Right to health in contexts of resource scarcity: towards judicial enforcement of the right to a...

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Right to health in contexts of resource scarcity: towards judicial enforcement of the right to a fair share Siri Gloppen [email protected] (Draft Centre on Law & Social Transformation Working Paper CMI/University of Bergen) Abstract Almost all states have ratified international documents committing them to secure the right to “the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health” for all their citizens, and obliging them to pursue this to the maximum of available resources. A growing number of countries have similar commitments in their national constitutions. But what does this mean in practice in terms of health service delivery? What do individuals living in conditions of resource scarcity have a right to? And can this right be meaningfully enforced thorough courts? This article argues that courts can and should enforce the right to health services, not least in conditions of radical resource scarcity. This requires, however, that the right to health be conceptualized as “the right to a fair share” of the maximum health services that can be provided within available resources. To be able to enforce this effectively, judges must engage the thinking around fair priority setting in health, and seek ways to enforce the right to health that look beyond the individual case and addresses the structural causes of the violations that are placed before them. Commitments to move towards Universal Health Coverage provide opportunities for doing so – and makes judicial engagement urgent. For courts to fill the accountability functions needed to advance the right to health, dialogical approaches are needed, where judges engage health authorities and other stakeholders.

Transcript of Right to health in contexts of resource scarcity: towards judicial enforcement of the right to a...

Right  to  health  in  contexts  of  resource  scarcity:  towards  judicial  enforcement  of  the  right  to  a  fair  share  Siri  Gloppen    [email protected]  (Draft  -­‐    Centre  on  Law  &  Social  Transformation  Working  Paper  -­‐  CMI/University  of  Bergen)                      Abstract  Almost  all  states  have  ratified  international  documents  committing  them  to  secure  the  right  to  “the  highest  attainable  standard  of  physical  and  mental  health”  for  all  their  citizens,  and  obliging  them  to  pursue  this  to  the  maximum  of  available  resources.  A  growing  number  of  countries  have  similar  commitments  in  their  national  constitutions.  But  what  does  this  mean  in  practice  in  terms  of  health  service  delivery?  What  do  individuals  living  in  conditions  of  resource  scarcity  have  a  right  to?  And  can  this  right  be  meaningfully  enforced  thorough  courts?      

This  article  argues  that  courts  can  and  should  enforce  the  right  to  health  services,  not  least  in  conditions  of  radical  resource  scarcity.  This  requires,  however,  that  the  right  to  health  be  conceptualized  as  “the  right  to  a  fair  share”  of  the  maximum  health  services  that  can  be  provided  within  available  resources.  To  be  able  to  enforce  this  effectively,  judges  must  engage  the  thinking  around  fair  priority  setting  in  health,  and  seek  ways  to  enforce  the  right  to  health  that  look  beyond  the  individual  case  and  addresses  the  structural  causes  of  the  violations  that  are  placed  before  them.  Commitments  to  move  towards  Universal  Health  Coverage  provide  opportunities  for  doing  so  –  and  makes  judicial  engagement  urgent.  For  courts  to  fill  the  accountability  functions  needed  to  advance  the  right  to  health,  dialogical  approaches  are  needed,  where  judges  engage  health  authorities  and  other  stakeholders.            

Introduction    The  right  of  all  human  beings  to  “the  highest  attainable  standard  of  physical  and  mental  health”  is  laid  down  in  a  range  of  international  human  rights  documents,  including  in  the  Constitution  of  the  World  Health  Organization  (WHO  1946);  the  United  Nations’  Universal  Declaration  of  Human  Rights  (1948,  article  25);  the  United  Nations’  Covenant  of  Social,  Economic  and  Cultural  Rights  (ICSECR  1966,  article  12);  and  the  Convention  on  the  Elimination  of  all  forms  of  Discrimination  Against  Women  (CEDAW  1979).1  These  documents  are  signed  by  almost  all  states  in  the  world,  committing  them  to  respect,  protect  and  pursue  the  realization  of  the  right  to  health  to  the  maximum  of  their  available  resources,  including  by  seeking  and  providing  international  assistance.  The  right  to  health  is  also  enshrined  in  regional  documents,  including  the  African  (Banjul)  Charter  on  Human  and  Peoples’  Rights,  adopted  by  the  Organization  of  African  Unity  (now  African  Union)  in  1982,  and  the  (Maputo)  Protocol  to  the  African  Charter  on  Human  and  Peoples’  Rights  on  the  Rights  of  Women  in  Africa  (2003).    A  growing  number  of  countries,  including  low-­‐  and  middle-­‐income  countries  have  also  included  right  to  health  provisions  in  their  constitutions.      But  what  does  this  mean  in  practice?  Can  a  constitutional  or  legal  commitment  to  the  right  to  health  translate  into  actual  health  service  delivery?  What  does  individuals  living  in  conditions  of  resource  scarcity  have  a  right  to?  And  can  this  right  be  meaningfully  enforced  through  courts?        This  article  argues  that  courts  can  and  should  enforce  the  right  to  health  services,  not  least  in  conditions  of  radical  resource  scarcity.  Furthermore,  it  argues  that  the  growing  commitment  of  states  to  move  towards  Universal  Health  Coverage  (UHC),  which  is  reflected  in  WHO  policies  as  well  as  in  the  process  of  establishing  the  new  Sustainable  Development  Goals  (SDGs)  can  be  seen  as  an  expression  of  a  commitment  to  realize  the  right  to  health,  and  that  this  provides  opportunities  –  and  need  -­‐  for  courts  to  meaningfully  engage  with  health  policy.        Adjudication  of  the  right  to  health  is  already  happening  on  a  large  scale,  including  in  low  and  middle-­‐income  countries  in  Latin  America,  but  also  in  Asia  and  Africa.  But  inasmuch  as  this  can  be  a  forceful  strategy  for  enforcing  health  rights  not  all  extant  jurisprudence  is  equally  constructive  from  the  perspective  of  the  right  to  health.  The  first  part  of  the  article  outlines  how  courts  in  low  and  middle-­‐income  countries  have  sought  to  give  effect  to  the  right  to  health  in  their  judgments.      

                                                                                                               1  Other  international  conventions  that  include  provisions  to  respect,  protect  and  promote  the  right  to  

The  second  part  of  the  article  argues  that  in  enforcing  the  right  to  health,  the  right  should  be  conceptualized  as  the  right  to  a  fair  share  of  the  health  services  that  can  be  provided  within  available  resources.  This  concept  of  the  right  to  heath  is  well  aligned  with  the  goals  of  moving  towards  universal  health  coverage,  properly  conceived.      The  third  part  of  the  article  argues  that,  based  on  this  conception  of  the  right  to  health,  the  courts  can  and  should  contribute  by  adjudicating  cases  both  at  individual  level  and  at  the  level  of  policy.  In  terms  of  adjudicating  individual  claims,  this  requires  that  judges  also  take  account  of  “potential  others”  when  they  decide  right-­‐to-­‐health  cases  and  that  they  engage  the  thinking  around  fair  priority  setting  in  health.    At  the  level  of  policy,  it  is  argued  that  courts  should  seek  ways  to  enforce  the  right  to  health  that  looks  beyond  the  individual  case  and  that  seeks  to  address  the  structural  causes  of  the  violation  that  is  placed  before  it.  In  the  context  of  a  global  and  national  policy  commitment  to  progressively  realize  the  right  to  health  by  moving  towards  UHC,  courts  can  contribute  by  holding  policy-­‐makers  accountable  to  this  commitment,  and  by  providing  accountability  mechanisms  to  secure  that  the  UHC  process,  as  implemented,  heed  human  rights  principles  and  serve  to  advance  the  right  to  health.  For  courts  to  engage  constructively  with  issues  of  health  policy,  dialogical  approaches  are  needed,  where  judges  engage  health  authorities  and  other  stakeholders.    

