In this issue . .Introduction

1. Guelph's long tradition of aquatic research excellence2. Welcome to an aquatic oasis

Animal Welfare

1. Top of the scale2. A blood test for fish

Aquaculture

1. A magnet for fish research2. Moonstruck!3. 100 tonnes every day4. Toward a sustainable fishery5. No place like home6. Plotting a genetic roadmap for fish7. Developing 'community friendly' aquaculture abroad8. Scaling up9. Char from afar

Diseases

1. First in the field2. Drawing a bead on fish disease3. 911... for fish4. Controlling viral diseases5. Working with 0076. A voice for fish immune cells

Ecology

1. On the brink of extinction2. In search of cold-blooded polar giants3. Managing human impact on the environment4. Seals or scapegoats5. Unlocking the copepod secret6. Balms away7. A new fish on the block8. Sea quest9. Blame it on nature

10. A crab's eye view11. A catalogue of opportunistic creatures12. Dealing with roundworm diseases13. Musseling in14. Shore enough15. When plants hold their breath

16. Understanding gills' other function17. An aquatic pitstop on the information superhighway18. Probing fish history19. Fishing for trouble20. Red alert!21. Promoting informed aquatic management

Environment

1. Environmental partnership spans the continent2. Shore-friendly solutions3. Environmental math-odology4. The Great Lakes other mussel menace5. Aqua-invaders6. Lights on, mussels gone7. A slippery solution8. A plethora of purple9. Saving rainforest amphibians

10. Turning channels11. Understanding the Fraser12. In with the old13. Lime-aid14. Suntan lotion...for fish?

Evolution

1. Send in the clones2. A wonder of nature3. What stimulates limb regeneration?4. Adaptation...or extinction5. Singing a different tune6. Hot tuna

Human Health

1. Primitive fish shed light on kidney disease2. Better heart health3. Fast-food salmon

Ichthyology

1. Head of its class2. E.T., Ro and Eugenie3. Swimming Flowers

Nutrition

1. A diet that's too rich...invitamins!

2. First and foremost3. Working towards cost-effective

nutrition

Toxicology

1. Bringing nature to the laboratory2. Understanding chemical exposure on food animals3. Struggling with a naturally toxic effluent4. The heavy-metal research question

Back toContents... Guelph's long tradition of aquatic research

excellence

mong Guelph's recognized strengths inaquatic sciences is its roster of

ichthyologists -- scientists who study fish -- thelargest such group in North America.

U of G has been a centre of expertise in aquaticsciences since the late 1960s, when KeithRonald, then dean of the College of BiologicalScience, launched a marine biology program thatimmediately attracted prominent ichthyologists.

The current focal point for the group is the Institute of Ichthyology, formed in1990 to enhance graduate training and research in the field of fish studies atGuelph. Managed by a group of core members who provide continuing fiscal andoperating support, the institute serves as a base for adjunct professors, trainedinstructors, laboratory technicians, administrative staff, visiting scientists,postdoctoral researchers and graduate students.

Among its other research and teaching facilities, the institute houses one of thelargest collections of museum-quality fish fossils in the world. It was donated toGuelph in 1989 by U.S. ichthyologist and author Herbert Axelrod. A longtimefriend of U of G, Axelrod has been a guest lecturer since 1973, was awarded anhonorary doctorate of science in 1978 and was named an adjunct professor in theDepartment of Zoology in 1989.

The Axelrod Collection, valued at $24 million, provides information essential tounderstanding evolutionary origins, relationships among species and changesthrough time.

Zoology professor David Noakes, director of the Institute of Ichthyology and afounding core member, says one of the institute's great strengths is the wide varietyof research conducted by its members.

"The research activities of core members remain diverse, in freshwater and marinefish species from the Arctic to the tropics," he says. "Our collaboration withinternational colleagues continues at all levels, from postgraduate students tovisiting faculty members.

Core members of the Institute of Ichthyology include Profs. David Noakes, EugeneBalon, Bill Beamish, Moira Ferguson, John Leatherland, Donald Stevens and GlenVan Der Kraak. Research conducted by each is cited in this issue of Research.

