rest breaks and the right to urinate on company time.

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Void where prohibited: rest breaks and the rightto urinate on company time.Linder, Marc; Nygaard, Ingridhttps://iro.uiowa.edu/discovery/delivery/01IOWA_INST:ResearchRepository/12674957160002771?l#13675089760002771

Linder, & Nygaard, I. (1998). Void where prohibited: rest breaks and the right to urinate on company time.ILR Press.https://iro.uiowa.edu/discovery/fulldisplay/alma9983557352202771/01IOWA_INST:ResearchRepository

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A P P E N D I X

State rest- and meal-period laws

State

Year of first enactment of nongendered rest-period law

Length in minutes Restrictions

Year of first enactment of nongendered meal-period law


California 1974 10 every 4 hours

1974 30 after 5 hours • Parties may waive period if work of not more than 6 hours will complete day's work• Paid on-duty meal period lawful when nature of work prevents relieving employee of all duty and parties agree in writing

C olorado2 1978 10 every Covers only retail, 1978 30 after 5 hours, • Same as rest-period law4 hours restaurant, hotel, unless period of • Paid on-duty meal lawful

medical service, not more than when nature of work preventsbeauty service, 6 hours will employee from being relievedlaundry, and janitorial complete day's of all dutiesworkers work

Connecticut3 1989 30 during • Exempts employers withworkday of at respect to position that mayleast 7.5 be performed only by 1consecutive employeehours • Exempts employers with

fewer than 5 employees on ashift at single place ofbusiness or with continuousoperations requiringemployees to respond tounusual conditions• By written agreementemployer and employee mayprovide for different schedule

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170 Appendix 1

Year of first enactment of nongendered rest-period Length in

Year of first enactment of nongendered meal-period Length in

State law minutes Restrictions law minutes Restrictions

Delaware4 1992 30 during workday of at least 7.5 consecutive hours

• Exempts employers with respect to positions that may be performed only by 1 employee• Exempts employers with fewer than 5 employees, contrary written agreement, or continuous operation

Hawaii5 1949 45 Covers only government employees

Illinois6 1974 20 during workday of at least 7.5continuous hours

Inapplicable to employees whose meal periods are established by collective bargaining

Kentucky7 1974 10 every 4 hours

No enforcement of right to rest period

1974 “Reasonable period" between 3d and 5th hours of work

Does not negate provision of collective bargaining agreement or mutual agreement between employer and employee

Maine8 1985 30 after no more than 6 consecutive hours of work

• Excludes agricultural, domestic, taxi employees• Preempted by written agreement• Excludes firms with fewer than 3 employees on duty at same time• The 30 minutes must be consecutive and may be used for meal (see n. 8)

Massachusetts9 1974 30 during workday of more than 6 hours

• Exempts iron, glass, print, bleaching, and dyeing works and paper mills• Labor commissioner has discretion to exempt continuous-process operations and establishments with collective bargaining agreements

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Appendix 1 171

State





Minnesota10 1988 10 every 4 hours

Expressly for using rest room

1989 “Sufficient time to eat a meal" during workday of at least 8 consecutive hours

Collective bargaining agreement may provide for different meal periods

Nebraska11 1931 30 Applies only to assembling plants, workshops, and mechanical establishments, but excludes 3-shift operations

Nevada12 1974 10 every 4 hours

• Excludes 1- employee workplaces and those covered by collective bargaining agreements• Labor commissioner may grant exemptions for business necessity

1974 30 for continuous period of 8 hours of employment

Same as rest-period law

NewHampshire13

1975 30 after 5 consecutive hours of work

Not required if it is feasible for employee to eat while working and employer permits him or her to do so

New York14 1887 60 in factories (de facto only 30), elsewhere 30

• Labor commissioner may grant variance of 20 minutes• Employee alone on duty may waive right

North Dakota15 1991 30 in shift exceeding 5 hours

• Excludes 1-employee shifts• Employee must "desir[e]" break

Oregon16 1971 10 every 4 hours

• Excludes agri- 1971 30 for work • Excludes agriculturalcultural employees period of not less employeesand adults working than 6 hours • Paid eating period is lawfulalone and for less if employer shows nature ofthan 5 hours in work prevents relievingretail/service employee from all dutyestablishments • Industry practice of 20-29selling to public (if paid minutes is lawfulemployee allowed to • No penalties orleave to relieve self of enforcementbody wastes)• No penalties orenforcement

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172 Appendix 1

State


Length inminutes Restrictions



Pennsylvania17 1978 30 every 5 hours Covers only seasonal farmworkers

Puerto Rico18 1935 60 Shorter period permissible for convenience of and with stipulation by employee and approval of secretary of labor

Rhode Island19 1981 20 for workday of at least 6 hours

Tennessee20 1993 30 for workday of at least 6 consecutive hours

• Can also be used as unpaid rest break• Excepts workplaces that by nature of business provide ample opportunity to rest or take appropriate break as well as those where breaks would adversely affect public health, safety, or welfare

Washington21 1976 10 every 4 hours

• Does not require 1976 30 after noemployees to take more than 5rest, only that they be consecutiveallowed to do so and hours, plusthat they not be another 30required to work more minutes if hoursthan 3 hours without exceed 11rest period• Scheduled restperiods not requiredwhere nature of workallows workers to takeintermittent restperiods equivalent to10 mins/4 hrs

West Virginia22 1994 20 during Does not apply whereworkday of at employees are affordedleast 6 hours necessary breaks and/or

permitted to eat whileworking

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Appendix 1 173

State





Wisconsin23 1977 10 every 5 hours

Covers only migrant workers not employed exclusively in agriculture

1977 30 for workday of 6 consecutive hours unless shift can be completed in 7 hours

Covers only migrant agricultural workers, who cannot be "required” to work without meal period

Sources:1 Cal. Admin. Code tit. 0, §§11010(11) & (12) (1995).2 7 Colo. Code Regs. § 1103-3 (1983) (Minimum Wage Order No. 19).3 Conn. Gen. Stat. Ann. § 31 -51 ii (West 1995).4 Del. Code Ann. tit. 19, § 707 (Supp. 1994).5 Haw. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 80-1 (Supp. 1994).6 III. Comp. Stat. Ann. ch. 820, para. 140/3 (Smith-Hurd 1995).7. Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §§ 337.355 & 337.365 (1990). By regulation, "[o]rdinarily . . 30 . . minutes or more is long enough for a bona fide meal period. A shorter period may be long enough under special conditions.” Ky. Admin. Regs. Serv. tit. 803 KAR 1:065 § 4(2) (1994).8 Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 26, § 601 (1994). Although the provision is titled "Rest breaks" and speaks of “ rest time,” the U.S. Dept, of Labor classifies it as a meal-period statute. U.S. Dept, of Labor, U.S. Wage & Hour Division, "Minimum Length of Meal Period Required under State Law for Employees in Private Sector January 1,1991," at 3 (Jan. 22,1991).9 Mass. Gen. Laws. Ann. ch. 149, §§ 100-101 (1982 & 1995 Supp ).10 Minn. Stat. Ann. §§ 177.253- 254 (West 1995)11 Neb. Rev. Stat. § 48-212 (1993).12 Nev. Rev. Stat. § 608.019 (1993).13. N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 275:30-a (1987).14. N Y. Lab. § 162 (McKinney 1995); N Y. Dept, of Labor, "Guidelines: Meal Periods" (1994).15 N.D. Admin. Code § 46-02-07-02(3) (1994).16 Or. Admin. R. 839-20-050 (1993); Or. Rev. Stat. § 653.261(2) (1993).17 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. tit. 43, § 1301.207(c) (Purdon 1995). Although the statute refers to "meal or rest period," the U.S. Dept, of Labor classifies it as a meal period. U.S. Dept, of Labor, "Minimum Length of Meal Period” at 6.18 PR. Laws Ann. tit. 29, § 283 (Supp. 1991).19 R.l. Gen. Laws § 28-3-14 (1986).20 Tenn. Code. Ann. § 50-2-103(2)(d) (1995); Tenn. Comp. Rules & Regs. § 0800-5-2.- 04(2) (1995).21. Wash. Admin. Code §§ 296-126-092 & 296-131-020 (1995) (including agricultural labor).22 W.Va. Code §21-3-1 Oa (Supp. 1995).23. Wis. Stat. Ann. § 103.395(2) & (3) (West 1995). By a purely precatory regulation of general applicability, " [i]t is recommended that each employer allow each employe, 18 years of age or over, at least 30 minutes for each meal period reasonably close to the usual meal period time.” Wis. Admin. Code § 274 02(2) DWD (1997).

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A P P E N D I X 2

Percentage of employees not receiving

paid rest periods, 1979-1993

YearMedium/largeestablishments

Smallestablishments

State/localgovernment

1979 251980 251981 251982 241983 261984 271985 281986 281987 421988 281989 291990 52 441991 331992 51 471993 32

Sources: Jerline Thompson & Arthur Williams, “Employee Benefits Survey to be Expanded in the Nineties," in U.S. BLS, Employee Benefits Survey: A BLS Reader 61, tab. 4 at 64 (Bull. 2459,1995); U.S. BLS, Employee Benefits in Small Private Establishments, 1990, tab. 5 at 10 (Bull. 2388,1991); U.S. BLS, Employee Benefits in Small Private Establishments, 1992, tab. 5 at 9 (Bull. 2441,1994); U.S. BLS, Employee Benefits in State and Local Governments, 1987, tab. 4 at 6 (Bull. 2309, 1988); U.S. BLS, Employee Benefits in State and Local Governments, 1990, tab. 5 at 10 (Bull. 2398,1992); U.S. BLS, Employee Benefits in State and Local Governments, 1992, tab. 6 at 11 (Bull. 2444,1994); U.S. BLS, Employee Benefits in Medium and Large Private Establishments, 1991, tab. 5 at 9 (Bull. 2442,1993); U.S. BLS, Employee Benefits in Medium and Large Private Establishments 1993, tab. 1 at 8 (Bull. 2456,1994).

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N O T E S

Chapter 1. Introduction: From “Let Them Eat Cake” to “Let Them Pee in Their Pants”

1. Roger Cohen, “Europe’s Recession Prompts New Look at Welfare Costs,” N.Y. Times, Aug. 9 ,1993, at A l, col.4 (Lexis); “Daily, Weekly and Yearly Rest and Weekly Hours,” Europ. Indus. R e l Rev., Ju ly 1991, at 24, 26.

2. E.g., Marion Cotter Cahill, Shorter Hours: A Study of the Movement Since the Civil War (1932); David Roediger & Philip Foner, Our Own Time: A History of American Labor and the Working Day (1989).

3. Telephone interview with Adrian Markowitz, safety and health director, Retail, Wholesale, & Department Store Union, New York City (Jan. 4,1996).

4. Tony Horwitz, “These Six Growth Jobs Are Dull, Dead-End, Sometimes Dangerous,” Wall St.J., Dec. 1,1994, at A l.

5. Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of M odem Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain 215 (1968 [1965]); Sidney Pollard, “Factory Discipline in the Industrial Revolution,” 16 Econ. Hist. Rev. (2d ser.) 254 (1963); In re John Breuner Co. and Chauffeurs, Teamsters, & Helpers, Local 150, 75 Lab. Arb. (BNA) 129 2 ,129 3 ,129 5 (1981) (quote).

6. In re Boston Sausage & Provision Co. and United Packinghouse Workers, Local 11, 2 Lab. Arb. Rep. 128, 129 (1946) (quote); A.R.A. Manufacturing Co. v. Allied Industrial Workers of America, Amalgamated Local 300, 85 Lab. Arb. 549, 550 (1985); Miriam Glucksmann, Women Assemble: Women Workers and the New Industries in Inter-War Britain 178 (1990) (describing Philips plant); Velma Otter- man, interview, Iowa Labor Oral History Project, ms. p. 7 (June 30, 1981, State Historical Society, Iowa City, IA) (describing conditions at Rath Packing Co. plant, Waterloo, IA); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 18 78 -19 23, at 38 (1990) (quote); Jeff Pelline, “Sprint Misdials with Hispanic Subsidiary,” S.F. Chronicle, Sept. 23, 1994, at D1 (Lexis) (quote); Karen Brandon, “No Closure in Labor Fight over Sprint Plant Closing,” Chicago Tribune, Feb. 25,1996, bus. sec. at 1 (Lexis); Bob Herbert, “A Broken Conexion,” N.Y. Times, Aug. 21, 1995, at A 14, col. 1 (Lexis) (quote); Carey Goldberg, “U.S. Labor Makes Use of a Trade Accord It Has Opposed,” N.Y. Times, Feb. 28,1996, at A 14, col. 2 (nat. ed.).

175

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7. Dramatic Rise in Repetitive Motion Injuries and OSHA’s Response: Hearing Before the Employment and Housing Subcomm. of the Comm, on Government Operations, 101st Cong., 1st Sess. 24 (1989) (testimony of Donna Bazemore, former employee of Perdue Farms); Laurie Graham, On the Line at Subaru-lsuzu: The Japanese Model and the American Worker 70 (1995) (quote); Robyn Meredith, “Strike Closes Parts Factory in Job Dispute, N.Y. Times, July 24, 1997, at A12, col. 6 (Lexis); Bob Herbert, “Deep Denial,” N.Y. Times, Oct. 13 ,1995, at A l l , col. 1 (nat. ed.) (quote; Herbert, “A Broken Conexion,” had reported the bathroom rules at Sprint); Bob Herbert, “Nike’s Boot Camp,” N.Y. Times, Mar. 31, 1997, at A l l , col 2; Veronique Maurus, “La Course a la productivity au coeur du conflit des Bigard,” Le Monde, Aug. 14, 1995 (Lexis) (“exemplary”); “Relief as French Tee Break’ Strike Ends,” Reuters World Service, Aug. 9,1995 (Lexis) (“human right”); Virginie Malingre, “A Quimperle, des pauses pipi a heures imposees,” Le Monde, Aug. 9,1995 (Lexis) (“faire pipi”); “French Small Room Ruling,” The News: Portugal's National Newspaper in English, No. 381,1996 (http://www.nexus-pt.com/news stories/nijudge.htm, June 1996).

8. In re Sintermet Corp. & International Union, Allied Industrial Workers of America, Local 510, 95 Lab. Arb. (BNA) 978 (1991) (Lexis) (quote); Der Sozial- demokrat, No. 37, Sept. 7,1882, at [4] (no pagination). The Japanese occupation army regulated “ [e]very detail” of the lives of the Chinese whom they conscripted for labor service during World War II —“even the length of the time for passing water. The men soon learned to wet as large an area as possible, whenever they had to urinate, for a small spot on the ground was regarded as proof of malingering and could lead to a beating.” William Hinton, Fanshen: A Documentary of Revolution in a Chinese Village 75 (1966).

9. J. Stanley Lemons, The Woman Citizen: Social Feminism in the lgzos, at x (1975); Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States 208 (1983 [1982]) (quote).

10. Helmut Wiesenthal, Claus Offe, Karl Hinrichs, & Uwe Engfer, “Arbeitszeit- flexibilisierung und gewerkschaftliche Interessenvertretung: Regelungsprobleme und Risiken individualisierter Arbeitszeiten,” in Claus Offe, “Arbeitsgesellschaft”: Strukturprobleme und Zukunftsperspektiven 205, 2 13 - 14 (1984).

11. Mark Couch, “Survey Prompted Insurer to Scrap Workers’ Breaks,” Des Moines Register, Mar. 23,1996, at 1A; telephone interview with Don Lindo, president, Hawkeye National Life Insurance Co., Des Moines, IA (Mar. 23,1996).

12. 1948 PR. Laws No. 379, § 1 at 1254.13. 2 Otto Graf, Arbeitszeit und Produktivitat: Untersuchungsergebnisse wissen-

schaftlicher Forschungsinstitute: Ganztagige Arbeitslaufuntersuchungen an 200 Ar- beitsplatzen 69 (1959); Wilhelm Herschel, “Der Begriff der Ruhepause,” 1965 Der Betrieb 515 (quote).

14. Production Handbook 502 (L. P. Alford & John Bangs eds., 1951 [1944]) (quote); Marc Linder, “I Gave My Employer a Chicken That Had No Bone: Joint Firm-State Responsibility for Line-Speed-Related Occupational Injuries,” 46 Case W. Res. L. Rev. 33, 35 (1995); Dramatic Rise in Repetitive Motion Injuries at 5761; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Health Hazard Evalua-

176 Notes to Pages 4-7

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Notes to Pages 7-9 177

tion Report: Perdue Farms, Inc.: Lewiston, North Carolina, Robersonville, North Carolina 19 (HETA 89-307-2009, 1990); “22 Percent Report Hand/Wrist Disorder in NIOSH Evaluation of L.A. Times Workers,” 77 Daily Lab. Rep. A-6 (Apr. 22 ,1991) (Westlaw).

15. Horwitz, “These Six Growth Jobs Are Dull” at A8 (quoting chief financial officer of Pilgrim’s Pride, a chicken processing firm); Paul Schobel, Dem Fliefiband ausgeliefert: Ein Seelsorger erfdhrt die Arbeitswelt 71 (1981) (quote); telephone interview with Ron Gumeringer, labor standards supervisor, North Dakota Dept, of Labor, Bismarck, ND (Nov. 15, 1995) (quote); Otto Graf, “Arbeitszeit und Ar- beitspausen,” in 9 Handbuch der Psychologie: Betriebspsychologie 244, 275 (Arthur Mayer <&r Bernhard Herwig eds., 2d ed. 1970) (quote).

16. Quoted in Joan Sangster, Earning Respect: The Lives o j Working Women in Small-Town Ontario, 1920-1960, at 100 (1995).

17. Telephone interviews with Ron Gumeringer; Jane Walstedt, Office of Policy Analysis, U.S. Women’s Bureau, Washington, DC (Jan. 29, 1996); Mary Ellen Grace, director, Div. of Labor Standards, Tennessee Dept, of Labor, Nashville, TN (Jan. 29, 1996); Walter Johnson, deputy commissioner, Div. of Labor Services, Dept, of Employment Services, Des Moines, IA (Oct. 27,1995) (all confirming that their agencies receive numerous calls asking this question). By the same token, an Iowa state OSHA compliance officer, when asked whether workers had a right to a rest period, offered the nonsensical suggestion that the caller contact the National Labor Relations Board. Telephone interview (Oct. 1995).

18. 29 C.ER. § 785.18 (1995) (quote); U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), Hours, Overtime, and Weekend Work 20 (Bull. 1425-15,1974) (quote). On the legal frameworks in Europe, see [U.K.] National Board for Prices and Incomes, Hours of Work, Overtime, and Shiftworking 42-47 (Report No. 161, Cmnd. 4554, 1970). The Fair Labor Standards Act merely requires some employers to pay a time-and- a-half overtime premium. 29 U.S.C. § 207(a) (1988). Fewer than one-fifth of U.S. collective bargaining agreements covering 1,000 or more workers in 1980 conferred a right on workers to refuse overtime. U.S. BLS, Characteristics of Major Collective Bargaining Agreements, January 1, ig8o, tab. 4.1 at 60-6 1 (Bull. 2095, 1981). The regulations for federal executive agency employees simply specify that breaks may not exceed one hour. 5 C.F.R. § 610.12 (a)(6) (1995).

19. John Commons & John Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation 14 1-4 2 (4th ed. 1967 [1st ed. 1916]); 14 C.F.R. §§ 121.465-.481 (1995); 49 C.F.R. § 395.3 (1995). On the widespread violations of the rest-period regulations in the trucking industry, see Shelley Coolidge, “Truckers Say Pay Rules Yield Low Wages and Unsafe Roads,” Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 11,1996, at 1. On airlines’ resistance to enhanced rest periods for pilots despite evidence of fatigue-related problems, see Andy Pasztor, “An Air-Safety Battle Brews over the Issue of Pilots’ Rest Time,” Wall St.J., Ju ly 1,1996, at A l.

20. Ark. Code Ann. § 23-13-101 (1994) (drivers); Wash. Rev. Code § 88.16.103 (1995) (pilots); D.C. Code Ann § 6-1035 (1995) (horses); Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code § 18720 (West 1995) (boxers). As late as i960, forty-six states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico maintained employment standards relating to seats,

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all but one of which applied exclusively to women; by 1982, only nine jurisdictions had valid (degendered) seating regulations; later one of these states repealed its statute, leaving only seven valid state seat laws. U.S. BLS, Time of Change: 1983 Handbook on Women Workers 188 (Bull. 298, 1983); U.S. Women’s Bureau, 1993 Handbook on Women Workers: Trends and Issues 19 1-9 2 (1994). Ronnie Ratner, “The Paradox of Protection: Maximum Hours Legislation in the United States,” 119 Inti Lab. Rev. 185,186 (1980), erroneously states that “maximum hours laws were the most widespread of all the sex-specific employment laws.” When a student of pink-collar workers asked a department store assistant manager in the 1970s why it was not possible to provide chairs to the workers, she replied: “I can’t answer that, I don’t know why. I guess it’s just always been that way”; Louise Howe, Pink Collar Workers: Inside the World of Women's Work 91 (1977).

Chapter 2. From Taylorism to Ergonomics:A Managerial Basis for Rest Periods

1. Lee Frankel & Alexander Fleisher, The Human Factor in Industry 126-27 (1920) (quote); 1 Carroll Daugherty, Labor Problems in American Industry 188 (1944 [1933]); Gary Cross, A Quest fo r Time: The Reduction of Work in Britain and France, 1840-1940, at 53-54 (1989) (quote); Charles Spahr, America's Working People 177 (1900) (quote).

2. Edward Atkinson, “Inefficiency of Economic Legislation,” J. Soc. Sci., No. 4 at 122, 128 (1871). The penal similarity may extend well beyond the nineteenth century. Workers at the General Motors plant in Dayton, Ohio, for example, “refer to the factories as the ‘state prison.’ They labor under the watchful eye of security guards and foremen.” Keith Bradsher, “Need to Cut Costs? Order Out,” N.Y. Times, Apr. 11,1996, at C l, col. 2, at C4 , col. 3 (nat. ed.).

3. 1 Otto Bauer, Kapitalismus und Sozialismus nach dem Weltkrieg: Rationali- sierung—Fehlrationalisierung 83-85 (1931).

4. Eric Foner, Tom Paine and Revolutionary America 36 -37 (1977 [1976]); Bauer, Rationalisierung at 94-95; Karl Bucher, Arbeit und Rhythmus (4th ed. 1909 [1st ed. 1896]); Laura Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939, at 42 (1995) (quote).

5. James Womack, Daniel Jones, & Daniel Roos, The Machine That Changed the World 28, 31 (quote) (1991 [1990]).

6. David Gartman, Auto Slavery: The Labor Process in the American Automobile Industry, 1897-1950, at 98-99 (1986).

7. Harold Bum, Psychology and Industrial Efficiency 183 (1931 [1929]) (quote); K. Murrell, Human Performance in Industry 416 (1965) (quote); G. H. Miles &O. Skilbeck, “An Experiment on Change of Work,” 1 J. Nat. Inst. Indus. Psychol. 236 (1923).

8. Otto Lipmann, Lehrbuch der Arbeitswissenschaft 205 (1932); Alice Hamilton, “Fatigue,” in U.S. Div. of Labor Standards, Protecting Plant Manpower: Prac-





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deal Points on Industrial Sanitation and Hygiene 5, 6 (Special Bull. No. 3, 1941) (quote). In the absence of restructuring, unionized male workers such as cotton mill spinners engaged in another form of self-help: uOn account of the physical strain and the exhausting nature of their employment, they have to leave their work at certain periods for rest. [T]he most industrious probably . . . take at least a few days every month. It is very rare where they would work probably 5 or 6 weeks without taking a few days for rest, and sometimes more.” 14 Report of the Industrial Commission on the Relations and Conditions of Capital and Labor Employed in Manufactures and General Business 571 (H. Doc. No. 183, 57th Cong., 1st Sess. 1901) (testimony of Thomas O’Donnell, secretary, Nat. Spinners Assoc.).

9. Florence Kelley, Some Ethical Gains Through Legislation 12 0 ,12 1,12 4 (1905).10. 1 Karl Marx, Das Kapital: Kritik der politischen Oekonomie 399-400 (1867;

photomechanical reprint 1959); Norman Ware, The Industrial Worker, 1840-1860: The Reaction of American Industrial Society to the Advance of the Industrial Revolution xiii (1974 [1924]) (quote); Lipmann, Lehrbuch der Arbeitswissenschaft at 402-403.

11. “Gives $10,000,000 to 26,000 Employes,” N.Y. Times, Jan. 6 ,19 14 , reprinted in Labor and Management 260 (Richard Morris ed., 1973). Neither the nine-hour nor eight-hour shift included rest breaks.

12. Edwin Norwood, Ford: Men and Methods 10 1-108 (1931); Horace Arnold & Fay Faurote, Ford Methods and the Ford Shops 60 (1919) (“gift” and “at their places”); Allan Nevins & Frank Hill, Ford: Expansion and Challenge, 19 15 -19 33 , at 5 14 -15 (1957); Frankel & Fleischer, The Human Factor in Industry at 127 (“sandwich”).

13. Robert Dunn, Labor and Automobiles 145-46 (1929); Joyce Peterson, American Automobile Workers, 1900-1933, at 50 -5 1 (1987); Jonathan Leonard, The Tragedy of Henry Ford 237 (1932) (“stomach”); Patricia Sexton, “The Auto Assembly Line: An Inside View,” Harper’s, June 1962, at 54, 55 (“grease”); Gartman, Auto Slavery at 99.

14. Womack, Jones, & Roos, The Machine That Changed the World at 32 (“relentless,” “slacking”); Nevins & Hill, Ford at 515, 516, 518 (“seventeen years,” “concessions,” “repressive”); Samuel Crowther, “Henry Ford: Why I Favor Five Days’ Work with Six Days’ Pay,” 52 World's Work 613 (1926); Henry Ford, My Life and Work 126 (1922).

15. Lord Leverhulme, The Six-Hour Day & Other Industrial Questions 16 -2 1 (1919 [1918]); “Six-Hour Day in Soap-Manufacturing Industry in Great Britain,”9 Monthly Lab. Rev. 159, 160 (1919); “Lord Leverhulme’s Plan for the Six-Hour Day,” 63 Literary Digest 88 (Dec. 13 ,19 19); Nigel Nicolson, Lord Leverhulme in the Hebrides 18 -19 (i960); Frankel & Fleischer, The Human Factor in Industry at 130 (quote); Lipmann, Lehrbuch der Arbeitswissenschaft at 126-27.

16. “Operation of 6-Hour Day in Plants of the Kellogg Co.,” 32 Monthly Lab. Rev. 14 14 ,14 16 - 17 (1931). On the whole course of the experiment, which was later abandoned, see Benjamin Hunnicutt, Kellogg's Six-Hour Day (1996); Benjamin Hunnicutt, “Kellogg’s Six-Hour Day: A Capitalist Vision of Liberation through Managed Work Reduction,” 66 Bus. Hist. Rev. 475 (1992).




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17. “Operation of 6-Hour Day in Plants of the Kellogg Co.” at 1420 (quote); U.S. Women’s Bureau, A Study of a Change from 8 to 6 Hours of Work 7 -10 (Bull. No. 105, 1933) (by Ethel Best); Agreement Between Kellogg Company and the American Federation of Labor on Behalf of the National Council of Grain Processors and Allied Industries Federal Local Union No. 20,388, § 8(y) at 6 (June 23, 1937); Contract Between Kellogg Company and Local No. 3 American Federation of Grain Millers (A.F.L.-C.I.O.), 1966-1969, § 1010(b) at 50.

18. Georges Friedmann, Industrial Society: The Emergence of the Human Problems of Automation 86-87 (x955 [ 3-947]); Hans Joachim Sperling, Pause als soziale Arbeitszeit: Theoretische und praktische Aspekte einer gewerkschaftlichen Arbeits- und Zeitpolitik 22 (1983); NICB, Rest Periods fo r Industrial Workers 1 (Research Rep. No. 13 ,19 19) (quote); Frankel & Fleisher, The Human Factor in Industry at 129 (quote); Investigation of Telephone Companies 32 -33 (S. Doc. No. 380, 61st Cong., 2d Sess. 1910) (quote).

19. Frank Heard, “Turning Out More Work by Resting,” 9 Factory 20, 37, 38, 40 (1912).

20. Hugo Munsterberg, Psychologie und Wirtschaftsleben: Ein Beitrag zur ange- wandten Experimental-Psychologie 128 (5th ed. 1922 [1st ed. 1912]).

21. Bauer, Rationalisierung at 71-79 ; Lipmann, Lehrbuch der Arbeitswissenschaft at 14 -20 (offering a somewhat different classification of and relationship among the components of Arbeitswissenschaft); David Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1J5 0 to the Present 28 1-323 (1972 [1969]); David Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880-1940, at 185-237 (1992 [1990]) ; Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity 19 -44 (1990).

22. 3 Handbuch der Arbeitswissenschaft 2930 (Fritz Giese ed., 1930) (s.v. “Krae- pelin, Emil”); Emil Amberg, “Ueber den Einfluss von Arbeitspausen auf die geistige Leistungsfahigkeit,” 1 Psychologische Arbeiten 300 (Emil Kraepelin ed., 1896); W. Rivers & E. Kraepelin, “Ueber Ermudung und Erholung,” ibid. at 627; Ernest Lindley, “Ueber Arbeit und Ruhe,” 3 Psychologische Arbeiten 482 (Em il Kraepelin ed., 1901); John Hylan & Emil Kraepelin, “Ueber die Wirkung kurzer Arbeitszeiten,” 4 Psychologische Arbeiten 454 (Emil Kraepelin ed., 1904); Gustaf Heuman, “Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen Arbeitsdauer und Pausenwirkung,” ibid. at 538; Otto Graf, “Uber die Wirkung mehrfacher Arbeitspausen bei geistiger Arbeit,” 8 Psychologische Arbeiten 265 (Emil Kraepelin ed., 1925); Otto Graf, “Die Arbeitspause in Theorie und Praxis,” 9 Psychologische Arbeiten 563, 592 (Em il Kraepelin ed., 1927) (abstracting from economic motivations); Otto Graf, “Uber lohnendste Arbeitspausen bei geistiger Arbeit,” 7 Psychologische Arbeiten 548 (Em il Kraepelin ed., 1922) (quote).