Judicial  enforcement  of  the  right  to  health    While  the  right  to  health  is  well  established  in  international  law,  the  extent  to  which  international  law  is  enforceable  in  domestic  courts  varies.    In  states  with  a  monist  legal  system  (mainly  civil  law  countries),  international  obligations,  once  ratified,  are  enforceable  by  domestic  courts  on  a  par  with  domestic  law,  while  in  dualist  countries,  international  legal  obligations  have  to  be  “translated”,  that  is,  enacted  into  national  law,  to  be  enforceable.    Many  countries  in  practice  fall  in-­‐between,  with  courts  to  varying  degrees  taking  account  of  international  (human  rights)  law  when  interpreting  laws  and  constitutional  provisions.    A  growing  number  of  countries,    including  low-­‐  and  middle-­‐income  countries  also  have  right  to  health  provisions  in  their  national  constitutions  and  laws.  At  least  134  of  the  world’s  constitutions  echo  the  international  obligations  by  establishing  a  right  to  health  care  in  some  form.2  In  some  cases  this  takes  the  form  of  guiding  principles  for  policy,  or  a  duty  on  the  state  to  provide  access  to  basic  health  care.  In  other  constitutions  it  has  the  form  of  an  individual,  justiciable  right.  As  we  shall  see,  the  right  to  health  has  also  been  found  

                                                                                                               2  This  is  according  to  an  online  search  on  the  Constitute  Project  webste,  which  includes  194  constitutions  worldwide.  See  https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=health    

justiciable  in  countries  without  an  explicit  constitutional  right  to  health,  and  that  are  not  monist  in  the  sense  that  international  law  is  directly  applicable.  Most  notably,  the  Supreme  Court  of  India  developed  its  health  rights  jurisprudence  (and  social  rights  jurisprudence  more  broadly)  finding  that  the  right  follows  from  the  constitutional  obligation  to  secure  the  right  to  life  and  dignity.3  This  approach  has  since  been  followed  by  courts  in  other  parts  of  the  world.      While  the  justiciability  of  the  right  to  health  (and  socio-­‐economic  rights  more  generally)  continues  to  be  debated,  in  terms  of  its  legal  basis;  separation  of  powers  and  institutional  competence  issues,  as  well  as  on  prudential  grounds,  the  question  is  settled  in  practical  terms  as  courts  in  all  parts  of  the  world  increasingly  decide  right-­‐to  health  cases,  and  are  developing  an  extensive  health  rights  jurisprudence.4  This  is  not  least  true  for  low  and  middle-­‐income  countries,  where  the  realization  of  the  right  to  health  in  practice  is  vastly  unequal.    In  Latin  America,  adjudication  of  the  right  to  health  is  happening  on  a  massive  scale,  with  a  diverse  jurisprudence  emerging.  In  Asia,  India  was  a  pioneer,  with  the  right  to  health  forming  part  of  the  Public  Interest  Litigation  jurisprudence  encouraged  by  the  Supreme  Court,  but  other  countries  in  the  region  have  followed  suit  with  Nepal  emerging  as  a  pioneer  in  terms  of  innovative  right-­‐to-­‐health  jurisprudence.5  South  Africa  has  been  at  the  forefront  in  the  development  of  structural  and  dialogical  approaches  to  health  rights  adjudication,6  while  jurisprudence  is  gradually  emerging  in  other  parts  of  the  continent,  including  in  Kenya7  and  Uganda.8      

                                                                                                               3  See  Upendra  Baxi,  “Taking  suffering  seriously:  Social  action  litigation  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  India,”  Third  World  Legal  Studies  4  (1985),  4  See  Langford,  Malcolm,  ed.  Social  rights  jurisprudence:  emerging  trends  in  international  and  comparative  law.  (Cambridge:  Cambridge  University  Press,  2008):  Varun  Gauri  and  Daniel  M.  Brinks  (eds),  Courting  social  justice:  Judicial  enforcement  of  social  and  economic  rights  in  the  developing  world  (Cambridge:  Cambridge  University  Press,  2010);  Alicia  E.  Yamin  and  Siri  Gloppen  (eds),  Litigating  health  rights:  Can  courts  bring  more  justice  to  health?  (Cambridge,  MA:  Harvard  Law  School  Human  Rights  Program  Series  with  Havard  University  Press,  2011);  Collen  Flood  and  Ayal  Gross  (eds),  The  right  to  health  at  the  private/public  divide:  A  global  comparative  study  (Cambridge:  Cambridge  University  Press,  2014);  Octavio  LM  Ferraz  et  al.  "Judging  the  price  of  life:  cost  considerations  in  right-­‐to-­‐health  litigation."    In  Aasen  et  al  (eds)  Juridification  and  Social  Citizenship  in  the  Welfare  State  (E.Elgar  2014),  121;  and  the  journal  of  Health  and  Human  Rights  Special  Issue  on  Health  Rights  Litigation,  Vol  16,  no  2  ,December  2014.  5    For  the  Supreme  Court  of  Nepal’s  approach  to  women’s  reproductive  rights  see  Prakash  Mani  Sharma  v.  Gov’t  of  Nepal  (SCN,  Writ  No.  064)  6  See  Carole  Cooper  “South  Africa  -­‐  Health  Rights  Litigation:  Cautious  Constitutionalism”  in  Yamin  and  Gloppen  (eds),  Litigating  health  rights:  Can  courts  bring  more  justice  to  health?  (Cambridge,  MA:  Harvard  Law  School  Human  Rights  Program  Series  with  Havard  University  Press,  2011);  Pieterse,  Marius.  Can  rights  cure?  The  impact  of  human  rights  litigation  on  South  Africa's  health  system.  PULP,  2014.  7  See  for  example  PA.O  and  others  v  Attorney  General  and  another  High  Court  of  Kenya  at  Nairobi  Petition  No.  409  of  2009,  (Judgment  2012)  on  access  to  generic  medicines;  and  Luco  Njagi  &  21  others  v  Ministry  of  Health  &  2  others  [2015]  eKLR  on  access  to  dialysis.  

Individual  claims  In  Latin  America,  the  vast  number  of  health  rights  cases  before  the  courts,  are  brought  by  individuals  who  have  been  denied  access  to  treatment.  In  many  countries  these  cases  began  with  claims  for  HIV  medication  in  the  late  1990s  and  have  grown  exponentially.9  Estimates  indicate  that  Brazil  now  has  the  highest  number  of  cases,  but  with  only  a  quarter  of  the  population,  Colombia  has  by  far  the  highest  number  of  claims  per  capita,  with  up  to  150  000  access-­‐to-­‐treatment  petitions  going  to  court  annually.  Other  countries  in  the  region  with  high  levels  of  litigation  are  Costa  Rica  and  Argentina.10    The  typical  pattern  in  the  Latin  American  cases  is  that  health  care  seekers  file  an  urgent  writ  of  protection  (often  termed  amparo  or,  in  Colombia,  tutela)  that  claims  a  breech  of  fundamental  rights,  and  that  courts  rely  on  statements  from  the  patient’s  doctor  to  affirm  that  the  denied  treatment  is  needed  to  effectively  treat  the  patient’s  condition.  The  court  will  then  –  almost  invariably  –  grant  the  treatment,  either  on  the  basis  of  an  explicit  justiciable  right  to  health  in  the  constitution,  or  constructing  a  legal  basis  for  the  right  to  health  from  the  constitutional  right  to  life,  holding  that  the  right  to  health  is  essential  to  the  right  to  life  with  dignity.  In  line  with  the  civil  law  tradition,  these  judgments  normally  do  not  have  precedential  force  and  in  some  cases  there  are  thousands  of  claims  for  the  same  type  of  treatment  –  including  repeated  claims  from  the  same  patients  to  continue  treatment.  This  has  been  most  typical  in  Colombia,  where  the  vast  numbers  of  tutelas  seemed  to  have  little  systemic  effect,  beyond  the  individual  cases.  Also  in  Argentina,  individual  litigation  seems  to  have  becomes  routinized  as  part  of  access  to  some  forms  of  treatment.11  In  other  countries,  most  notably  in  Costa  Rica,  but  also  in  Brazil,  the  health  system  

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         8  The  High  Court  of  Uganda  declared  the  right  to  health  justiciable  in  its  judgment  in  the  case  of  Center  for  Health,  Human  Rights  and  Development  (CEHURD)  and  others  v  Nakaseke  District  Local  Administration  (Civil  Suit  No.111  of  2012,  decided  30  April  2015),      See  for  example        In  many  countries,  health  has  mainly  been  litigated  as  malpractice  cases  rather  than  on  the  basis  of  the  rigth  to  health  (See  for  example  Chidi  A.  Odinkalu  “The  impact  of  economic  and  social  rights  in  Nigeria:  an  assessment  of  the  legal  framework  for  implementing  education  and  health  as  human  rights”  in  Gauri  and  Brinks  (eds),  Courting  social  justice  (Supra  note  1).    9  On  the  role  of  mobilization  around  HIV/AIDS  in  developing  right  to  health  litigation  see  for  example  Benjamin  Mason  Meier  and  Alicia  Ely  Yamin.  "Right  to  health  litigation  and  HIV/AIDS  policy."  The  Journal  of  Law,  Medicine  &  Ethics  39.s1  (2011):  81-­‐84.  10    See  Yamin  and  Gloppen  (eds),  Litigating  health  rights  (supra  note  3)  especially  chapters  on  Colombia,  Brazi,  Costa  Rica  and  Argenina.  11  See  Paola  Bergallo  'Routinization'in  Individual  Coverage  Cases?"  in  Yamin  and  Gloppen  (comps.),  Litigating  Health  Rights  (supra  note  3);  and  Unleashing  Health  Rights  in  Argentine  Courts:  From  the  Myth  of  Rights  to  the  Politics  of  Rights.  Diss.  Stanford  University,  2013.  

