Rhetorics of Narrative Data Visualization - Amazon S3

DIGITAL RETORIK FORÅR 2013

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Rhetorics of Narrative Data Visualization: A Case Study of

Drone Attacks in Pakistan

Abstract

Rhetoric of data visualization is a relatively unexplored field. This article shows how data visualizations can be understood in the tradition of rhetoric as a tool to drive change. By looking at an example of how data visualization uses persuasive strategies to make an argument, this paper shows that data visualizations has the potential to change the rhetorical situation. This can be achieved if the data visualization provides transparency to establish an ethos while using pathos-appeal to persuade the audience.

Keywords: data visualizations, digital rhetoric, transparency

1. Introduction Traditionally, data has been seen as objective inputs from the world that human agents arrange in a way that makes the data meaningful:

“In the ideal case a chart or graph will be absolutely unambiguous, with its intended interpretation being transparent”(Kosslyn p. 192, 1989)

However, it will often be possible to interpret the same dataset in different ways. Data visualizations is an online genre that has emerged from the fields of computer science and journalism as a way of telling stories with data.

But how is credibility established in an online environment, where the audience often have had no prior contact with the sender of the data visualization?

Jesper Reinholdt Cand.stud.it, Digital Design og Kommunikation

[email protected]


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1.1. Problem statement To understand how data visualization can be used to force change in the rhetorical situation, I will examine the rhetorical strategies used in the data visualization “Out of Sight, Out of Mind.”

2. Methodology Hullman and Diakopoulos present a framework that explains how to approach data visualizations from a rhetorical point-of-view. Based on theories of semiotics and rhetoric, the framework provides a perspective to study data visualizations from: “In this work we examine the design and end-user interpretation of narrative visualizations in order to deepen understanding of how common design techniques represent rhetorical strategies that make certain interpretations more probable” (Hullman & Diakopoulos, 2011)

The combined rhetorical and semiotic approach is a good match for data visualizations as I will explain in detail later on. Part of their framework for studying rhetorics in data visualizations is to look at different levels of the online text. First, the researcher should look at which data the creator have decided to include and what is left out. Second, attention should paid to the way that the creator has chosen to visualize the data and which sign he uses to direct the users attention through the use of annotations.

2.1. Online ethos Different scholars have covered the ethos in online communication in recent years. Especially, since many websites are not explicit about whom the sender is. In some genres up to 75 % of websites does not clearly state who the sender is. (Warnick, 2007)

Elisabeth Hoff-Clausen points at a number of ways in which ethos can be established online. An important aspect to understand online ethos of data visualizations is to examine the credibility from a hermeneutic approach to the online text, instead of judging the credibility of a website by traditional means of source criticism. This means that any aspect of the website should be taken into consideration. Not only the critical approach to the source but a more holistic view of the website (Hoff-Clausen, 2000)

A central element to understand ethos or the personal character is through


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credibility. How likely the audience is to find the sender trustworthy is crucial to establish a solid ethos-appeal. Lund and Petersen defines credibility by three factors; image, identity, and ethos. The image is the way the speaker wants to be perceived by the audience. The identity is how the speaker actually is. The ethos is how the audience actually perceives the speaker.

If the image and the identity of the speaker align and the argument is perceived as a positive one by the audience, the speaker will appear credible and have a good ethos. On the other hand, if it becomes apparent that what the speaker says does not align with what he is doing, the ethos of the speaker cannot be used to make a persuasive argument. (Lund & Petersen, 2003)

Degrees of transparency should also be considered when judging ethos online. Part of the framework established by Hullman & Diakopoulos is a expanded view on transparency. (Hullman & Diakopoulos, 2011) Provenance Rhetoric is the impartial presentation of data. Like the ethos of a newspaper or journalist depends partially on objectivity and independence, data visualizations can appear credible if the present data in an unbiased and objective way.

