10 5

Shear modulus (MPa) 1.17 × 10 4 8.04 × 10 4

Tensile strength (MPa) 4 637.43

Compressive strength (MPa) 40 637.43

Separation strain 2,500 7,840

Normal contact stiffness factor 0.1 0.2

Shear contact stiffness factor 0.0001 0.0001

Contact spring unloading stiffness factor 0.00001 0.00001

Ultimate strain 10 10

Ultimate strength/tensile yield stress 0.1

Friction coefficient 1.1

Post yield stiffness ratio 0.8

Figure 5. Collapse behavior of the target structure with

elapsed time after blast ignition. Figure 6. Flyingdistance of debris from collapse of the target structure.This page intentionally left blank

Controlled blasting demolition of 7 jointbuildings at the same time in urban area


Fine demolition blasting for a concretecofferdam on a concrete dam spill surface

• After blasting the concrete cofferdam, the concreteparticles almost collapsed in the original position, andthe individual fly rock were controlled within theprotection range of 12 m.

• Vibration velocity experienced at the nearby concreteproject was only 0.04 cm/s, well within the permissiblerange.

• The blasting block is relatively fragmented, and theparticle sizes of blasting block are moderate.

The blasting blocks of the concrete cofferdam on the damspill surface of Longtan Hydropower Station were sweptinto the water cushion pond by the discharge, which isshown in Figure 6.

• The construction schedule was more than 2 times fasterthan would have been possible through the blasting agentscheme. This page intentionally left blank

Blasting demolition of single towercable-stayed unsafe bridge totaling 163 min length

GB6722-2003. 2004. Safety Regulations for Blasting. BeiJing: Standards Press of China.

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Wang, X.G. & Yu, Y.L. 2008. Demolition Blasting Theory andEngineering Examples. Bei Jing: China Communications Press.Xia, J. & Zhou, M.A. 2011. Blasting Demolition of UnsafeBridge in complicated Environment. Blasting 122(4): 81–83.Zhou, M.A. & Li, B.H. 2008. Blasting Gear and DetonatingTechnique. Chang Sha: National University of DefenceTechnology Press.

Blasting of a reinforced concrete chimneyin a high position and in a complexenvironment

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[5] Xue Fengsong, Yao Xin, 2009. 180 m reinforcedconcrete chimney control blasting safety analysis.Blasting. 26:47–49.

Suggested tamping materials for shortlength blast holes in explosivedemolition operations


Estimation of blast-induced damagethrough cross-hole seismometry insingle-hole blasting experiments

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Conf. on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Denver, USA 2:155–166. ISEE. Trivino L.F., Mohanty B. & Munjiza A., 2009.Investigation of Seismic Radiation Patterns fromCylindrical Explosive Charges by Analytical and CombinedFinite-Discrete Element Methods. Proc. 9th Int. Symp. onRock Frag. by Blasting, Granada: 415–426. Trivino L.F.,Mohanty B. & Milkereit B. 2012. Seismic waveforms fromexplosive sources in boreholes with different initiationmodes. Journal of Applied Geophysics (in press). TubmanK.M., Cheng C.H. & Toksoz M.N. 1984. Synthetic fullwaveform acoustic logs in cased boreholes. Geophysics 49:1051–1059. Vanbrabant, F., Chacon, E. & Quinones, L., 2002.P and S Mach Waves Generated by the Detonation of aCylindrical Explosive Charge—Experiments and Simulations.Fragblast 6 (1): 21–35. White J.E. & Sengbush R.L. 1963.Shear Waves from Explosive Sources. Geophysics 28 (6):1001–1019. Xia K., Nasseri M.H.B., Mohanty B., Lu F., ChenR. & Luo S.N. 2008. Effects of microstructures on dynamiccompression of Barre granite. International Journal ofRock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 45: 879–887. Yamin G.A.2005. Field Measurements of Blastinduced Damage in Rock.MASc Thesis. University of Toronto. This pageintentionally left blank

Reflections on the functionality ofpre-split blasting for wall control insurface mining

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Figure 10. Correlation of dominant frequency and

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Figure 9. Graph of PPV versus scaled distance for

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Monitoring ground vibrations forpredicting overbreak threshold levels inunderground drivages

Table 2. Overbreak threshold PPV levels for an allow

able overbreak of 0.4 m.

Parameters From near-field predictor From far-fieldpredictor

PPV threshold levels 331 mm/s 185 mm/s

Allowable charge/hole 0.80 kg 0.80 kg

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Figure 6. Hot hole methodology matrix.

Figure 7. Hot hole monitor.

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China, pp. 617–624. Rosenhaim, V.L. 2005. Response of aresidential structure and buried pipelines to constructionblasting in basalt on the west side of Albuquerque-NM.(Unplished Thesis)Department of Mineral engineering, NewMexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro, NewMexico. Roy, M.P., Singh, P.K., Singh, G. & Monjezi, M.2007. Influence of initiation mode of explosives inopencast blasting on ground vibration, Mining Technology,Vol. 116, No. 1, pp. 1–6. Rudenko, D. 2002. An analyticalapproach for diagnosing and solving blasting complaints.The Journal of Explosives Engineering, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp.36–41. Singh P.K., Roy M.P., Singh R.K. & Sirveiya A.K.2003. Impact of blast design and initiation sequence onblast vibration. Proceedings of National Seminar onExplosives and Blasting, DGMS, Dhanbad, India, pp.118–126. Spathis, A.T. 1999. On the energy efficiency ofblasting. The 4th International Symposium on RockFragmentation by Blasting, Johannesburg, 5–8 July 1999,pp. 81–90. Sun, C., Later, D.W. & Chen, G. 2001. Analysisof the effect of borehole size on explosive energy loss inrock blasting. J. of Rock Fragmentation for Blasting, Vol.5, No. 4, pp. 235–246. Yang, R.L., Rocque, P., Katsabanis,P. & Bawden, W.F. 1994. Measurement and analysis ofnear-field blast vibration and damage. Geotechnical andGeological Engineering, Vol. 12, pp. 169–182. Zhuang, S.,Ravichandran, G. & Grady, D.E. 2003. An experimentalinvestigation of shock wave propagation in periodicallylayered composites. J. Mech. and Phys. Vol. 51, pp.245–265. Rock Fragmentation by Blasting contains the paperspresented at the 10th International Symposium on RockFragmentation by Blasting (New Delhi, India, 26-29November 2012), and represents the most advanced forum onblasting science and technology. The contributions coverall major recent advancements in blasting andfragmentation, from realistic treatment of the target rock;modelling, measurement and prediction of blast results;control of blast-induced damage, to special blast designsapplicable to civil construction and demolition projects.The latest developments on environmental issues associatedwith blasting operations such as vibrations, flyrock, anddust are also included. Rock Fragmentation by Blastingprovides the state-of-the-art in explosives and blastingengineering, and will be a valuable source of informationfor researchers and practitioners involved in theseareas. Pradeep K. Singh Amalendu Sinha Editors Pradeep K.Singh Amalendu Sinha Editors F r a g b l a s t 1 005-10-2012 15:03:39

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