responds  quite  quickly  to  court  decisions,  granting  general  access  to  treatments  following  court  decisions  that  grant  individuals  access.12      This  “litigation  pandemic”  as  it  is  sometimes  termed,  has  drawn  concern  and  criticism.13  Health  administrators  and  policy-­‐makers  see  it  as  undermining  cost-­‐effective  health  policies  and  their  work  to  set  priorities  in  a  way  that  allows  the  available  resources  to  be  stretched  to  provide  maximum  health  care  to  the  population,  by  making  it  impossible  to  deny  patient’s  access  to  extremely  expensive  treatment.  Others  see  it  as  exacerbating  inequalities  within  the  system,  by  enabling  some,  and  possibly  already  more  advantaged,  patients  to  jump  the  queue,  and  channel  scarce  resources  their  way.  Yet  others  have  argued  that  such  litigation  provides  an  effective  avenue  for  pharmaceutical  companies  who  can  easily  use  it  (usually  covertly)  to  effectively  promote  their  drugs.    Others  have  pointed  to  advantageous  effects  of  these  cases:  they  provide  effective  redress  to  a  many  individuals  –  including  access  to  services  that  are  guaranteed  by  existing  policies  and  entitlements,  but  that  for  reasons  of  system  malfunctioning  are  not  provided  (at  all,  or  in  a  timely  manner,  or  with  adequate  quality.  In  Colombia,  such  compliance  failure  cases  comprise  more  than  half  of  the  health  tutelas).  The  litigation  also  serves  as  an  alarm-­‐bell,  indicating  where  there  are  problems  in  the  system  –  including  the  failures  to  provide  existing  entitlements,  but  also  failures  to  update  the  system  by  considering  new  forms  of  treatment  –  and  it  provides  a  democratic  function  by  providing  a  basis  for  individuals  to  interact  with  the  state,  and  voice  their  concerns  as  rights-­‐bearers  and  citizens.  Experiences,  most  clearly  from  Colombia  also  show  that  large  numbers  of  individual  claims  may  allow  the  judiciary  to  make  more  wide-­‐raging  orders  for  structural  change  (more  on  this  later).  14    Increasingly,  actors  on  different  sides,  acknowledge  the  positive  as  well  as  the  potentially  negative  effects  of  such  individual  right  to  health  litigation,  and  are  searching  for  ways  to  address  some  of  the  weaknesses  without  loosing  the  

                                                                                                               12  This  is  in  part  due  to  differences  in  the  structure  of  the  health  system.  Costa  Rica  has  a  unified  public  health  system  with  incentives  to  adjust  structurally  rather  than  respond  ad  hoc  to  individual  decisions  (also  because  they  are  forced  to  pay  costs  when  they  loose  cases).  In  contrast,  Colombia’s  managed  competition  health  care  system,  where  private  (and  public)  insurance  companies  and  service  providers  are  contracted  to  provide  health  services,  provide  few  incentives  to  comply  beyond  the  individual  case.  See  Yamin  and  Gloppen  (eds),  Litigating  health  rights  (supra  note  3).  13  See  Yamin  and  Gloppen  (eds),  Litigating  health  rights  (supra  note  3).  14  See  Yamin  and  Gloppen  (eds),  Litigating  health  rights  (supra  note  3).  

important  potential  that  this  litigation  harbours.15  I  come  back  to  this,  but  first  it  is  important  to  note  that  the  growing  health  rights  jurisprudence  is  much  more  than  adjudication  of  individual  claims.    

Public  interest  cases  and  structural  judgments    Claims  for  protection  of  the  right  to  health  are  brought  not  only  by  individuals  seeking  treatment  for  themselves,  but  also  in  the  public  interest  and  by  groups  seeking  changes  in  health  policy.      Since  health  systems  differ  widely  –among  other  in  terms  of  criteria  for  locus  standi,  the  legal  status  of  the  right  to  health,  and  the  extent  to  which  judgments  set  precedent  for  later  cases  –  the  way  in  which  public  interest  cases  are  brought,  differ.  They  range  from  prima  facie  individual  cases  that  are  brought  as  test  cases,  via  collective  claims,  to  direct  challenges  of  policy  or  legislation.  In  India,  public  interest  litigation  has  been  common  in  the  health  field  and  has  brought  significant  advances,  in  terms  of  access  to  antiretroviral  treatment  and  other  health  care  services;  access  to  generic  mediation;  as  well  as  for  public  health  though  judgments  concerning  the  right  to  a  healthy  environment  and  the  right  to  food.16    Here  the  courts  have  responded  with  innovative  remedies,  such  as  continuing  mandamus  where  the  court,  in  the  public  interest,  retains  authority  of  case  to  ensure  that  orders  are  followed  up  and  implemented.  Most  notably,  in  the  famous  Right  to  Food  case,  the  Indian  Supreme  Court  has  also  appointed  commissioners  to  oversee  compliance  with  the  judgment.17      In  South  Africa,  cases  in  the  public  interest  dominate  the  right-­‐to-­‐health  jurisprudence,  after  the  Constitutional  Court  (ZACC)  famously,  denied  a  dialysis  

                                                                                                               15  Multi-­‐stakeholder  dialogues,  involving  judges  as  well  as  ministries  of  health,  health  providers,  patient  organsiations,  civil  society  actors,  and  academic  experts,  have  been  carried  out  among  other  under  the  World  Bank’s  SaluDerecho  programme  and  this  seems  to  have  contributed  towards  nuancing  positions  of  actors  on  different  sides.  See  for  example  the  2011  and  2013  progress  reports  at  http://wbi.worldbank.org/wbi/Data/wbi/wbicms/files/drupal-­‐acquia/wbi/english_progress_right_noreg.pdf  and  http://wbi.worldbank.org/wbi/Data/wbi/wbicms/files/drupal-­‐acquia/wbi/English.pdf.        16  See  Sharanjeet  Parmar  and  Namita  Wahi  "India:  Citizens,  Courts  and  the  Right  to  Health:  Between  Promise  and  Progress?"  in  Yamin  and  Gloppen  Litigating  Health  Rights  (note  3  supra);  Deva,  Surya.  "Public  interest  litigation  in  India:  a  critical  review."  Civil  Justice  Quarterly  28  (2009):  19-­‐40;  and  Singh,  Jerome  Amir,  Michelle  Govender,  and  Edward  J.  Mills.  "Do  human  rights  matter  to  health?."  The  Lancet  370.9586  (2007):  521-­‐527.  17  PUCL  vs  Union  of  India  and  others  (Writ  Petition  [Civil]  No.  196  of  2001).  See  also  the  Right  to  Food  Campaign  at  http://www.righttofoodindia.org/case/case.html  and  the  Supreme  Court  Commissioners’  web  page  at  http://www.sccommissioners.org  

patient’s  claim  for  access  to  treatment  in  its  very  first  right  to  health  case.18  The  judgment  reflects  the  ZACCs  concerns  not  to  become  a  queue  jumping  institution,  which  is  an  obvious  danger  in  a  context  where  the  need  for  costly  treatment  is  clearly  greater  than  available  resources,  but  at  the  same  time  it  reflects  the  court’s  desire  to  show  that  the  right  to  health,  and  other  socioeconomic  rights  are  in  fact  justiciable  in  a  meaningful  way.    The  ZACC’s  response  was  to  say  that,  in  a  context  of  resource  scarcity,  patients’  right  to  health  services  could  not  be  unlimited,  but  had  to  be  balanced  against  the  rights  of  others.  To  do  so  requires  a  three-­‐step  analysis:  firstly,  assessing  the  reasonableness  of  the  policy  in  place  to  regulate  access  to  the  particular  service  (in  this  case,  are  there  criteria  for  prioritizing  patients  for  dialysis,  and  are  these  reasonable);  secondly,  assessing  implementation  of  the  policy  and  whether  resources  are  used  efficiently;  and,  thirdly;  assessing  compliance,  or  whether  the  patient  lodging  the  case  has  been  fairly  treated  according  to  the  rules.  What  the  patient  is  entitled  to  is  in  other  words  due  consideration  within  a  fair  system.  In  the  Soobramooney  case  the  ZACC  found  that  the  policy  was  reasonable  and  that  the  patient  had  been  fairly  considered,  but  failed  to  satisfy  the  criteria.19  The  ZACC  subsequently  further  developed  this  analysis  in  other  judgments,  most  notably  in  the  Grootboom  judgment  on  the  right  to  housing  -­‐  where  it  found  that  there  was  no  policy  to  covering  people  in  desperate  need  for  shelter,  and  ordered  that  this  put  be  in  place  –  and  in  the  famous  Treatment  Action  Campaign  case  on  access  to  anti-­‐retroviral  treatment  for  pregnant  mothers,  where  the  court  found  that  to  only  restrict  such  treatment  to  limited  test  sites  was  not  rational  and  ordered  a  roll-­‐out  of  the  policy.20    In  Latin  America,  individual  cases  on  the  right  to  health  totally  outnumber  public  interest  cases  and  structural  judgments,  yet  the  continent  probably  has  the  most  cases  also  in  the  latter  category,  and  some  of  the  courts  have  developed  very  interesting  remedies.    As  in  India  and  South  Africa,  public  interest  cases  in  Latin  America  often  address  health  related  issues  other  than  access  to  medical  treatment,  such  as  vaccines,  water,  sanitation  and  a  healthy  environment.  Brazilian  courts  have  for  example  passed  more  than  250  orders  to  ensure  that  municipalities  provide  