23. Materalien zur Kritik der biirgerlichen Medizin: Arbeitsmedizin 22 (Projekt- gruppe Medizin ed., n.d. [ca. 1973]); Graf, “Die Arbeitspause in Theorie und Praxis” at 592 (quote); Graf, “Uber die Wirkung mehrfacher Arbeitspausen bei geistiger Arbeit” at 265 (quote).

24. E.g., Max Weber, “Zur Psychophysik der industriellen Arbeit” (1908-1909),





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in Weber, Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Soziologie und Sozialpolitik 6i (Marianne Weber ed., 1988); Karl Diehl, Arbeitsintensitat und Achtstundentag (1923). See generally Joan Campbell, Joy in Work, German Work: The National Debate, 1800-1945, at 73106 (1989); Max Weber, “Der Sozialismus”(i9i8), in Gesammelte Aufsdtze 492, 517 (quote); Max Weber, “Methodische Einleitung fur die Erhebungen des Vereins fiir Sozialpolitik iiber Auslese und Anpassung (Berufswahlen und Berufsschicksal) der Arbeiterschaft der geschlossenen GroSindustrie” (1908), in ibid., 1, 38-39.

25. Graf, “Die Arbeitspause in Theorie und Praxis” at 674-75.26. Lipmann, Lehrbuch der Arbeitsmssenschaft at 397-98; Frederick Taylor, The

Principles of Scientific Management 50 -51, 53 (1911) (quote); Max Brombacher, “Hunger, Rest, and Shop Efficiency,” 91 Iron Age 1126 (May 8,1913); Nevins & Hill, Ford at 514. This managerial practice was not restricted to the United States. For example, a worker in a Canadian woollen mill reported, “You were on your feet the whole ten hours. Even in the washroom, there were no chairs.” Joan Sangster, Earning Respect: The Lives of Working Women in Small-Town Ontario, 1920-1960, at 55 (1995) (quoting spinner who worked there for many years beginning in 1932).

27. Elizabeth Butler, Women and the Trades: Pittsburgh, 1907-1908 (1909), at 300 (1 The Pittsburgh Survey, Paul Kellogg ed., 1911) (quote); “Another Reform Needed,” New-York Tribune, June 23,1885, at 4 (editorial) (quote).

28. Annie MacLean, “Two Weeks in Department Stores,” 4 Am. J. Soc. 721, 726 (1899); Maud Nathan, The Story of an Epoch-Making Movement 6, 52 (1926) (quoting owner); “Cruelty to Women,” Lancet, May 29,1880, at 845 (editorial).

29. Bernard Muscio, Lectures on Industrial Psychology 80 (2d ed. 1920) (“fatigue”); Reinhard Bendix, Work and Authority in Industry: Ideologies of Management in the Course of Industrialization 203 (1974 [1956]) (“intensity”); Frederick Taylor, Shop Management 30 -33 (1912) (“soldiering”). For the argument that Taylorism in this regard represented an implicit recognition of the correctness of Marx’s analysis of the dialectical relationship between the length of the working and the intensification of work, see Chris Nyland, Reduced Worktime and the Management of Production 11- 16 , 45-66, 99-128 (1989).

30. Burtt, Psychology and Industrial Efficiency at 17 1-89 ; Sperling, Pause als soziale Arbeitszeit at 23 (quote).

31. Harlow Person, “Scientific Management” (1911), in 1 Some Classic Contributions to Professional Managing: Selected Papers 27, 33 (1956) (“compulsory”); Reynold Spaeth, “The Prevention of Fatigue in Manufacturing Industries,” 1 J. Indus. Hygiene 435, 446-47 (1920) (“certainty”); Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management at 55, 64, 56.

32. 1 Marx, Das Kapital at 202; Hugh Aitken, Scientific Management in Action: Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal, 19 0 8 -19 15 , at 47-48 (1985 [i960]) (quote); Ford, My Life and Work at 124 (quote).

33. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management at 40, 57-58, 59.34. Id. at 40-4 1, 47, 49-50 (quotes); Charles Wrege & Amedeo Perroni, “Tay

lor’s Pig-Tale: A Historical Analysis of Frederick W. Taylor’s Pig-Iron Experiments,” 17 Acad. M gm t.J. 6, 22, 24 (1974); Charles Wrege & Ronald Greenwood,




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Frederick W. Taylor, the Father of Scientific Management: Myth and Reality 9 7 -117 (1991); Reynold Spaeth, “The Problem of Fatigue,” 1 J. Indus. Fatigue 22, 41 (1919) (“marveling”). See also Daniel Nelson, Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management 9 1-99 (1980).

35. Frederic Lee, The Human Machine and Industrial Efficiency 26 (1974 [1918]); H[ubert] D. Harrison, Industrial Psychology and the Production of Wealth 79 (1925); Ralph Janaro & Stephen Bechtold, “A Study of the Reduction of Fatigue Impact on Productivity Through Optimal Rest Break Scheduling,” 27 Human Factors 459, 459 (1985) (quote); S. Eilon, “On a Mechanistic Approach to Fatigue and Rest Periods,” 3 Int’l J. Production Res. 327, 332 (1964); Stephen Bechtold, Ralph Janaro,& De Witt Sumners, “Maximization of Labor Productivity Through Optimal Rest- Break Schedules,” 30 Mgmt. Sci. 1442 (1984). For a contemporary account denying that Taylorites scientifically formulated laws of fatigue, see C. Betrand Thompson, The Theory and Practice of Scientific Management 240 (1917).

36. Aitken, Scientific Management in Action at 25-27. For a very different view of Taylorism, see Michael Burawoy, The Politics of Production: Factory Regimes Under Capitalism and Socialism 40-47 (1985).

37. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management at 87, 92-93 (quotes); Ernst Abbe, “Die volkswirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Verkiirzung des industriellen Ar- beitstages” (1901), in Sozialpolitische Schriften 203, 206 (1906) (conceding that workers who produce as much in eight hours as previously in nine “without doubt had to work more intensively”); Robert Hoxie, Scientific Management and Labor 91 (1915) (quote); Frederic Lee, “Is the Eight-Hour Working-Day Rational?” 44 Science (n.s.) 727, 730 (1916) (quote).

38. Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920, at 37-43 (1973 [1964]); Wrege & Greenwood, Frederick W. Taylor at 210-20; Frank Gilbreth & Lillian Gilbreth, Fatigue Study: The Elimination of Humanity's Greatest Unnecessary Waste a First Step in Motion Study 39, 40-4 1, 4950 (2d ed. 1919 [1st ed. 1916]).

39. Gilbreth & Gilbreth, Fatigue Study at 52 (quote); Susan Lehrer, Origins of Protective Labor Legislation fo r Women, 1905-1925, at 36 (1987); Reports of the Inspectors of Factories fo r the H alf Year Ending the 31st December 1841, at 30 (22 P ari Pap. 1842, c. 31) (quoting Leonard Horner).

40. George Shepard, “Effect of Rest Periods on Production,” 7 Personnel J. 186, 187 (1928) (quote); Haber, Efficiency and Uplift at 42-45; H. L. Gantt, Industrial Leadership 81 (1916) (quote); P. Sargant Florence, review of Gantt, Industrial Leadership, in 26 Econ. J. 356, 357 (1916).

41. NICB, Rest Periods fo r Industrial Workers at 1; Downs, Manufacturing Inequality at 76.

42. Josephine Goldmark & Mary Hopkins, Comparison of an Eight-Hour Plant and a Ten-Hour Plant (Pub. Health Bull. No. 106,1920).

43. Frederic Lee, “The New Science of Industrial Physiology,” 34 Pub. Health Reports 723 (1919); Spaeth, “The Prevention of Fatigue” at 435.


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44. Frederic Lee, “Industrial Efficiency: The Bearings of Physiological Science Thereon: A Review of Recent Work,” 33 Pub. Health Reports 29, 30 (1918).

45. Cross, A Quest fo r Time at 116 -17 ; S. Wyatt, Rest-Pauses in Industry (A Review of the Results Obtained) iii (Industrial Fatigue Research Board Rep. No. 42, 1927) (quote); Medical Research Council, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Industrial Health Research Board to 30th June 1938, at 6 (1938) (quote).

46. H. M. Vernon, T. Bedford, & C. G. Warner, Rest Pauses in Heavy and Moderately Heavy Industrial Work 3 (Industrial Fatigue Research Board Rep. No. 41, 1927) (quote); Wyatt, Rest-Pauses in Industry at 12 (quote).

47. Goldmark & Hopkins, Comparison of an Eight-Hour Plant and a Ten-Hour Plant at 22,176.

48. Rex Hersey, “Rests—Authorized and Unauthorized,” 4 J. Personnel Res. 37, 40 (1925) (quote); Florence Kelley, “Wage-Earning Women in War Time: The Textile Industry,” 1 J. Indus. Hygiene 261, 267 (1919) (quote).

49. H. M. Vernon, Industrial Fatigue and Efficiency 114 (1921) (“monotony”); U.S. BLS, Labor-Management Contract Provisions 1953: Prevalence and Characteristics o f Selected Collective-Bargaining Clauses 18 (Bull. 1166 ,1954); Hersey, “Rests” at 37 (“steal”); Whiting Williams, What's on the Worker's Mind: By One Who Put on Overalls to Find Out 186 ,187 (1921) (“low-speed effort”); Thomas Harrell, Industrial Psychology 224 (1950 [1949]) (“more work”).

50. Hersey, “Rests” at 39, 37, 42, 45 (“sneak”); E. G. Chambers, Psychology and the Industrial Worker 87 (1951) (“judicious”); G. H. Miles, “Psychological Aids to Increased Production,” 8 Human Factor 343, 349-50 (1934) (“car”); G. H. Miles,“Rest Pauses,” 1 J. Nat. Instit. Indus. Psychol. 287, 287 (1923) (“refreshment”).

51. C. K. Ogden, “Industrial Fatigue,” 81 The Nineteenth Century and After 413, 432 (Feb. 1917); Hugo Mtinsterberg, Business Psychology 200-201 (1918) (quote).

52. Ministry of Munitions, Health of Munition Workers Committee, Final Report: Industrial Health and Efficiency 42 (Cd. 9065,1918); Shepard, “Effects of Rest Periods on Production” at 187.

53. H. M. Vernon, “Appendix C: A Comparison of the Systems Employed for Dividing Up Working Hours into Spells and Breaks,” in Ministry of Munitions, Final Report at 153, 161, 162; Production Handbook 12 -10 2 (Gordon Carson et al. eds., 3d ed. 1972 [1st ed. 1924]). See also Production Handbook 12 :112 (Gordon Carson ed., 2d ed. 1958).

54. S. Wyatt & J. A. Fraser, Studies in Repetitive Work with Special Reference to Rest Pauses iv (Industrial Fatigue Research Board Rep. No. 32 ,19 25); P. Sargant Florence, Economics of Fatigue and Unrest and the Efficiency of Labour in English and American Industry 232-36 (1924); P. Sargant Florence, “An Official American Study on Industrial Fatigue,” 30 Econ.J. 16 3 ,17 2 -7 3 (1920); Henry Welch & Charles Myers, Ten Years of Industrial Psychology 15 -17 (1932); Wyatt, Rest-Pauses in Industry at 1 (quote); Medical Research Council, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Industrial Health Research Board at 5 (quote).

55. H. M. Vernon & M. D. Vernon, “A Study of Five-Hour Work Spells for

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Women, with Reference to Rest Pauses,” in Two Studies on Hours of Work l, 1-2,10 (Industrial Fatigue Research Board Rep. No. 47, 1928); Miriam Glucksmann, Women Assemble: Women Workers and the New Industries in Inter-War Britain 178 (1990) (quote).

56. Medical Research Council, Eleventh Annual Report of the Industrial Health Research Board to joth June 1931, at 21 (1931) (quote); Wyatt, Rest-Pauses in Industry at 13 - 14 (quote); Christoph Deutschmann, DerW eg zum Normalarbeitstag: Die Entwicklung der Arbeitszeiten in der deutschen Industrie bis 1918, at 193 (1985).

57. Wyatt, Rest-Pauses in Industry at 16 (quote), 2 n.5; Otto Graf, “Arbeits- zeit und Arbeitspausen,” in 9 Handbuch der Psychologie: Betriebspsychologie at 256 (Arthur Mayer & Bernhard Herwig eds., 2d ed. 1970) (quote).

58. Lee, The Human Machine and Industrial Efficiency at 25.59. U.S. BLS, Welfare Work fo r Employees in Industrial Establishments in the

United States 7-8, 33, tab. 2 at 34, 35, 34, 35 (Bull. No. 250,1919). On the various complex arrangements for rest periods for telephone operators, see Butler, Women and the Trades at 288-91. For evidence that the “stretch-out” in textiles was inconsistent with rest, see Herbert Lahne, The Cotton Mill Worker 153-55 (1944); Bryant Simon, “Choosing Between the Ham and the Union: Paternalism in the Cone Mills of Greensboro, 1925-1930,” in Hanging by a Thread: Social Change in Southern Textiles 81, 89-93 (Jeffrey Leiter, Michael Schulman, & Rhonda Zingraff eds., 1991).

60. NICB, Rest Periods fo r Industrial Workers at 4, 2 ,12 ,16 , 8.61. “What Is Being Done to Make Employes Contented,” N.Y. Times, Apr. 6,

1919, reprinted in Labor and Management at 261, 263; Gwendolyn Hughes, Mothers in Industry: Wage-Earning by Mothers in Philadelphia 158-59 (1925); calculated according to data in Illinois Industrial Survey, Hours and Health of Women Workers, tabs. 2A & 2B at 29-30 (1918); Annette Mann, Women Workers in Factories: A Study of Working Conditions in 2 75 Industrial Establishments in Cincinnati and Adjoining Towns 14 (1918) (quote), reprinted in Working Girls of Cincinnati (1974). For further anecdotal evidence that even in the 1930s nonunion clothing factory workers in New York City had no breaks other than lunch, see Nancy Seifer, Nobody Speaks fo r Me! Self-Portraits of American Working Class Women 50 -5 1 (1976).

62. Stuart Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (1976); David Brody, “The Rise and Decline of Welfare Capitalism,” in Workers in Industrial America: Essays on the Twentieth Century Struggle 48, 59 (1981 [1980]); (“lacked sympathy”); NICB, What Employers Are Doing fo r Employees: A Survey of Voluntary Activities fo r Improvement of Working Conditions in American Business Concerns 3 (Studies No. 221,1936) (“unreasonable”).

63. Edward D. Jones, The Administration of Industrial Enterprises: With Special Reference to Factory Practice 379 (rev. ed. 1925 [1st ed. 1916]); Bendix, Work and Authority in Industry at 308-40; Richard Gillespie, Manufacturing Knowledge: A History of the Hawthorne Experiments 96-126 (1993 [1991]); Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century 87 (1974); Elton Mayo, “Revery and Industrial Fatigue,” 3 J. Personnel Res. 273, 27475, 279, 281 (1924) (quotes); Loren Baritz, The Servants of Power: A History of the





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Use of Social Science in American Industry 86 (i960) (quoting president); Gillespie, Manufacturing Knowledge at 10 6 -11.

64. F. J. Roethlisberger & William Dickson, Management and the Worker: An Account of a Research Program Conducted by the Western Electric Company, Hawthorne Works, Chicago 184 (1943) (quote); Richard Gillespie, “Industrial Fatigue and the Discipline of Physiology,” in Physiology in the American Context: 1850-1940, at 237, 257 (Gerald Geison ed., 1988) (quote). Alan Derickson, “Physiological Science and Scientific Management in the Progressive Era: Frederic S. Lee and the Committee on Industrial Fatigue,” 68 Bus. Hist. Rev. 483 (1994), an otherwise thoroughly researched historical account, leaps directly from physiological fatigue research to the current extent of nonstatutory rest breaks without devoting sufficient attention to the intervening impact of industrial psychology.

65. Roethlisberger & Dickson, Management and the Worker at 571.66. Baritz, Servants of Power at 87.67. J. B. White (general manager, Aluminum Co. of Canada), Foreword to

Lucien Brouha, Physiology in Industry: Evaluation of Industrial Stresses by the Physiological Reactions of the Worker vii (2d ed. 1967 [1st ed. i960]).

68. Id. at xii.69. Id.; Brouha, Physiology in Industry at 3, 4,138.jo . 7 Fed. Reg. 237 (Jan. 12 ,1942); Nelson Lichtenstein, Labor's War at Home:

The CIO in World War II 51 (1987 [1982]) (quote); 1 National War Labor Board: Industrial Disputes and Wage Stabilization in Wartime 400 (n.d. [ca. 19491) (quote). Two cases that exemplify such rulings are Goodyear Aircraft Corp. v. International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft, & Agricultural Implement Workers of America, 13 War Lab. Rep. 65 (1943); Carlton Lamp Co. v. United Electrical, Radio, & Machine Workers of America, 25 War Lab. Rep. 252 (1945).

71. Simon & Shapiro v. United Furniture Workers of America, 10 War Lab. Rep. 604, 608 (1943).

72. Howard Collier, Outlines of Industrial Medical Practice 146 (1941) (quote); Chas. E. Bedaux, The Bedaux Efficiency Course fo r Industrial Application 297-303, 445 (recommending five-ten minute light lunch at 9:30 a . m . ) (rev. ed. 1921 [1st ed. 1917]); Chas. E. Bedaux Company, Bedaux Measures Labor 3-4 , 9 (1928); Jim Christy, The Price of Power: A Biography of Charles Eugene Bedaux 3 0 -3 1 (1984); Downs, Manufacturing Inequality at 289-92 (quote at 292); James Cronin, Labour and Society in Britain, 19 18 -1979 , at 60-6 1 (1984). The Bedaux system was also widely adopted in the United States in the 1920s but apparently waned by the end of that decade. L. Morrow, “The Bedaux Principle of Human Power Measurement,” 56 Am. Machinist 241 (1922); “A.F.L. Report on the Bedaux System,” 42 Am. Federationist 536 (1935); Craig Littler, The Development of the Labour Process in Capitalist Societies: A Comparative Study of the Transformation of Work Organization in Britain, Japan and the USA 105-45 (1982); David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 18651925, at 440-4 1 (1989 [1987]).

73. J. Ramsay, R. E. Rawsom, et al., Rest-Pauses and Refreshments in Industry:




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An Inquiry into the Operation of Rest-Pauses and Mid-Shift Refreshments in Factories in Seven Industrial Areas in Great Britain, tab. i at 8 ,12 -17 , 3X> 33- 34> 39“ 4° (Nat. Instit. Indus. Psychol. Rep. No. 8,1939).

74. Meyer Brown, Industrial Fatigue 14 (1942) (insurance study); Thomas Arthur Ryan, Work and Effort: The Psychology of Production 149 (1947) (quote); Production Handbook 1 2 : 1 1 2 (2d ed.).

75. Lawrence Stessin & Len Smedresman, The Encyclopedia o f Collective Bargaining Contract Clauses 116 (1977) (quote); U.S. BLS, Collective Bargaining Provisions: Hours of Pay, Overtime Pay, Shift Operations 13 (Bull. 908-18,1948) (quote); Morris Viteles, The Science of Work 297 (1934) (quote); Ralph Barnes, Motion and Time Study: Design and Measurement of Work 462-63 (7th ed. 1980 [1st ed. 1937l) (quote).

76. “Working Hours, the Five-Day Week, and Rest Spells in England,” 23 Monthly Lab. Rev. 1054 , 1055 (!926); (quote); Edwin Ghiselli & Clarence Brown, Personnel and Industrial Psychology 246 (1948) (quote). It is revealing that by the mid-1950s, a much less contentious time for labor-management relations than the years immediately after World War II, the authors deleted this sentence. Edwin Ghiselli & Clarence Brown, Personnel and Industrial Psychology 278 (2d ed. 1955).

77. 2 Ergonomics Group of Eastman Kodak Company, Ergonomic Design for People at Work: The Design of Jobs, including Work Patterns, Hours of Work, Manual Materials Handling Tasks, Methods to Evaluate Job Demands, and the Physiological Basis of Work 220 (1986).

78. 2 Ergonomics Group, Ergonomic Design fo r People at Work at 223; H. Zwah- len, A. Hartmann, and S. Rangarajulu, “Effects of Rest Breaks in Continuous VDT Work on Visual and Musculoskeletal Comfort/Discomfort and on Performance, Human-Computer Interaction,” in Proceedings of the First U.S.A.-Japan Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, Honolulu, Hawaii, August 18 -2 0 ,1984, at 315, 319 (1984) (quote).

79. Telephone interview with Donald Chaffin, professor, Industrial-Operations Engineering Dept., Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI (Mar. 29, 1996) (quote); P. Harber, D. Bloswick, J. Beck, L. Pna, D. Baker, andj. Lee, “Supermarket Checker Motion in Cumulative Trauma Risk,” 35 J. Occup. Med. 803 (1993) (quote); N. Bhatia and K. Murrell, “An Industrial Experiment in Organized Rest Pauses,”11 Human Factors 167,168 (1969) (quote).

80. Murrell, Human Performance in Industry at 391 (quote); G. Swanson,S. Sauter, and L. Chapman, “The Design of Rest Breaks for Video Display Terminal Work: A Review of the Relevant Literature,” 1 Advances in Industrial Ergonomics and Safety 895, 895 (1989) (quote); Bhatia and Murrell, “An Industrial Experiment in Organized Rest Pauses”; Swanson, Sauter, and Chapman, “The Design of Rest Breaks for Video Display Terminal Work.”

81. W. P. Colquhoun, “The Effect of a Short Rest-Pause on Inspection Efficiency,” 2 Ergonomics 367, 372 (1959) (quote); telephone interview with Steven Sauter, ergonomist, NIOSH, Cincinnati, OH (Apr. 4,1996).

82. D. Coburn, “Work and General Psychological and Physical Well Being,”





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in Health and Work Under Capitalism: An International Perspective 67-87 (Vicente Navarro & Daniel Berman eds., 1983).

83. BNA, Working Women’s Health Concerns: A Gender at Risk? 9 2 ,112 (1989).84. Stephen Konz, Work Design: Industrial Ergonomics 295 (3d ed. 1990)

(quote); Swanson, Sauter, and Chapman, “The Design of Rest Breaks for Video Display Terminal Work” ; Murrell, Human Performance in Industry at 377, 409 (quote). For much earlier experiments in which clothing manufacturers in New York in the 1920s permitted “intermittent self-chosen rest periods,” see “Women’s Industrial Conference, Washington, D.C., 1920,” 22 Monthly Lab. Rev. 611, 615 (1926).

85. U.S. BLS, Labor-Management Contract Provisions 1953 at 18, 22 (“responsibility,” “deductions”); Agreement Between United Food & Commercial Workers Union, Local 2008, and ConAgra Broiler Company El Dorade, Arkansas, Effective November 15 ,1993, to November 17,1996, § 6 at 23, 24 (quote).

86. U.S. BLS, Labor-Management Contract Provisions 1953 at 22. See also Agreement Between Bucyrus-Erie Company and United Steelworkers of America, § 305(A) at 13 (1973). For the Krupp rules, see Alf Liidtke, “Arbeitsbeginn, Arbeitspausen, Arbeitsende: Skizzen zu Bedurfnisbefriedigung und Industriearbeit im 19. und fruhen 20. Jahrhundert,” in Sozialgeschichte der Freizeit: Untersuchun- gen zum Wandel der Alltagskultur in Deutschland 103 (Gerhard Huck ed., 1980).

87. Ludtke, “Arbeitsbeginn, Arbeitspausen, Arbeitsende,” at 110 ,113 ,116 .88. 1 Marx, Das Kapital at 200 (quote); Josephine Goldmark, Fatigue and Effi

ciency: A Study in Industry 206 (1912) (quote); Underreporting of Occupational Inju ries and Its Impact on Workers’ Safety (Part 2): Hearings Before a Subcomm. of the House Comm, on Government Operations, 100th Cong., 1st Sess. 144 (1987) (statement of Peggy Flillman, a labor law attorney who also worked in a meatpacking plant) (“profit center”). One of the economies accruing to firms from rapid turnover is that employees do not become entitled to certain benefits until after they have worked for six months or a year. Id. at 42; Underreporting of Occupational Injuries and Its Impact on Workers’ Safety (Part 1): Hearings Before a Subcomm. of the House Comm, on Government Operations, 100th Cong., 1st Sess. 76 (1987) (statement of Lewie Anderson, vice-pres., United Food & Commercial Workers).

Chapter 3. Bringing Incontinence Out of the (Water) Closet

1. “Your Urine or Your Job: Is Private Employer Drug Urinalysis Constitutional in California?” 19 Loyola L.A. L. Rev. 1451 (1986); Mark Rothstein, “Drug Testing in the Workplace: The Challenge to Employment Relations and Employment Law,” 63 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 683, 703 (1987). A union official testified to Congress that Iowa Beef Processors (IBP), the largest U.S. meatpacking firm, requires employees who seek to exercise their right under the Nebraska workers compensation statute to see a noncompany physician for treatment of (nonemergency) on-the- job injuries to submit to a urine test as a precondition for permission to leave the




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plant during work time. Underreporting of Occupational Injuries and Its Impact on Workers’ Safety (Part 2): Hearings Before a Subcomm. of the House Comm, on Government Operations, 100th Cong., 1st Sess. 123-24 (1987) (testimony of William Schmitz, chief exec, officer, Local 222, United Food & Commercial Workers).

2. Feliciano v. City of Cleveland, No. C85-3356, slip op. at 2 (N.D. Ohio 1992) (Westlaw) (quote). See, e.g., Borse v. Piece Goods Shop, Inc. 963 F.2d 611 (3d Cir. 1992).

3. E.g., City Code of Iowa City, § 705(c) at 14-5A-3 (1994); e.g., Cal. Labor Code § 2350 (West Supp. 1995); 29 C.F.R. § i9io.i4i(c)(i) (1995) (quote); 29 U.S.C. § 654(a)(1) (1988) (quote); “AWOL on Job: Absent Without Lavatories,” NT. Times, Dec. 2,1995, at 8 (nat. ed.). Quoting a Pentagon spokesman, the article pointed out that nevertheless, the Pentagon did “not shut down. . . . People w ill just have to control their bladders.”

4. J. Lapides, R. T. Costello, D. K. Zierdt, and T. K. Stone, “Primary Cause and Treatment of Recurrent Urinary Infection in Women: Preliminary Report,” 100 J. Urol 552 (1968); A. L. Bendtsen, J. R. Andersen, andj. T. Andersen, “Infrequent Voiders Syndrome (Nurses Bladder): Prevalence Among Nurses and Assistant Nurses in a Surgical Ward,” 25 Scan.}. Urol. Nephrol. 201 (1991).

5. P. Sommer, T. Bauer, K. K. Nielsen, E. S. Kristensen, G. G. Hermann, K. Steven, and J. Nordling, “Voiding Patterns and Prevalence of Incontinence in Women: A Questionnaire Survey,” 66 Br.J. Urol. 12 (1990)^. A. Fantl,J. F. Wyman, D. K. McClish, S. W. Harkins, R. K. Elswick, J. R. Taylor, and E. C. Hadley, “Efficiency of Bladder Training in Older Women with Urinary Incontinence,” 265 JAM A 609 (1991).

6. Lapides et al., “Recurrent Urinary Infection in Women.”7. National Institutes of Health, Consensus Conference, “Urinary Inconti

nence in Adults,” 53 Connecticut Medicine 535 (1989).8. K. Adatto, K. G. Doebele, L. Galland, and L. Granowetter, “Behavioral Fac

tors and Urinary Tract Infection,” 241 J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 2525 (1979); Lapides et al., “Recurrent Urinary Infection in Women.”

9. A. F. Nielsen and S. Walter, “Epidemiology of Infrequent Voiding and Associated Syndromes,” 157 Scand.J. Urol. Nephrol. Supplementum 49 (1994).

10. U.S. Public Health Service, Clinical Practice Guideline: Urinary Incontinence in Adults 67 (1992); Ricard Philippe, “Polemique sur la mise en place des 35 heures hebdomadaires en Allemagne,” Le Monde, Oct. 3, 1995 (Lexis) (“IG Metall, le plus puissant syndicat europeen”); Franz Steinktihler, “Die Durchsetzung und An- wendung des Lohnrahmentarifvertrages II,” in Werktage werden besser: Der Kam pf um den Lohnrahmentarifvertrag II in Nordwiirttemberg/Nordbaden 21, 35 (Vorstand der IG Metall fur die Bundesrepublik Deutschland ed., 1977); telephone interview with Marcello Salcido, president, Local 126, United Food & Commercial Workers, Fresno, CA (Oct. 25,1995). For an example of an individual time study listing the exact time and duration of voiding (“Bedurfnis”) conducted by Germany’s leading Taylorist organization, see 2 Verband fu r Arbeitsstudien - REFA - E.V., Das REFA - Buch: Zeitvorgabe 7 0 -7 1 (5th ed. 1955 [1st ed. 1951]).