Back toContents... Welcome to an aquatic oasis

Aquatic sciences facility surfaces

By Steve O'Neill and Owen Roberts

ow dry is Guelph? So dry that the nearby water body bearing the city's name-- Guelph Lake -- was made by human hands. As in a desert town, the

shallow river that drifts through Guelph all but dries up most summers. Even theriverside canoe rental agency has added bicycles to its stable.

Paradoxically, this landlocked city has some of the province's best municipalwater, much of it drawn from springs in the peaceful countryside. It's also home totwo renowned breweries, which use that fresh water. And it's home to some ofCanada's top expertise in aquatic science -- at the University of Guelph.

"We have one of the largest groups of aquatic biologists of any university inCanada," says Prof. Paul Hebert, chair of the Department of Zoology. "The depthand breadth of expertise we have here makes this a very exciting place to work."

Each year, about 30 students complete honors B.Sc. degrees in fisheries science ormarine biology; another 20 M.Sc. and PhD students complete research programsfocused on aquatic organisms.

When they graduate, they get jobs. The corridors of marine research facilities suchas St. Andrews Biological Station in New Brunswick are rife with U of Ggraduates, as are the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and EnvironmentCanada.

The reason for the graduates' success? Many believe it's because U of G's aquaticinterests are so diverse and cross-disciplinary. Researchers from at least a dozendepartments bring their expertise to bear on areas as diverse as toxicology,nutrition, aquaculture, physiology, evolution and ecology. Their activities arepresented in this publication.

As aquatic research and teaching at Guelph expand, so too do the facilities thatsupport these activities. The University's Alma Aquaculture Research Stationrecently became fully operational; among many other resources, the stationprovides Ontario's only fish quarantine facility for aquaculture. Like other researchstations at the University of Guelph, it is owned by the Ontario Ministry ofAgriculture, Food and Rural Affairs and operated by the University.

And another ambitious project is coming to fruition. The University is building a$6-million aquatic sciences facility that will consist of Aqualab, a state-of-the-artlaboratory for experimental work on aquatic organisms, and the Institute ofIchthyology. The institute will provide space for fisheries research, visitingscientists and the preparation of two international journals.

Hebert says Aqualab will offer an opportunity to study all facets of aquaticsciences. It will be equipped with both freshwater and saltwater systems and will

have a unique "thermal exchanger" so that researchers can maintain temperaturesparallel to those in any body of water in the world.

Why invest more in aquatic sciences? Hebert says it's a national imperative.

"There has never been a more important time for aquatic research in Canada,especially considering the collapse of the East Coast fishing industry," he says."Canada must move to build an aquaculture industry to replace the now-depletedwild fisheries. Aqualab will contribute to this national effort both by targeting thedevelopment of protocols for the aquaculture of new species and by extending ourgeneral knowledge of aquatic organisms."

A fund-raising campaign is under way to support completion of the aquaticsciences facility. Donations will enhance $4 million in funding now in place fromprivate donors, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council and theprovincial and federal governments. The facility is scheduled to open its doorslater this year.

And on the electronic front, a team of researchers and students co-ordinated byHebert is embarking on a project aimed at compiling descriptions of every knownaquatic organism in the Great Lakes.

The Great Lakes Ecosystem Project will bring together researchers from theuniversities of Guelph, Waterloo and Dartmouth(U.S.) To create a CD-ROM atlasof the several thousand species, with photos of each. Guelph is the core universityfor the five-year, $500,000 initiative - eight of the 11 faculty involved are from Uof G's Zoology Department.

Partial funding for the project has been provided by the Max Bell Foundation andHuman Resources Canada; additional funding is currently being sought.

Back toContents... A blood-test for fish

By Steve O'Neill

illing a fish to find out how healthy it isseems like the ultimate contradiction. But

because no one had ever invented a blood test forthe species, researchers had few non-lethalalternatives for assessing certain environmentaldamage in fish. That is poised to change.

Zoology professor Jim Ballantyne is using ablood test he developed in his Guelph laboratoryto study the health of Ontario lake sturgeon andB.C. Pacific salmon. It's modelled after similartests commonly used to measure the health of other animals, including humans.

"We're beginning to know enough about fish metabolism and other physiologicalactivity to perform blood tests on them," says Ballantyne. "Plasma, amino-acid andfatty-acid levels are routinely used as indicators of metabolic state in humans, andsimilar approaches can be applied to fish."