                                                                                                               18  Soobramoney  v  Minister  of  Health  (Kwazulu-­‐Natal)  (CCT32/97)  [1997]  ZACC  17;  1998  (1)  SA  765  (CC);  1997  (12)  BCLR  1696  (27  November  1997)  19  What  the  ZACC  explicitly  did  not  consider  in  Soobramooney  (nor  in  later  decisions)  was  whether  the  overall  budget  allocation  was  fair,  which  is  found  to  be  outside  its  competence.  This  has  been  a  point  of  criticism  of  the  court’s  jurisprudence.  20  Minister  of  Health  v.  Treatment  Action  Campaign  (2002)  (5)  South  African  Law  Report  721  Right-­‐to-­‐health  related  public  interest  litigation  in  South  Africa  has  also  among  other  challenged  the  government’s  policy  for  distribution  of  antiretroviral  medication  to  prisoners,  access  to  generic  medication,  and  access  to  water.  See  Carole  Cooper  See  Carole  Cooper  “South  Africa  -­‐  Health  Rights  Litigation:  Cautious  Constitutionalism  and  Marius  Pieterse,  Can  rights  cure”  (both  note  4  supra)  

access  to  sanitation.21  By  addressing  preconditions  and  social  determinants  of  health  affecting  millions  of  poor  people,  and  by  demanding  changes  in  policies  with  a  wide  reach,  each  of  these  judgments  potentially  affect  the  lives  and  health  of  thousands  of  people,  although  studies  indicate  that  compliance  is  often  lacking.22  Argentinean  courts  ordered  have  for  example  ordered  the  state  to  ensure  production  of  the  Acute  Hemorrhagic  Fever  Vaccine,  in  the  1998  Viceconte  case.23  The  2008  Mendoza  judgment,24  ordered  municipalities  around  the  Matanza-­‐Riachuelo  river  basin  to  organize  effective  cleaning  of  the  river  that  would  address  the  health  hazards  that  the  pollution  represented.  The  latter  case  is  a  dialogic  judgment,  where  the  different  governing  bodies  are  requested,  not  only  to  negotiate  a  solution  and  report  back  at  regular  intervals,  but  also  to  consult  with  a  range  of  stakeholders  in  the  process.  Thus  the  judgment  contributed  towards  changing  the  understanding  of  the  problem  in  the  affected  communities,  from  being  an  unfortunate  predicament  to  becoming  a  rights-­‐violation  with  concrete  duty  bearers.  It  has  also  changed  the  processes  for  decision-­‐making,  with  a  broader  set  of  actors  and  potentially  changing  power-­‐relations.25  While  physical  results  in  terms  of  cleaner  water,  have  been  slow  in  materializing,  the  Matanza-­‐Riachuelo  River  Basin  Authority  (ACUMAR),  which  was  established  as  an  outcome  of  the  judgment,  has  developed  an  ambitious  clean  up  plan  that  is  currently  being  implemented.26        Such  judgements  –  which  seek  to  address  the  underlying  causes  of  a  structural  right-­‐to-­‐health  problem,  and  orders  new  policies  to  be  made  in  a  participatory  and  deliberative  process  –  are  found  in  an  increasing  number  of  jurisdictions  (including  in  India,  South  Africa  and  Brazil)  but  the  most  ambitious  example  is  arguably  from  Colombia.  In  Sentencia  T-­‐760  from  2008,  the  Colombian  Constitutional  Court  (CCC)  reviewed  its  right-­‐to-­‐health  jurisprudence,  developed  in  response  to  the  vast  and  

                                                                                                               21  For  an  analysis  of  258  court  orders  to  secure  access  to  sanitation  in  Brazil,  and  the  challneges  of  implanting  these,  see  Ana  Paula  de  Barcellos.  "Sanitation  Rights,  Public  Law  Litigation,  and  Inequality:  A  Case  Study  from  Brazil."  Health  and  human  rights  16  (2014):  2.  22  On  the  social  determinants  of  health  see  Michael  Marmot  and  Richard  Wilkinson,  eds.  Social  determinants  of  health.  Oxford  University  Press,  2005.  23  For  the  Viceconte  case  (Viceconte,  Mariela  c.  Estado  Nacional  (Ministerio  de  Salud  y  Ministerio  de  Economía  de  la  Nación)  s/  Acción  de  Amparo.),  see  Abramovich,  Victor,  Laura  Pautassi,  and  Victoria  Furio.  "Judicial  activism  in  the  argentine  health  system:  recent  trends."  Health  and  human  rights  (2008):  53-­‐65;    24  Mendoza  Beatriz  Silva  et  al  vs.  State  of  Argentina  et  al  on  damages  (damages  resulting  from  environmental  pollution  of  Matanza/Riachuelo  river).  File  M.  1569.  XL  25  Kristi  Innvær  Staveland-­‐Sæter.  "Litigating  the  right  to  a  healthy  environment  assessing  the  policy  impact  of."  CMI  Report  2011.6  (2011);  and.  "Can  litigation  clean  rivers?  Assessing  the  policy  impact  of."  CMI  Brief  3  (2012).  26  See  for  example  World  Bank  “Significant  advances  in  the  recovery  of  the  Matanza-­‐Riachuelo  River  Basin”,  July  29,  2014  at  https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2014/07/29/avances-­‐matanza-­‐riachuelo.  

growing  number  of  tutelas.  Noting  a  range  of  structural  problems  that  lead  to  systematic  violations  of  the  right  to  health,  the  CCC  ordered  the  Colombian  government  to  reform  the  entire  health  system,  to  do  so  in  a  participatory  manner,  and  to  regularly  report  back  on  progress.  Keeping  the  case  open,  the  CCC  has,  over  the  almost  seven  years  since  the  judgment  was  handed  down,  issued  almost  a  thousand  follow  up  orders.  While  this  has  caused  tension  with  policy  makers,  and  administrative  challenges  for  the  courts,  it  has  succeeded  in  opening  up  debates  around  health  policy  and  the  right  to  health  in  Colombia  in  an  unprecedented  way,  and  has  helped  uncovering  malfunctioning  in  the  system.27      The  picture  emerging  from  this  brief  tour  is  that  courts  around  the  world  are  becoming  increasingly  confident  and  capable  in  enforcing  the  right  to  health.  28  This  has  caused  optimism  in  the  human  rights  community,  but  has  also  frequently  tensions  with  health  policy  makers  and  administrators.  Such  tensions  can  be  fruitful,  but  they  also  raise  questions  regarding  whether  all  forms  of  health  rights  jurisprudence  are  constructive  from  the  perspective  of  advancing  the  right  to  health  in  society.    In  the  following,  it  is  argued  that  this  depends  on  what  the  concept  of  the  right  to  health  is,  that  the  courts  are  enforcing.    