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11. Telephone interview with Luther Williams, business agent, United Food & Commercial Workers, Local 431, IBP plant, Waterloo, IA (Oct. 11,1995); In re Warren Assemblies Inc. & United Automobile Workers Local 155, 92 Lab. Arb. (BNA) 52 1 (1989) (Lexis) (quote); telephone interview with Mary Ellen Grace, director, Div. of Labor Standards, Tennessee Dept, of Labor, Nashville, TN (Jan. 29,1996).

12. “There Ain’t No Stopping Us Now,” Unite, Sept. 1995, at 12, 14 (Arkansas plant); telephone interview with L. Odneal, business agent, United Food & Commercial Workers, Marshall Durbin Co., Hattiesburg, MS (Oct. 24,1995); e.g., 1990-1993 Agreement Between Foster Farms (Fresno) and United Food & Commercial Workers Union, Local No. 126, § 7(f) at 7 (one ten-minute and one fifteen- minute break plus one-half- to one-hour lunch); Collective Agreement Between Maple Lodge Farms Ltd. and United Food & Commercial Workers International Union, Local 175, Expires: October 1994, §§ 11.05 & 11.06 at 20 (two twelve- minute breaks); Agreement Between Wayne Farms, A Division of Continental Grain Company, Albertsville, Alabama, and the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, art. XVII(b) at 21 (1991-1994). These collective rest periods are not to be confused with individual relief to use the toilet.

13. Joan Sangster, Earning Respect: The Lives of Working Women in Small-Town Ontario, 1920-1960, at 57 (1995) (quote); Hussein v. Tama Meat Packing Corp., 394 N.W.2d 340 (Iowa 1986) (a worker was denied unemployment compensation on the grounds that he was discharged for misconduct when he threw a beef tongue at a supervisor who had repeatedly denied his urgent requests to go to the toilet); telephone interview with Dan Anderson, unemployment insurance hearing officer, Des Moines, IA (Oct. 27,1995) (stating that employees of meatpacking plants figure prominently in such unreported cases in Iowa); telephone interview with Becky Plattus, director of health and safety, Union of Needle, Industrial, and Textile Employees, New York City (Oct. 24,1995). For an example of female jewelry factory workers who do not use the bathroom when working on piece rates but do so frequently on day rates, see Nina Shapiro-Perl, “Resistance Strategies: The Routine Struggle for Bread and Roses,” in My Troubles Are Going to Have Trouble with Me: Everyday Trials and Triumphs of Women Workers 193,198 (Karen Sacks & Dorothy Remy eds., 1984). In B. F. Goodrich, 1973 OSAHRC 371 (Lexis), it was recognized in dictum that workers paid on an incentive basis and lacking autonomy to schedule their work might be subject to pressure restricting their access to the toilet.

14. “Sex Discrimination: Female Workers at Nabisco Plant File Complaint over Restroom Breaks,” Daily Lab. Rep., Jan. 13 ,19 9 5 (Westlaw); Hernandez v. Nabisco Co., No. C V 153713 (Ventura Cty. Supt. Ct. filed Mar. 29,1995), removed, Hernandez v. Nabisco, No. 95-2718 R (C.D. Cal. filed Ju ly 6, 1995), ^17 at 6; “Absurdity Watch,” L.A. Times, Jan. 10,1995, at B6, col. 6 (Lexis); 20/20 (ABC television broadcast, Ju ly 21,1995) (Lexis) ; A. Clark & J. Colling, “Direct Personal Costs of Urinary Incontinence in Women,” abstract, American Urogynecological Society, Seattle, WA (Oct. 15 ,1995) (125 women with three or more incontinent episodes per day spent an average of $41.00 per week on pads and laundry); Fred Alvarez, “Women




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Say Plant Limits Restroom Use,” L.A. Times, Jan. 8,1995, at B1 (Lexis); R. Emmett Tyrrell, Jr., “The Continuing Crisis,” American Spectator, Apr. 1995 (Lexis). The suit was settled but not before the plant was sold and closed. Fred Alvarez, “Employers, Nabisco Settle Lawsuit overWork Rules,” L A . Times, Apr. 15,1996, at B 1 (Lexis).

15. Richard Selzer, Mortal Lessons: Notes on the Art of Surgery 80 (1976) (quote); Clougherty Packing and UFCW, Local 274, 9 Lab. Arb. Infor. Sys. 1031 (1981) (Westlaw) ; In re Lockheed Aircraft Corp. and International Ass’n of Machinists, Dist. Lodge 33, 32 Lab. Arb. (BNA) 852, 853 (1959) (quote).

16. Telephone interview with Ron Kazel, poultry contract negotiator for the United Food & Commercial Workers (Oct. 17, 1995); Tony Horwitz, “These Six Growth Jobs Are Dull, Dead-End, Sometimes Dangerous,” Wall St. J., Dec. 1, 1994, at A l, col. 6, A8, col. 5 (referring to chicken processing plants); Christoph Deutschmann, Der Weg zum Normalarbeitstag: Die Entwicklung der Arbeitszeiten in der deutschen Industrie bis 1918, at 90 (1985) (quote); Alf Ludtke, “Arbeitsbeginn, Arbeitspausen, Arbeitsende: Skizzen zu Bedurfnisbefriedigung und In- dustriearbeit im 19. und fruhen 20. Jahrhundert,” in Sozialgeschichte der Freizeit: Untersuchungen zum Wandel der Alltagskultur in Deutschland 95, 105 (Gerhard Huck ed., 1980) (quote); David Vesey, “Mississippi Food Workers,” UPI, Aug. 31,1987 (Lexis); Philip Dine, “Dispute in the Delta,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Oct. 8, 1990, at A l (Lexis) (workers who used more than six bathroom breaks per week were written up and eventually fired); “Union Members Ratify Delta Pride Contract,” PR Newswire, Dec. 14 ,1990 (Lexis). On a used clothing plant in Brooklyn at which women “relieved themselves at their stations” because they lacked bathroom “privileges,” see Deborah Sontag, “U.S. Victory Is Empty to Workers,” N.Y. Times, June 9,1997, at B l, col. 2 (Lexis).

17. H. Porter, “Industrial Hygiene of the Pittsburgh District,” in Wage-Earning Pittsburgh 217, 236 (6 The Pittsburgh Survey, Paul Kellogg ed., 1914). This first social survey in the United States “introduced the use of trained social workers, sociologists and economists” to study living and working conditions. 14 Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 162, 163 (1937) (s.v. “social survey”). See generally Steven Cohen, “The Pittsburgh Survey and the Social Survey Movement: A Sociological Road Not Taken,” in The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1840-1940, at 245 (Martin Bulmer et al. eds., 1991).

18. Porter, “Industrial Hygiene of the Pittsburgh District” at 237.19. Maud Nathan, The Story of an Epoch-Making Movement 8 (1926); Patricia

Sexton, “The Auto Assembly Line: An Inside View,” Harper’s, June 1962, at 54, 55.20. Elizabeth Butler, Saleswomen in Mercantile Stores: Baltimore, 1909, at 37

38 (1912).21. Thomas Darlington, “Health and Hygiene in Industry,” 2 International Clin

ics (34th ser.) 287, 289 (June 1924). For a humorous vision of restricting bathroom access by means of a computer voice recognition system that will not unlock the door after the employee’s monthly restroom trip bank balance reaches zero, see Gary Marx, “Raising Your Hand Just Won’t Do,” L.A. Times, Apr. 1, 1987, at 5, col. 1.


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22. U.S. Public Health Service, Urinary Incontinence in Adults at 3; Thelma Thomas, Kay Plymat, Janet Blannin, and T. Meade, “Prevalence of Urinary Incontinence,” 281 Brit. Med. J. 1243, tab. I & II at 1244 (1980); Carol Krucoff, “The Unspoken Reason Some Women Quit Sports,” Wash. Post, May 24,1994, health sec., at 16; Kathryn Burgio, K. Lynette Pearce, & Angelo Lucco, Staying Dry: A Practical Guide to Bladder Control 1 (1989).

23. Telephone interview with Cloyd Robinson, former chairman of Iowa Senate Labor Committee, Cedar Rapids, IA (Oct. 28,1995) (stating that as a senator in the 1970s he received many calls from waitresses and other restaurant workers complaining that they received no breaks); telephone interview with Ron Gumeringer, labor standards supervisor, North Dakota Dept, of Labor, Bismarck, ND (Nov. 15,1995) (stating that restaurant workers made more complaints about not receiving their regulatorily prescribed breaks than any other group); telephone interview with Barry Schwartzberg, senior labor standards investigator, N.Y. State Dept, of Labor, Albany district, Albany, NY (Nov. 27, 1995) (stating that complaints from restaurant workers concerning employers’ refusal to give them their statutorily mandated meal periods were “fairly common”); telephone interview with Jerry Messer, United Food & Commercial Worker organizer, Des Moines, IA (Oct. 11,1995) (nursing home workers); information provided by elementary school teachers in Iowa City and Des Moines, IA; Steven Greenhouse, “Models Join Together to Make Unionism a Thing of Beauty,” N.Y. Times, Nov. 20,1995, at Bl, col. 2 (Lexis); Ted Drach, letter to editor, N.Y. Times, Dec. 16,1989, at 16, col. 4 (nat. ed.) (taxi drivers). Unionized health care workers commonly receive two fifteen-minute rest periods and one thirty-minute lunch period; e.g., Agreement Between Beverly Enterprises D/B/A Beverly Health Care Center-East and United Food & Commercial Workers Union Local 1657, AFL-CIO-CLC Effective January 19,1989, through January 18,1995, art. 8; Agreement Between Beverly Enterprises Northwest Health Care Center and United Food & Commercial Workers Union, Local 400, December 1, 1993, Through November 30, 1996, § 11.4; Contract Between UFCW Local 789 and Summit Manor Health Care Center Effective October 1 , 1994-September 30,1997, art. 11.

24. J. H. Bridges & T. Holmes, Report to the Local Government Board on Proposed Changes in Hours and Ages of Employment in Textile Factories 39 (C. 754, 1873); Azel Ames, Jr., Sex in Industry: A Plea fo r the Working Girl 135,136 (1875).

25. Harry Mock, Industrial Medicine and Surgery 422 (1919).26. Joel Connolly (chief, Chicago Bureau of Sanitary Engineering), Foreword

to U.S. Women’s Bureau, The Installation and Maintenance of Toilet Facilities in Places of Employment viii (Bull. No. 99,1933); U.S. Women’s Bureau, The Installation and Maintenance of Toilet Facilities at 5 (“efficiency”); Darlington, “Health and Hygiene in Industry” at 289-90 (quote).

27. “Sanitary Closets for Shops,” 6 Sanitary Engineer 560 (1882) (quote); Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor, 190 j : Labor Law of the United States 444, 522, 660, 739-40 (1908); 1891 Mo. Laws, Act of Apr. 20,1891, § 2, at 179,180, repealed by S.B. No. 1107, 3 Mo. Rev. Stats. 2480 (1949); 1895 Mich.




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Pub. Acts. No. 184, § 10 at 342, 344, repealed by 1967 Mich. Pub. Acts ch. 282, § 18, at 573, 579; 1902 Iowa Acts ch. 149, § 1, at 107, 107, repealed by 1972 Iowa Laws ch. 1028, § 1, at 95; 1903 Wis. Laws ch. 323, § 1 at 518, 518, repealed by 19 13 Wis. Laws ch. 223, § 1 at 227; 1906 La. Acts Act 34, § 4 at 50; 19 11 Neb. Laws ch. 67, § 1 at 299; 19 11 Colo. Sess. Laws ch. 312, § 10 at 387, 395, repealed by 1980 Colo. Sess. Laws ch. 55, § 6 at 449, 451. Although the Louisiana legislature did not formally repeal this provision, the legislative reporter noted that it was omitted from the 1950 edition of the Louisiana Statutes Annotated because it was superseded by the Sanitation Code. 16 West’s La. Stat. Ann. Art 2 3 :15 1 n. at 33 (1950). The Sanitation Code, however, contained no relevant provision on this issue. For a comprehensive overview of state employment-related toilet laws, see U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women with Wartime Modifications, December 1 5 , 1944, Part I I—Analysis of Plant Facilities Laws 29-43 (Bull. No. 202-11 ,1945).

28. 1887 Conn. Pub. Acts ch. 152 § 5 at 763, 764; State of Connecticut, Report of the Bureau of Labor on the Conditions of Wage-Earning Women and Girls 9 (1914). The state took decades to close the loopholes. U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women with Wartime Modifications, Part II at 30. Even under the OSHAct it has been held that the toilet need not be under the employer’s control: Albert and Maguire Securities Co., 4 OSAHRC 762 (1973) (Lexis).

29. Ninth Biennial Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics fo r the State o f Iowa: ig88-igoo, at 1 1 - 12 (1901).

30. Id. at 12 -13 .31. 1902 Iowa Laws ch. 149, §§ 1, 4 at 107,108 (quotes). The pre-OSFIA period

was not a golden age for hygienic voiding in Iowa. During the first biennial inspection period (1903-1905), more than one-third of inspected establishments provided only earth closets or privies, which “can never be sanitary when used by any considerable number of persons.” E. H. Downey, History of Labor Legislation in Iowa 102-103 (1910). The Iowa statute was the first bill introduced by the new state senator, Fred L. Maytag, who may have thereby helped reduce demand for the products of the world’s largest washing machine factory, which he would later own. Journal of the Senate of the 2 gth General Assembly 274 (1902); A.B. Funk, Fred L. Maytag 69 (1936).

32. Telephone interview with Cloyd Robinson, who was an Iowa state senator in 1972 (stating that legislators did not realize the impact of the repeal); 1972 Iowa Laws ch. 1028, §§ 1, 2 at 95 (quote); Neb. Rev. Stat. § 48-401 (1993); telephone interview with “Cliff,” Iowa state OSHA compliance officer, Des Moines, IA (Oct. 26,1995) (quote).

33. Sidney Webb & Beatrice Webb, Industrial Democracy 361, 36 2-6 3 (new ed. 1920 [1st ed. 1897]); Factories Act, 1948, § i9(i)(a).

34. 29 C.F.R. § 1928.110 (1995) (field sanitation); telephone interview with Daniel Mick, national solicitor’s office, Regional Trial and OSH Review Commission Litigation Counsel, Washington, DC (Oct. 17,1995); telephone interview with Mary Bryant, Iowa State OSHA administrator, Des Moines, IA (Oct. 31,1995), and Walter Johnson, deputy commissioner, Div. of Labor Services, Dept, of Employ-





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ment Services, Des Moines, IA (Oct. 27, 1995); letter from Mary Bryant to Marc Linder (Nov. 17,1995). OSHA has cited employers who locked toilets or provided fewer than the required number of toilets: Kinney Systems, Inc., 1979 OSAHRC 606 (Lexis); Kara Swisher, “EEOC Files Suit Over Potty Parity,” Wash. Post, Jan. 6, 1994, at D10 (Lexis).

35. Texaco Inc., 1977 OSAHRC 1065 (Lexis) (quote); Dixie-Pacific, Inc., 1980 OSAHRC 264 (Lexis) (quote).

36. OSHA, Citation and Notification of Penalty to Hudson Foods, Inc., Inspection No. 300002250, Citation 4 Item 9, at 46 (July 22,1997) (quote); OSHA, News Release USDL 97-242, http://www.osha.gov (July 22, 1997). In formulating the legal basis for this citation, OSHA officials were able to make use of the history of the agency’s toilet regulations of which they had been unaware until the analysis presented below in this chapter was made available to them. The United Food and Commercial Workers in April 1997 submitted a request to OSHA for a clarification of the standard. Specifically, the union asked OSHA to clarify whether employers’ obligation to provide toilets requires employers to permit workers to use them when necessary, and whether OSHA agrees with Iowa OSHA’s position that it lacked the power to cite employers who refused workers permission to use the toilet. The agency is said to be willing to inform its regional offices as well as state OSHA agencies that workers do have such a right. Telephone interviews with Deborah Berkowitz, director of Health and Safety Department, UCFW, Washington, DC (April and May 1997).

37. 29 U.S.C. §§ 655(a), 652(9) (1988).38. United States of America Standards Institute, USA Standard Requirements

for Sanitation in Places of Employment, §§ 6 .1.1-6 .1.3 , at 9 (Z4 .1-1968); 36 Fed. Reg. 10593 (1971) (to be codified at 29 C.F.R. § i9io.i4i(c)(iii)).

39. 36 Fed. Reg. 10,593 (1971) (to be codified at 29 C.F.R. § i9 io .i4i(c)(i)-(ii)).40. American Standards Association, American Standard Safety Code for In

dustrial Sanitation in Manufacturing Establishments, § 3.11(e) at 8 (Z4 .1- 1935); American Standards Association, American Standard Minimum Requirements for Sanitation in Places of Employment, § 6.1.2 at 9 (Z4 .1-1955); American National Standards Institute, American National Standard Minimum Requirements for Sanitation in Places of Employment, §§ 6 .1.1-6 .1.2 at 6 (Z4 .1-1979); American National Standards Institute, American National Standard for Sanitation in Places of Employment—Minimum Requirements, §§ 6 .1.1-6 .1.2 at 6 (Z4 .1- 1986); National Safety Council, Accident Prevention Manual fo r Industrial Operations 1216 (6th ed., 1972) (quote); National Safety Council, Engineering and Technology 215 (1997) (telephone interview with official of National Safety Council, Itasca, IL, Mar. 11,1997, who read this identical provision from the latest edition).

41. “Code Standards for Safety and Health in Manufacturing Industries and in Mercantile Establishments,” in U.S. BLS, Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 Edition 309, 310 (Bull. No. 616 ,1936); J. Dallavalle and R. Jones, “Basic Principles of Industrial Sanitation,” 30 A m .J. Pub Health 369, 370 -7 1 (1940).

42. Charles Noble, Liberalism at Work: The Rise and Fall of OSHA 44-45 (1986).




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43- 37 Fecl- Reg. 13,996,13,998 (1972) (to be codified at 29 C.F.R. § 1910.141(c) (iii)) (proposed July 15 ,1972) (quote); Justus Co., 1972 OSAHRC 63 (Lexis) (excessive cost).

44. OSHA furnished copies from its archives of all the letters (dated 1972) cited here commenting on the proposed sanitation standard: U.S. Steel (Aug. 4); Meat Institute (Aug. 14); Swift (Aug. 11); AT&T (Aug. 11); PPG (Aug. 14); Hickory (July 26); A. Johnson (July 23); Iowa Manufacturers (Oct. 27); Steel Institute (Aug. 14).

45. Fleetwood (Aug. 9); Iowa Manufacturers (Aug. 7); Ford (Aug. 10); Motor Vehicle Manufacturers (Aug. 16).

46. Rohm & Haas (Aug. 10); Staley (July 15).47. OSHA, “Hearing on Proposed Revision of Sanitation Standards” 2 13 - 14

(Nov. 10,1972) (copy of transcript furnished by OSHA from its archives).48. Id. at 216-18 , 214.49. 38 Fed. Reg. 10,930,10,931 (quote), 10,933 (codified at 29 C.F.R. § 1910.141(c)

(i)(I) (1973 &r 1996)).50. Telephone interview with Robert Manware, directorate of health standards,

OSHA, Washington, DC (Mar. 3,1997). Manware has no recollection of employers’ proposals for relief system regulations or of why his group deleted the “readily accessible” standard. Tom Seymour, who was an official at OSHA from its inception until his retirement on Feb. 28,1997, at which time he was deputy director of safety standards, attended the 1972 hearing and confirmed that no employer even hinted that its real agenda was cutting back on toilet breaks. Telephone interview with Seymour, Washington, DC (Feb. 21,1997).

51. 29 C.F.R. § i9io .i4i(c)(i)(i) tab. J - l (1996); U.S. Women’s Bureau, The Installation and Maintenance of Toilet Facilities at 5 (“crowding”); Standard Interpretation, letter from Assistant Secretary of Labor Thorne Auchter to JeanneFisher (July 5,1983) (http://www.osha-slc.gov/OshDoc/Interp__data/INTERP__19830705A.html) (“access”).

52. 52 Fed. Reg. 16050,16059 (1987).53. Farmworker Justice Fund, Inc. v. Brock, 811 F.2d 613, 614 (D.C. Cir. 1987)

(quote); William Inman, “Farmers, OSHA Lag on Regulations,” UPI, Mar. 13,1988 (Lexis); Henry Weinstein, “States Accused of Ignoring Hygiene,” L.A. Times, Apr. 4,1988, sec. 1, at 1, col. 2 (Lexis); Kenneth Noble, “Farm Workers Fault Lack of Enforcement of Sanitation Rules,” N.Y. Times, Oct. 4,1988, at A l, col. 1 (Lexis); Charles Hutzler, “NJ Farm Workers Denied Rights to Health and Safety, Group Says,” UPI, June 18 ,1991 (Lexis).

54. 29 C.F.R. § i928.no(c)(2)(iii); 29 C.F.R. §§ 1928.110(a) &r i928.no(c)(2)(I); “Farm Worker Group Questions Coverage, Enforcement of Field Sanitation Rule,” Daily Labor Report, May 15, 1987, at A-5 (Lexis); 29 C.F.R. § i928.no(c)(4)(I- iii) (italics added). For an example of agricultural employers who claimed that they were not subject to OSHA because they employed fewer than fifteen employees, see Guadorrama v. Department of Labor and Industry (Cir. Ct. City of Richmond filed Sept. 28,1994).

55. 1988 Minn. Laws ch. 559, § 1, codified at Minn. Stat. § 177.253 (1994)





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(quote); telephone interview with Marilyn Lantry, former state senator, Osakis, MN (Oct. 16 ,1995); 5 Legislature of Minnesota, Journal of the House of Representatives, 75th Sess. 10775-77 (1988). An exception to Oregon’s regulation requiring virtually universal provision of meal and rest periods for employees in stores working alone but fewer than five hours daily is revealing: it operates only if “the employee is allowed to leave his/her assigned station when the employee must relieve himself/herself of body wastes.” Or. Admin. R. § 839-20-050(4X6) (1993)-

56. Letter from Marilyn Lantry to Marc Linder (Oct. 18,1995); Dennis McGrath, “Bill Would Require Employers to Allow Workers to Take Bathroom Breaks,” St. Paul Dispatch-Pioneer Press (undated clipping furnished by Sen. Lantry); Chuck Strouse, “Potty Break Every Four Hours: It’s the Law,” Minneapolis/St. Paul City Business, Sept. 5,1988, at 13; Minn. Stat. § 177.32(8) (1994).

57. Michael Binder & Harry Prosen, “Psychologic Aspects of Urinary Incontinence in Women,” in Gynecologic and Obstetric Urology 423, 426 (Herbert Buchs- baum & Joseph Schmidt eds., 3d ed. 1993 [1st ed. 1978]) (quote); Otto Lipmann, Lehrbuch der Arbeitsmssenschaft 231, 234 (1932); H. Gerbis, “Die Rationalisierung in gewerblichen Betrieben vom gewerbehygienischen Standpunkt,” in Waffen- schmidt, H. Gerbis, & H. Eibel, Arbeiterschutz und Rationalisierung 11, 20 (Beihefte zum Zentralblatt fur Gewerbehygiene und Unfallverhiitung 14,1929) (quote).

58. Robert Knee & Robert Knee, Jr., Collective Bargaining Clauses: Guideline Forms fo r Use in Labor Negotiations 75 (1975 [1967]) (quote) ; telephone interview with Prof. Anthony Sinicropi, arbitrator, Iowa City, IA (Oct. 18,1995) (reviewing breaks in agreements); Royal Commission on Labor, The Employment of Women 3 (C. 6894,1893) (quote).

59. Agreement Between Oscar Mayer & Co. Perry, Iowa and United Food & Commercial Workers International Union, Local Union No. P-1149, October 19, 1979, Through October 18, 1982, §§ 58 & 59 at 21, 22. See also Agreement 1973-1976 Champion Package Company Division of Champion International Corporation, Clinton, Iowa, Plant and United Paperworkers International Union, A.F.L.-C.I.O., § 42 at 16 (“It will be the general policy of the Company to allow such necessary relief for all employees as is required by them for personal reasons”); Agreement Between Owens-Corning Fiberglass Corporation (Kansas City, Kansas) and the Greater Kansas City Building & Construction Trades Council, AFL-CIO, “For the Period Covering April 16, 1978, Until April 16, 1981,” art. 16, § j .A at 78. At a poultry plant in the 1940s workers represented by the Amalgamated Meat Cutters were, outside of their breaks, “liberally allowed to withdraw without loss of pay from productive work for short intervals for personal urgencies.” McComb v. C. A. Swanson & Sons, 77 F. Supp. 716, 725 (D. Neb. 1948).

60. Agreement Between United Food & Commercial Workers Union, Local 2008, & ConAgra Broiler Company El Dorado, Arkansas, Effective November 15, 1993, to November 17,1996, § 6 at 23, 24. At the same time, in renegotiating a contract with another poultry processor, the UFCW traded off an increase in breaks from ten to fifteen minutes for an elimination of “automatic bathroom breaks”; however, even now “emergency situations will be allowed and employees will not be denied to go to restroom. Habitual visits on a daily basis will not be allowed.”


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Agreement Between United Food &r Commercial Workers Union Local 72 and Empire Kosher Poultry, Inc. §§ 14-15 (1994-1997).

61. In re Country Lane Foods, Inc. and United Food & Commercial Workers, Local 17A, 88 Lab. Arb. (BNA) 599, 600 (1986) (quote); Robert Asher, “The 1949 Speed Up Strike and the Post War Social Compact, 1946-1961,” in Autowork 127, 131,134,153 (Robert Asher and Ronald Edsforth eds., 1995).

62. Telephone interview with Luther Williams. In this case, the union grieved the termination; after an arbitrator found that the employer had acted improperly, the common law of the plant changed with regard to bathroom visits.

63. Maybelline Co. v. Stiles, 661 S.W.2d 462, 465, 463 (Ark. Cl. App. 1983) (quote); Glass v. Unemployment Ins. Appeal Bd., C.A. No. 82A-AU-9, slip op. (Del. Super. Ct. Dec. 9, 1983) (Diamond Shamrock); In the Matter of Arbitration Between Cloughtery Packing Co. and United Food <Sr Commercial W orkers International Union, Local 274, Lab. Arb. Infor. Sys., 1981 W L 161161 (Westlaw) (prostatitis).

64. Iowa Beef Processors, Inc. v. State of Kansas Employment Security Board of Review, No. 59,151, slip op. (Kan. Ct. App. Mar. 5,1987) (Lexis).

65. Glass v. Unemployment Ins. Appeal Bd., C.A. No. 82A-AU-9, slip op. The Food Safety and Inspection Service does require meatpacking plants to provide “conveniently located” toilet rooms and urinals in sufficient number; the agency is empowered to refuse inspection service, thus leading to closure of the plant, if an employer fails to eliminate insanitary conditions. 9 C.F.R. §§ 308.4(a), 335.13(b) (1996).

Chapter 4. Women at Rest: The Legal Status of Rest Periods Before Title VII

1. Florence Kelley, Some Ethical Gains Through Legislation 108-109,162 (1905).2. Susan Lehrer, Origins o f Protective Legislation fo r Women, 1905-1925, at 227

28 (1987).3. W. Stanley Jevons, The State in Relation to Labour 64 (1882) (quote);

Kathryn Sklar, “ T h e Greater Part of the Petitioners Are Female1: The Reduction of Womens Hours in the Paid Labor Force, 1840-1917,” in W orktime and Industrial

ization: An International History 103 (Gary Cross ed., 1988) (minority view); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins o f Social Policy in the

United States 379 (1995 [ 1992]) (minority view); Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work:

A History o f Wage-Earning Women in the United States 189 (1983 [1982]) (quolc); Kelley, Some Ethical Gains Through Legislation at 133.

4. David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans,

1862-1872, at 230-334 (1972 [1967]) (quote at 334); 1 John Commons et al., His

tory o f Labor in the United States 536-46 (1918); James Mohr, The Radical Republi

cans and Reform in New York During Reconstruction 119-39 (1973); Kathryn Sklar, Florence Kelley and the N ation’s Work. The Rise o f W om en’s Political Culture, 18301900, at 258 (1995) (quote). A typical legal days work statute provided that “Eight



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hours work done . . . in any one day . . . shall be deemed a lawful days work, unless otherwise agreed by the parties.’1 1867 Conn. Acls ch. 37 at 23-24. For an excellent example of judicial interpretation that made such statutes worthless, see Luske v. Hotchkiss, 27 Conn. 219 (1870). Bricklayers, as one example among many, abandoned the effort to achieve the eight-hour day through legislation in 1874, turning instead to collective action against individual employers. Marion Cotter Cahill, Shorter Hours: A Study o f Movement Since the C ivil War 294 (1932).