Information Access Rhetoric is the transparency of omission. Any complex datasets requires some degree of omission. This should, however, be clear to the audience and the source of the information should be easily accessible and retrievable. The control over the simplification of the dataset can be transferred to the audience by offering filtering or sorting options to the visualization. Furthermore, the audience perceives communication online based on a set of cultural and perceptual codes. The cultural codes are established and negotiated within cultures both online and offline. It is conventions that are negotiated in cultures over the course of time and that might differ from one culture to another, like for instance the Western understanding of left=past, right=future on a timeline. Perceptual codes, on the other hand, draws on the personal codes that have been compiled in the life of every single member of the audience. The perceptual codes in data visualization include design principles like gestalt-principles like proximity and similarity. If used right, the creator can use perceptual codes to probe a certain behaviour, and thereby as a means to make a persuasive argument.

2.2. Visual rhetorics The cultural and perceptual codes of data visualizations is closely linked to


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Jens E. Kjeldsen’s understanding of visual rhetoric in images. However, where the perceptual codes are, partly, based on prior experience, the semiotic perspective is focused on the connotations that the audience perceives from the signs. Kjeldsen argues that the image affects the audience both as an immediate impression and as a causal decoding of the sign systems. So, the interpretation of a data visualization happens both intuitively and intentionally. Some connotations are perceived without the audience even noticing it, and others are perceived through an active interpretation by the audience. (Kjeldsen, 2006)

Since part of the interpretation happens intuitively, an important aspect to understanding visual rhetoric is to understand its tropological qualities, that can be equated to the understanding of metaphors. Kjeldsen argues that although tropes are traditionally found in verbal rhetoric, images can contain the visual equivalent by generating meaning through metaphors. He further emphasizes the importance of tropes by addressing tropes, or metaphors, as the way we perceive the world:

“Kognitive semantikere som George Lakoff og Mark Johnson betragter ligefrem troper – specielt metaforen – som måder at tænke på. Derfor, kan vi tilføje, kan billeder indeholde visuelle paralleller til mange af retorikkens verbale troper og figurer.” (Kjeldsen, 2008)

3. “Out of Sight, Out of Mind.” The data visualization “Out of Sight, Out of Mind.” Shows every known drone attack in Pakistan by the United States. In the official statistics of drone attacks in Pakistan, 75 % of the fatalities are listed as “military combatants”. This term covers any able-bodied man, but it does not define the term further. (Retrieved May 14th 2013 from http://drones.pitchinteractive.com)

The visualization was made out of the frustrations that the founder of Pitch Interactive had with the drone attacks increasingly being used in warfare conbined with the categorization of the victims. In a tweet on March 25th 2013, the founder of Pitch Interactive Wes Grubbs wrote:

“we made this because it had to be made drones.pitchinteractive.com Every known drone strike and victim in Pakistan. Ever.” (Retrieved May 14th 2013 from https://twitter.com/pitchinc)


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The image that Pitch Interactive wants to communicate is that of the little guy seeking justice in the world. It uses values associated with the investigative journalist that is greatly romanticized in journalism and in fiction by stories of journalists like Tin Tin. The innocence and the little-man-against-the-system image of Pitch Interactive is also clear in the objective of the data visualization:

“I have only one wish: That Obama himself sees our drone project. Who can help me? drones.pitchinteractive.com” (Retrieved May 14th 2013 from https://twitter.com/pitchinc)

The aim of this data visualization is to force a change or at least to affect the journalistic agenda, so that Obama will be faced with the issues provided in the data visualization.

3.1. The Data The data used in “Out of Sight, Out of Mind.” is based on numbers from the Bureau of Investigative Journalism in the United States. Pitch Interactive, the company behind the visualization, explains the choice of source in the “INFO”-section of the website:

”The BIJ is a not-for-profit organization with the aim of educating the public and the media on both the realities of today's world and the value of honest reporting. While there were other data sources that had listings of drone stikes [strikes], the BIJ seemed to have the most unbiased collection of information.” (Retrieved May 14th 2013 from http://drones.pitchinteractive.com/)

The arguments behind choosing BIJ balances Aristotle’s ways of persuasion through logos- and pathos-appeals well. (Aristotle, 1996) The logos appeal is used to describe the BIJ as a not-for-profit organisation. Although other possible data sources were available, BIJ was the best rational choice for Pitch Interactive since they are independent and allegedly does not serve a particular political agenda. Pathos-appeal is seen in statements like “educating the public and media on both the realities of today’s world and the values of honest reporting”. By taking on the role of an educator, the choice of BIJ as data source, is appealing to the audiences feelings towards corporate social responsibility.