The  right  to  health  as  the  right  to  a  fair  share    Many  judges,  faced  with  individuals  in  need  of  health  care  services,  interpret  the  right  to  health  to  mean  the  right  to  whatever  (a  patient’s  doctor  decides)  is  needed  for  the  person  to  attain  the  highest  possible  standard  of  health.29  The  right  to  health  is  here  understood  as  an  unlimited  right  to  access  to  whatever  prolongs  (or  improves  the  quality  of)  life.  Resource  scarcity  is  irrelevant  in  this  perspective,  where  an  underlying  premise  is  that  one  cannot  put  a  price  tag  on  life.  If  a  life-­‐saving  treatment  for  a  patient  with  a  rare  disease  costs  two  million  USD  per  year,  the  court  will  grant  it.30    

                                                                                                               27  See  for  exmaple  Thomas  C.  Tsai  "Second  chance  for  health  reform  in  Colombia."  The  Lancet  375.9709  (2010):  109-­‐110;  Yamin,  Alicia  Ely,  and  Ariel  Frisancho.  "Human-­‐rights-­‐based  approaches  to  health  in  Latin  America."  The  Lancet  (2014);  Camila  Gianella-­‐Malca,  Siri  Gloppen,  and  Elisabeth  Fosse.  "Giving  Effect  to  Children's  Right  to  Health  in  Colombia?  Analysing  the  Implementation  of  Court  Decisions  Ordering  Health  System  Reform."  Journal  of  Human  Rights  Practice  5.1  (2013):  153-­‐176.  28  Norman  Daniels,  et  al.  "Role  of  the  Courts  in  the  Progressive  Realization  of  the  Right  to  Health:  Between  the  Threat  and  the  Promise  of  Judicialization  in  Mexico."  (2015).  29  See  Ferraz  et  al.  "Judging  the  price  of  life”  (note  4  supra)  30  See  Ferraz  et  al.  "Judging  the  price  of  life”  (note  4  supra)  

But  is  this  a  reasonable  interpretation  of  the  right  to  health  in  contexts  of  resource  scarcity?    In  all  health  systems,  technological  advances  lead  to  a  far  greater  supply  of  potentially  beneficial  treatments,  and  thus  a  much  higher  demand  from  patients  than  there  are  resources  to  pay  for.  And  the  gap  is  increasing.    This  means  that  no  society  can  realize  the  right  to  health  for  all  if  this  is  understood  as  the  unlimited  right  of  everyone  to  access  all  potentially  useful  (or  all  life-­‐saving)  health  services.    The  resource  challenges  are  obviously  more  acute  in  low-­‐  and  middle-­‐income  countries,  where  the  resources  available  for  health  related  spending  is  less,  and  where  efficient  use  of  these  resources  often  are  hampered  by  poorly  functioning  and  highly  unequal  health  systems.    In  this  context,  to  view  the  right  to  health  as  an  unlimited  claim  to  everything  that  is  physically  possible  to  do  to  improve  an  individual’s  chance  to  live/have  a  more  healthy  life  is  unethical.  It  masks  the  inevitable  trade-­‐offs  that  have  to  be  done  at  all  levels  of  the  health  system  in  spending  limited  resources,  and  implicitly  discards  the  right  to  health  of  others  similarly  or  worse  situated.  A  more  reasonable  interpretation  of  the  “right  to  the  highest  attainable  standard  of  physical  and  mental  health”  is  an  interpretation  where  the  right  is  understood  as  limited  by  the  similar  right  of  others,  and  where  the  individual  right  to  health  is  the  right  to  equal  concern  and  respect  and  to  a  fair  share  of  the  available  resources,  within  the  best  possible  system.      In  this  perspective  the  duty  of  the  state  is,  fourfold:    

a) to  prioritise  health-­‐related  spending  and  ensure  that  the  maximum  resources  possible  (including  from  private  and  foreign  sources)  are  made  available  for  health  purposes  (duly  balanced  against  other  rights)  

b) to  create  a  well-­‐functioning  health  system  that  makes  efficient  use  of  the  resources  available;  that  respects  the  human  rights  and  dignity  of  all;  and  that  has  regulatory  frameworks  in  place  to  protect  citizens’  right  from  threats  by  third  parties  (for  example  in  the  form  of  pollution,  or  exorbitant  drug  prices).    

c) to  ensure  that  there  are  fair  systems  for  distributing    scarce  resources,  that  do  not  (dis)favour  anyone  due  to  morally  irrelevant  circumstances.  

d) to  ensure  that  the  systems  are  complied  with  so  that  each  individual  receives  a  fair  share  and  is  considered  with  equal  concern  and  respect      

By  advancing  as  rapidly  a  possibly  along  the  four  dimensions,  the  state  fulfils  the  duty  to  progressively  realize  the  right  to  health  within  available  resources.    As  we  will  discuss  below,  the  judiciary  can  play  a  role  in  securing  accountability  for  each  of  the  four  steps,  but  first  we  will  pause  to  consider  how  this  conception  of  the  right  to  

health  aligns  with  the  currant  global  commitments  to  moving  towards  universal  health  coverage.      

Universal  Health  Coverage  The  growing  commitment  of  states  to  move  towards  Universal  Health  Coverage  (UHC),  grew  out  of  the  World  Health  Assembly  and  is  reflected  in  WHO  policies,  as  well  as  in  the  process  of  establishing  the  new  Sustainable  Development  Goals  (SDGs).    The  expressed  ambitions  of  UHC  is  to  extend  health  care31  coverage  to  uncovered  parts  of  the  population,  to  improve  the  scope  and  quality  of  the  services  that  are  provided,  and  to  reduce  the  risk  of  financial  hardship  from  seeking  medical  care.32  To  do  so,  the  aim  is  to  develop  better  health  financing  systems  that  can  increase  the  resources  available  for  health  related  services  as  well  as  better  systems  for  prioritising  which  services  should  be  provided,  to  whom  and  under  which  conditions.        From  a  right-­‐to-­‐health  perspective,  UHC  can  be  seen  as  an  expression  of  commitment  to  realize  the  right  to  health  –  understood  as  the  right  to  equal  concern  and  respect,  and  to  a  fair  share  of  the  maximum  available  resources.      Bu  at  the  same  time,  UHC  has  limits  and  risks  that  become  evident  when  considered  from  a  right  to  health  perspective.  It  is  narrowly  focused  on  financing  and  health  care  services,  thus  it  risks  taking  focus  away  from  preventive  care  and  the  preconditions  and  social  determinants  of  health.  Access  to  clean  water  and  sanitation,  to  adequate  housing  and  nutrition  are,  for  example  as,  or  more  significant  for  health  outcomes  than  health  care  services.  A  narrow  focus  on  health  care  services,  even  if  these  are  extended  to  poorer  parts  of  the  populations,  might  thus  in  effect  harm  the  health  of  poor  people  if  it  crowds  out  social  investments  improving  social  determinants  of  health.      The  UHC  process  has  also  been  dominated  by  technical  considerations  of  financing  and  coverage  models  and  provide  scant  opportunities  for  meaningful  participation  from  health  users  in  the  trade-­‐offs  and  choices  that  need  to  be  made  on  the  path  to  universal  health  coverage,  including  with  regard  to  who  and  what  should  be  

                                                                                                               31  This  sometimes  seen  more  narrowly  in  terms  of  health  insurance  coverage.      32  Medical  expenses  is  widely  accepted  as  a  main  cause  of  poverty  globally.  See  for  example  Adam  Wagstaff  and  Eddy  van  Doorslaer.  "Catastrophe  and  impoverishment  in  paying  for  health  care:  with  applications  to  Vietnam  1993–1998."  Health  economics  12.11  (2003):  921-­‐933;  and  Maria-­‐Pia  Waelkens  et  al.  “The  Role  of  Social  Health  Protection  in  Reducing  Poverty:  The  Case  of  Africa  (2005)”.  ESS  Working  Paper  No.  22.  Available  at  SSRN:  http://ssrn.com/abstract=703561  or  http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.703561.  

prioritized  first;  and  on  what  terms.  Accountability-­‐mechanisms  whereby  users  can  hold  policy-­‐makers  and  service  providers  accountable,  are  not  properly  conceived,  which  is  a  fundamental  flaw  from  a  human  rights  perspective,  where  the  ability  of  everyone  to  claim  their  rights  is  at  the  core.33      To  what  extent  UHC  will  be  able  to  advance  the  right  to  health  also  depends  on  the  choices  that  are  made  in  the  process.  A  group  of  experts  in  health  ethics,  priority  setting  and  human  rights,  mandated  by  the  WHO  to  reflect  on  how  to  make  fair  choices  on  the  path  to  universal  health  coverage,  recommends  that  states  should  follow  a  three-­‐pronged  strategy  to  progressively  realize  UHC:  34  

1) Categorize  services  into  priority  classes  (high;  medium  and  low-­‐priority  services)  based  on  criteria  related  to  cost-­‐effectiveness,  priority  to  the  worse  off,  and  financial  risk  protection.  

2) First  expand  coverage  for  high-­‐priority  services  to  everyone.35    3) While  doing  so,  ensure  that  disadvantaged  groups  (such  as  low-­‐income  

groups  and  rural  populations)  are  not  left  behind.    

The  committee  also  concluded  that  there  are  certain  trade-­‐offs  that  are  generally  unacceptable  when  moving  towards  UHC:36  I. To  expand  coverage  for  low-­‐  or  medium-­‐priority  services  before  there  is  near  

universal  coverage  for  high-­‐priority  services.  This  includes  reducing  out-­‐of-­‐pocket  payments  for  low-­‐  or  medium-­‐priority  services  before  eliminating  out-­‐of-­‐pocket  payments  for  high-­‐priority  services.  