5. 1 Karl Marx, Das Kapital: K rilik der polilischen O ekonom ie 258 (1867; photomechanical reprint 1959); Sidney Webb &r Beatrice Webb, Industrial Dem ocracy

338 (new ed. 1920 11st ed. 1897)), B. L. Hutchins & A. Harrison, A History o f Fac

tory Legislation 109-10 (2d ed. 1911); U.S. Womens Bureau, History o f Labor Legis

lation fo r Women in Three States 2 (Bull. No. 66, 1929) (by Clara Beyer); Kessler- Harris, Out to Work at 184; William Forbath, “The Shaping of the American Labor Movement,’’ 102 Harv. L. Rev. 1109, 1137 (1989), Fdward Atkinson, “Inefficiency of Economic Legislation,” J. Soc. Sci., No. 4, at 123, 123 (1871) (quote); Charles Persons, “The Early History of Factory Legislation in Massachusetts” (1911), in Charles Persons, Mabel Parton, & Mabelle Moses, Labor Laws and Their Enforce

ment 122 (Susan Kingsbury ed., 1971); Renee Toback, “Protective Labor Legislation for Women: The Massachusetts Ten-Hour Law” 297-301, 325 (1985) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts); Kathryn Sklar, “Two Political Cultures in the Progressive Fra: The National Consumers’ League and the American Association for Labor Legislation,” in U.S. History as Women’s His

tory: New Feminist Essays 36, 51 (Linda Kerber cl al. eds., 1995) (quote); U.S. W omen’s Bureau, Some Effects of leg islation Lim iting Hours o f Work fo r Women 15 (Bull. No. 15,1921) (quote). For an example of male British workers who regarded the statutory breaks as applicable to them, see 1 Marx, Das Kapital at 272 n.178. In some instances shorter hours laws in Britain had the unintended and unforeseen consequence that employers hired men to work very long (fourteen) hours either after the working day of the women and children ended or instead of them. Re

ports o f the Inspectors o f Factories fo r the Half-Year Ending jo th April 1848, al 5-6 (26 Pari. Pap. 1847-48, c. 957).

6. John Commons and John Andrews, Principles o f Labor Legislation 116 (4th ed. 1967 [ 1st ed. 1916)) (quote); “NewspaperW oman Protests Against ‘Maternal Legislation,’ ” 10 Life & Labor 84, 85 (1920); Act of Mar. 4,1907, ch. 2939, 34 Slat. 1415; Baltimore &r Ohio R.R. v. Interstate Commerce Commission, 221 U.S. 612, 619 (1911) (quote).

7. Kelley, Some Ethical Gains Through Legislation at 170-71 (quote); 49 U.S.C. §§ 21103(a) & (b) (5) & (6) (1995) (quote); United States v. Cornwall, 268 F. 680, 683 (M.D. Pa. 1920) (quote), Atchison, Topeka &r Santa Fe Ry. v. Pena, 44 F.3d 437, 443 (7th Cir. 1995), aff'd sub nom. Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers v. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe R.R., 64 U.S.L.W. 4045 (U.S. Jan. 9,1996) (quote). In order to reduce wage costs associated with hiring additional engineers or paying overtim e, railroad companies have nevertheless lawfully imposed fatiguing (nighttim e) split schedules on employees that can lead to fatal crashes. Richard Perez-


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Pena, “Train Engineer Had Record of Running Red Signals,” N.Y. Tim es, Feb. 12, 1996, at B11, col. 5 (nat. ed.); Richard Perez-Pena, “N.J. Transit Authority May End All Nighttime Split Schedules,” N.Y. Times, Feb. 14,1996, at A 12, col. 1 (nat. ed.).

8. Elizabeth Brandeis, “Labor Legislation,” in 3 Don Lescohier and Elizabeth Brandeis, History o f Labor in the United States, 1896-1932, at 397, 548-54, 561-63 (1935) (quote); U.S. BLS, Handbook o f Labor Statistics: ig j6 Edition 1071,1075-77 (Bull. 616,1936) (quote).

9. Laurence Tribe, Am erican Constitutional Law 569 n.2 (2d ed. 1988 [1st ed. x978]); Judith Baer, The Chains o f Protection: The Judicial Response to W om en’s Labor

Legislation 89 (1978) (quote); Brandeis, “Labor Legislation” at 681 (quote); 1913 Or. Laws ch. 102, § 2 at 169. The overwhelming jurisprudential and political attention that has been lavished on the Oregon statute has produced historical amnesia concerning the laws in the South. Oregon’s overriding significance is rooted in constitutional law scholars’ preoccupation with the “seeds of self-contradiction” in the Lochner era’s devotion to liberty of contract that they have seen sprouting from Bunting v. Oregon, 243 U.S. 426 (1917), in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the Oregon overtime law. Tribe, Am erican Constitutional Law at 574. In the alternative, some feminists’ concern with the “pedestalization” of women in some U.S. Supreme Court cases upholding shorter hours laws for women has blinded them to the coexisting judicial acceptance of gender-neutral hours laws. E.g., Catharine MacKinnon, Toward a Fem inist Theory o f the State 165-66 (1989).

10. Or. Rev. Stat. § 652.020 (1995); 1913 Or. Laws ch. 102, § 1 at 169 (quote); State v. Bunting, 139 P. 731, 735, 736 (Or. 1914) (quote).

11. 1912 Miss. Laws ch. 157 at 165; 1914 Miss. Laws ch. 169 at 217 (permitting an additional twenty minutes of work during each of the first five days of the week to be deducted from the sixth day leaving the weekly total at sixty hours); 1981 Miss. Laws ch. 439 at 995; State v. J. J. Newman Lumber Co., 59 So. 923, 929 (Miss. 1912) (quote); 1889 Ga. Laws No. 599 at 163 (limiting cotton and woollen mill workers to eleven hours); 1892 S.C. Acts No. 32, § 1 at 90 (limiting textile workers to eleven hours); 1922 S.C. Acts No. 567 at 1011 (limiting textile workers to ten hours/day and fifty-five hours/week); 1915 N.C. Sess. Laws ch. 148, § 2 at 232 (limiting male workers in manufacturing to eleven hours); 6 Report on Condition o f W om en and

C hild W age-Earners in the United States: The Beginnings o f C hild Labor Legislation

in Certain States 147-88 (S. Doc. No. 645, 61st Cong., 2d Sess. 1910) (by Elizabeth Otey); Paul Blanchard, “ Tremendous Strides’ of the Cotton Industry in the South,” Am. Lab. Leg. Rev., Mar. 1928, at 47, 48; Herbert Lahne, The Cotton Mill

W orker 138-43 (1944). The statement that the Georgia and South Carolina nominal ten-hour laws were “nullified by their own wording” because they permitted certain exceptions was nevertheless overbroad. Josephine Goldmark, “The Study of Fatigue and Its Application to Industrial W orkers,” in 3 Transactions o f the Fif

teenth International Congress on Hygiene and Demography 517, 526 n.4 (1913).12. 1 Felix Frankfurter, The Case fo r the Shorter Work Day 6 -7 (1915) (list

ing all hours of rest statutes); U.S. Womens Bureau, Chronological Developm ent

of Labor Legislation fo r Women in the United States 135, 280 (Bull. No. 66, 1929) (by Florence Smith); 1913 N.Y. Laws ch. 740, at 1861 (gender-neutral day-of-rest





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statute); Meredith Tax, The Rising o f the Women: Feminist Solidarity and Class C on

flict, 1880-1917, at 57 (1980) (quote).13. Norman Ware, The Industrial Worker, 1840-1860: The Reaction o f Am erican

Industrial Society to the Advance o f the Industrial Revolution xiii (quote), 128-29 (quote), 147,159 (1974 [1924]); Andrew Combe, The Physiology o f Digestion: C on

sidered with Relation to the Principles o f Dietetics 201-202, 204 (3d ed. 1844 [1st ed. 1836]); Massachusetts, House Doc. No. 153 (1850), reprinted in 8 A Docum entary

History o f Am erican Industrial Society: Labor Movem ent 151, 164-65 (John Com mons et al. eds., 1910).

14. Commons & Andrews, Principles o f Labor Legislation at 141.15. “Spare the Shop-Girls,” N.Y. Daily Tribune, Dec. 15,1875, at 4, col. 4 (edito

rial). See also 4 Fourth Report o f the New York State Factory Investigating Com m ission

1704-707 (N.Y. State Sen. Doc. No. 43,1915).16. 5 Report on Condition o f Woman and C hild Wage-Earners in the United States:

W age-Earning Women in Stores and Factories at 109-10. This account is puzzling since the statute also expressly stated that the employer “shall permit use” of the chairs by the female workers. 111. Rev. Stat. ch. 48, § 97 at 1130 (1911). The employer’s conduct was therefore on the face of it unlawful. Other investigations revealed “that often there is a tacit understanding that no sales girl should be caught sitting down, even when her stock is in order, and no customer is waiting.” N.Y. State Dept, of Labor, Bureau of Women in Industry, Industrial Posture

and Seating 49 (Special Bull. No. 104,1921).17. Fifth Annual Report o f the Factory Inspectors o f the State o f New York 94 (1891)

(quote); Elizabeth Butler, Saleswom en in M ercantile Stores: Baltimore, 1909, at 22 (1912); “Seats for Saleswomen,” New-York Tribune, Feb. 13,1882, at 2, col. 2 (editorial); Commons & Andrews, Principles o f Labor Legislation at 203-204; Wage-

Earning Pittsburgh 230 (6 The Pittsburgh Survey, Paul Kellogg ed., 1914); chapter 3 above (OSHA).

18. Florence Kelley, “Wage-Earning Women in War Time: The Textile Industry,” 1 J. Indus. Hygiene 261, 268 (1919) (quote); Elizabeth Hawes, Hurry Up Please

It’s Tim e 38-39 (1946). Most revealing about this collapse of enforcement is the light it shed on the alleged frailty of women: “It was just as important for the men to get off their feet from time to time as for the wom en— and if a man didn’t find a seat, he’d simply steal one from a woman.” Id. at 39.

19. 1885 Mich. Pub. Acts No. 39, § 4 at 37, 38; 1895 Mich. Pub. Acts No. 184, § 11 at 342, 344 (reduced the time to forty-five minutes for the noonday meal); 1887 Mass. Acts ch. 215, §§ 2-3 at 832-33 (excluding ironworks, glassworks, and paper mills, and permitting employment of women or children for as long as six and a half hours without a meal break if they were dismissed for the day by 1:00 p.m .; 1874 Mass. Acts ch. 221 at 145; 1886 Mass. Acts ch. 90 at 76; Report o f the C h ie f

of M assachusetts D istrict Police fo r the Year Ending Decem ber 31, 1885, at 21 (Pub. Doc. 32,1886) (quote); 1887 Mass. Acts. ch. 215, § 1 at 832; U.S. Women’s Bureau, History o f Labor Legislation fo r Women in Three States at 16-23; Sarah Whittelsey, “Massachusetts Labor Legislation: An Historical and Critical Study,” Am. Acad.

Pol. & Soc. Sci., Supp., 1,15 (1901).




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20. 1887 N.Y. Laws ch. 462, § 1 at 575, 577 (amending 1886 N.Y. Laws ch. 409, § 14) (quote); Fred Fairchild, The Factory Legislation of the State o f New York 49 (6 (4) Publications of the Am. Econ. Assn., 3d ser., Nov. 1905); “The New Factory Law,” N.Y. Times, June 14,1887, at 1; 1892 N.Y. Laws ch. 673 § 10, at 1372,1376; 3 N.Y. Lab. Law § 89 at 2063 (Consol. 1909).

21. Mary Van Kleeck, “W orking Hours of Women in Factories,” 17 C harities &

the Com m ons 13, 14, 19-20 (1906); Florence Kelley, “Aims and Principles of the Consumers’ League,” 5 Am. f. Soc. 289, 300 (1899).

22. Elizabeth Baker, Protective Labor Legislation: W ith Special Reference to

Women in the State o f New York 119 (1969 [1925]) (quote); 1899 Ind. Acts ch. 142, § 11, at 231, 235-36, repealed by 1971 Ind. Acts Pub. L. 356, § 2, at 1434,1444; 1901 Pa. Laws No. 206, § 11, at 322, 324; 1905 Pa. Laws No. 226, § 4, at 352, 354; 1886 La. Acts No. 43, § 4 at 55; 1900 La. Acts No. 55, § 2 at 87; 1904 La. Acts No. 195, § 1 at 429, 430; 1911 N.J. Laws ch. 273, § 1, at 585, 585. After having mandated one hour for dinner for women and children in 1886, Louisiana in 1900 required all retail businesses “where female labor or female clerks are employed . . . to give each employee each day . . . not less than . . . 30 minutes for lunch or recreation”; four years later the legislature narrowed the scope of coverage while making the ungendered applicability less ambiguous by mandating one hour for the midday meal or recreation for all retail clerks in cities of more than 50,000 in population. Whereas the recess for women in the 1900 Louisiana act benefited their male colleagues in retail businesses, the provision of the same act that required all businesses employing female labor or clerks to provide seats mandated them only for “said employees.” 1900 La. Acts No. 55, § 1 at 87. On later developments, see 16 W ests La. Stat. Ann. 79 (1951) (reporter’s notes to La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 23:333).

23. Brandeis, “Labor Legislation” at 474; 1912 Md. Laws ch. 79, § 1 at 141, 141 (restricted to establishments with at least three employees); 1913 Pa. Laws No. 466, §§ 6 -7 at 1024,1027; 27 Del. Laws ch. 175, §§ 3-4 at 424, 425-26 (1913); “Laws Regulating the Employment of Women, January 1,1915,” 1 M onthly Rev. 33 (1915). The states were Arizona, California, Delaware, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.

24. Most women who worked in war-related industry apparently were not new entrants into the labor force. Mary Van Kleeck, “W hat Shall Be Done with Women W ho Have Replaced Men in Industry During the War?” 1 (42) U.S. Employment

Service B u ll.j (Nov. 26, 1918); A. Wolfe & Helen Olson, “War-Time Industrial Employment of Women in the United States,” 27 J. Pol. Econ. 639 (1919); U.S. Women’s Bureau, The New Position o f Women in Am erican Industry (Bull. No. 12, 1920); Philip Foner, Women and the Am erican Labor Movement: From the First

Trade Unions to the Present 219-45 (1982 [1979]); Maurine Greenwald, Women, War, and Work: The Impact o f World War I on Women Workers in the United States

3-45 (1980); 7 Philip Foner, History o f the Labor Movement in the United States:

Labor and World War 1, 1914-1918, at 126-48 (1987).25. “Federal Standards for the Employment of Women in Industry,” 8 Monthly

Lab. Rev. 216 (1919) (quotes); “Peace Time Standards for Women in Industry Issued





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by Department,” l (44) U.S. Employment Service Bull., 1 (Dec. 17,1918); “Protective Standards for Women Must Be Built Up and Maintained,” 1 (38) U.S. Employment

Service Bull. 11 (Oct. 22, 1918) (Van Kleeck); “Federal Standards for the Employment o f Women in Industry” at 217. By 1921 the recommended meal period was reduced to thirty minutes. U.S. Womens Bureau, Standards fo r the Employment of

Women in Industry 4 (Bull. No. 3, 3d ed. Oct. 15,1921 [1st ed. Dec. 12,1918]). The standards, which were first drafted on October 10,1918, were modified in light of the impending armistice; the plan to insert them into government contracts was not carried out. First Annual Report o f the Director o f the Woman in Industry Service

for the Fiscal Year Ended June jo , 1919, at 7-8 (1919).26. U.S. Womens Bureau, Chronological Developm ent o f Labor Legislation fo r

Women at 280. The two groups of states were Arkansas, California, Delaware, Kansas, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Washington, and Wisconsin; and Arkansas, Delaware, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Washington, and Wisconsin.

27. U.S. Womens Bureau, Standard and Scheduled Hours o f Work fo r Women in

Industry: A Study Based on Hour Data from 13 States 35 (quote), tabs. VII—VIII at 62-65 (Bull. No. 43,1925) (covering Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, N ewjersey, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia); U.S. Women’s Bureau, Women in Oklahom a Industries: A Study o f

Hours, Wages, and Working Conditions, tab. XIV at 99 (Bull. No. 48, 1926); U.S. W omen’s Bureau, Women in Illinois Industries: A Study o f Hours and Working C on

ditions, tab. IX at 88 (Bull. No. 51, 1926); U.S. Women’s Bureau, Women in M is

sissippi Industries: A Study o f Hours, Wages, and W orking Conditions, tab. XIV at 79 (Bull. No. 55, 1926); U.S. Women’s Bureau, Women in Tennessee Industries: A

Study o f Hours, Wages, and Working Conditions, tab. XI at 109 (Bull. No. 56,1927); U.S. Women’s Bureau, Women in Delaware Industries: A Study o f Hours, Wages, and

W orking Conditions, tab. II at 124 (Bull. No. 58,1927).28. U.S. W omens Bureau, Women in Mississippi Industries at 1; U.S. Womens

Bureau, Women in Delaware Industries at 16 (quote). Similarly, the agency credulously stated that the small proportion (1.2 percent) of women workers in Ohio who received lunch periods of less than thirty minutes “was undoubtedly due to emergency conditions, since the State law provides for a minimum of 30 minutes.” U.S. Womens Bureau, Women in Ohio Industry: A Study o f Wages and Hours

21 (Bull. No. 44,1925).29. Gwendolyn Hughes, Mothers in Industry: Wage-Earning by Mothers in Phila

delphia 151-52, 156 (1925); Kelley, “Wage-Earning Women in War Time” al 277 (Rhode Island). For further anecdotal evidence that in the 1930s clothing manufacturing employees in New York received considerably less time than the statutory meal period, see Nancy Seifer, Nobody Speaks fo r Me! Self-Portraits o f Am erican

W orking Class Women 50 (1976).30. Elizabeth Butler, Women and the Trades: Pittsburgh, ig o y -ig o 8 (1909), al

311-12 (1 The Pittsburgh Survey, Paul Kellogg ed., 1911) (quole); Annetle Mann, W om en W orkers in Factories: A Study o f Working Conditions in 275 Industrial Estab-





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lishm ents in Cincinnati and Adjoining Towns (1918) 9-10, reprinted in W orking Girls of Cincinnati (1974). By the same token, even Mary Anderson, the head of the U S. Women’s Bureau, observed that in large cities (presumably with long travel times) some workers preferred thirty- to forty-five-minute lunch periods rather than an hour, so that they could go home earlier. “First International Congress of W orking Women, Washington, D.C.,” 9 M onthly Lab. Rev. 280, 285 (1919). In contrast, the fact that some nineteenth-century German factory workers placed such a high priority on eating their midday meal at home even when they lived far from their workplace that they did not hesitate to leave work early has been interpreted as evidence of their distance from “capitalist managerial economics.” Lothar Machtan, “Zum Innenleben deutscher Fabriken im 19. Jahrhundert: Die formelle und die informelle Verfassung von Industriebetrieben, anhand von Bei- spielen aus dem Bereich der Textil- und Maschinenproduktion (1869-1891),” 20 A rch ivftir Sozialgeschichte 179, 216 (1981).

31. “The Lunch Hour for Women W orkers,” 40 Survey 643, 644 (1918).32. U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r W om en, Decem ber 31,1937: Part I

— Sum mary 5 (Bull. No. 156, 1938) (by Florence Smith); U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women with W artime Modifications, D ecem b er^ , 1944: Part V — Explanations and Appraisal 27, 54 (Bull. No. 202-V, 1946); U.S. W omen’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women, March 31, 1938: Part II— Analysis o f Hours Laws for

Women W orkers 20-39 (Bull. No. 156-11,1938) (by Florence Smith) (synopses and statutory/regulatory citations of all the relevant provisions); Oregon Welfare Commission, unnumbered order, 1937, in U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws for

Women, March 31,1938: Part II at 33-35; Utah Industrial Commission Order No. 1, 1938, and Standards for Women and Children in Industry, 1937, in ibid. at 37; Colorado Industrial Commission Order No. 2 — Retail Trade (1941), in U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women with Wartime M odifications, D ecem ber 15,1944:

Part I — Analysis o f Hour Laws 13 (Bull. No. 202-1,1945); California Industrial Welfare Commission Order No. 18— Sanitary Order (1932), in ibid. at 7; Washington Industrial Welfare Committee Order Nos. 38 61 39 (1942), in ibid. at 100.

33. Helen Baker, Women in War Industries 38-39 (1942).34. U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women with W artime M odifi

cations, Part V at 24-28 (examples of relaxation of standards), 31 (quote); U.S. Women’s Bureau, Women's Work in the War 9-10 (Bull. No. 193,1942) (examples of such relaxation of standards); U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women

with Wartime M odifications, Part V at 6 (“Recommendation”); Katherine Glover, Women at Work in W artime 10 (Public Affairs Pamphlets No. 77,1943); “Standards for Women’s Employment in Wartime,” 56 M onthly Lab. Rev. 1120 (1943) (quotes); U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women with W artime M odifications,

Part V at 53-54; Donald Laird, The Psychology o f Supervising Working W om en 4958 (1942).

35. C. Sappington, Essentials o f Industrial Health 394 (1943); C. Turner, “Industrial Health Education and the Promotion of the Health and Effectiveness of the Worker,” in Industrial Hygiene 575, 585 (A. Lanza & Jacob Goldberg eds.,1939); Baker, Women in War Industries at 39 (quote); L. Sanders, “Eleven Tips on

-M <^ 0? E ̂ i

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Getting More Efficiency Out of Women Employes,” 39 Mass Transportation 257 (1943) (quote).

36. U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women with Wartime M odifica

tions, Part V at 15, 60-61.37. U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women with Wartime M odifica

tions, Part V at 1, 3; William Spriegel, Industrial M anagem ent 20.8 (5th ed. 1955 [1st ed. 1923]).

38. U.S. Women’s Bureau, 1950 Handbook o f Facts on Women Workers 59 (Bull. No. 237,1950); 1947 Nev. Stat. ch. 68, § 1 at 269, 269-70; Arizona State Industrial Commission Minimum Wage Order, Mandatory Order No. 2-A, Laundry and Dry Cleaning Industry (1948), in U.S. Womens Bureau, State Hours Laws fo r Women 6 (Bull. 250,1953); 1949 Wyo. Laws ch. 126, § 2 at 206; U.S. Women’s Bureau, State

Hours Laws fo r Women at 14, 72-73, 92-99 (Bull. 250).39. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Rest Periods, Washup, Work Clothing, and

M ilitary Leave Provisions in M ajor Union Contracts 1-2 (Bull. No. 1279,1961). U.S. BLS, Collective Bargaining Provisions: Hours o f Work, Overtim e Pay, Shift Operations

14 (Bull. 908-18, 1948) (clauses); U.S. BLS, Union Agreement Provisions 87 (Bull. 686,1942) (quote); U.S. BLS, Wage Chronology: F M C Corp., Chem ical G roup-Fiber

Division and the T W U A , 19 4 5-77, tab. 3 at 12 (Bull. 1924, 1976); U.S. BLS, Wage

Chronology: International Paper Co., Southern Kraft Division Decem ber 1937-M ay

1973, tab. 3 at 16 (Bull. 1788, 1973); F. Roethlisberger & William Dickson, M an

agement and the Worker: An Account o f a Research Program Conducted by the W est

ern Electric Company, Hawthorne Works, Chicago, tab. XXI at 232-33 (1943). By the 1950s, waitresses’ unions were also able to secure rest breaks in their collective bargaining agreements. Dorothy Cobble, Dishing It Out: Waitresses and Their

Unions in the Twentieth Century 117 (1991).

Chapter 5. Sexual Equality or “The Equality of Having No Protective Laws Whatsoever”?

The quotation in the chapter title is from Senator Sam Ervin, in Equal Rights

1970: Hearings Before the Senate Com m ittee on the Judiciary, 91st Cong., 2d Sess. 82 (1970).

1. Patricia Zelman, Women, Work, and National Policy: The Kennedy-Johnson

Years 2-3 (1982) (quote); William Chafe, The Am erican Woman: Her Changing

Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970, at 116-32 (1979 [1972]). For an account of a similar controversy over labor protective legislation in the 1890s, see Kathryn Sklar, “Hull House in the 1890s: A Community of Women Reformers,” 10 Signs 658, 676 (1985).

2. Equal Rights Am endm ent to the Constitution: Hearing Before the House Comm,

on the Judiciary, 68th Cong., 2d Sess. 38 (1925) (testimony of Maud Younger, congressional chairman, NW P) (quote); Hugh Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins

and Developm ent o f National Policy 1960-1972, at 136-37 (1990) (quote).3. “Womens Industrial Conference, Washington, D.C.,” 22 Monthly Lab. Rev.




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611, 611-12, 613 (1926) (quoting Davis and Mrs. Julius Kahn). On another international debate that year, see Cornelia Parker, “feminists and Feminists: They Join Battle in Paris on the Issue of Protective Laws,” 56 Survey 502 (1926). In Britain, too, at about this time an official government report on women in industry characterized motherhood as a womans “highest service to the State.” Dr. Janet Campbell, “The Health of Women in Industry,” in Women in Industry: Report o f

the War Cabinet Com m ittee on Women in Industry 218, 252 (Cmd. 135,1919).4. “Womens Industrial Conference” at 618-19. For an excellent example of

the view that women must “admit that their own sex is physically weaker than the sex which votes and does other things which strong-minded women pine to do” before the law should intervene (to order employers to give them seats), see “The Shop-Girls,” N.Y. Times, Dec. 15,1875, at 6, col. 6 (editorial).

5. Robin Jacoby, “The Women’s Trade Union League and American Feminism,” in Class, Sex, and the Woman W orker 203 (Milton Cantor & Bruce Laurie eds., 1977); Nancy Dye, “Creating a Feminist Alliance: Sisterhood and Class C on flict in the New York Women’s Trade Union League, 1903-1914,” in ibid. at 225; Chafe, The Am erican Woman at 69-79.

6. “Trade Union Women Challenge Womans Party to Debate,” Life & Lab.

B u ll, Feb. 1926, at 3 (quote); Ethel Smith, “Equal Rights— Internationally!” Life &

Lab. B u ll, Mar. 1926, a ti, 2 (quote); Elizabeth Payne, Reform, Labor, and Feminism:

Margaret Dreier Robins and the W om en’s Trade Union League 144 (1988); Marguerite Mooers Marshall, Letter to editor, 10 Life & Lab. 84 (1920).

7. Rose Schneiderman, Letter to editor, 10 Life & Labor 152 (1920).8. Nancy Dye, As Equals and As Sisters: Feminism, the Labor Movement, and

the W om en’s Trade Union League o f New York 141-42, 159-60 (1980); Annelise Orleck, Com m on Sense and a Little Fire: Women and W orking-Class Politics in th e

United States, 1900-1965, at 125 (1995) (quote). See also Eleanor Flexner, C en tu ry

o f Struggle: The W om an’s Rights M ovem ent in the United States 247 (1974 [1959]); Diane Kirkby, “ T h e Wage-Earning Woman and the State’: The National W omen’s Trade Union League and Protective Labor Legislation, 1903-1923,” 28 Lab. H ist.

54 (1987)-9. Robin Jacoby, The British and Am erican W om en’s Trade Union Leagues, 1890

1925: A Case Study o f Fem inism and Class 145-46 (1994); Leila Rupp & Verta Taylor, Survival in the Doldrum s: The Am erican W om en’s Rights Movement, 1945 to

the 1960s, at 61 (1987).10. Elizabeth Baker, “At the Crossroads in the Legal Protection of Women in In

dustry,” 143 Annals 265, 274 (May 1929) (“interdependence”); Eileen Boris, H om e

to Work: M otherhood and the Politics o f Industrial Homework in the United States

1.57-59 (1994); U.S. Women’s Bureau, A Physiological Basis fo r the Shorter W ork

ing Day fo r Women (Bull. No. 14,1921) (by George Webster); Gwendolyn Hughes, M others in Industry: W age-Earning by M others in Philadelphia (1925) (a graphic account of women’s double day); Sybil Lipshultz, “Social Feminism and Legal D iscourse, 1908-1923,” in At the Boundaries of the Law: Feminism and Legal Theory 209 (Martha Fineman & Nancy Thomadsen eds., 1991 [1989]); Adkins v. Childrens

r f h v G o O t f l e Original from. 0 o y i c U N I V E R S I T Y O F M I C H I G A N



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Hospital, 261 U.S. 525 (1923); 1 Harry Millis & Royal Montgomery, The Economics

o f Labor: Labor’s Progress and Some Basic Labor Problems 301-42 (1938); Marc Linder, Migrant W orkers and M inim um Wages: Regulating the Exploitation o f A gri

cultural Labor in the United States 120-23 (1992);]. Stanley Lemons, The Woman

Citizen: Social Fem inism in the 1920s, at 181-204, 238-40 (1975 [1973]); Philip Foner, Women and the Am erican Labor Movement: From the First Trade Unions to the

Present 286-89 (1982 [1979]); Joan Zimmerman, “The Jurisprudence of Equality: The W omens Minimum Wage, the First Equal Rights Amendment, and Adkins v. Children’s Hospital, 1905-1923,” 78 J. Am . Hist. 188, 224 (1991) (“individualism”).

11. Florence Kelley, M odern Industry in Relation to the Family, H ealth, Educa

tion, M orality 72 (1914).12. Mary Anderson, “Should There Be Labor Laws for Women? Yes!” Good

Housekeeping, Sept. 1925, at 52,176.13. Anderson, “Should There Be Labor Laws for Women? Yes!” at 176; Pauline

Newman, Letter to editor, 10 Life & Lab. 153,154 (1920); Alma Lutz, “Shall Women’s W ork Be Regulated by Law?” Atlantic Monthly, Sept. 1930, at 321, 323; Lemons, The W oman C itizen at 200.

14. Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History o f W age-Earning Women in the

United States 213,181, 202 (1983 [1982]). See also Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman’s

Wage: H istorical Meanings and Social Consequences 33-56 (1990).15. Catharine MacKinnon, Toward a Fem inist Theory o f the State 165,166 (1989)

(two quotes); Kessler-Harris, Out to Work at 193-95; Foner, Women and the A m eri

can Labor M ovem ent at 282; 1 Millis & Montgomery, The Econom ics o f Labor at 517; W. Stanley Jevons, The State in Relation to Labour 66 (1882) (quote); God- charles v. Wigeman, 6 A. 354, 356 (Pa. 1886) (holding unconstitutional a statute requiring iron-mill laborers to be paid in cash) (quote). Lord Shand later attacked as “grandmotherly legislation” a bill to provide seats for female shop assistants. 74 Pari. Deb. H. L. (4th ser.) 438 (1899).