The ethos of Pitch Interactive in the choice of data source, is established by promoting objective and honest reporting. The provenance rhetoric technique proposed above is used to make the data visualization credible by


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standards of unbiased journalism. Also, the ethos of Pitch Interactive is closely linked to the perceived credibility of BIJ as a journalistic organisation in general. The collaboration is only beneficial to Pitch Interactive as long as BIJ’s identity matches the image they are promoting.

The information about the data source is easily found under the “INFO” option in the top menu. The prominent position of the “INFO”-button right below the title of the website, is important because it is given visual attention. Furthermore, it uses the cultural codes or conventions of websites sites, where attention by the audience is paid to the upper left corner. The positioning of the “INFO”-section can therefore be seen as a Information Access rhetoric that creates ethos by providing easy access to the source of data.

Furthermore, under the “INFO”-section a paragraph is dedicated to “Data Sources”. Under this headline a link is posted the website of “The Bureau of Investigation” where a thorough explanation the organisations methods and sources is provided, which further strengthens the perception of a transparency and thereby ethos.

3.2. Representation of Data The data is presented in four groups; civilians, children, others, and high profile targets. The interesting category here is the category other, since it does seems vague. Also, this is by far the group with most fatalities. In the “INFO”-section Pitch Interactive explains the other-category as:

“ (…) a very grey area for us. These could be neighbors of a target killed. They may all be militants and a threat. What we do know for sure is that they are targeted without being given any representation or voice to defend themselves” (Retrieved May 14th 2013 from http://www.drones.pitchinteractive.com)

Clearly, the category is not very well defined. Again, Pitch Interactive has chooses a strategy of openness to their method, in an attempt to create a credible ethos. Since credibility is a result of the proposed image in combination with the identity of the speaker, Pitch Interactive uses the strategy of downplaying the accuracy of the data visualization in order to appear credible. If they were not clear about the other category, they could easily have been accused of serving a particular agenda, which would compromise the values of honesty and objectivity.

Visually, the fatalities are grouped as well. Children are red, civilians burgundy, others grey, and high profile targets white. Colours are important


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connotations online since they are great for recalling feelings (Kjeldsen, 2006) The choice of colour is therefore closely linked to the verbal properties of the pathos-appeal. Red is a colour that is used in Western societies, in the context of war at least, to symbolize danger or prohibition. Also, it makes an iconic connection to the bloodshed in a war, which further emphasizes that the red colour communication prohibition and the horrors of war. Based on this, children and civilians are not legitimate targets.

The visualization of the data is presented on a horizontal timeline ranging from 2004 to 2013, which is according to the cultural codes in Western societies. The drone attacks are visualized as a line exploding when it hits the timeline:

(Retrieved May 14th 2013 from http://drones.pitchinteractive.com/) The visual aesthetics is using a sign language very similar to those of early computer games like “Tank”, where two opponents tries to hit each other’s tank by aiming their own at an angle, chooses speed, and fires a missile. A line very similar to the one in “Out of Sight, Out of Mind.” is launched and hits either the tank of the opponent or the surrounding scene depending on the aim.

(Retrieved May 14th 2013 from http://teleblivion.blogspot.dk/)

The “Estimated fatalities”-count in the top right corner further emphasizes the game-like aesthetic of the visualization that makes clever use of the perceptual codes of the audience. The use of a memory that to many are


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linked to childhood and play, clearly is a way of appealing to the audience’s feelings in order to persuade. Also, it transposes the game aesthetics to the overall feel of drone attacks as part of the warfare. The aim-power-shoot easiness of the tanks game is perceived immediately

by the audience, who transfers these characteristics of the game to the subject in matter.