II. To  give  high  priority  to  very  costly  services  whose  coverage  will  provide  substantial  financial  protection  when  the  health  benefits  are  very  small  compared  to  alternative,  less  costly  services.  

III. To  expand  coverage  for  well-­‐off  groups  before  doing    so  for  worse-­‐off  groups  when  the  costs  and  benefits  are  not  vastly  different.  This  includes  expanding  coverage  for  those  with  already  high  coverage  before  groups  with  lower  coverage.  

IV. To  first  include  in  the  universal  coverage  scheme  only  those  with  the  ability  to  pay  and  not  include  informal  workers  and  the  poor,  even  if  such  an  approach  would  be  easier.  

                                                                                                               33  For  a  discussion  of  the  circle  of  accountability  in  realizing  the  right  to  health  see  Alicia  Ely  Yamin  "Toward  Transformative  Accountability:  Applying  Rights-­‐Based  Approach  to  Fulfill  Maternal  Health  Obligations."  SUR-­‐Int'l  J.  on  Hum  Rts.  12  (2010):  95;  and  Yamin,  Alicia  Ely,  and  Ariel  Frisancho.  "Human-­‐rights-­‐based  approaches  to  health  in  Latin  America."  The  Lancet  (2014).  34  See  Trygve  Ottersen,  Ole  F.  Norheim  et  al  Making  Fair  Choices  on  the  Path  to  Universal  Health  Coverage.  Geneva:  WHO  (2014).  The  thee  points  are  listed  on  p  ix.  35  “This  includes  eliminating  out-­‐of-­‐pocket  payments  while  increasing  mandatory,  progressive  prepayment  with  pooling  of  funds.”  p  ix.  36  The  following  points  are  quited  verbatim  from  Ottersen  et  al  Making  Fair  Choices  (note  30  supra)  pp  xi  –  xii.  

V. To  shift  from  out-­‐of-­‐pocket  payment  toward  mandatory  prepayment  in  a  way  that  makes  the  financing  system  less  progressive  

The  committee  emphasizes  the  importance  of  institutionalizing  effective  and  legitimate  mechanisms  for  public  accountability  and  participation  and  that,  to  enable  this,  a  strong  system  for  monitoring  and  evaluation  is  needed.    These  perspectives  on  how  to  move  towards  universal  health  coverage,  to  a  large  extent  reflect  and  echo  human  rights  based  approaches,  and  can  provide  importance  guidance  for  courts  in  developing  their  right  to  health  jurisprudence.    

 

Adjudication  on  the  path  to  universal  health  coverage    Based  on  the  conception  of  the  right  to  health  as  the  right  to  equal  concern  and  respect  and  a  fair  share  of  the  maximum  available  resources,  the  courts  can  and  should  contribute  to  the  process  of  expanding  universal  health  coverage.  However,  the  courts  can  and  should  also  maintain  a  broader  perspective  on  advancing  the  right  to  health  in  society  that  goes  beyond  the  UHC’s  focus  on  health  services,  and  that  also  seeks  to  alter  the  social  determinants  of  health.  The  courts  can  fill  these  functions  by  adjudicating  cases  both  at  the  individual  level  and  at  the  level  of  policy.      The  survey  of  current  advances  in  right  to  health  litigation  in  the  first  part  of  this  article,  demonstrate  that  some  courts  have  come  quite  a  long  way  in  developing  adjudicative  strategies  and  remedies  that  can  contribute  towards  developing  judicial  accountability  for  the  right  to  health,  understood  as  fair  consideration  and  a  fair  share.  It  also  shows  that  some  current  forms  of  adjudication  seem  counterproductive  in  this  regard.  By  interpreting  the  right  to  health  as  an  unlimited  entitlement  to  needed  and  potentially  useful  health  services,  they  run  counter  to  and  undermine  efforts  to  balance  the  needs  and  rights  of  each  individual  with  the  rights  of  others  similarly  placed.    The  remaining  of  this  paper  illustrates  ways  in  which  courts  can  develop  right  to  health  jurisprudence  that  can  shape  health  service  delivery  in  the  context  of  universal  health  coverage.  Point  of  departure,  is  the  different  aspects  of  the  states’  obligations,  outlined  in  points  a)  -­‐  d)  above.      

a) Judicial  accountability  for  the  state’s  obligation  to  prioritise  health  spending.    

States’  right-­‐to-­‐health  obligations  under  international  law  demand  that  they  prioritise  the  progressive  realization  of  the  right  to  health  by  making  available  for  health  purposes  the  maximum  available  resources  (including  from  private  and  foreign  sources,  and  duly  balanced  against  other  rights).    But  can  and  should  courts  hold  their  governments  accountable  for  not  prioritizing  health  sufficiently,  for  example  in  their  budgets?  This  is  hotly  contested.  There  are  different  views  on  what  this  obligation  means  in  legal  terms,  as  well  as  strongly  divergent  views  on  whether  and  when  courts  should  decide  on  budgetary  allocations,  which  many  see  as  lying  at  the  core  of  the  political  domain.        A  judicial  accountability  function  does,  however,  not  necessarily  imply  a  dictate  from  the  courts,  which  might  be  seen  to  encroach  unduly  upon  the  separation  of  powers.37  By  requiring  political  decision  makers  to  account  for  and  justify  their  allocation  of  recourses  to  health  relative  to  other  sectors,  and  provide  public  reasons  for  the  trade-­‐offs  made,  the  courts  can  exercise  a  less  intrusive,  and  in  this  sense  “softer”,  but  still  significant  dialogical  accountability  function.      In  2001,  in  the  Abuja  Declaration,  almost  all  African  states  pledged  to  allocate  at  least  15  per  cent  of  their  annual  budget  to  improve  the  health  sector.38  A  decade  later,  only  South  Africa  and  Rwanda  had  met  the  target.  In  around  half  of  the  states  there  were  improvements  in  the  spending  on  health,  while  in  the  rest  there  were  few  changes  or  a  negative  development.  39  While  the  15  per  cent  target  is  a  political  commitment  and  not  legally  binding,  it  can  still  be  used  as  part  of  a  dialogic  accountability  process.      Particularly  in  situations  where  there  are  cuts  in  the  health  budget,  the  right-­‐to-­‐health  in  international  law  can  be  invoked  as  a  basis  for  questioning  the  budgetary  decisions.    The  obligation  to  progressively  realize  the  right  to  health,  implies  a  principle  of  non-­‐retrogression,  or  in  other  words,  the  government  is  obliged  to  at  least  not  reduce  the  resources  available  for  health,  save  in  very  special  circumstances.  40  This  provides  a  stronger  legal  basis  for  holding  governments  to  

                                                                                                               37  For  different  ways  in  which  accountability  can  be  excercised,  see  for  example  Siri  Gloppen  et  al.  Responsiveness  to  the  Concerns  of  the  Poor  and  Accountability  to  the  Commitment  to  Poverty  Reduction.  Chr.  Michelsen  Institute,  2003.  38  African  Union.  2001.  Abuja  Declaration  on  HIV/AIDS,  Tuberculosis  and  Other  Related  Infectious  Diseases  at  http://www.un.org/ga/aids/pdf/abuja_declaration.pdf  ;    39  According  to  WHO  figures  only  Rwanda  and  South  Africa  had  reached  15%.  See  World  Health  Organization  “The  Abuja  Declaration:  Ten  Years  On,  WHO  (2011)  at  http://www.who.int/healthsystems/publications/abuja_report_aug_2011.pdf?ua=1.    40  Leslie  London  and  Helen  Schneider.  "Globalisation  and  health  inequalities:  Can  a  human  rights  paradigm  create  space  for  civil  society  action?."  Social  Science  &  Medicine  74.1  (2012):  6-­‐13;  Alicia  Ely  

account  for  budgetary  decisions.  The  courts  can  thus  play  an  important  role  as  an  arena  in  which  civil  society  actors  can  demand  that  the  government  answers  and  justifies,  or  reconsiders  its  decisions.        

b) Judicial  accountability  for  the  obligation  to  ensure  a  well-­‐functioning  health  system  that  respects  the  rights  and  dignity  of  all  and  protects  against  harm  from  third  parties  