16. F loren ce]. B[rewer]. B[oeckel]., “The Present Problem of Women in Industry,” The Suffragist, Feb. 1920, at 14; Marie Obenauer, “Legislation for the Woman Wage-Earner,” The Suffragist, Mar. 1920, at 11; Peter Geidel, “The National W oman’s Party and the Origins of the Equal Rights Amendment,” 42 Historian

557 (1980); Cynthia Harrison, On Account o f Sex: the Politics o f W om en’s Issues, 19 4 5-19 6 8 , at 8-10,14 (1989 [1988]); Susan Becker, The Origins o f the Equal Rights

Am endm ent: Am erican Fem inism Between the Wars 136-51, 225 (1981). For a sympathetic account of the N W P’s position on labor legislation, see Sheila Rothman, W om an’s Proper Place: A History o f Changing Ideals and Practices: i8 jo to the Present

1.56-65 (1978). Alice Paul, the leader of the NWP, in 1921 was opposed to formulating a state equal rights bill in such a way as to jeopardize women’s labor-protective laws on the grounds that the party should not bring women down to the men’s level but raise men to the womens level, but she quickly abandoned this position. Nancy Cott, The Grounding o f M odem Fem inism 12 1-2 2 (1987). A large-scale survey conducted by the Women’s Bureau concluded that overall women’s labor- protective laws had little effect on employment. U.S. Women’s Bureau, The Effects




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ofL abor Legislation on the Employm ent Opportunities o f Women (Bull. No. 65,1928). See also Edwin Witte, “The Effects of Special Labor Legislation for W omen,” 42 Q.J. Econ. 153 (1927).

17. Susan Lehrer, Origins o f Protective Labor Legislation fo r Women, 1905-1925, at 112-14 ^987) (quote); Maud Younger, “The NRA and Protective Laws for Women,” Literary Digest, June 2,1934, at 27 (quote); Mary Van Kleeck, “Women and Machines,” Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1921, at 250, 256 (quote).

18. Harriot Stanton Blatch, “Do Women Want Protection?” Nation, Jan. 31, 1923, at 115 (quote); Clara Beyer, “W hat Is Equality?” Nation, Jan. 31,1923, at 116; “Trade Union Women Challenge Woman’s Party to Debate” at 3 (quote); “Women at Odds on Laws for Them,” N.Y. Times, Mar. 25,1923, sec. 9, at 3, col. 1, 2 (quote).

19. Rheta Childe Dorr, “Should There Be Labor Laws for Women? N o!” Good

Housekeeping, Sept. 1925, at 52 ,156,159,164; Mary Beard to Alma Lutz, Jan. 29, 1937, quoted in Chafe, The Am erican Woman at 127.

20. Anderson, “Should There Be Labor Laws for Women? Yes!” at 173; Crystal Eastman, “Equality or Protection” (1924), in Crystal Eastman on W omen and

Revolution 156, 157 (Blanche Cook ed., 1978). This forceful collectivist position contradicts the claim that because Progressive reformers “shared the pervasive belief in individualism they were unable to rebut the charge that individuals are compromised by collective . . . activities.” Martha Minow, Making A ll the Differ

ence: Inclusion, Exclusion, and Am erican Law 259 (1990)21. Rheta Childe Dorr, W hat Eight M illion Women Want 179, 153-54 (x910)

(quote); Rheta Childe Dorr, A Woman o f Eifty 334-43, 404-406 (1924).22. Cott, The Grounding o f M odern Fem inism at 136, 140 (quote); “Women’s

Industrial Conference” at 619 (statement of Gail Laughlin, NW P); “Labor Women Carry Battle to Coolidge,” N.Y. Times, Jan. 22,1926, at 2, col. 3 (quote).

23. Alice Hamilton, “Protection for Women W orkers,” The Forum, Aug. 1924, at 152,154-55; Alice Hamilton, “W hy I Am Against the Equal Rights Amendment,” Ladies Hom e J., July 1945, at 23,123; Kessler-Harris, O ut to Work at 205 (quote).

24. Harrison, On Account o f Sex at 21,19-20, 26. Tactical alliances with racists and employers also marked the early suffragist movement. Ellen DuBois, Femi

nism and Suffrage: The Emergence o f an Independent W om en’s Movem ent in America,

1848-1869, at 94-96,10 8 ,153,173-75, [ 1978]).25. Zelman, Women, Work, and N ational Policy at 23 (quote); Exec. Order

No. 10,980, 3 C.F.R. 500, 501 (1959-1963 comp.) (quote). For a critical history of the commission’s origins and work based on archival sources, see Harrison, On

Account o f Sex at 109-65. See also Joan Hoff, Law, Gender, and Injustice: A Legal

History o f U.S. Women 230-33 (1991).26. Harrison, On Account o f Sex at 151,152.27. President’s Commission on the Status of Women, Report o f the Comm ittee

on Protective Labor Legislation 11-12, 36 (1963); President’s Commission on the Status of Women, Am erican Women: Report o f the President’s Com m ission on the

Status o f Women 36, 37 (1963). For an account of the unpublished debate within the commission, see Harrison, On Account o f Sex at 152-54.





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28. U.S. BLS, Handbook o f Labor Statistics l g j 5 — Reference Edition, tab. 2 at 30 (Bull. 1865, 1975); Carl Brauer, “Women Activists, Southern Conservatives, and the Prohibition of Sex Discrimination in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act,” 49 J. Southern Hist. 37, 40, 43 (1983) (quote); Harrison, On Account o f Sex at 12; Zelman, Women, Work, and National Policy at 60 (quote); Civil Rights: Hearings

Before the House Comm , on Rules, 88th Cong., 2d Sess. 125 (1964); 110 Cong. Rec.

2577 (1964) (quote); Caruthers Berger, “Equal Pay, Equal Employment Opportunity and Equal Enforcement of the Law for Women,” 5 Valp. U. L. Rev. 326, 332-33 (1971); Brauer, “Women Activists” at 41-43; Caroline Bird, Born Female: The High

Cost o f Keeping Women Down 1-2 (1968); Harrison, On Account o f Sex at 177; Rupp & Taylor, Survival in the Doldrum s at 177 (quote).

29. Zelman, Women, Work, and National Policy at 62.30. 110 Cong. Rec. at 2578, 2580 (Griffiths quotes); Emily George, M artha W.

Griffiths 149-52, 45 (1982); 110 Cong. Rec. at 2583 (Rep. Mendel Rivers, S. Carolina) (quote); Berger, “Equal Pay” at 360-61 (Berger was a member of the NW P National Council who worked in the Solicitors Office of the U.S. Department of Labor) (quote); Claudia Goldin, “Maximum Hours Legislation and Female Employment: A Reassessment,” 96 J. Pol. Econ. 189 (1988).

31. 110 Cong. Rec. at 2577-84, 2804-805; Zelman, Women, Work, and National

Policy at 66-67; Harrison, On Account o f Sex at 177-81; Richard Berg, “Equal Employment Opportunity Under the Civil Rights Act of 1964,” 31 Brook. L. Rev. 62, 79 (1964) (quote).

32. David Jones, “Auto Industry Facing a Test,” N.Y. Times, July 12,1964, sec. 4, at 8, col. 1; David Jones, “Reuther to Push Work Conditions in New Contract,” N.Y. Times, Mar. 21, 1964, at 1 (Reuther quote); “Coffee Brake on Cars?” Econo

mist, July 11,1964, at 155 (quotes). For the view that the U AW ’s demand for longer breaks was part of the leadership’s efforts to undercut a dissident movement’s campaign for the thirty-hour week, see Ronald Edsforth, “W hy Automation Didn’t Shorten the W ork Week: The Politics of Work Time in the Automobile Industry,” in Autow ork 155,177 (Robert Asher and Ronald Edsforth eds., 1995).

33. Harrison, On Account o f Sex at 187.34. G uidelines on Discrim ination Because o f Sex, 30 Fed. Reg. 14,926, 14,927

(1965) (codified at 29 C.F.R. pt. 1604).35. 30 Fed. Reg. at 14,927 (codified at 29 C.F.R. §§ 1604.1^X3X1) & (ii)

(1967)).36. 30 Fed. Reg. at 14,927 (codified at 29 C.F.R. §§ 1604(b) & (c)).37. 30 Fed. Reg. at 14,927 (codified at 29 C.F.R. § 1604(c)).38. Pauli Murray & Mary Eastwood, “Jane Crow and the Law: Sex Discrimi

nation and Title VII,” 34 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 232, 249-50, 253, 240 (1965). On M urray’s role, see Pauli Murray, Song in a Weary Throat: An Am erican Pilgrim age

347-58 (1987).39. Harrison, On Account o f Sex at 175-76,193-95.40. Targets fo r Action: The Report o f the Third National Conference o f Com m is

sions on the Status o f Women 16,18 (1966).




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41. Exec. Order No. 11,126, § 202, 3 C.ER. 791, 792 (1959-1963 comp.); Report

o f the Task Force on Labor Standards to the C itizen s' Advisory C ouncil on the Status

o f Women 35 n.4 (1968) (quote).42. 34 Fed. Reg. 13, 367, 13,368 (1969) (codified at 29 C.F.R. § 1604.1(b)(2)

(1970)) (quote); 37 Fed. Reg. 6835, 6836 (1972) (codified at 29 C.F.R. §§ 1604.2(b)(3) & (4) (1995)) (quote); Harrison, On Account o f Sex at 189 (quote); 37 Fed. Reg. at 6836 (codified at 29 C.F.R. § 1604.2(b)(4)(ii) (1995)) (quote). As early as 1966 the EEOC had stated, without any apparent legal force, that “where state law requires rest periods for women, Title VII has the effect of imposing the same conditions for male employees.” EEOC, First Annual Report 44 (H. Doc. No. 86, 90th Cong., 1st Sess. 1967). A left-wing women’s labor group’s characterization of the E EO C ’s approach in 1972 as “an outrageous concession to business interests” was wide of the mark. “EEOC Attacks Protective Laws,” Union W .A .G .E ., Sept.- Oct. 1972, at 4.

43. U.S. Women’s Bureau, 1962 Handbook on Women W orkers 142-43 (Bull. No. 285, 1963); U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Hour Laws fo r W omen 46-47, 60- 6i(Bull. 277, 1961); Alaska General Safety Code, ch. 27, § 27-03 (i960 [1949]); 1958 Ky. Acts ch. 36, § 1 at 113.

44. U.S. Women’s Bureau, 1965 Handbook on Women W orkers 241-42 (Bull. No. 290,1965); 30 Fed. Reg. at 14,927 (codified at 29 C.F.R. § 1604.1^X3X1970)); 29 C.F.R. § 1604.1(b)(1) (1970). Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908), upheld limitations on women’s working hours on a sexist basis.

45. Richards v. Griffith Rubber Mills, 300 F. Supp. 338, 340 (D. Ore. 1969); U.S. Women’s Bureau, 1975 Handbook on Women Workers 316 (Bull. 297,1975).

46. Equal Rights 1970 at 81. The ERA, as passed by Congress in 1972 but never ratified by three-fourths of the states, provided: “Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” H.R.J. Res. No. 208, 92d Cong., 2d Sess. § 1 (1972). On the defeat of the ERA, see Rights o f Passage: The Past and Future o f the ERA (Joan Hoff-Wilson ed., 1986).

47. Equal Rights ig jo at 82.48. Equal Rights fo r M en and Women 1971: Hearings Before Subcom m ittee No. 4 of

the House Com m ittee on the Judiciary, 92d Cong., 1st Sess. 327, 329 (1971) (memorandum submitted by W illiam Rehnquist); Leo Kanowitz, W omen and the Law:

The Unfinished Revolution 100-131 (1970 [1969]); Leo Kanowitz, Equal Rights: The

M ale Stake 47, 52 (1982 [1980]) (quote).49. Equal Rights ig jo at 311 (Emerson), 317 (Dorsen); Citizens’ Council on the

Status of Women, “The Equal Rights Amendm ent— W hat It W ill and W on’t Do,” reprinted in Equal Rights fo r Men and Women i g j i at 568, 569; Sylvia Hewlett, A

Lesser Life: The Myth o f W om en’s Liberation in Am erica 202-203 (1986). Curiously, Hewlett reports that she engaged in such proselytizing while attending an American Economics Association convention in Atlanta despite the fact that no such women’s protective statute was on the books in Georgia.

50. George, Martha W. Griffiths; 113 Cong. Rec. 13,108 (1967) (remarks of Rep. Griffiths) (quote); U.S. Womens Bureau, History o f Labor Legislation fo r Women





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in Three States 2 (Bull. No. 66, 1929) (by Clara Beyer); Sidney Webb & Beatrice Webb, The History o f Trade Unionism 297 (new ed. 1902 [1st ed. 1894]) (quoting common nineteenth-century phrase, “petticoats”); 113 Cong. Rec. at 13,108 (remarks of Rep. Griffiths) (quote).

51. 113 Cong. Rec. at 13,109 (remarks of Rep. Griffiths) (quote); 27 Del. Laws ch. 175, § 2 at 424, 425 (1913), repealed by 55 Del. Laws ch. 218 at 618 (1965); 1917 N.H. Laws 196:1, at 750, 751, repealed by 1989 N.H. Laws 53:2 at 60. For a proposed amendment of the Massachusetts hours law along the same lines as in these states, see Report o f the C h ie f o f the M assachusetts District Police, fo r the Year End

ing O ct. 31, 1911, at 11 (Pub. Doc. No. 32,1912); Renee Toback, “Protective Labor Legislation for Women: The Massachusetts Ten-Hour Law” 327 (1985) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts).

52. Marc Linder, “The Joint Employment Doctrine: Clarifying Joint Legislative- Judicial Confusion,” 10 Ham line J. Pub. L. & P ol’y 321, 330-32 (1989); 113 Cong.

Rec. at 13,108 (remarks of Rep. Griffiths) (quote). Griffiths had in mind, inter alia, the plaintiff in Mengelkoch v. Industrial Welfare Comm’n, 284 F. Supp. 956, 957 (C.D. Cal. 1968), the goal of which was to “obtain a ruling on constitutional grounds which as a precedent would dispose of limitations on working hours for women throughout the United States.”

53. Reports o f the Inspectors o f Factories fo r the Half-Year Ending 31st October

1848, at 17 (26 Pari. Pap. 1847-1848, c. 1017). In addition, many men had to work twelve hours to pay off debts or “get their furniture out of pawn” in the wake of “more than two years of great suffering among the factory operatives,” during which many factories had worked short hours or had been closed altogether. Id. at16. The claim of a follower of Adam Smith, based on the same source, that twelve- hour days for men “were not prompted by the threat of unemployment” reflects his exclusive reliance on employers’ statements. Edwin West, “Marx’s Hypotheses on the Length of the W orking Day,” 91 J. Pol. Econ. 266, 275 (1983).

54. Raymond Munts & David Rice, “Women Workers: Protection or Equality?” 24 Indus. & Lab. Rel. Rev. 3,12 (1970).

55. Caterpillar Tractor Co. v. Grabiec, 317 F. Supp. 1304,1306 (S.D. 111. 1970).56. Equal Rights igyo at 223 (statement of Rep. Griffiths) (quotes). On the UAW

and mandatory overtime in the early 1970s, see Agis Salpukas, “Voluntary Overtime a Key U.A.W. Issue,” N.Y. Times, June 20,1973, at 1, col. 5; “Quick Decision,” Newsweek, Oct. 1,1973, at 84-85. In the 1990s auto firms have reduced their labor forces in the wake of significant labor-saving productivity increases; in order to retain the flexibility they require to manage the “enormous spurts of activity” caused by just-in-time production methods, firms impose heavy mandatory overtime (as much as sixty-six hours in two weeks) on their remaining employees. The drive to extract as much labor as possible from as few workers as possible will at some point preclude accommodation of the UAW ’s demands for protection of those consigned to enforced idleness. Capital may, however, also be trapped in the worst of both worlds if it cannot raise productivity quickly enough, exacerbates the problem by “trying to do too much with too few people,” and yet finds




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no alternative to “relying on excessive overtime” for fear of being “stuck with higher costs during the next downturn.” James Bennet, “A G.M. Test of Productivity: Making Parts 24 Hours a Day,” N.Y. Times, Oct. 4,1994, at C 2 , col. 1 (nat. ed.); James Bennet, “Auto Plants Pushed to Their Limits,” N.Y. Times, Sept. 24, 1994, at 17, col. 3 (nat. ed.); Joan Rigdon, “Some Workers Gripe Bosses Are Ordering Too Much Overtime,” Wall St. J., Sept. 29,1994, at A l, col. 6; James Bennet, “G.M. Stock Falls on Report,” N.Y. Times, Oct. 21,1994, at C l, col. 3, C 16, col. 3 (nat. ed); James Bennet, “G.M. Stock Falls 12% in 2 Days,” N.Y. Tim es, Oct. 22, 1994, at 17, col. 6, 28, cols. 3-4 (nat. ed) (quoting a securities analyst); Peter Kilborn, “It’s Too Much of a Good Thing, G.M. Workers Say in Protesting Overtime,” N.Y. Times, Nov. 22,1994, at A 10, col. 1 (nat. ed.). In 1980 only one-fifth of all workers covered by collective bargaining agreements covering 1,000 or more workers had a right to refuse overtime. U.S. BLS, Characteristics o f M ajor C ollec

tive Bargaining Agreements, January 1, ig8o, tab. 4.1 at 60-61 (Bull. 2095, 1981). As a collectivist anti-laissez-faire countermodel: the British Trades Union Congress opposed “leaving the individual worker free to make a judgm ent between an increase in income for shift working and the sacrifice of leisure” because “the worker most likely to accept shift working . . . is the man with heavy family and financial commitments who is young enough and healthy enough to be willing to stand the disturbance that accompanies shift work.” Monty Meth, “TU C Showdown over Shiftwork,” (London) Sunday Times, Sept. 3,1972, at 58.

57. Ronnie Ratner, “The Paradox of Protection: Maximum Hours Legislation in the United States,” 119 Int’l Lab. Rev. 185, 195 (1980) (quote); The “Equal

Rights” Am endm ent: Hearings Before the Subcomm. on Constitutional Am endm ents

of the Senate Comm, on the Judiciary, 91st Cong., 2d Sess. 473 (1970) (testimony of Kenneth Meiklejohn, legislative representative, A FL-CIO ) (quote); AFL-CIO, “Policy Resolution Adopted December 1967 by the 7th Constitutional Convention,” reprinted in The “Equal Rights” Am endm ent at 358, 359 (quote); The “Equal

Rights” Am endm ent at 355 (statement of Eloise Basto, Communication Workers of America) (quote). Even as excellent an historian as Kathryn Kish Sklar writes that the eight-hour day “was not established for all workers by federal legislation until” FLSA was enacted in 1938. Kathryn Sklar, “W hy Were Most Politically Active Women Opposed to the ERA in the 1920s?” in Rights o f Passage at 25, 28. FLSA, however, neither established the eight-hour day nor applied/applies to all workers.

58. Barbara Babcock, Ann Freedman, Eleanor Norton, and Susan Ross, Sex D is

crim ination and the Law: Causes and Remedies 275, 277 (1975); The “Equal Rights” Am endm ent at 331 (testimony by Steinem). See also Barbara Brown, Ann Freedman, Harriet Katz, & Alice Price, Wom en’s Rights and the Law: The Impact o f the

ERA on State Laws 209 (1977) (“These labor laws have served as an obstacle to promotions and supervisory positions in particular”).

59. The “Equal Rights” Am endm ent at 11 (statement of Myra Harmon).60. 30 Fed. Reg. at 14,927 (codified at 29 C.F.R. § 1604.1(c)(2) (1967)). Where a

gender-biased rest-period benefit in a collective bargaining agreement perversely created an incentive for the employer to deny a job to a woman on the ground that


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such “ ‘arbitrary’ shut downs” were incompatible with the job, the court found the union and firm in violation of Title VII. Richards v. Griffith Rubber Mills, 300 F. Supp. 338 (D. Or. 1969).

61. Phyllis Schlafly, The Power o f the Positive Woman 117 (1977) (quote); Margaret Mead, “Epilogue" to Am erican Women: The Report o f the President’s C om

mission on the Status o f Women and O ther Publications o f the Com m ission 181, 184 (Margaret Mead & Frances Kaplan eds., 1965) (quote); Equal Rights fo r Men and

Women i g j i , at 256 (as quoted in statement of Ruth Miller, Amalgamated Clothing W orkers of America).

62. Equal Rights ig jo at 152,153.63. The “Equal Rights” Am endm ent at 316, 323, 327 (testimony of Myra Wolf

gang, vice president, Hotel & Restaurant Employees Union).64. A FL-CIO Research Department, “American Federation of Labor and Con

gress of Industrial Organizations Memorandum on Objections to Proposed Equal Rights Amendment” (Feb. 1963), reprinted in The “Equal Rights” Am endm ent at 702 (“ ‘equality’ without ‘rights’ ”); Catharine Stimpson, “Introduction” to Women

and the “Equal Rights” Am endm ent: Senate Subcom m ittee Hearings on the C onsti

tutional Am endm ent, g ist Congress xii, xvi (Catharine Stimpson ed., 1972) (“class antagonisms”); Doris Hardesty, “The Continuing Fight for Women’s Rights,” Am. Federationist, Jan. 1971, at 12,14 (“the dispute”); Carolyn Jacobson, “ERA: Ratifying Equality,” Am. Federationist, Jan. 1975, at 9 (“the argument,” “labor’s historic support”).

65. The “Equal Rights” Am endm ent” at 617 (statement of Jacob Potofsky, general president, ACW ).

66. Barbara Brown, Thomas Emerson, Gail Falk, & Ann Freedman, “The Equal Rights Amendment: A Constitutional Basis for Equal Rights for Women,” 80 Yale

L.J. 871, 927-28 (1971) (quote); “Labor Letter,” Wall St. J., May 17, 1966, at 1; Deborah Rhode, Justice and Gender: Sex Discrim ination and the Law 36 (1989).

67. Robert Lund, “Rest Periods: Equivalent of Two Weeks with Pay,’ ” 42 Mgmt.

Rev. 263 (1953) (reprinted from J. Comm erce, May 4, 1953, at 4, col. 1) (quote); “The Coffee Hour,” Time, Mar. 5,1951, at 25 (quotation); “Coffee Comes, Employees Stay Put,” Bus. W k., June 2, 1951, at 54; “Inside Story of the Coffee Break,” Reader’s Digest, Sept. 1961, at 226. For a related account of Ford Motor Company’s yielding to its production workers’ demand for retention of their tea breaks at the Dagenham, England, plant, see “Tea Talk,” Newsweek, Nov. 13,1961, at 70.

68. NICB, Women in Factory Work 38 (Studies in Personnel Policy No. 41,1942); Edward Jones, The Adm inistration o f Industrial Enterprises: W ith Special Reference

to Factory Practice 379 (new ed. 1925 [1st ed. 1916)) (quote).69. Equal Rights fo r Men and Women i g j i at 258 (statement of Ruth Miller,

70. The “Equal Rights” Am endm ent at 598, 600, 602, 606 (statement of Stephen Schlossberg, general counsel, UAW) (reprinting his statement submitted at EEOC hearing, May 2,1967) (quote); 21UAW Administrative Letter No. 10, at 1 (Nov. 6, 1969), reprinted in ibid. at 595; Equal Rights ig jo at 109 (testimony of Katherine

ACW).




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Ellickson) (quote). See generally Nancy Gabin, Fem inism in the Labor Movement:

Women and the United Auto W orkers, 19 3 5 -19 7 5 , at 193-209 (1990).71. Gabin, Feminism in the Labor M ovem ent at 202-203, 209.72. U.S. Women’s Bureau, State Labor Laws fo r Women with W artime Modifica

tions, Decem ber 15, 1944: Part V — Explanation and Appraisal 1 (Bull. No. 202-V, 1946) (quote); U.S. Women’s Bureau, Tim e o f Change: 1983 Handbook on Women

W orkers 187-88 (Bull. No. 298,1983). See also chapter 6.73. 3 Lex Larson, Employm ent Discrim ination § 44.01 at 44-6 (1995); Brown,

Freedman, Katz, & Price, W om en’s Rights and the Law at 210 (1977) (“by the 1960s”); Babcock, Freedman, Norton, & Ross, Sex Discrim ination and the Law at 287, 267 (1975) (“social reformers”); “Developments in the Law — Employment Discrimination and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,” 84 Harv. L. Rev. 1109, 1195 (1971) (quote); Sally Kenney, For W hose Protection? Reproductive Hazards and

Exclusionary Policies in the United States and Britain 57 (1992) (“exploitation continues”). On the far from universal coverage of wage and hour laws in the United States, see Linder, Migrant W orkers and M inim um Wages.

74. Kessler-Harris, Out to Work at 315, 306.75. The “Equal Rights” Am endm ent at 603 (statement of Stephen Schlossberg,

general counsel, UAW) (quote); Gabin, Fem inism in the Labor M ovem ent at 204 (quote).

76. Eileen Shanahan, “3,000 Delegates at Chicago Meeting Organize a National Coalition of Labor Union Women,” N.Y. Times, Mar. 25,1974, at 27; Foner, Women

and the Am erican Labor Movement at 442; Patricia Sexton, “Workers (Female) Arise! On Founding the Coalition of Labor Union Women,” Dissent, Summer 1974, at 380; Ann Withorn, “The Death of CLU W ,” Radical Am erica, Mar.-Apr. 1976, at 47; Ruth Milkman, “Women Workers, Feminism and the Labor Movement Since the 1960s,” in Women, Work, and Protest: A Century o f US W om en’s Labor History

300 (Ruth Milkman ed., 1985); Diane Balser, Sisterhood and Solidarity: Feminism

and Labor in M odern Times 151-210 (1987). The U AW ’s inability to secure voluntary overtime for its members undermines the unsubstantiated assertion that in the 1960s and 1970s “unions had the resources to mount a major campaign to pass laws providing for voluntary overtime for all workers and extending benefits like a rest period and seats to men workers.” Babcock, Freedman, Norton, & Ross, Sex

Discrim ination and the Law at 278.77. National Organization for Women, “Statement of Purpose,” in Up from the

Pedestal: Selected Writings in the History o f Am erican Feminism 363, 369 (Aileen Kraditor ed., 1968 [1966]).

78. Dennis Deslippe, “Organized Labor, National Politics, and Second-Wave Feminism in the United States, 1965-1975,” Int’l Lab. & Working Class Hist., No. 49, at 143, 155 (Spring 1996) (quote); Anne Draper, “Equal Rights for All,” Union

W .A .G .E., Dec. 1971, at 3, 4 (quotation); Cynthia Novack, “Equal Rights Amendment & Protective Laws,” Union W .A .G .E., Mar.-Apr. 1972, at 4; Anne Draper& Luella Hanberry, “Fight Goes on for Protective Legislation,” Union W .A.G.E.,

May-June 1972, at 1; “Equal Rights for Men,” Union W .A.G.E., May-June 1972, at





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3; “W.A.G.E. Proposal to N.O.W.,” Union W .A .G .E., Nov.-Dee. 1972, at 2; Balser, Sisterhood and Solidarity at 103-108. See also chapter 7.

Chapter 6. Judicial and Legislative Struggles: Repeal or Extension of Gendered Rest Periods?

1. U.S. Women’s Bureau, 1975 Handbook on Women W orkers 316 (Bull. 297, 1975); Equal Rights fo r M en and Women, 92c! Cong., 2d Sess. 15 (S. Rep. No. 689, 1972); Homemakers, Inc. v. Division of Indus. Welfare, 356 F. Supp. 1111,1112,1113 (N.D. Cal. 1973); Homemakers, Inc. v. Division of Indus. Welfare, 509 F.2d 20, 23 (9th Cir. 1974) (quote).

2. Potlatch Forests, Inc. v. Hays, 318 F. Supp. 1368,1369,1371,1374,1375 (E.D. Ark. 1970).

3. Hays v. Potlatch Forests, Inc., 465 F.2d 1081,1083 (8th Cir. 1972); 29 U.S.C. § 206(d)(1) (1988); Potlatch Forests, Inc. v. Hays, 318 F. Supp. at 1374 n.i; 3 Lex Larson, Employment Discrim ination § 44.05 at 44-27 to 44-29 (1995). The intervenor-Arkansas State AFL-CIO also stressed the applicability of the Equal Pay Act. Brief for Intervenor-Appellee at 12, Hays v. Potlatch Forests, Inc., 465 F.2d at 1081.

4. California Federal Savings & Loan Ass’n v. Guerra, 479 U.S. 272, 291 (1987) (quoting Florida Lime & Avocado Growers, Inc. v. Paul, 373 U.S. 132,14243 (1963)).

5. State v. Fairfield Communities Land Co., 538 S.W.2d at 698, 699, 700 (Ark. 1976).

6. Id. at 699; U.S. Const, art. VI, § 2; telephone interview with Bill Becker, president, Arkansas State AFL-CIO , Little Rock, AR (Oct. 18, 1995); Leo Kano- witz, Equal Rights: The M ale Stake 50-51 (1982 [1980]). But see Elizabeth Brandeis, “Labor Legislation,” in 3 Don Lescohier & Elizabeth Brandeis, History o f Labor

in the United States, 18 9 6-1932, at 397, 558 (1935) (“For the most part the general public was never particularly interested in hour legislation for adult men”).