Each fatality is shown as a small brick right below the area of impact on the timeline. The stacking of fatalities serves as a metaphor for bodies being stacked, like seen in footage from KZ-camps and other war-related sceneries. It communicates a disdain of human lives that are used to invoke a feeling of injustice in the audience.

Time and narration is another important tool that the data visualization uses to make a persuasive argument. Before the user enters the actual visualization of the data, he is met by a completely black page with white text saying “Loading…”. This exact textual code has become a cultural connotation for content, which is to be played or performed by the computer. Even though any website must be loaded, this text is interpreted as a cue to get ready for the page to perform an action.

Next, a “bomb” drops on the text, and the background colour turns red. Shortly after, this text appears:

“Since 2004, drone strikes have killed an estimated 3,115 people in Pakistan”

Followed by:

“Less than 2 % of the victims are high profile targets. The rest are civilians, children and alleged combatants.”

And:

“This is the story of every known drone strike in Pakistan”

(Retrieved May 14th 2013 from http://drones.pitchinteractive.com/)

The playback of these three arguments is used to control the immersion of the text (Ryan, 2001) The only interactivity the data visualization offers is an option to skip to the next text before it automatically fades away. Hence, the narrative of the data visualization is not affected by the interactivity.

The argumentation of the three texts uses different rhetorical techniques to


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persuade the audience. The first argument appeals to the rational thinking of the audience. It presents the number of people fatalities from drone attacks in Pakistan since 2004. However, in order to make sense of the value of numbers and statistics, people need something to relate them to. “Out of Sight, Out of Mind.” provides a frame of reference within the number itself by stating that, what is the exigence of this situation, is that only 2 % of the fatalities were legitimate. 98 % were children, civilians, and others.

The last sentence is used to set the scene. Like the “Loading…”-text in the beginning, “This is the story (…)” prepares the audience to be told a story. The structure uses cultural codes that the audience knows from fictional literature. However, this does not serve to place the data visualization in the genre of fiction. Rather it is should be read as “This is the [true] story of every drone attacks in Pakistan”.

3.3. Temporal rhetoric The playback of the drone attacks over time serves to make the point that drone attacks have increased tremendously over the last decade. The attitudes towards this is clearly negative based on the argumentation above, which leads to the argument by the data visualization that drone attacks are spinning out of control and are inhuman.

Where Pitch Interactive is very transparent about their choice of data source and categorization of the victims, they are less open about the effects of the temporal persuasion in the visualization. What at first sight seems to be visualization steadily moving from 2004 and forward until present is not a linear process. The speed of the visualization is slowed down in the period from 2004 and until end of 2008 where there are less drone attacks. The speed is then accelerated in the years to follow after a short text appears on the screen: “Obama is sworn into office January 20th”. Where the years prior to 2009 was visualized by an average of 5:36 seconds per year, the years from 2009 and forward are presented at an average speed of 4:28 seconds per year.

The appeal of this approach is to emphasize the increase in drone attacks. This affects the way the audience perceives the situation and emphasizes the pathos argument that this inhuman way of warfare is spinning out of control. However, if the audience are made aware of the fact that the representation of the events are not representative to a realistic scale of time, they might judge the data visualization as manipulative and thereby neglecting the credibility of the argument.

The delay is partly caused by the visualization highlighting key events by stopping the animation and displaying texts like “Obama is sworn into


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office. January 20th” or “General Perez Musharraf resigns as president of Pakistan”. The texts are not persuasive on their own, but in combination with the acceleration of the speed, the categorization of victims and the areas forms of appeal covered, the texts are used to amplify the feeling that this is wrong.

3.4. Data visualization as a tool for change By the use of visual and verbal pathos-appeal, a transparent approach to the data representation and categorization of fatalities, and using the temporal qualities of the narrative, “Out of Sight, Out of Mind.” does provide an alternative way of seeing drone attacks in Pakistan.