 Court  cases  alleging  deficiencies  and  mal-­‐functioning  of  the  health  care  system  are  common  in  many  health  systems,  and  often  take  the  form  of  negligence  or  malpractice  claims  against  individual  doctors  and  health  providers.  Also  cases  concerning  government  hospitals  and  government  policy,  and  that  could  have  been  brought  under  the  right  to  health,  often  take  the  form  negligence  claims,  as  these  are  often  easier  to  argue,  or  for  the  courts  to  comfortably  decide.  However,  from  the  perspective  of  the  right  to  health,  negligence  claims  are  insufficient,  as  they  generally  localize  responsibility  to  individual  actors.  While  individual  accountability  is  important  and  in  some  cases  may  be  an  adequate  response  to  malpractice,  negligence,  abuse  and  mistreatment,  the  underlying  causes  are  often  structural:  lack  of  regulation,  poor  organisation  and  supervision  structures,  inadequate  resources  etc.  By  broadening  the  perspective  in  such  cases  to  look  at  underlying  causes,  judges  might  use  malpractice,  neglect,  and  abuse  cases  as  an  opportunity  to  request  structural  changes,  policy  reforms,  or  new  regulation  of  private  actors.  Such  remedies  may,  as  discussed  above,  be  seen  as  less  intrusive  if  they  are  dialogical,  where  the  responsible  authorities  are  asked  to  make  and  implement  a  plan  or  policy.  They  may  have  better  chances  of  being  implemented,  if  supervisory  measures  are  included,  for  example  requesting  regular  report  back.  And  they  may  strengthen  the  participatory  aspects  of  the  right  to  health  if  they  include  requirements  for  user  participation  in  the  process.      While  the  main  duty  bearer  for  the  right  to  health  is  the  state,  private  actors  also  have  obligations.    A  number  of  countries,  including  South  Africa,  have  constitutional  requirements  for  horizontal  applications  of  rights,  that  render  it  possible  to  hold  private  individuals  and  institutions  (such  as  private  hospitals)  legally  responsible,  for  example  for  providing  services  to  indigent  patients.  And  when  the  government  contracts  private  actors  to  carry  out  services  on  is  behalf,  the  right-­‐to-­‐health  

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         Yamin,  "Beyond  compassion:  the  central  role  of  accountability  in  applying  a  human  rights  framework  to  health."  Health  and  human  rights  (2008):  1-­‐20.    

obligations  do  not  disappear.  The  state  is  still  responsible  for  ensuring  that  the  obligation  are  met.    More  generally,  the  government  is  obliged  to  protect  the  right  to  health  though  the  regulation  of  private  actors  (also  those  not  receiving  direct  or  indirect  public  funds),  this  potentially  includes  a  wide  range  of  issues,  including  regulations  on  pollution,  standards  of  care,  medicine  prices,  requirements  for  community  service  for  medical  practitioners  etc.        

c) Judicial  accountability  for  the  obligation  to  ensure  a  fair  system  for  distributing  scarce  resources  

 The  Soobramoony  cases  discussed  earlier,  is  one  of  the  first  examples  of  a  court  demanding  accountability  from  health  authorities  for  their  obligations  to  ensure  that  there  is  a  reasonable  system  in  place  for  distributing  available  (and  inevitably  scarce)  health  care  resources  –  a  system  that  is  fair  in  the  sense  that  it  is  based  on  reasonable  criteria  and  does  not  (dis)favour  anyone  due  to  morally  irrelevant  circumstances.41      Which  criteria  that  can  legitimate  be  relied  on  when  prioritising  health  related  resources,  is  contentious.  Criteria  that  are  commonly  regarded  as  reasonable  include:  seriousness  of  the  health  condition;  ability  to  benefit  from  the  treatment  provided;  and  effectiveness  and  cost-­‐effectiveness  of  the  treatment.    Social  disadvantage/social  justice  considerations  are  also  widely  considered  relevant  and  legitimate  to  take  into  account  when  allocating  resource  for  health,  from  the  perspective  that  health  is  a  basic  social  institution  and  crucial  to  inclusive  citizenship.  Others  argue  that  the  health  system  may  not  be  the  best  place  to  compensate  for  injustices  in  other  social  domains  such  criteria,  and  that,  while  relevant  and  important  when  considering  prioritisation  for  health  broadly  (including  social  determinants  of  health),  social  disadvantage  may  not  be  as  relevant  when  allocating  resources  for  treatment,  or  health  care  services  narrowly  conceived.  But  given  that  inequalities  in  health  and  inequalities  in  other  domains  are  so  closely  intertwined,  there  are  good  arguments  for  taking  social  justice  concerns  into  account.  This  includes  considering  the  potential  risk  that  certain  forms  of  out-­‐of-­‐pocket  spending  may  be  catastrophic  in  terms  of  pushing  people  into  (deeper)  poverty.            Other,  contested,  criteria  for  allocating  resources  for  health  include:  age  (whether  treatments  for  conditions  affecting  younger  people  should  receive  priority,  and/or  

                                                                                                               41  What  are  morally  relevant  circumstances  in  relation  to  the  right  to  health,  is  a  contentious  issue,  but  the  International  Declaration  of  Human  Rights  human  rights  norms  list  a  number  of  prohibited  grounds  for  discrimination,  such  as  race,  colour,  sex,  language,  religion,  political  or  other  opinion,  national  or  social  origin,  property,  birth  or  other  status.    It  is  hotly  contested  in  many  socieities  to  what  extent  To  what  extent  criteria  such  as  age;  whether  a  medical  condition  can  be  seen  as  self-­‐inflited  Criteria  that  are  contested  include    

whether  younger  patients  should  be  prioritised  for  certain  forms  of  treatment);  usefulness  to  society  (whether  for  example  mothers  with  many/small  children  should  be  prioritised  since  their  illness/death  would  affect  the  life  and  health  of  many  others;  or  whether  people  in  productive  employment  should  move  up  in  the  queue  to  get  them  sooner  back  into  work,  thus  limiting  the  costs  of  their  illness  to  society);  ;  whether  a  medical  condition  can  be  seen  as  self-­‐inflicted    (for  example  though  smoking,  excessive  drinking  or  unhealthy  eating  habits);and  ability  to  pay  (whether  people  who  pay  (extra)  for  treatment  should  be  given  priority  in  the  waiting  list,  or  be  allowed  to  buy  treatment  that  the  health  system  does  not  provide  as  part  of  a  universal  health  care  plan.42)              There  are  also  a  number  of  criteria  that  are  generally  considered  unacceptable  as  the  basis  for  prioritizing  resources.  The  International  Declaration  of  Human  Rights  list  a  number  of  prohibited  grounds  for  discrimination,  such  as  race,  colour,  sex,  language,  religion,  political  or  other  opinion,  national  or  social  origin,  property,  birth  or  other  status.  (However,  based  on  principles  of  affirmative  action  these  grounds  can  be  used  as  the  basis  for  preferential  treatment  aiming  to  rectify  excising  injustices.)    There  is  in  other  words  no  simple  answer  to  the  question  of  what  a  fair  system  for  allocating  scarce  health  care  resources  looks  like.  It  needs  to  be  deliberated  within  each  society,  in  ways  that  allow  all  affected  parties  a  voice,  and  that  can  thus  take  account  both  of  cultural  specificities,  need  and  reources.43  A  good  starting  point  may,  however  be,  the  criteria  that  are  most  commonly  regarded  as  reasonable,  that  is  the  seriousness  of  the  health  condition;  ability  to  benefit  from  the  treatment  provided;  the  effectiveness  and  cost-­‐effectiveness  of  the  treatment  and  social  disadvantage.  These  are  the  criteria  that  are  reflected  in  the  recommendations  by  the  WHO  ethics  group,  discussed  above,  that  recommended  that  systems  for  prioritizing  health  resources  should:  1)  To  categorize  services  into  priority  classes  based  on  criteria  related  to  cost-­‐effectiveness,  priority  to  the  worse  off,  and  financial  risk  protection.  2)  first  expand  coverage  for  high-­‐priority  services  to  everyone,  and  while  doing  so,  3)  ensure  that  disadvantaged  groups  (such  as  low-­‐income  groups  and  rural  populations)  are  not  left  behind.    If  there  is  no  system  in  place  –  or  the  system  is  inadequate  or  illegitimate  -­‐  the  courts  can  play  a  crucial  accountability  function  by  demanding  that  a  (better)  

                                                                                                               42  Given  that  the  ability  to  provide  health  care  is  not  only  a  question  of  money,  but  also  of  available  skilled  human  resources,  there  are  concerns  that  allowing  those  who  can  pay  preferential  access,  or  allowing  private  health  care  services  (within  public  hospitals  or  in  private  institutions)  drain  human  resources  from  the  public  system.  Others  hold  that  this  is  not  a  zero-­‐sum  game  and  that  privately  financed  health  care  releases  additional  human  resources.  43  A  widely  acknowledged  model  for  such  a  process  of  accountability  for  reasonableness  is  provided  by  Norman  Daniels  in  "Accountability  for  reasonableness:  Establishing  a  fair  process  for  priority  setting  is  easier  than  agreeing  on  principles."  BMJ:  British  Medical  Journal  321.7272  (2000):  1300;  see  also  Norman  Daniels  and  James  E.  Sabin.  "Accountability  for  reasonableness:  an  update."  BMJ  337  (2008).  