7. Otto Kahn-Freund, Labour and the Law 15,16 (1972).8. Burns v. Rohr Corp., 346 F. Supp. 994, 997 (S.D. Cal. 1972).9. 3 Larson, Employment D iscrim ination § 44.05 at 44-31. In this regard

Larson’s proposal of a bifurcated analysis is only partially helpful: “Lunch and rest periods may be paid or unpaid. If they are paid, they should be assimilated to the overtime pay cases and disposed of under the Equal Pay Act. Obviously, if women are being paid the same wage for less time at work, they are in effect receiving a higher wage per hour, and the express provisions of the Equal Pay Act would control. On the other hand, if a mandatory rest or lunch break is unpaid, the law requiring it should be assimilated to protective legislation limiting hours of work, night work, heavy lifting. . . . Accordingly, such a law should be deemed invalidated under the supremacy principle.” Id. at 44-30. As a formal decision rule, the first part of Larsons proposal makes sense; his treatment of unpaid lunch breaks,




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however, which is driven by a substantive judgment based on a per se rejection of “restrictive” regulations, makes no sense— especially since the underlying welfare principle is the need for rest and nourishment, not whether the worker is compensated for the time. For a good illustration of this latter issue, see United Steelworkers of America, Local 1104, v. United States Steel Corp., 4 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 1103 (N.D. Ohio 1972), a ff ’d, 479 F.2d 1255 (6th Cir. 1973) (female employees who received unpaid but uninterrupted meal breaks pursuant to state law are not entitled to injunctive relief under Title VII and back pay because under collective bargaining agreement male employees were always paid for meal breaks that were sometimes interrupted).

10. Burns v. Rohr Corp., 346 F. Supp. at 998. The court’s further “practical” objection that extension would unfairly disadvantage employers who happened to employ many males and few females vis-a-vis those with no female employees makes no sense: extension means that all male workers are entitled to rest breaks regardless of whether they work with women. Id. at 997.

11. Doctors Hospital, Inc. v. Recio, 383 F. Supp. 409, 413-15, 416-17, 417-18 (quote) (D.P.R. 1974). Even Barbara Brown, Thomas Emerson, Gail Falk, & Ann Freedman, “The Equal Rights Amendment: A Constitutional Basis for Equal Rights for W omen,” 80 Yale L.J. 871, 927 (1971), who agree that rest periods discriminate against women and m en— by being denied to men and inducing employers to pay women less or deny them certain jo b s— concede that universalization would eliminate the discrimination.

12. Precisely because state laws are concerned with such absolute levels, Title VII is not intended to occupy and therefore does not preempt the same field. 3 Larson, Employm ent D iscrim ination § 44.02 at 44-12 to 44-13.

13. E.g., California Hotel & Motel Ass’n v. Indus. Welfare Comm’n, 25 Cal.3d 200 (1979).

14. California Mfrs. Ass’n v. Indus. Welfare Comm’n, 109 Cal. App.3d 9 5 ,10810 (1980).

15. Carl Esbeck, “Employment Practices and Sex Discrimination: Judicial Extension of Beneficial Female Protective Labor Laws,” 59 C ornell L. Rev. 133,147-48 (1973), overlooks this point.

16. Wyo. Stat. § 27-6-101 (1995) (quote); W yoming Att’y Gen. Memorandum, May 22, 1990, cited in 4A BNA, Labor Relations Reporter State Laws 61:302 (1993); 43 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 107 (Purdoni995). Despite the Arkansas Supreme Court’s ruling that the state statute requiring the payment of time and a half overtime to women and not to men was invalid, four years later an Arkansas appellate court assumed that the gender-discriminatory rest-period statute was still valid. Graham v. Daniels, 601 S.W.2d 225 (Ark. Ct. App. 1980).

17. LeBlanc v. Southern Bell Tel. & Tel. Co., 333 F. Supp. 602, 609 (E.D. La. 1971). New Mexico’s 1933 thirty-minute meal-period law, which on its face applies only to women not engaged in interstate commerce and whose hours are not governed by any federal statute, may also not be preempted by Title VII, at least with respect to employers with fewer than fifteen employees. N.M. Stat. Ann.





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1978> § 5° ' 5'4 (1993)- Lewin Joel, III, Every Em ployee’s G uide to the Law 8i (1993), misleadingly includes the New Mexico statute in his list of state meal-break requirements. As administratively extended to men, the provision does not require a meal period but merely specifies that any meal period that is granted must be at least thirty minutes and not included as part of the working day. U.S. Employment Standards Administration, “Minimum Length of Meal Period Required under State Law for Employees in Private Sector, January 1,1991,”at 9 (1991).

18. Richards v. Griffith Rubber Mills, 300 F. Supp. 338 (D. Or. 1969); 1971 Or. Laws ch. 492, § 1 at 805; Oregon Bureau of Labor, Biennial Report: 1970 -72, at 9, 10 (quote) (1972).

19. 1958 Ky. Acts ch. 36, §§ 1, 2 at 113; 62 Ky. Op. Att’y Gen. No. 990 at 2-931 (Oct. 22,1962). The request came from Carolyn L. James.

20. 69 Ky. Op. Att’y Gen. No. 334 at 2-447 to 449 (June 26,1969). The case was Bowe v. Colgate-Palmolive Co., 272 F. Supp. 332 (S.D. Ind. 1967).

21. General Electric Co. v. Young 3 FEP 560, 561 (W.D. Ky. 1971); 42 U.S.C. § 2oooe-2(c)(2) (quote); Bart Barnes, “EEOC Counsel Ruth Weyand Identified as Crash Victim,” Wash. Post, Nov. 20,1986, at B10 (Lexis); “Labor and Civil Rights Lawyer W inn Newman Dies at Age 70,” Wash. Post, June 25,1994, at C4 (Lexis); Dennis Deslippe, “ ‘Rights, not roses’: Women, Industrial Unions, and the Law of Equality in the United States, 1945-1980,” at 269-305 (1994) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa); telephone interview with Arthur Joyce, senior counsel, labor and employment law, GE, Fairfield, CT (Oct. 20,1995); telephone interview with Norman Mitchell, president, IUE, Local 761, Louisville, KY (Oct. 30,1995) (reflecting on his experience as a worker at Appliance Park going back to the 1950s).

22. NLRB v. General Electric Co., 418 F.2d 736, 740, 759 (2d Cir. 1969). For tendentious insider accounts, see Herbert Northrup, Boulw arism (1965 [1964]); Lemuel Boulware, The Truth About Boulwarism: Trying to Do Right Voluntarily

(1969).23. Telephone interview with Earl F. Jones, Jr., senior counsel, government and

industry relations, GE, Appliance Park, Louisville, KY (Oct. 20, 1995) (quote); 1970-1973 GE-IUE (AFL-CIO) National Agreement Between General Electric Company and International Union of Electrical Radio and Machine Workers (AFL-CIO) and its Affiliated GE-IUE (AFL-CIO) Locals; Blain v. General Electric Co., 371 F. Supp. 857 (W.D. Ky. 1971) (mentioning meal and rest periods at Appliance Park); telephone interview with Herbert Segal, attorney, Louisville, KY (Oct. 20,1995) (attorney of record for IUE in General Electric Co. v. Young) (quote).

24. General Electric Co. v. Young at 562, 564; telephone interview with Norman Mitchell, president, IUE, Local 761, Louisville, KY (Nov. 14,1995) (recalling the workers’ understanding at Appliance Park in 1960s as to why male workers got breaks).

25. General Electric Co. v. Young, 3 FEP at 562.26. 42 U.S.C. § 2oooe-2(e) (quote); General Electric Co. v. Young, 3 FEP at

564, 565 (quote).




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27. General Electric Co. v. Young, 3 FEP at 566.28. Ruth Milkman, G ender at W ork: The Dynam ics o f Job Segregation by Sex

During World War II 46-47 (1987).29. 72 Ky. Op. Att’y Gen. No. 362 at 2-132-33 (June 5, 1972); 42 U.S.C.

§ 2oooe(b) (1988). In 1972 Congress lowered the threshold from twenty-five to fifteen employees.

30. Telephone interview with Charles R. Holbrook, III, attorney, Ashland, KY (Oct. 19,1995); 1 Journal o f the House o f Representatives o f the General Assem bly of

the Com m onw ealth o f Kentucky Reg. Sess. ig j4 , at 1101; telephone interview with Arthur Joyce.

31. 1974 Ky. Acts ch. 386, § 386 at 762, 792; Ky. Rev. Stat. § 337.990(10) (Supp. 1994); telephone interview with “Barbara,” official of Employment Standards, Labor Cabinet, Frankfort, KY (Oct. 18,1995). A 1980 amendment clarified that the right to a ten-minute rest period matured as soon as the employed had worked three hours and fifty minutes, since the ten minutes count as work time. 1980 Ky. Acts ch. 356 at 1137; 1984 Ky. Op. Att’y Gen. No. 251 at 2-275.

32. 1937 Nev. Stat. ch. 207, § 7 at 467, 470; 1947 Nev. Stat. ch. 68, § 1, at 269, 269; 1975 Nev. Stat. ch. 741, §§ 2, 8(1) & (2) at 1582,1583 (quote); Nev. Rev. Stat. §§ 608.019 (1) & (2) <Sr 608.195 (1993); telephone interview with David Dahn, Nevada labor commissioner, Las Vegas, NV (Nov. 15,1995). Even the original 1947 provision was weakly worded: “Two ten-minute rest periods shall be allowed employee.” 1947 Nev. Stat. ch. 68, § 1 at 269.

33. 1973 2d ex. sess. Wash. Laws ch. 16, §§ 1-6 at 38, 39-41; Wash. Admin. Code § 296-126-092(4) (1995); Hernandez v. Congdon Orchards, No. CY-94-3084- AAM, slip op. at 42 (E.D. Wash, June 12,1995) (interpreting Wash. Admin. Code § 296-131-020(2) (1995), using the same language as applied to agricultural labor).

34. Joan Jordan, “The Equal Rights Controversy: Present,” Up From Under,

Aug.-Sept. 1970, at 63, 64; Joan Jordan, “Comment: W orking Women and the Equal Rights Amendment,” Trans-Action, Nov.-Dee. 1970, at 16, 18, 20; Diane Balser, Sisterhood and Solidarity: Feminism and Labor in M odern Times 103-108 (1987); 1 Journal o f the Assembly: Legislature o f the State o f California 1972 Regu

lar Session 1876-77 (communication to Assemblyman Walter Karabian) (quotes); California Legislature — 1972 Reg. Sess., Assembly Bill No. 1710 (Mar. 15, 1972). On the unsuccessful legislative efforts in 1969 and 1971, see Ann [sic] Draper, Union W .A .G .E., May 1971, at 5 (letter to California assemblymen); Anne Draper, “Two Victories Won by Women Workers,” Union W .A .G .E., June 1971, at 1; A[nne] D[raper], “Disaster in Sacramento,” Union W .A .G .E., Aug. 1971, at 7.

35. “Panel OKs Bill on Men’s Jobs,” L.A. Times, May 4,1972, sec. 1 at 29; 5 Jour

nal o f the Assem bly at 8746 (veto message) (quotes); “Reagan Kills Bill on Equal Rights for Men,” L.A. Times, Dec. 30,1972, sec. 2 at 5; 1973 Cal. Stat. ch. 1007, § 1.5 at 2001, 2002 (quote).

36. Joan Jordan, “Sisters and Brothers: Testify to Set New Labor Standards,” Union W .A.G.E., Jan.-Feb. 1974, at 5; Joyce Maupin, “Protective Laws in Grave Danger,” Union W .A .G .E., Mar.-Apr. 1974, at 1; “IW C Rejects Petition: Insult to





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29 Groups,” Union W .A .G .E., May-June 1974, at 9; Union W.A.G.E., “Protective Laws . . . We Fought to Get ’em, W e’ll Fight to Keep ’em” (Flyer ca. Mar. 1974); Flenning v. Indus. Welfare Comm’n, 22 Wage & Hour Cas. (BNA) 225 (S.F. Super. Ct. 1975) (Lexis); Cal. Admin. Code tit. 8, §§ 11010(11) & (12) (1995) (manufacturing industry); Cal. Admin. Code tit. 8, §§ 11140(11) & (12) (1995) (agricultural occupations); Cal. Admin. Code tit. 8, §§ 11150(11) & (12) (1995) (household occupations); Cal. Lab. Code § 1199 (West 1989) (penalizing as misdemeanor requiring employee to work for longer hours than fixed by regulation); telephone interview with H. Thomas Cadell, chief counsel, Division of Labor Standards Enforcement, San Francisco, CA (Nov. 15,1995).

37. N.Y. Lab. Law § 162(1) (McKinney 1995); Salisbury Hotel, Inc., 283 N.L.R.B. 685 (1987) (employer for a time stated that law required only female employees to take hour lunch break and permitted men to forgo the meal period and work a shorter day); N.Y. Lab. Law. § 162(2); 1974 111. Laws Pub. Act 78-1105, § 1, codified at ILCS 140/3 § 3 (West 1995); 1989 Conn. Acts Pub. Act No. 89-71, § 1, codified at Conn. Gen. Stat. Ann. § 3i-5iii(a), (c), & (f) (West 1995) (excluding, for example, workers who already received at least thirty minutes of paid rest time and those at places of business with fewer than five employees).

38. 1989 Minn. Laws ch. 167, § 167, codified at Minn. Stat. § 177.254 (1995). The Minnesota state minimum wage regulations, generally requiring that an “employee be completely relieved from duty for the purpose of eating regular meals” for at least 30 minutes, presumably applies to the mandated meal period. Minn. R. 5200.0120 subpt. 4 (1994). Yet the Minnesota Labor Standards Division provides a recorded announcement to the public stating that the employer need not give employees a lunch break, but merely an opportunity to eat— if necessary, “on the run.” Telephone message, (612) 296-2282 (Nov. 15,1995).

39. 1993 Tenn. Pub. Acts ch. 219, § 4, codified at Tenn. Code Ann. § 50-2- 103(d) (1995). Providing a fifteen-minute rest break would not bring an employer within this exception. Tenn. Op. Att’y Gen. No. 94-060 (Apr. 19,1994) (Westlaw).

40. 3 Otto Neuloh, Arbeitszeit und Produktm tat: Untersuchungsergebnisse

w issenschaftlicher Forschungsinstitute: Betriebssoziologische Untersuchungen 58 (1962).

41. Mo. Ann. Stat. § 293.450.1 (Vernon 1993); 1905 Mo. Laws p. 236; 1981 Mo. Laws p. 410 § 1. The decline of the state’s cpal industry is unrelated to the statutory meal-rest period.

42. Telephone interview with Judy Long, compliance supervisor, Wage and Hour Div., Bureau of Labor and Industry, Portland, OR (Nov. 3,1995). One Oregon court, while conceding that violation of the rest break regulation is not actionable as a statutory wage claim, ruled, “ [a]s a matter of equity,” that the violation as a breach of an at-will employment contract did give rise to quantum meruit damages in the form of one and a half times the workers’ hourly rates. Olds v. Hogan Mfg., Inc., No. 9310-06720, slip op. at 3 (Cir. Ct. Multnomah Cty. Or. Dec. 29,1994).

43. Telephone interview with Erik Kerzee, attorney, Evergreen Legal Services, Sunnyside, WA (Nov. 15, 1995) (discussing Washington State enforcement poli-




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cies involving his clients); telephone interview with Delbert Cory, enforcement officer, Minnesota Labor Standards Division (Nov. 15,1995).

44. Telephone interview with Mary Ellen Grace, director, D iv of Labor Standards, Tennessee Dept, of Labor, Nashville, TN (Jan. 29,1996).

45. Karl Marx, Resultate des unmittelbaren Produktionsprozesses 12 (1970 [ 1863— 1865]); In re Ross Clay Products Co. and United Brick & Clay Workers of America, Local 491, 43 Lab. Arb. (BN A) 159,162 (1964) (quote on loafing); telephone interview with Ron Gumeringer, labor standards supervisor, North Dakota Dept, of Labor, Bismarck, ND (Nov. 15,1995); Divisional Committee on Industrial Fatigue of the Section on Sanitation of the Welfare Committee of the Committee on Labor of the Advisory Commission, Council of National Defense, “How Industrial Fatigue May Be Reduced,” 33 Pub. Health Reports 1347,1349 (1918)-

46. N.Y. Lab. Law § 162.1 (McKinney 1995); New York State, Department of Labor, Division of Labor Standards, “Guidelines: Meal Periods” (Sept. 1994); N.Y. Lab. Law. § 162.5. The 1887 statute empowered the factory inspector to permit shorter meal periods but only “in special cases” and “where good cause can be shown.” 1887 N.Y. Laws ch. 462, § 14 at 575, 577. By 1909 this additional language was eliminated. N.Y. Lab. Law § 89 at 2063 (Consol. 1909).

47. Telephone interviews with Richard Polsinello, director, Div. of Labor Standards, Albany, NY (Nov. 27,1995); Joaquin Bermudez, investigator, Div. of Labor Standards, Albany, NY (Nov. 27,1995); Barry Schwartzberg, senior labor standards investigator, New York State Dept, of Labor, Albany district, Albany, NY (Nov. 27, 1995). In 1994 the legislature did reduce the meal period for nonfactory workers from forty-five to thirty minutes. 1994 N.Y. Laws ch. 350 § 2 at 2568.

Chapter 7. How the Other Half Rests:How Many Workers Have Rest Periods?

1. National Industrial Conference Board (NICB), Com puting the Cost o f Fringe

Benefits 38 (quote), 30, 43, 55 (Studies in Personnel Policy No. 128,1952); Colin Gordon, New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics in A m erica, 1920-1935, at 14752 (1994); NICB, Women in Factory Work 40 (Studies in Personnel Policy No. 41, 1942) (quote); NICB, Time O ff with Pay 14 (Studies in Personnel Policy No. 130, 1952) (quote).

2. NICB, W hat Employers Are Doing fo r Employees: A Survey o f Voluntary A c

tivities fo r Improvement o f Working Conditions in Am erican Business Concerns, tab. 13 at 22, tab. 48 at 56, tab. 49 at 57 (Studies No. 221, 1936); F. Beatrice Brower, Personnel Practices Governing Factory and Office Adm inistration 51, tab. 34 at 5657 (NICB, Studies No. 233,1937); NICB, Personnel Activities in Am erican Business6, 8, tabs. 26-27 at 18 (Studies in Personnel Policy No. 20, 1940); NICB, Person

nel Practices in Factory & Office, tab. 40 at 17 (Studies in Personnel Policy No. 23,1940); NICB, Personnel Practices in Factory and Office, II, tabs. 53-55 at 21 (Studies in Personnel Policy No. 59,1943).

3. NICB, Personnel Practices in Factory and Office, tabs. 33-34 at 18-19 (Studies





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in Personnel Policy No. 88, rev. ed. 1948); NICB, Time O ff with Pay, tab. 14 at 14; NICB, Personnel Practices in Factory and O ffice, tabs. 32-33 at 18-19 (Studies in Personnel Policy No. 145, 5th ed. 1954); NICB, Personnel Practices in Factory and

Office: M anufacturing , tabs. 41-42 at 39-40 (Studies in Personnel Policy No. 194, 1964) (the number of companies providing formal rest periods for white-collar employees only was subtracted from the total number providing this benefit to arrive at the figures mentioned in the text); Conference Board, Personnel Prac

tices III: Em ployee Services, Work Rules, tab. 32 at 39 (Infor. Bull. No. 95,1979) (by Harriet Gorlin).

4. U.S. Chamber of Commerce: Employee Benefits Historical Data: 1951-1979, tab. 5 at 14 (1981); Em ployee Benefits: Survey Data from Benefit Y e a n g g j, at 3, tab. 13 at 26 (1994 ed.); Em ployee Benefits: Survey Data from Benefit Y e a n g g j, tab. 13 at 31 (1995 ed.) (1994 data provided via telephone by Martin Lefkowitz, U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Washington, DC, Dec. 18,1995).

5. U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Employee Benefits Historical Data, tab. 4 at11, tab. 6 at 16; U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Employee Benefits: Survey Data from

Benefit Year lg g j, tab. 6 at 15, tab. 14 at 27, tab. 17 at 34, tab. 5 at 13.6. For her benchmark year, 1947, Greis received a total of only five responses

concerning breaks. Had she instead used 1948 as the base year, when the average number of paid break hours reached eighty-eight, she would have found a sharp decline during the postwar period. Even for the later years, 1974 and 1979, Greis collected only twenty-six and thirty-two responses to this particular question; oddly, she provides no underlying data for 1969. Theresa Greis, The D ecline

of Annual Hours W orked in the United States Since ig4J, at 99, tab. V-7 at 105, 341, 336,335 (1984).

7. Robert Quinn & Graham Staines, The i g j j Quality o f Employm ent Survey:

Descriptive Statistics, with Com parison Data from the ig 6 g - jo and the 1972-73 Sur

veys 1, tab. 5.27 at 87, tab. 5.28 at 88 (1979).8. Hilery Simpson, “Paid Lunch and Paid Rest Time Benefits: Highlights from

the Employee Benefits Survey, 1979-93,” Comp, and Working Conditions, Dec. 1996, at 18, 23 (quote). On the methodology, see U.S. BLS, Em ployee Benefits in Indus

try: A Pilot Project I (Report 615,1980); Robert Frumkin & W illiam Wiatrowski, “Bureau of Labor Statistics Takes a New Look at Employee Benefits,” M onthly Lab.

Rev., Aug. 1982, at 2-6; W illiam Wiatrowski, “Comparing Employee Benefits in the Public and Private Sectors "M onthly Lab. Rev., Dec. 1988, at 7-12; telephone interview with staff of Employee Benefits Survey, BLS, Washington, DC (Oct. 12,1995).

9. U.S. BLS, Em ployee Benefits in M edium and Large Private Establishm ents,

1993, tabs. 1, 200, 202, 204, 206 at 8, 159, 161, 163, 165 (Bull. 2456, 1994); U.S. BLS, Em ployee Benefits in Sm all Private Establishm ents, 1990, tab. 86 at 90 (Bull. 2388,1991); U.S. BLS, Employee Benefits in State and Local Governm ents, 1992, tab. 108,109, 112 at 100-101,103 (Bull. 2444,1994); Glenn Grossman, “U.S. Workers Receive a W ide Range of Benefits,” in U.S. BLS, Em ployee Benefits Survey: A BLS

Reader 13, tab. 1 at 14 (Bull. 2459,1995) (1989-1990 data); Ann Foster, “Employee Benefits in the United States, 1991-92,” in ibid. at 7, tab. 1 at 9 (1991-1992 data).

10. 29 C.F.R. § 775.18 (1995); Reports o f the Inspectors o f Factories fo r the H alf




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Year Ending j i s t October, 1856, at 48 (3 Pari. Pap. 1857 Sess. 1, c. 2153) (quote). Their counterparts in Massachusetts during the Gilded Age also observed that starting women weavers several minutes before the lawful scheduled time in th e mornings gained their employers “one or two hours a week.” Report o f the C h i e f

o f Massachusetts District Police, fo r the Year Ending Decem ber 31, 1886, at 55 (Pub. Doc. No. 32,1887).

11. Oskar Negt, Lebendige Arbeit, enteignete Zeit: Politische und kulturelle D i-

mensionen des Kampfes um die Arbeitszeit 2 6 -2 7 (1987 [1984]) (quote); W ash. Admin. Code § 296-131-020 (1995); Hernandez v. Congdon Orchards, No. CY-9 4 - 3084-AAM, slip op. at 40-44 (E.D. Wash. June 12,1995); Reports o f the Inspectors

o f Factories, October, 1856 at 34 (quote).12. Republic Aviation Corp. v. NLRB, 324 U.S. 793, 795, 804 n.10, 802 n .6

(1945) (quoting Peyton Packing Co., 49 N.L.R.B. 828, 843 (1943), and Republic Aviation Corp., 51 N.L.R.B. 1186,1195 (1943)).

13. U.S. BLS, Contract Clauses in Construction Agreem ents 42 (Bull. 1864,1975)-14. Statement of Employee Witnesses to Senate Labor Subcommittee, Feb. 5 ,

1988, in 25 Daily Lab. Rep. E-l (Feb. 8, 1988) (Testimony of Humberto Salinas) (Westlaw) (quote); telephone interviews with United Food & Com m ercial Workers officials Ron Yazel, poultry industry negotiator, Washington, DC (Oct. 17, 1995), and Debbie Berkowitz, director of the health and safety department, W ashington, DC (Oct. 17,1995).

15. Agreement Between Laborers’ International Union of North America and National Constructors Ass’n, art. VI.L (Nov. 1,1973), printed in Construction Lab.

Rep., Dec. 5,1973, at F -l, F-2 (quote); telephone interview with Steve Newman, research department, United Steelworkers, Pittsburgh, PA (Oct. 16,1995); Agreement Between E. I. Du Pont De Nemours & Company Fort Madison Plant (I. &r F. Department) and International Association of Machinists & Aerospace W orkers, Local Lodge 1043, art. V(h) (Mar. 3,1979). For examples of collective bargaining agreements in continuous process industries that contain no break provisions, see Agreement and Working Rules Between Aluminum Company of America and Aluminum Workers International Union-AFL-CIO (1968) (covering IL, IA, NY, and PA); Agreement Between Bethlehem Steel Corporation and United Steelworkers of America § 07.01.01(a) (Aug. 1,1993).

16. Or. Admin. R. 839-20-050 & 839-20-100(1) (1993); M cCollum v. Roberts, 17 F.3d 1219 (9th Cir. 1994); telephone interview with David Hollander, counsel for plaintiffs, Portland, OR (Oct. 16,1995).

17. U.S. BLS: Characteristics o f M ajor Collective Bargaining Agreements, Jan u

ary 1,1980, tab. 5.15 at 94 (Bull. 2095,1981); Characteristics o f Agreements Covering

5,000 Workers or More, tab. 48 at 49 (Bull. 1686, 1970); Characteristics o f A gree

ments Covering 2,000 Workers or More, tab. 51 at 52 (Bull. 1729,1972); C haracter

istics o f Agreem ents Covering 1,000 Workers or More July 1 , 1972, tab. 51 at 50 (Bull. 1784, 1973); Characteristics o f Agreem ents Covering 1,000 Workers or More July 1,

1973> tab- 53 at 50 (Bull. 1822,1974); Characteristics o f M ajor Collective Bargaining

Agreements, July 1, 1974, tab. 5.7 at 61 (Bull. 1888,1975); Characteristics o f M ajor





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Collective Bargaining Agreements, July l, 19J5, tab. 5.7 at 75 (Bull. 1957,1977); C har

acteristics o f M ajor Collective Bargaining Agreements, January 1, ig j6 , tab. 5.14 at 67 (Bull. 2013,1979); Characteristics o f M ajor Collective Bargaining Agreements, Janu

ary 1, 1978, tab. 5.14 at 87 (Bull. 2065,1980); Labor-M anagem ent Contract Provisions

1953: Prevalence and Characteristics o f Selected Collective-Bargaining Clauses, tabs.1, 2 at 19 (Bull. 1166,1954); Rest Periods, Washup, Work Clothing, and M ilitary Leave

Provisions in M ajor Union Contracts, tab. 1 at 2 (Bull. 1279,1961). During the 1970s, once the survey became more inclusive and encompassed agreements covering at least 1,000 workers, the proportion of those without rest periods stabilized at 56 to 59 percent.

18. U.S. BLS, Rest Periods at 1; Labor-M anagement Contract Provisions 1953 at 18; NLRB v. General Electric Co., 418 F.2d 736 (2d Cir. 1969); 1970-1973 GE-IUE (AFL-CIO) National Agreement Between General Electric Company and International Union of Electrical Radio and Machine Workers (AFL-CIO ) and its Affiliated GE-IUE (AFL-CIO) Locals; telephone interviews with Earl F. Jones, Jr., senior counsel, government and industry relations, GE, Appliance Park, Louisville, KY (Oct. 20,1995), and Arthur Joyce, senior counsel, labor and employment law, GE, Fairfield, CT (Oct. 20.1995).

19. U.S. BLS: Characteristics o f M ajor Collective Bargaining Agreements, Janu

ary 1,1980, tab. 5.11 at 89-90; Labor-M anagem ent Contract Provisions, tab. 1 at 19; Rest Periods, tab. 1 at 2.

20. BNA, Basic Patterns in Union Contracts 55 (13th ed. 1992); BNA, Basic Pat

terns in Union Contracts 57-8, 57-7 (5th ed. 1961); Commerce Clearing House, Union Contract Clauses 108 (1954).

21. U.S. BLS, Characteristics o f M ajor Collective Bargaining Agreem ents, Janu

ary 1 ,19 7 6 , tab. 5.14 at 67; U.S. BLS, Em ployee Benefits in Sm all Private Establish

ments, 1992, tab. 5 at 9; U.S. BLS, Employee Benefits in M edium and Large Private

Establishm ents, 1993, tab. 10 at 16; U.S. BLS, Wage Chronology: Eord M otor C om

pany June 1941-Septem ber 1973, tab. 3 at 29 (Bull. 1787,1973); Agreement Between UAW and the General Motors Corporation 433 (Oct. 24,1993).