This is in line with the way Vatz sees the premise of rhetoric. As oppose to Bitzer who claims that the rhetoric is determined by the situation, Vatz claims that rhetoric can be used to change situations. (Vatz, 2000)

And this is exactly the strength of data “Out of Sight, Out of Mind.”. The Obama-administration has, up until recently, not been forced to answer critical questions about the drone attacks. The visualization of drone attacks does not argue against the benefits of drone attacks within the existing paradigm of talking about drone attacks. Instead it offers an alternative way of looking at drone attacks, that is focused on the increase of drone attacks and the uncertainty of how many actual combatants are being killed and how many are actually civilians. As a rhetorical tool, data visualizations can be used to do exactly this. Because the objective of most data visualizations is not to argue over fact, but to present a different view on the facts, data visualizations can be used rhetorically to present an alternative to the dominating rhetorical situation. In this case Pitch Interactive points to the fact that a huge category of the fatalities from drone attacks in Pakistan are actually not very well defined. However, they do not provide the answer to, how this group should be categorized. They merely points to an issue in the current way of thinking, where the 2358 or 75 % of the fatalities in Pakistan are categorized as “Alleged combatants” by the Obama-administration, which makes the use of drone attacks easier to communicate as a rational means to prevent terrorism.

4. Conclusion The success of data visualizations depends on the objectives that the sender wishes to accomplish. As a means to change the rhetorical situation, data


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visualizations can be a great tool for offering an alternative to the dominant rhetoric.

The causal effect of the visualization to the rhetorical situation has not been studied in this paper, as it would have demanded a completely different approach. However, articles in significant news agencies are focused on who is actually killed by the American drone attacks. This is not to say that behaviour or beliefs have changed but online to prove the success of data visualizations to provide alternatives to the existing rhetorical situation.

This is, however, only possible if the visualization manages to tell a story that appeals to the empathy of the audience. The story that the data tells must be appealing to the audience if an alternative rhetorical situation is to be accepted. Further, this study showed that ethos of a data visualization is created by being transparent about the data source used and uncertainties or inaccuracies in the data representation. If the representation does appear honest and objective, the audience might question the true identity of the sender, which may affect the sender’s credibility and trustworthiness.

The challenge for data visualizations is to balance the rhetorical techniques used to persuade the audience while being transparent about the methods used. Narratives in data visualization is a strong rhetorical tool to appeal to the audience’s feelings, but the transparency of the methods should be kept transparent, so that the sender will not appear as manipulating and dishonest.


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Referencer Aristotle (1996): Retorik, oversat af Thure Hastrup (pp. 23-29, 109-114) Hoff-Clausen (2008): Online Ethos - Webretorik i poliske kampagner,

blogs og wikis. Samfundslitteratur, Frederiksberg Hullmann, J. & Diakopoulos, N. (2011): Visualization Rhetoric:

Framing Effects in Narrative Visualization, Transactions on Visualizations and Computer Graphics, Vol. 17, No. 12

Kjeldsen, J. E. (2006): Billeders Retorik. In Kjerulf. M. F. & Roer, H.

(red.) Retorikkens aktualitet: GRundbog i retorisk analyse (1. udgave ed.)

Kosslyn, S. (1989): Understanding Charts and Graphs, Applied

Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 3.

Lund, A. K. & Petersen, H. (2003): Troværdighed - image, identitet og ethos, kapitel 5 i "Det sku' vær' så godt - Organisationskommunikation - cases og konsekvenser”

Pitch Interactive (2013): Out of Sight, Out of Mind., Retrieved May 14th

2013 from http://drones.pitchinteractive.com Ryan, M. (2001): Can Coherence be Saved - Selective Interactivity and

Narrativity, In Narrative as Virtual Reality - Immersion and Interactivity in Literature and Electronic Media.

Warnick, B. (2007): Online Rhetoric: A Medium Theory Approach.

Rhetoric Online - Persuasion and Politics on the World Wide Web

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