system  be  developed.  Again  this  could  involve  a  dialogical  process  with  the  government,  where  the  judiciary  is  involved  in  assessing  the  reasonableness  of  the  plan  and  its  implementation,  and  also  requirements  for  public  participation  on  the  development,  implementation  and  monitoring  of  the  system.          

d) Judicial  accountability  for  the  obligation  to  ensure  that  the  system  for  allocating  resources  is  complied  with  so  that  each  individual  receive  a  fair  share  and  is  considered  with  equal  concern  and  respect      

This,  finally,  brings  us  to  what  the  judiciary  can  do  in  terms  of  providing  remedies  for  individual  claims  for  health  services,  given  the  premise  is  that  what  each  of  us  have  a  claim  to  under  the  right  to  health,  is  a  fair  share.        If  there  is  a  system  for  priority-­‐setting  in  place,  where  treatments  and  services  are  categorized  into  (high/medium/low)  priority  classes  based  on  criteria  related  to  cost-­‐effectiveness,  priority  to  the  worse  off,  and  financial  risk  protection,  these  priority  classes  should  be  taken  by  judges  as  the  point  of  departure  –  if  a  patient  is  claiming  a  high  priority  service,  there  would  be  prima  facie  reason  to  grant  the  claim,  while,  if  she  claims  low  priority  services,  very  strong  reasons  would  have  to  be  provided  as  to  why  the  case  is  so  special  that  it  deserves  to  be  given  priority  ahead  of  other  with  similar  conditions,  or  who  otherwise  are  given  higher  priority.    This  may  involve  probing  whether  the  priority  classification  given  to  a  treatment  is  (still)  valid,44  which  in  turn  would  require  that  the  judges  have  access  to,  among  other  reliable  information  on  the  effectiveness  and  cost  of  treatment  for  different  conditions.  Some  courts  have  come  quite  far  in  this  regard,  with  Costa  Rica  arguably  being  the  best  example.  In  2014  it  signed  a  technical  cooperation  plan  with  the  Cochrane  Collaboration  that  involved  all  major  stakeholders  in  the  health  care  system  and  aims  to  facilitate  dialogue  between  interested  health  specialists  on  “equity,  efficiency,  design  and  implementation  of  public  policies  concerned  with  prioritization,  law,  and  the  judicialization  of  health.”45                                                                                                                      44  As  both  effectivness  assesments  and  prices  change  a  classification  made  at  one  point  is  not  neccssarily  right  at  a  later  point,  with  new  information.  A  problem  is  also  that  the  prices  negotiated  with  parmaseutical  companies  are  often  secret,  wich  makes  cost-­‐effectiveness  analysis  difficult.  45  Cited  from  Norheim,  Ole  Frithjof,  and  Bruce  M.  Wilson.  "Health  Rights  Litigation  and  Access  to  Medicines:  Priority  Classification  of  Successful  Cases  from  Costa  Rica's  Constitutional  Chamber  of  the  Supreme  Court."  Health  and  human  rights  16  (2014):  2,  available  online  at  http://www.hhrjournal.org/2014/10/02/health-­‐rights-­‐litigation-­‐and-­‐access-­‐to-­‐medicines-­‐priority-­‐classification-­‐of-­‐successful-­‐cases-­‐from-­‐costa-­‐ricas-­‐constitutional-­‐chamber-­‐of-­‐the-­‐supreme-­‐court/  .  See  also  Federico  Augustovski,  et  al.  "Institutionalizing  health  technology  assessment  for  priority  setting  and  health  policy  in  Latin  America:  from  regional  endeavors  to  national  experiences."  Expert  review  of  pharmacoeconomics  &  outcomes  research,  February  2015,  Vol.  15,  No.  1,  p.  9-­‐12  (doi:10.1586/14737167.2014.963560)  

 Is  there  anything  courts  can  do  for  the  individual  claiming  access  to  health  services  as  a  right  to  health,  in  the  absence  of  a  reasonable  system  for  allocating  resources?  A  basic  approach  is  to  ask  whether  the  decision  could  reasonably  be  universalized.  Would  it  be  reasonable,  within  the  resources  that  could  realistically  be  made  available  for  health,  and  in  the  light  of  other  health  priorities,  that  all  similarly  situated  individuals  could  be  provided  access  to  this  service?  If  the  answer  is  clearly  “no”,  there  are  strong  arguments  for  denying  the  claim,  even  in  the  absence  of  a  public  system.  If  the  answer  is  “yes”,  or  “possibly”,  there  are  strong  arguments  for  the  courts  to  grant  the  claims,  and  to  underscore  that  if  such  claims  are  to  be  denied,  the  onus  is  on  the  government  to  demonstrate  that  it  is  doing  its  utmost  to  give  all  a  fair  share  within  a  fair  health  system.        

In  conclusion    This  article  has  argued  that,  since  the  resources  available  will  always  fall  short  of  what  is  needed  to  provide  everyone  with  the  highest  attainable  standard  of  physical  and  mental  health,  the  individual  right  to  health  services  mush  be  understood  as  not  as  an  unlimited  right,  but  as  the  right  to  a  fair  share.      The  right  to  health  in  this  sense  is,  however,  more  than  a  just  a  fair  share  of  whatever  little  the  government  choose  to  allocate  to  health,  it  is  a  fair  share  to  the  best,  and  most  reasonable  health  system  that  can  be  provided  within  the  maximum  available  resources.  This  means  that  the  government  has  obligations  at  many  levels:  The  government  is  responsible  for  making  available  for  the  health  system  as  many  human  and  financial  resources  as  possible,  including  through  seeking  (aid  providing)  international  assistance.  It  is  responsible  for  securing  that  the  health  system,  broadly,  is  well  functioning  and  that  there  are  systems  in  place  to  ensure  that  services  are  available,  accessible,  acceptable  and  of  adequate  quality,  and  that  everyone  is  treated  with  dignity  and  respect,  and  that  there  are  sufficient  regulations  in  place  to  protect  against  harm  by  third  parties.  The  government  is  also  responsible  for  developing  a  fair  system  for  prioritising  and  allocating  the  available  resources  for  health,  and  to  do  so  though  a  fair  and  inclusive  process  –  and  for  ensuring  that  the  system  is  in  fact  complied  with  so  that  each  individual  can  receive  a  fair  treatment  and  a  fair  share.      

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

The  article  has  argued  that  the  courts  have  a  crucial  role  to  play  in  holding  governments  accountable  for  the  different  steps  of  this  process,  and  has  drawn  on  jurisprudential  developments  from  across  the  globe  to  illustrate  how  this  might  be  done.  Fundamentally,  adjudicating  the  right  to  health  in  this  sense,  requires  that  judges  not  only  see  the  individual  before  them,  but  also  take  account  of  “potential  others”  when  they  decide  right  to  health  cases,  and  that  they  apply  their  mind  to  questions  related  to  fair  priority  setting  in  health.    It  also  requires  that  courts  seek  ways  to  enforce  the  right  to  health  that  looks  beyond  the  individual  case  and  that  seeks  to  address  the  structural  causes  of  right-­‐to-­‐health  violations.  In  the  context  of  global  and  national  policy  commitments  to  progressively  realize  the  right  to  health  by  moving  towards  Universal  Health  Coverage,  judges  can  play  a  crucial  role.  Courts  can  provide  an  arena  for  holding  policy-­‐makers  accountable  to  the  UHC  commitment,  and  providing  accountability  mechanisms  for  securing  that  the  UHC  process,  as  implemented,  heed  human  rights  principles  and  serve  to  advance  the  right  to  health.      On  the  other  hand,  the  article  has  argued  that  judges  should  be  careful  in  dictating  policy  solutions.  For  courts  to  engage  constructively  with  issues  of  health  policy,  dialogical  approaches  are  needed,  where  judges  engage  health  authorities  and  other  stakeholders,  and  may  set  parameters  for  the  process,  for  example  in  terms  of  participation  and  time,  but  leave  policy-­‐making  to  the  other  arms  of  government.  Through  developing  dialogical  remedies,  that  also  engage  the  public  in  deliberation  on  health  policy  problems  and  solutions,  the  exercise  of  judicial  oversight  and  accountability,  the  courts  may  not  only  contribute  to  better  health  systems,  but  also  enhance  democratic  processes,  and  provide  more  space  for  active  citizenship  in  health.