22. E.g., Swift & Company Master Agreement with the Amalgamated Meat Cutters & Butcher Workmen of North America, September 24,1956, through September 1,1959, § 18 at 15-16 (two spell-out or relief periods); Swift & Company Master Agreement with the United Packinghouse, Food & Allied Workers, AFL- CIO, September 1,1964, to September 1,1967, § 18 at 16-17 (same); Swift & Com pany Master Agreement with the United Packinghouse, Food & Allied Workers, AFL-CIO , § 18 at 16-17 (1976-1979) (same); Master Agreement By and Between United Packinghouse Workers of America (CIO) and Armour & Company, art. 9.3(a) & (b) at 28 (Oct. 1, 1956) (ten-minute rest periods morning and afternoon); Master Agreement By and Between Amalgamated Meat Cutters & Butcher Workmen of North America A FL-CIO and Armour & Company, April 18, 1970, through August 31,1973, art. 9.3(a) & (b) at 28 (ten-minute rest periods morning and afternoon); Agreement Between The Rath Packing Company and Local46, United Packinghouse Workers of America, AFL-CIO , Waterloo, Iowa, § 15 at



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7 (Nov. 12,1956) (fifteen-minute “spell-out or relief time for personal needs” during each half-day in excess of three hours); Agreement Between The Rath Packing Company and Local 46, United Packinghouse Workers of America, AFL-CIO, Waterloo, Iowa, § 15 at 7 (1961) (same); Agreement Between The Rath Packing Company and Amalgamated Meat Cutters & Butcher Workers, Waterloo, Iowa, § 26 at 13 (1973) (same); Agreement Between Oscar Mayer Company, Madison, W isconsin & Amalgamated Meat Cutters & Butcher Workmen of North America AFL-CIO , Local No. 538, § 34 at 10 (1956-1959) (not longer than three hours of work without a rest period of twenty minutes on first shift and fifteen minutes on other shifts) (quote); W orking Agreement Between United Packinghouse, Food, & Allied Workers of America (UPWA) AFL-CIO , Local 31 and Geo. A. Hormel Co., Fort Dodge, Iowa, Memo 27 at 34 (Jan. 1,1966) (not more than three hours of work without a rest period); Agreement Between Dubuque Packing Company and Amalgamated Meat Cutters &r Butcher Workmen of North America A FL-CIO , Local 100, July 8,1965, to Sept. 1,1967, § 9.1 at 12 (not more than 2.5 hours o f work without a ten-minute break); Agreement Between W ilson Foods Corporation and United Packinghouse Workers of America, § 18 at 8 (Nov. 30, 1956) (not more than 2.5 hours of work without a fifteen-minute break); Agreement Between W ilson Foods Corporation and United Food & Commercial Workers International Union, AFL-CIO (Sept. 11,1979 through Sept. 1,1982), art. IX at 5 (not more than 2.5 hours of work without a fifteen-minute break).

23. Barnaby Feder, “The Stew Over Beef,” N.Y. Times, Oct. 17,1995, at C l (nat. ed.); telephone interview with Luther Williams, business agent, United Food & Commercial Workers, Local 431, IBP plant, Waterloo, IA (Oct. 11, 1995); telephone interview with personnel office, IBP, Columbus Junction, IA (Oct. 11,1995). IBP has included such a onetime fifteen-minute break in its collective bargaining agreements for decades. Agreement Between IBP Dakota City, Nebraska & Associated Employees Organization, July 9,1966, through July 8,1969, art. XI at 9-10; Agreement Between Iowa Beef Processors, Inc. and Amalgamated Meat Cutters & Butcher Workmen of America, Dakota City, Nebraska, April 13,1970, through April 13,1973, art. X at 8; Joslin Labor Agreement (IBP and UFCW ), art. 24 at 20 (contract expires Oct. 20,1996).

24. U.S. BLS: Wage Chronology: Alum inum Com pany o f Am erica with United

Steelworkers o f Am erica and Alum inum W orkers International Union, February 1939- January 1974 (Bull. 1815, 1974); Bethlehem Steel Corp. (Shipbuilding D epartm ent)

and the IU M SW , June 1941-A ugust 1975 (Bull. 1866,1975); United States Steel C o r

poration, March lg j j- A p r i l 1974 (Bull. 1814, 1974) (all lacking rest-period provisions); Wage Chronology: Ford M otor Company, June 1941-Septem ber 1973, tab. 3 at 29 (Bull. 1787, 1973); Wage Chronology: International Harvester Co. and the

Auto Workers, February 194 6 -Septem ber 1976, tab. 4 at 47 (Bull. 1887,1976); Wage

Chronology: Arm our and Company, 194 1-72, tab. C at 34 (Bull. 1682, 1971) and Supp. (1975); Wage Chronology: F M C Corp., Chem ical G roup-Fiber Division and

the TW U A, 19 4 5-77, tab. 3 at 12 (Bull. 1924, 1976); Wage Chronology: L ockh eed -

California Company [Div. o f Lockheed Aircraft Corp.] and M achinists Union, M arch

222 Notes to Page 137

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1937-O ctober lg jy , tab. 4 at 35 (Bull. 1904,1976); Wage Chronology: Western Union

Telegraph Co. and the Telegraph Workers and the Com m unications W orkers, 1943-76, tab. 4 at 38 (Bull. 1927,1977); Wage Chronology: New York City Laundries and A m al

gam ated Service and Allied Industries Joint Board, an Affiliate o f the Am algamated

Clothing W orkers o f Am erica, Novem ber 1945-N ovem ber 19J5, tab. 5 at 23-24 (Bull. 1845, 1975); Wage Chronology: Martin M arietta Aerospace and the Auto Workers,

March 1944-N ovem ber 1975, tab. 1 at 7, tab. 4 at 34 (Bull. 1884,1976).

Chapter 8. Rest in the Rest of the World

1. Beginning with World War I, the French state required employers to provide nursing mothers with two half-hour breaks to feed their infants. Loi concernant l’allaitement maternel dans les etablissements industriels et commerciaux, Sirey, Legislation 596 (Aug. 5,1917). For a limited period the French Labour Code provided for a one-hour rest period for women. Labour Code, L. 212-9, ILO, Legislative Series, 1981 — Fr. 1, at 62, repealed by Act No. 87-423 regarding the duration and arrangement of working time, June 19,1987, § 12, in ILO, Legislative Series, 1987 — Fr. 1, at 4. Italy requires employers to allow working mothers two one-hour paid rest periods during their child’s first year; if the mother uses an employer-furnished nursery, the periods may be reduced to thirty minutes. Act to provide for the protection of working mothers, Dec. 30,1971 (No. 1204), § 10.

2. Emil Lederer & Jakob Marschak, “Arbeiterschutz,” in 9:2 Grundrisse der

Sozialokonom ik: Das soziale System des Kapitalism us: D ie autonom e und staatliche

soziale Binnenpolitik im Kapitalism us 259, 270 (1927) (quote); 1 Karl Marx, Das

Kapital: K ritik der politischen Oekonom ie 198-281, 399-409 (1867; photomechanical reprint 1959); The General C ouncil o f the First International 1864-1866: The Lon

don Conference 1865: M inutes 217-18 (Institute of Marxism-Leninism of the C.C., C.P.S.U. ed., n.d. [ca. 1964]) (Meeting of July 31,1866); Karl Marx, “Instructions for the Delegates of the Provisional General Council. The Different Questions,” in The General Council o f the First International at 340, 343 (1866); Karl Marx, “Rand- glossen zum Programm der deutschen Arbeiterpartei” (1875), in 19 Karl Marx [&] Friedrich Engels, W erke 15, 31 (1962).

3. Karl Marx, “Questionnaire for Workers” (1880), in L25 Karl Marx [61] Friedrich Engels, Gesam tausgabe (MEGA) 199, 200, 203 (1985).

4. John Rae, Eight Hours fo r Work 9 (1894).5. Robert Owen, “On the Employment of Children in Manufactories” (1818)

in A New View o f Society and O ther Writings 130,137 (1949) ; An Act to amend the Laws relating to Labour in Factories, 7 & 8 Viet., ch. 15, §§ 32-33 at 82, 92, 93 (1844) ; An Act to limit the Hours of Labour of young persons and Females in Factories, 10 & 11 Viet., ch. 29 (1847); An Act to amend the Acts relating to Labour in Factories, 13 & 14 Viet., ch. 54, § 3 at 328, 329 (1850); 1 Marx, Das Kapital at 20711, 257-69; B. Hutchins & A. Harrison, A History o f Factory Legislation 81 (2d ed. 1911) (quote). To be sure, Marx also concluded that the class antagonism between




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factory owners and landowners that had made the factory laws possible had beenmitigated by the ruling classes’ joint hatred of the people; consequently, Parliament intentionally inserted loopholes in the statutes that promoted evasion and circumvention. Karl Marx, “The State of British Manufactures” (1859), *n *6 Karl Marx & Frederick Engels, C ollected W orks 190 (1980).

6. Mrs. Sidney [Beatrice] Webb, Women and the Factory Acts 9 (Fabian Tract No. 67,1896) (“Unfortunately, working women have less power to obtain legislation than middle-class women have to obstruct it”); Hutchins & Harrison, A His

tory o f Factory Legislation at 183-99. struggle between these two groups in Britain, see Robin Jacoby, The British and Am erican W om en’s Trade Union Leagues,

18 9 0 -1925: A Case Study o f Fem inism and Class 89-118 (1994).7. Factory <£r Workshop Act, 1878, 41 Viet. ch. 16, § 11(5) (a) & (6), 13(3)^ ) &

(4), at 137,141,142; 219 P a ri Deb., H.C. (3d ser.) 1416-17 (1874) (Asheton Gross) (quote). Already the Factory Act, 1874, 37 & 38 Viet. ch. 44, § 5(3), at 248, 249, required a total of two hours for meals.

8. A. V. Dicey, Lectures on the Relation Between Law and Public Opinion in

England 290 (2d ed. 1930 [1st ed. 1905]) (quote); An Act to consolidate with Amendments the Factory and Workshop Acts, 1 Edw. 7, ch. 22, § § 2 4 (5) & (6), 26(3) & (4) at 60, 71-73 (1901); An Act to consolidate, with amendments, the Factory and W orkshop Acts, 1901 to 1929, and other enactments relating to factories, 1 Edw. 8 & 1 Geo. 4, ch. 67, §§ 70 (c) & (e), 767, 827, 828 (1937) (quote); [U.K.] Equal Opportunities Commission, Health and Safety Legislation: Should We

Distinguish Between M en and W om en? 15 (1979) (quote); Factories Act, 1961, 9 & 10 Eliz. 2, ch. 34, § 86© & (e), 165, 225 (1961).

9. Sex Discrimination Act 1986, ch. 59, 2033, 2039, § 7(3)(a); Sally Kenney, For W hose Protection? Reproductive Hazards and Exclusionary Policies in the United

States and Britain 32 (1992) (quote); 472 Pari. Deb., H.L. (6th ser.) 572 (1986) (Lord Trefgarre) (quote); 477 Pari. Deb., H.L. (6th ser.) 1186 (1986) (Lord Wedder- burn); Lord Wedderburn, The W orker and the Law 408 (3d ed. 1986 [1st ed. 1965]); Jean Coussins, The Equality Report 84 (1976) (quote). See also Jeanne Gregory, Sex,

Race and the Law: Legislating fo r Equality 17-19 (1987); Kenney, For W hose Protec

tion? at 37-41. The Equal Opportunities Commission’s agnosticism on the issue — it merely listed repeal and universalization as options— may have been a function of its unsubstantiated speculation “that better factory conditions may obviate the need to have formal meal breaks.” [U.K.] Equal Opportunities Commission, Health and Safety Legislation at 94-95. Like the British feminist movement, the organization of female attorneys in Germany, in opposing a statutory ban on night work for women, also argued that the ban should be retained during a transition period until it could be extended to men. 85 BVerfGE 191, 201-202 (1992).

10. An Act to amend the Acts relating to the Employment of Females, § 5, N.Z. Stat. 1875, No. 89, at 377, 378; The Factories Act, 1891, § 37, N.Z. Stat. No. 32, at 146, 155; An Act to consolidate the Law relating to the Employment of Females and Others in Workrooms and Factories, § 7(1), N.Z. Stat., 1881, No. 23, at 184, 184; 71 New Zealand Pari. Deb. 151 (1891) (remarks of W. P. Reeves); 73 New Zea-




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land P a ri Deb. 319-20 (1891) (remarks of Sir George Stoddart Whitmore) (quote); New Zealand, Departm ent o f Labour (Report o f the) iv (1897) (quote).

11. New Zealand, Departm ent o f Labour (Report o f the) ii (1899) (quote); New Zealand, Departm ent o f Labour (Report o f the) ii (1900) (quote); Factories Act,1901, §§ 18(1)(c) & 19(c), N.Z. Stat. No. 59, at 207, 213. This statute was reenacted in 1908 and 1922. Factories Act, 1908, §§ 18(1)(c) & 19(c), N.Z. Stat. 1908, No. 59, 358, 363-64; Factories Act, 1921-22, §§ i7(i)(c) & 18(c), N.Z. Stat., 192122, No. 42, 304, 316-17; Factories Act, 1946, § i9(i)(c), N.Z. Stat. 1946, No. 43, 521, 531, repealed by the Factories and Commercial Premises Act, 1981, N.Z. Stat. 1981, No. 25, 211. The 1901 bill in the House of Representatives proposed the same conditions for men and women, but the Legislative Council rejected the 4V2-hour rule for men on the ground that it “would, in many instances, cause inconvenience both to men and employers.” The House of Representatives acceded to the Council’s position. 119 New Zealand P a ri Deb. 1171,1200-201,1219 (1901).

12. Bundesgesez betreffend die Arbeit in den Fabriken, art. 11, 3 Amtliche Sammlung der Bundesgeseze und Verordnungen der schweizerischen Eid- genossenschaft (n.s.) 241, 246-47 (1877); K. Bucher, “Arbeiterschutzgesetzgebung in der Schweiz,” in 1 Handworterbuch der Staatsw issenschaften 588, 588-93 (J. Conrad et al. eds., 2d ed. 1898); Regina Wecker, “Equality for Men? Factory Laws, Protective Legislation for Women in Switzerland, and the Swiss Effort for International Protection,” in Protecting Women: Labor Legislation in Europe, the United

States, and Australia, 1880-1920, at 63, 67 (Ulla W ikander et al. eds., 1995) (quote); Victor Bohmert, “Arbeitszeit in der Schweiz,” 1 Handworterbuch der Staatswissen-

schaften at 1034-35; Bundesgesetz iiber die Arbeit in Industrie, Gewerbe und Handel (Arbeitsgesetz), art. 15, Sammlung der eidgenossischen Gesetze, 1966, at57, 64; R. Canner & R. Schoop, A rbeitsgesetz 47~59 (1968); Manfred Rehbinder, Schw eizerisches Arbeitsrecht 133 (1979). The gender neutrality of the 1877 law was punctured by the fact that women who ran a household were to be released a half hour before the general lunch period. Bundesgesez betreffend die Arbeit in den Fabriken, art. 15 at 248.

13. Margarete Grandner, “Special Labor Legislation for Women in Austria, 1860-1918,” in Protecting Women at 150,150-60; Gesetz vom 8. Marz 1885, betreffend die Abanderung und Erganzung der Gewerbeordnung, §§ 74a, 96, Reichs- gesetzblatt at 35, 36-37, 46 (if the work time before or after the meal period amounted to less than five hours, the remaining thirty minutes could be dispensed with; various ministries were charged with reducing work pauses in industries where interruption of operations was impracticable); Arbeitszeitgesetz vom 11. Dezember 1969, § 11(1); Reports from Her M ajesty's Representatives in Europe and

the United States on the Laws Affecting the Hours o f Adult Labour in the Countries in

which They Reside 3 (C.-5866,1889).14. Ulla Wikander, “Some ‘Kept the Flag of Feminist Demands W aving’: De

bates at International Congresses on Protecting Women W orkers,” in Protecting

W omen at 29, 34-35; Sabine Schmitt, “ All These Forms of Women’s W ork W hich Endanger Public Health and Public Welfare’: Protective Labor Legislation for




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Women in Germany, 1878-1914,” in ibid. at 125,131-35; Conference intem ationale

concernant le reglement du travail aux etablissem ents industriels et dans les mines

199 (par autorisation officielle, 1890). The German delegation had at first urged pauses amounting to two hours. Id. at 72, 78.

15. “Programm der Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands, beschlossen auf dem Parteitag zu Erfurt 1891,” reprinted in Dieter Fricke, D ie deutsche Ar-

beiterbewegung 1869-1914: Ein Handbuch uber ihre Organisation und Tatigekit im

K lassenkam pf 172, 174 (1976); Gesetz, betreffend Abanderung der Gewerbeord- nung, June 1, 1891, § 137 para. 3, RGB1 1891, 261, 282; Sabine Schmitt, Der A rbeiterinnenschutz im deutschen Kaiserreich: Z ur Konstruktion der schutzbediirf-

tigen Arbeiterin 80-108 (1995) (on the political history of the amendments); Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History o f Wage-Earning Women in the United States

239 (1983 [1982]); Viola Klein, Women Workers: Working Hours and Services 38, 40 (OECD, n.d. [1965]); Dorothea Schmidt, “Wenn der Staat die Arbeitszeit regelt: Die Geschichte der Arbeiterschutzgesetzgebung fur Frauen im Kaiserreich und ihre Verwirklichung in Bremen,” 12 Leviathan 50, 65, 81 (1984).

16. A. Bebel, “Die Gewerbeordnungs-Novelle,” 9/2 Neue Zeit 324-36, 36474, 406-15 at 372 (1890-1891) (quote); Christoph Deutschmann, Der Weg zum

Normalarbeitstag: D ie Entw icklung der A rbeitszeiten in der deutschen Industrie bis

1918, at 267, 221-22 (1985); Gesetz, betreffend Abanderung der Gewerbeordnung, § 134b at 279; 18 Jurgen Kuczynski, Die G eschichte der Lage der A rbeiter unter dem

Kapitalism us: Studien zu r Geschichte der Lage der Arbeiterin in D eutschland von i j o o

bis zur Gegenwart 154-55 (1963); Schmitt, Der Arbeiterinnenschutz im deutschen

Kaiserreich at 199-200, 204.17. 2 Robert von Landmann, Kom m entar zur Gewerbeordnung fu r das D eutsche

Reich 419, 423 (5th ed. 1907); Gesetz, betreffend die Abanderung der Gewerbeordnung, June 30,1900, § 139c, 1l 3,1 RGB1 321, 326.

18. Ernst Bernhard, Hohere Arbeitsintensitat bei kiirzerer Arbeitszeit: ihre perso-

nalen und technisch-sachlichen Voraussetzungen 43-44 (1909); Ilse Costas, Ausw irk-

ungen der Konzentration des Kapitals auf die Arbeiterklasse in D eutschland (1880

1914), at 150-64 (1981).19. Marie Bernays, Untersuchungen uber die Schwankungen der Arbeitsintensitat

wahrend der Arbeitsw ochen und wahrend des Arbeitstages: Ein Beitrag zu r Psycho-

physik der Textilarbeit, in M ax Morgenstern et al., Auslese und Anpassung der A r-

beiterschaft in der Lederwaren-, Steinzeug- und Textilindustrie 183, 283-308 (135 Schriften des Vereins fur Socialpolitik, pt. 3, 1912); Deutschmann, Der Weg zum

Norm alsarbeitstag at 128,145,157, 231-32, 251-55, 266-67 (giving examples of rest periods in various industries); Bernhard, Hohere Arbeitsintensitat at 45 (quote); Rae, Eight Hours fo r Work at 56 (quote).

20. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter o f the C en

tury 146 (1983 [1971]) (quote); Fourth Report o f the Royal Com m ission on Labour,

QQ. 6862 - J 2 , at 466-67 (39 pt. 1 Pari. Pap. 1893-94, C. 7063,1893).21. Industrial Fatigue Research Board, Results o f Investigation in Certain In

dustries iii (No. 27, 1924) (quote); Sidney Webb and Beatrice Webb, Industrial


Original fromU N I V E R S I T Y O F M I C H I G A NDigitized b y G 0 0 Q [e

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Dem ocracy 726-27 (new ed. 1920 [1st ed. 1897]); W illiam Mather, “Labour and the Hours of Labour: The Industrial Problem of the Day,” 62 Contem porary Rev. 609, 630 (1892) (quote).

22. W illiam Mather, The Forty-Eight Hours Week: A Year’s Experim ent and Its Re

sults at the Salford Iron Works, M anchester 9-10 ,15-20 (1894) (quote); A. Mclvor, “Employers, the Government, and Industrial Fatigue in Britain, 1890-1918,” 44 Brit.J. Indus. Med. 724, 726-28 (1987); The Engineer, Apr. 20,1894, at 330 (letters to editor from employers affirming). Annual Report o f the C h ie f Inspector o f Factories

and W orkshops fo r the Y e a n g iy , at 5 (10 Par I Pap. 1918, Cd. 9108) (“experiment”).23. Bernhard, Hohere Arbeitsintensitat at 45-47 (quotes); Deutschmann, Der

Weg zum Norm alarbeitstag at 178, 201; Das Bundesgesetz betreffend die Arbeit in

den Fabriken vom 23. M arz 1877: Kom m entiert durch seine Ausfiihrung in den fahren

i8 y 8 -i8 g g , at 195-96 (Schweizerisches Industriedepartement ed., 1900) (quote); R. Hofstatter, D ie arbeitende Frau: Ihre w irtschaftliche Lage, Gesundheit, Ehe und

M utterschaft 44-45 (1929).24. Anordnung iiber die Regelung der Arbeitszeit gewerblicher Arbeiter, §§ II

& VIII, Nov. 23,1918, RGBl 1, 1334,1335; Anordnung zur Erganzung der Anordnung iiber die Regelung der Arbeitszeit gewerblicher Arbeiter vom 23. November 1918, § I, Dec. 17,1918, RGBl 1, 1436; Verordnung iiber die Regelung der Arbeitszeit der Angestellten wahrend der Zeit der wirtschaftlichen Demobilmachung, § 2, Mar. 18, 1919, RGBl I, 315. Morris Hillquit, Socialism in Theory and Practice 220

(1912), incorrectly stated that the hours of adult male factory workers were legally limited to eleven in Germany; prior to 1918 there was no such general limitation.

25. Dora Lande, “Arbeits- und Lohnverhaltnisse in der Berliner Maschinen- industrie zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts,” in von Bienkowski et al., A uslese und

Anpassung der Arbeiterschaft in der Elektroindustrie, Buchdruckerei, Feinm echanik

und M aschinenindustrie 303, 413-14 (134 Schriften des Vereins fiir Sozialpolitik, 1910); 5 Jurgen Kuczynski, D ie G eschichte der Lage der Arbeiter unter dem Kapi-

talismus: Darstellung der Lage der Arbeiter in D eutschland von 1917/18 bis 1932/33, at 232-33 (1966) (quote); Deutschmann, D er Weg zum Norm alarbeitstag at 19293, 200; U.S. BLS, Postwar Labor Conditions in Germ any 94-122 (Bull. 380,1925) (by R. R. Kuczynski); Verordnung iiber die Arbeitszeit, Dec. 21, 1923, Reichs- gesetzblatt I, 1249. Commenting on the industrial inspectors’ reports on these developments, the extremely orthodox and dogmatic East German economic historian Jiirgen Kuczynski expressed amazement at the “cunning and cruelty of capitalist working and living relations, which bring the workers into a situation” in which they engage in an “appalling” struggle for short pauses while the government officials “set themselves up as humane hygienists.” 5 Kuczynski, G eschichte

at 233. W hat epithet would Kuczynski reserve for Nazi “work scientists” who both thoughtfully urged “enlightenment” for w orkers— who, understandably, had failed to grasp that in the long run too-short pauses undermined their “labor power”— and resisted German workers’ tendency during W orld War II to shorten their rest periods in order to get home sooner and employers’ calls to abolish them altogether? Arbeitswissenschaftliches Institut der Deutschen Arbeitsfront,




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Z ur Arbeitszeitfrage 118 (1939); “Recent Aspects of the Employment of W omen in Germany,” 45 Int. Lab. Rev. 286, 289 (1942).

26. “Recommendations of German Medical Factory Inspectors as to Rest Periods,” 20 M onthly Lab. Rev. 992 (1925); Ludwig Preller, Sozialpolitik in derW eim arer

Republik 149 (1978 [1949]); A lf Liidtke, “Arbeitsbeginn, Arbeitspausen, Arbeits- ende: Skizzen zu Bedurfnisbefriedigung und Industriearbeit im 19. und fruhen 20 Jahrhundert,” in Sozialgeschichte der Freizeit: Untersuchungen zum W andel der

A lltagskultur in D eutschland 95, 118 (Gerhard Huck ed., 1980). Indeed, in West Germany, where legal scholars continued to write methodologically more selfconscious analyses of rest periods than in the United States, authors maintained this pro-capital or, at least, pro-production bias not only by repeating this particular argument about why the pause must be scheduled within the workday, but also by arguing that work-free time and vacations in general are designed to enable workers to regenerate sufficiently to resume their work with “fresh powers.” Since these two sources of regenerative time, however, do not permit workers to work uninterruptedly during the workday, the state has mandated rest pauses at prescribed intervals. J. Denecke & Dirk Neumann, Arbeitszeitordnung: Kom m entar

163 (9th ed. 1976); Peter Meisel, “Die arbeitsrechtliche Bedeutung von Erholungs- zeiten,” 19 Recht der Arbeit 163 (1966) (quote). The stress on output of this version of rest periods, in which workers are merely instrumentalized for ever more efficient physiological processes without serving their own purposes, is striking.

27. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, New Patterns

fo r W orking Time: International Conference, Final Report 43-44 (1973); Archibald Evans, Hours o f Work in Industrialised Countries 83-84 (1975); Martha Lear, “Plea to Let Sleeping Men Lie,” N.Y. Times Mag., Sept. 27,1964, at 49, 51 (quote); “Q uick Lunch,” Newsweek, Apr. 28,1969, at 76; “Storm over Snoozes,” Newsweek, May 4, 1959, at 42; Paul Hoffmann, “Taps for the Siesta: Reveille for Romans,” N.Y. Times

Mag., Aug. 16, 1959, at 30; E. P. Thompson, “Time, W ork-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism,” Past & Present, No. 38, at 56, 60 (Dec. 1967). Even during W orld War I, when the French factory workday was almost twelve hours, a ninety- minute meal break was common so that workers could go home for lunch. Laura Downs, M anufacturing Inequality: G ender Division in the French and British M eta l

working Industries, 1914-1939, at 55 (1995).28. Verordnung uber die neue Fassung der Arbeitszeitordnung, § 21, Sept. 4,

1934, RGB1. I, 803, 810-11; Arbeitszeitordnung §§ 12 & 18(1), Apr. 30, 1938, RGBl. I, 447, 449, 450 (quote); 6 Jurgen Kuczynski, D ie Geschichte der Lage der

Arbeiter unter dem Kapitalismus: Darstellung der Lage der Arbeiter in D eutschland

von 1933 bis 1945, at 210-11, 215, 261 (1964); Timothy Mason, Sozialpolitik im D rit-

ten Reich: Arbeiterklasse und Volksgem einschaft 280-81 (1977).29. Betriebsverfassungsgesetz, § 87(1) 2., Jan. 15,1972, BGBl. 1, 13, 30; W ilhelm

Herschel, “Die Lage der Ruhepausen,” 1965 D er Betrieb 553 (quote); Gesetz zur Vereinheitlichung und Flexibilisierung des Arbeitszeitrechts (Arbeitszeitrechts- gesetz- ArbZRG), § 4, June 6, 1994, BGBl. I, 1170, 1171; Verordnung uber Ar- beitsstatten (Arbeitsstattenverordnung-ArbStattV), § 29, Mar. 25, 1975, BGBl. I,

729 ’ 735-





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30. Hans Rehhahn, “Produktivitat, Arbeitsintensitat und Lohn,” 6 Gew erk-

schajtliche M onatshefte 489, 492 (1955); Arbeitsgesetzbuch der Deutschen Demo- kratischen Republik vom 16. Juni 1977, § 165(1) & (2), Gbl. 1, 185, 209. Alternative

in continuous operation plants. Id. § 165(3).31. Otto Graf, Arbeitszeit und Produktivitat: Untersuchungsergebnisse wissen-

schaftlicher Forschungsinstitute: G anztagige Arbeitsablaufuntersuchungen an 200 Ar-

beitsplatzen 68-69 (*959); Franz Steinkiihler, “Nach dem Streik: 1 Arbeitsstunde = 52 Minuten” (1973), in 2 Kollektives Arbeitsrecht: Q uellentexte zu r Geschichte

des Arbeitsrechts in Deutschland 1933-1974, at 298 (Thomas Blanke et al. eds., 1.975) (quote); Lohnrahmentarifvertrag II: Zwischen dem Verband der Metall- industrie Baden-Wurttemberg e. V. und der Industriegewerkschaft Metall fur die Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Bezirksleitung Stuttgart, ^ 3.14, reprinted in W erk-

tage werden besser: D er K am pf um den Lohnrahm entarifvertrag II in Nordwiirttem-

berg/Nordbaden 174, 179-80 (Vorstand der IG Metall fur die Bundesrepublik Deutschland ed., 1977); Hans Guntner, “Begriindung des Einigungsvorschlags der Schlichtungsstelle fur einen Lohnrahmentarifvertrag fur die Arbeiter in der Metallindustrie in Nordwurttemberg/Nordbaden in den geschlichteten Haupt- regelungen” (Oct. 1,1973), in W erktage werden besser at 168,171 (quote).

32. Paul Schobel, Dem Fliefiband ausgeliefert: Ein Seelsorger erfahrt die Ar-

beitswelt 71 (1981) (quote); Hans Joachim Sperling, Pause als soziale Arbeitszeit:

Theoretische und praktische Aspekte einer gew erkschaftlichen Arbeits- und Zeitpoli-

tik 107-38,156-59 (1983); Eckart Hildebrandt & Boris Penth, “Humanisierung in der Krise: Der Stand der Humanisierungs-Experimente als Hintergrund der der- zeitigen DGB-Position,” in 10 Gesellschaft: Beitrage zu r M arxschen Theorie 246, 256, 276 (H.-G. Backhaus et al. eds., 1977); Eva Brumlop & W olf Rosenbaum, “ ‘Humanisierung der Arbeitsbedingungen’ durch gewerkschaftliche Tarifpolitik,” in Beitrage zur Soziologie der Gew erkschaften 264 (Joachim Bergmann ed., 1979); Friedrich Fiirstenberg, “Recent Trends in Collective Bargaining in the Federal Republic of Germany,” in John W indmiiller et al., C ollective Bargaining in Industrial

ised M arket Economies: A Reappraisal 207, 219 (1987); Kathleen Thelen, Union o f

Parts: Labor Politics in Postwar Germ any 187-89 (1991).33. Sperling, Pause als soziale Arbeitszeit at 134; Uwe Engfer et al., “Arbeits-

zeitsituation und Arbeitszeitverkurzung in der Sicht der Beschaftigten: Ergeb- nisse einer Arbeitnehmerbefragung,” in Claus Offe, “Arbeitsgesellschaft”: Struktur-

problem e und Zukunftperspektiven 167, tab. 6 at 180, tab. 7 at 182 (1984); “Einigung auf Haustarif fur fast 100000 Beschaftigte,” Sitddeutsche Zeitung, Sept. 13, 1995 (Lexis); “IG Metall weist Angebot von VW erneut zuriick,” Siiddeutsche Zeitung,

Sept. 9, 1995 (Lexis); “60000 Beschaftigte im Warnstreik,” Siiddeutsche Zeitung,

Sept. 5,1995 (Lexis); Schobel, Dem Fliefiband ausgeliefert at 34, 7i(reporting that at the Daimler-Benz plant at Sindelfingen the assembly line ran faster after the new break system was introduced); 1 Verband fu r Arbeitsstudien - REFA - E.V., Das

REFA - Buch: Arbeitsgestaltung 37-38 (5th ed. 1955 [1st ed. 1951]).34. League of Nations, International Labor Conference: First Annual Meeting,

October 29, 1919-N ovem ber 29, 1919 (1920); 3. Decreto de Mayo 21 de 1920 sobre

(paid) short rest periods totaling twenty minutes were also provided for workers




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nueva reglamentaci6n de la ley jornado obrera, §§ 13-16, in ILO, Legis. Ser. 1920— Ur. 3-5 at 4; M. Finch, A Political Economy o f Uruguay Since 18 jo , at 41-42 (1981); Zakon o zashtiti radenka, §§ 1, 3 ,11 (1922), ILO, Legis. Ser., 1922, SCS.i; Labour Code, § 30, May 13, 1931, in ILO, Legis. Ser., 1931 — Chile 1; Obshchee polozhenie o tarife, §§ 15-18 (1920), ILO, Legis. Ser., 1920— Russ. 1, at 2-3; Ulla Jansz, “Women or Workers? The 1889 Labor Law and the Debate on Protective Legislation in the Netherlands,” in Protecting Women at 188; Wet houdende tot be- perking van de arbeidsduur in het algemeen en tot het tegengaan van gevaarlijke arbejd, November 1,1919, art. 31(1).

35. Legal and Contractual Lim itations to W orking-Tim e in the European C om m u

nity M em ber States: European Foundation fo r the Improvement o f Living and Working

Conditions 37 (R. Blanpain &r E. Kohler eds., 1988) (on Denmark); An Act respecting hours of work, No. 604, Aug. 2,1946, § 16, in ILO, Legis. Ser., 1946— Fin. 4. at 6; Arbetstidslag, June 24,1982 (No. 763), §§ 15 & 17, at 1391,1394; Lov om arbeidervern og arbeidsmiljo, Feb. 4,1977, No. 4, § 51, Norges lover 2517, 2533. Although the Norwegian W orkers’ Protection Act of 1936 was in many ways quite stringent, its gender-neutral break provision was timid, requiring two breaks amounting to at least forty-five (but reducible by agreement between employer and employees to thirty) minutes only if daily hours exceeded eight, which constituted the statutory normal working day (§§ 17, 19-20, 22 (1)). Lov om arbeidervern, June 19, 1936, Norges lover 1682-948,1948,1952-53 (1950).

36. Council Directive 93/104/EC concerning certain aspects of the organization of working time, art. 4 (Nov. 23,1993), European Industrial Relations Review No. 242, at 29, 30 (Mar. 1994); Roger Blanpain, European Labour Law 232-33, 235 (3d ed. 1995); Innis Christie, Geoffrey England, & Brent Cotter, Employm ent Law

in Canada 239-40 (2d ed. 1993) (quote); Employment Standards Code, § 32(3), Alta. Stat. 1988, ch. E-10.2 at 7, 24 (thirty minutes); Employment Standards Act, § 32(1), B.C. Stat. 1980, ch. 10, at 47, 58 (half hour); Manitoba Minimum Wages and Working Conditions Regulation, § 8, Reg. 187/87 R, 116 Man. Gaz. 1303,1305 (1987) (one hour); Labour Standards Act, § 24, Nfld. Rev. Stat., 1990, ch. L-2, at 1,12 (one hour for wholesale/retail employments and half hour for other employees); Employment Standards Act, § 22, Ont. Rev. Stat. 1990, ch. E 14, at 1,11 (half hour); Labour Act, § 63.1, P.E.I. Rev. Stat. 1988, 1407, 1446 (half hour); An Act Respecting Labour Standards, § 79, Que. Rev. Stat., N - l .l (1994) (thirty-minute rest period for meals); Saskatchewan Minimum Wage Board Order (No. 2) 1981, § 7 (one hour except for employees who earn 25 percent or more above the minimum wage); Labour Standards Meal Reg., 2 Rev. Reg. N.W.T. ch. L-4 (1990) (thirty minutes); Employment Standards Act, § 12.(1), Yuk. Rev. Stat. 1986 (thirty minutes). On the thirty-minute provision in New Brunswick, see Labour Canada, Employm ent Standards Legislation in Canada, 19 9 3 -9 4 Edition 20 (1993).

37. Rodokijunho § 34(1), Law No. 49 of 1947; Hours of W ork and Rest Law, May 21,1951 (as amended), § 20(a) (Israel); Basic Conditions of Employment Act, 3 of 1983, § 7(1)(a) (S. Africa); Act on the Labour Code of the Hungarian Republic 1992 (No. XXII), § 122(1) (in International Encyclopedia fo r Labour Law and

230 Note to Page 151

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Industrial Relations: Legislation 2 (1994)). A number of socialist countries enacted rest provisions: Act No. 49 to promulgate the Labour Code, Dec. 28,1984, § 84, in ILO, Legis. Ser., 1984— Cuba 1, at 15 (30 minutes for rest and personal needs); Labour Code, June 16, 1965, § 89, in ILO, Legis. Ser., 1965 — Cz. 1, at 34 (fifteen minutes for food and rest); Labour Code, July 3,1973, § 57, in ILO, Legis. Ser., 1.985— Mongolian PR (no more than two hours for rest and meals); Act No. 2-VIII of Supreme Soviet, § 29, in ILO, Legis. Ser., 1970— USSR 1 (no more than two hours for rest and meals).

Chapter 9. “Go to the Bathroom Please. . . . We’llWait for You”: From At-Will Employment to At-Will Voiding

1. Friedrich Engels, “Dell’Autorita” (1874), in L24 Karl Marx [&] Friedrich Engels, Gesam tausgabe (MEGA) 82, 85 (1984); Stanley Nollen, New Work Sched

ules in Practice: Managing Tim e in a Changing Society 23 (1982). On the use of flextime in batch-process manufacturing, see id. at 23; Simcha Rosen, Flexible

Working Hours: An Innovation in the Quality o f Work Life 176-78 (1981).2. Georg Heller, “Die Arbeitszeit soil nicht mehr sinnlos zerkleinert wer-

den,” Stuttgarter Zeitung, Oct. 22,1973, reprinted in Werktage werden besser: D er

K am pf um den Lohnrahm entarifvertrag II in NordwurttembergfNordbaden 205, 206 (Vorstand der IG Metall fur die Bundesrepublik Deutschland ed., 1977) (quoting unionist); Agreement Between UAW and the General Motors Corporation 433 (Oct. 24, 1993) (“Sufficient labor will be provided to enable employees to obtain . . . relief”); Laura Downs, M anufacturing Inequality: G ender Division in

the French and British M etalworking Industries, 1914-1939, at 276 (1995) (“piddle breakers”); Michel Bosquet, “The ‘Prison Factory,’ ” New Left Rev., No. 73, M ay- June 1972, at 23 (“furtively”); E. H. Downey, History o f Work Accident Indemnity

in Iowa 5 (1912) (“blood tax”). W hen the UAW negotiated an additional twelve minutes of relief time for Ford workers in 1964, it was reported that the company “might add 1,250 more workers to provide me[n] to relieve those entitled to the added time off.” David Jones, “Ford Union Wins 63C More an Hour,” N.Y. Times,

Sept. 19,1964, at 1, col. 4, at 15, col. 5.3. Barbara Garson, A ll the Livelong Day: The M eaning and Dem eaning o f Rou

tine W ork 29 (1982 [ 19751) (quote) ; Heller, “Die Arbeitszeit soil nicht mehr sinnlos zerkleinert werden” at 206.

4. 1 Otto Bauer, Kapitalism us und Sozialism us nach dem Weltkrieg: Rationali

sierung— Fehlrationalisierung 95-96 (1931). On supervisory intensity, see David Gordon, “Bosses of Different Stripes: A Cross-National Perspective on Monitoring and Supervision,” 84 Am. Econ. Rev. 375 (1994).

5. H. Gerbis, “Die Rationalisierung in gewerblichen Betrieben vom gewerbehygienischen Standpunkt,” in Waffenschmidt, H. Gerbis, & H. Eibel, Arbeiter-

schutz und Rationalisierung 11, 22 (Beihefte zum Zentralblatt fur Gewerbehygiene und Unfallverhutung 14, 1929); Zw eites REFA-Buch: Erweiterte Einfiihrung in die

Arbeitszeiterm ittlung 27 (ReichsausschuS fur Arbeitsstudien ed., 1939 [1933])




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(quote). Cf. Production Handbook 12-43 to 12-47 (Gordon Carson et al. eds., 3d ed. 1972 [1st ed. 19241) (discussing time-study allowances for personal needs).

6. E.g., Fla. Stat. § 553.141 (1994); Minn. Stat. § 16B.615 (1994); 35 Pa. Stat. § 5820.3 (1995); Tenn. Code. Ann. § 68-120-503 (1995); Tex. Health & Safety Code § 341.068 (1995); Russell Snyder, ‘Governor Signs Potty Parity' Bill into Law,” UPI, Sept. 18,1987 (Lexis) (quoting California State Senator Art Torres, who filed the bill); 1989 N.Y. Laws ch. 270, § 1 (“threat”).

7. Paul Weingarten, “Men's Room Trip Opens Door to W omens Rights,” Chi.

Trib. July 29,1990, at 5 (Lexis) (“logistics" and quoting Julius Ballanco, senior staff engineer, Building Officials and Code Administrators International on “equality”); Elaine Ayala. “Potty Parity Issue Surfaces Again," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Aug. 15, 1990, at 3E (Lexis) (citing two studies comparing the time in the bathroom of men and w om en— 45 vs. 79 seconds and 84 vs. 180 seconds, respectively— and quoting Building Officials and Code Administrators official on “discriminating"). Contrary to public perception, prescriptions of potty parity do not date from the 1980s: as early as the 1940s, the Uniform Plumbing Code prescribed more toilets for females than males in elementary and secondary' schools, dormitories, theaters, and auditoriums. U.S. Dept, of Commerce & Housing and Home Finance Agency, Uniform

Plumbing Code: Report o f the Uniform Plum bing Code Com m ittee, tab. 6.16.1 at 2627 (1949). More recently the plumbing code extended the numerical differentials to hospitals, offices, penal institutions, and restaurants. International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials, Uniform Plumbing Code: 1994 Edition, appendix C at 189-93 (1994). The 1994 Uniform Building Code for the first time prescribed more water closets for women than for men in assembly places such as auditoriums and stadiums. 1 International Conference of Building Officials, Uni

form Building Code, tab. A-29-A at 495 (1994). The actual number of toilets prescribed for either sex, rather than being the product of scientific traffic and usage studies or cueing theory', is a “situated wild guess,” in the words of one of its creators, who also thought it was a “good question,” to which he had no good answer, as to why neither the uniform plumbing nor building code has applied potty parity to factories. Telephone interview with Alvin Kleinbeck, former Minnesota state building code administrator and member of the International Conference of Building Officials committee that formulated the minimum required number of plum bing fixtures for the 1994 Uniform Building Code, Minneapolis, MN (May 28,1997).

8. Snyder, “Governor Signs ‘Potty Parity’ Bill into Law” (quoting Yolanda Nava, wife of author of California law, who “got stuck behind fifty-six other women waiting to use the restroom” at music hall); Sandra Rawls, “Restroom Usage in Selected Public Buildings and Facilities: A Comparison of Females and Males” 126, tab. 23 at 13I (1988) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) (the smallest gap was 168 and 121 seconds in an airport, the largest 157 and 70 seconds in a sports arena; Rawls’s own percentages are all miscalculated, as they take men’s time as a share of womens time); G. Marshall, “ ‘Potty Parity’ Measure Moves Along,” ’ UPI, Oct. 17,1988 (Lexis); Raju Narisetti,




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“Products to Aid the Incontinent Are Growing Up,” Wall St. J., Nov. 13, 1995, at B1 (Westlaw) (data on incontinence); 29 C.F.R. § i6o4.i(a)(i)(ii) (1970) (quote); Barbara Brown, Thomas Emerson, Gail Falk, &r Ann Freedman, “The Equal Rights Amendment: A Constitutional Basis for Equal Rights for Women,” 80 Yale L.J. 871, 893 (1971) (quote).

9. Rosenfeld v. Southern Pac. Co., 444 F.2d 1219,1225 (9th Cir. 1971) (quote); Brown, Emerson, Falk, & Freedman, “The Equal Rights Amendment” at 893 (quote). “While it is physiologically perfectly possible for females to urinate in a standing position . . . perhaps the most important restriction is . . . posed by our clothing.” In particular, women “would be forced to disrobe completely.” Alexander Kira, The Bathroom 146 (rev. ed. 1976 [1st ed. 1966]). Freud, who regarded as a clear case of penis envy attempts by young girls to imitate their brothers by urinating while standing— which unsurprisingly resulted in wet shoes— presumably would not have joined the “socially constructed” camp. Sigmund Freud, “Erfah- rungen und Beispiele aus der Analytischen Praxis” (1913), in 10 Sigmund Freud, Gesam m elte Werhe 40, 41 (1946).

10. Taunya Banks, “Toilets as a Feminist Issue: A True Story,” 6 Berkeley

Women’s L.J. 263, 279-80 (1990) (quote); Lynch v. Freeman, 817 F.2d 380, 384, 388 (6th Cir. 1987) (quote); J. Lapides, R. T. Costello, D. K. Zierdt, & T. K. Stone, “Primary Cause and Treatment of Recurrent Urinary Infection in Women: Preliminary Report,” 100J. Urol. 552, 554 (1968) (quote); 30 Fed. Reg. 14,926,14,927 (1965). In fact, at least one set of observations, at a rubber factory in the 1920s, determined that women spent 3.97 minutes in the toilet compared with 4.25 minutes for men; this result was in part a function of the finding that only 11 percent of women spent more than 6 minutes in the toilet compared with 19 percent of men. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Recommended M ini

mum Requirements fo r Plumbing in Dwellings and Sim ilar Buildings: Final Report o f

Subcom m ittee on Plumbing o f the Building Code Com m ittee, July 3,1923, at 95 (1924).11. Andrew Pollack, “San Francisco Judge Voids V.D.T. Safety Law,” N.Y. Times,

Feb. 14, 1992, at A 14, col. 3 (Lexis); Andrew Pollack, “San Francisco Moves to Regulate Video Terminals,” N.Y. Times, Dec. 11, 1990, at A 20, col. 4 (Lexis); Eric Schmitt, “Suffolk Approves Video-Terminal Bill,” N.Y. Times, May 11, 1988, at B2 , col. 4 (Lexis); Conn. Gen. Stat. Ann. § 31-40U (West 1995) (in 1993 the Connecticut legislature required the state labor commissioner to issue guidelines, including rest breaks, for the use of VDTs for state employees, but apparently they have not been issued); NIOSH, Potential Health Hazards o f Video Display Terminals 70 (PB-82-2 18447, June 1981).

12. 42 U.S.C. § 12102(2)^X1990); 29 C.F.R. § i63o.2(j)(ii).13. 42 U.S.C. M 12111(8), 12112(a), 12112(b)(5)(A), i2 in (9 )(A ) &r (B), 12111(10)

(A) &r (B). The EEOC recently issued guidance suggesting that an employer of a cashier with a psychiatric disability who must drink every hour to combat the dry mouth associated with his medication “should consider . . . modifying its policy limiting cashiers to two 15-minute breaks . . . barring undue hardship” — to the




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employer. EEOC, Notice: E E O C Enforcement G uidance on the Am erican with Dis

abilities Act and Psychiatric Disabilities 25 (No. 915.002, Mar. 25,1997).14. 29 C.F.R. Pt. 1630, App. § 1630.2(0) at 407 (1995). Only employers employ

ing at least fifteen employees for twenty weeks per year are subject to the ADA. 42 U.S.C. § i2in(5)(A ). On the nineteenth-century statutes, see chapter 8 above.

15. Borkowski v. Valley Central School Dist., 63 F.3d 131,138 n .3 ,140-41 (2d Cir. 1995) (“de minimis,” “costly,” “essential”); 29 C.F.R. Pt. 1630, App. at 406 (“standards”); The Am ericans with Disabilities Act o f 1989, 101st Cong., 1st Sess. (S. Rep. No. 216, 1989), reprinted in 1 House Com m ittee on Education and Labor,

Legislative History o f Public Law 101-336, The Am ericans with D isabilities A ct 99, 129 (1990) (“entitle”); Am ericans with Disabilities Act o f 19 9 0 ,101st Cong., 2d Sess. (H.R. Rep. No. 485, pt. 2,1990), reprinted in 1 House Com m ittee on Education and

Labor, Legislative History o f Public Law 101-336, at 274, 337 (“during parts”).16. Lyons v. Legal Aid Society, 68 F.3d 1512, 1517 (2d Cir. 1995) (quote); 29

C.F.R. Pt. 1630, App. at 399 (quote). See also The Am ericans with D isabilities A ct of

1989, at 124-25.17. Milton v. Scrivner, Inc., 53 F.3d 1118,1125 (10th Cir. 1995).18. 42 U.S.C. § 12101(9).19. Lamouroux v. SA Groupe Bigard, No. 9500433, slip op. at 13,15 (Conseil

de Prud’hommes de Quimper, Mar. 18,1996) (quotes); “French Judge Says Worker ‘Pee-Breaks’ Are Allowed,” Reuters World Service, Mar. 18,1996 (Lexis); Andrew Jack, “French Factory Workers Flushed with Victory,” Financial Times, Mar. 19, 1996, at 3 (Lexis). See also W ilkie v. Travelers Ins. Co., 185 S.E.2d 783, 784 (Ga. Ct. App. 1971) (employees could use rest room “whenever necessary”); Edwards v. Liberty Mutual Ins. Co., 202 S.E.2d 208 (Ga. Ct. App. 1973) (employees were free to use rest room outside of scheduled breaks without obtaining permission).

20. June Kailes, “Barrier-Free Design Benefits All, Not Just Disabled,” L.A. Times, Aug. 5,1990, at K6, col. 1; Ruth Ryon, “The Open House: Universal-Design Homes Accommodate People with Impaired Movement, But Appeal to All,” L.A. Times, May 31,1992, at K l, col. 2 (Lexis); Peter Blanck, Com m unicating the A m eri

cans with Disabilities Act: Transcending Compliance: A Case Report on Sears, Roebuck

and Co. 33-34 (1994); Peter Blanck, Com m unicating the Am ericans with Disabilities

Act: Transcending Compliance: 1996 Follow -Up Report on Sears, Roebuck and Co. 1415 (1996). On the Danish nurses, see chapter 3 above. Urinary machismo extends to international “ ‘bladder diplomacy,’ ” of which Syrian president Assad is a master; “the 64-year-old’s personal endurance for long meetings without a restroom break” underscores his “toughness and cunning” and forced the U.S. secretary of state into a “ ‘contest . . . not to take a bathroom break.’ ” Lee Katz, “President Likely to Get Earful from Long-Winded Assad,” USA Today, Oct. 27,1994, at 3A (quoting Secretary of State James Baker) (Lexis).

21. National Interfaith Committee for Worker Justice, Code o f Ethics fo r Poul

try Com panies (1997); “Relief as French ‘Pee Break’ Strike Ends,” Reuters World Service, Aug. 9, 1995 (Lexis) (quoting Lucien Bigard, owner of a large French slaughterhouse); Jill Fraser, “The Executive Life: This Is One Facility Not Being





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Eliminated,” N.Y. Times, Dec. 12,1993, sec. 3, at 23, col. 1 (Lexis) (quote); Harold McNeil, “Housing Authority Employees Disagree with Recently Released, Scathing Audit,” Buffalo News, July 16,1996, at B4 (Lexis) (scanner). To be sure, successful dissimulation presupposes simulation: “There’s a certain irony in factory work. I wrote a quit-slip once. . . . It read: ‘Reason for discharge — caught sitting on toilet with his pants up.’ . . . Outside a factory, people try not to get caught with their pants down. But there it’s up.” Lowell Carr &r James Stermer, W illow Run: A Study of Industrialization and Cultural Inadequacy 182 (1952). Union officials readily admit that some workers may “abuse bathroom privileges”; telephone interviews with Luther Williams, U CFW official at IBP plant in Waterloo, IA (Oct. 11,1995); Norman Mitchell, president, IUE, Local 761, Louisville, KY (Oct. 30, 1995). For historical examples of workers’ use of the bathroom as part of struggles over informal pauses, see Lothar Machtan, “Zum Innenleben deutscher Fabriken im 19. Jahrhundert: Die formelle und die informelle Verfassung von Industriebetrieben, anhand von Beispielen aus dem Bereich der Textil- und Maschinenbauproduktion (1869-1891),” 20 Archiv fu r Sozialgeschichte 179, 213-18 (1981).

22. M anagem ent’s Handbook 877 (L. P. Alford ed. 1924) (quote); Chris Wheal, “Employers and Unions Both Divided over ‘Tea Break’ Deal,” The Engineer, Jan. 16, 1992, at 8 (British engineering construction union negotiating elimination of tea break in exchange for shorter Friday); Mitchell v. Turner, 286 F.2d 104,105 (5th Cir. i960) (quote) See also N.Y. State Dept, of Labor, Bureau of Women in Industry, Industrial Posture and Seating 13 (Spec. Bull. No. 104,1921). Even Leonard Horner, the British factory inspector whom Marx praised for his service to the working class, opined that employers violated neither the letter nor the intent of the law — namely, preventing workers from “being made to work too long without refreshment” — when they shortened the working day by one half hour of the 1 Vi-hour meal period. Reports o f the Inspectors o f Factories fo r the Half-Year Ending

30th April 1848, at 8 (26 Pari. Pap. 1847-1848, c. 957).23. Robert Arndt, “Work Pace, Stress, and Cumulative Trauma Disorders,” 12A

J. Hand Surgery 866, 869 (1987) (quote); NICB, Rest Periods fo r Industrial Workers

38 (Research Rep. No. 13,1919) (quote); 2 Verbandfiir Arbeitsstudien - REFA - E.V.,

Das REFA - Buch: Zeitvorgabe 38 (5th ed. 1955 [1st ed. 19511).24. In re Air System Components & Sheet Metal Workers Local 68,104 Lab.

Arb. (BNA) 477 (1995) (Lexis) (union prevailing at arbitration); Juliet Schor, “Worktime in Contemporary Context: Amending the Fair Labor Standards Act,” 70 C hi.-K ent L. Rev. 157,167 (1994); Juliet Schor, The Overworked American: The

Unexpected D ecline o f Leisure 216 n.23 (1991) (quote).25. Robert Schrank, Ten Thousand Working Days (1978); 1 Karl Marx, Das

Kapital: Kritik der politischen Oekonom ie 2 0 0 -2 0 2 (1867; photomechanical reprint 1959). The influential German-American industrial psychologist Hugo Miinster- berg used the term “working power” in his English-language writings to translate the German term Arbeitskraft. Hugo Miinsterberg, Psychology and Industrial Effi

ciency 221-39 (1913)-26. See chapter 2 above.




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27. J. Ramsay, R. E. Rawsom, et al., Rest-Pauses and Refreshments in Industry:

An Inquiry into the Operation o f Rest-Pauses and M id-Shift Refreshments in Factories

in Seven Industrial Areas in Great Britain, 32 (Nat. lnstit. Indus. Psychology Rep. No. 8,1939).

28. David Montgomery, W orkers’ Control in Am erica: Studies in the Flistory of

Work, Technology, and Labor Struggle 9-31 (1980 [1979]); David Montgomery, The

Fall o f the House o f Labor: The W orkplace, the State, and Am erican Labor Activism,

18 6 5-19 25, at 9-44 (1989 [1987]); Maurine Greenwald, Women, War, and Work:

The Impact o f World War I on Women Workers in the United States 99 (1980) (quote).29. Joan Sangster, Earning Respect: The Lives o f Working Women in Small-Town

Ontario, 1920-1960, at 168 (1995) (“washroom”); Nina Shapiro-Perl, “Resistance Strategies: The Routine Struggle for Bread and Roses,” in My Troubles A re Going

to Have Trouble with Me: Everyday Trials and Triumphs o f Women W orkers 193, 198 (Karen Sacks &r Dorothy Remy eds., 1984) (“progressive employer”); Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body: A Cultural Analysis o f Reproduction 95, 97 (1992 [1987]) (“resistance,” “solidarity”). It is reported, furthermore, that white male supervisors at a large tobacco plant in North Carolina, in an act combining class, race, and sexual repression, customarily invaded the womens toilets to order the occupants back to work. Philip Foner, Women and the Am erican Labor Movement:

From the First Trade Unions to the Present 383 (1982 [1979]).30. Marc Linder, Migrant Workers and M inim um Wages: Regulating the E xploi

tation o f Agricultural Labor in the United States (1992).31. John Stuart Mill, Principles o f Political Economy (1848), 963-65 (W. Ashley

ed., 8th ed. 1926).32. Brooklyn Savings Bank v. O ’Neil, 324 U.S. 697, 706 (1945) (quote); West

Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379, 399-400 (1937) (quote); K. H. E. Kroe- mer et al., Ergonomics: How to Design fo r Ease and Efficiency 419-20 (1994).

33. 93 Cong. Rec. 1502 (1947) (statement of Rep. Klein); Dramatic Rise in Re

petitive M otion Industries and O SH A ’s Response: Hearing Before the Employm ent and

Housing Subcomm. o f the Comm, on Governm ent Operations, 101st Cong., 1st Sess. 61 (1989) (Rep. Martinez).

34. O. Matousek & J. Ruzicka, Psychologie der industriellen Arbeit 81 (W. Nachti- gall tr., 1968); Mike Parker 61 Jane Slaughter, Choosing Sides: Unions and the Team

Concept (1988) (quote); James Womack, Daniel Jones, & Daniel Roos, The M a

chine That Changed the World 80 (1991 [1990]).35. For examples from large wartime plants, see “What the Men Eat,” Bus. W k.,

Apr. 18,1942, at 73.36. The Shops and Shop-Assistants Act, 1894, N.Z. Acts., No. 32, §§ 15(a) & (b)

at 153,157 (1894); Fla. Stat. § 448.05 (1995). On compliance with this provision in New Zealand, see 2 William Pember Reeves, State Experim ents in Australia & N ew

Zealand 190 (1903). In 1904 the New Zealand Parliament amended the statute to require employers to permit female shop assistants to use the seats “at reasonable intervals throughout the day.” The Shops and Offices Act, 1904, N.Z. Acts, No. 52,





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§ 6(b) at 277, 280. The Seats for Shop Assistants (Scotland) Act, 1899, Bill No. 82, in 7 H.C. Pari. Pap. 71 (1899), was modeled on the New Zealand statute.

37. In connection with German employers’ far-reaching obligation to regulate operations so as to avoid impairing workers’ health and safety, the fact that the Code expressly preserves an employee’s right to be compensated when he is prevented from working for personal reasons for short periods without fault creates a legal basis for viewing unavoidable voiding simply as part of compensable working time. Btirgerliches Gesetzbuch §§ 618 (1), 616(1).

38. General Electric Company <Sr Local 761, International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, AFL-CIO , Case No. 52 30 0047 69, at 1-2, 4-5 (Nov. 10,1969) (Larkin, Arb.). Zinninger’s death at the age of eighty-three precisely on the day this section was written thwarted plans to interview her. “Louisville Area Deaths,” Louisville Courier-Journal, Nov. 7,1995, at B6 (Lexis).

39. General Electric Company & Local 761, at 6.40. Id. at 7.41. Id. at 10, 11, 13-15 (quotes); telephone interview with Norman Mitchell,

president, IUE, local 761, Louisville, KY (Oct. 30 and Nov. 8,1995).42. Oral History Interview with Richard Lindner, Fort Dodge, IA, Aug. 8,1981,

transcript at 16 (Iowa Labor History Oral Project, State Historical Society, Iowa City, IA) (cited with permission of Mark Smith, Iowa Federation of Labor).

43. A ll Things Considered (National Public Radio, radio broadcast, Oct. 17, 1995) (Lexis).




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rest breaks and the right to urinate on company time.

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