Historically, sample fish from populations were killed and examined to understandthe effects of environmental conditions. This presented problems, particularly inthe wake of heightened sensitivity to animal welfare. In species such as lakesturgeon, it also depletes the breeding population, which is already small due tooverfishing and late maturity. (Sturgeon only start reproducing once they reachabout 15 years of age, 10 years older than most species).

Ballantyne's Ontario project, funded by Ontario Hydro, is looking at the impact ofhydroelectric dams on the health of sturgeon in Northern Ontario lakes. It's animportant concern because the fish are a major source of food and revenue in theNorth, particularly for native communities.

In B.C., Ballantyne is looking at how changes made to the Fraser River haveaffected the spawning activity of Pacific salmon. He says one of the mostimportant aspects of the research is that it's being conducted using the non-lethalblood-testing method.

"As we become increasingly sensitive to animal welfare, this type of process willbe used more and more. Society will not tolerate low-tech approaches."

Back toContents... A magnet for fish research

Alma Aquaculture Research Station attracts researchers from across campus

By Steve O'Neill

rom introducing new varieties of fish to improving familiar ones, researchersat the Alma Aquaculture Research Station are working to optimize Canada's

fast-growing aquacultural industry.

Since its establishment in 1989, the Alma station has become one of the busiestcentres of interdisciplinary research at the University of Guelph. Funded through a20-year development grant from the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food andRural Affairs (OMAFRA), the station houses an on-line laboratory, offices, controlrooms and meeting rooms.

All this makes Alma a magnet for a plethora of fish-related projects conducted byGuelph researchers, says station director Prof. Richard Moccia, Animal and PoultryScience.

"The Alma station is a real centre for University-wide collaboration," he says."People from four colleges and eight different departments are currently doingwork at the station." Projects under way at Alma include:

A study designed to adjust the protein requirements of Arctic char, lower the costof feeding them and, in turn, lower their cost to the consumer.

Attempts to develop better fish semen and egg management procedures for diseasecontrol and breeding purposes.

Studies designed to increase understanding of hormone activity in fish and toeventually regulate their growth.

Alma also acts as a quarantine unit for new fish varieties entering Ontario. In 1992,the station made the news when it cleared Arctic char, Atlantic salmon and spring-spawning rainbow trout -- fish never before raised in Ontario -- for use byprovincial fish farmers.

The station has also expanded beyond acting solely as a base for research. Parts oftwo certificate courses and an M.Sc. program in aquaculture are staged there, asare industry workshops and product trials. It's become an integral part oftechnology transfer and training in the aquaculture field.

Moccia says the Alma station's ultimate importance lies in its interdisciplinarynature. "Part of our purpose is to facilitate networking among researchers,government personnel, students and industry. That's very necessary. In research,success requires collaboration, and the Alma station is an initiative to create a focalpoint for that activity."

In addition to OMAFRA's support, the Alma Aquaculture Research Station

receives funding and management support from U of G, the Ontario Ministry ofNatural Resources and the Ontario Aquaculture Association.

Back toContents... The 100-tonne-a-day problem

By Steve O'Neill

he streets in Madurai, India, are a sorry sight.Garbage from the city's food industries --

which produce much of the fare for neighboringcities -- piles up at the astounding rate of 100 tonnesa day. Facilities just don't exist to deal with thatmountain of trash.

Madurai, which has a population of more than amillion, is home to zoology PhD graduateArumugam Kumaraguru. Now an associateprofessor at Madurai Kamaraj University,Kumaraguru is using his expertise to solve the city'swaste-disposal problem.

"The garbage-collection system in Madurai is very poor," he says. "Much of thewaste just lies on the side of the road. It's awful to see, and it presents potentialhealth and environmental problems."

So he's taking some action. Noting that most of the waste generated is of animaland vegetable origin, he decided to use his background in fish research to developa way to recycle it -- namely, turning it into fish food.

Such a process would have applications beyond waste management. Intensiveaquaculture hasn't been practised in Kumaraguru's region of India, largely becausethere's been no domestically manufactured fish feed. Assuming it could beconverted, the waste from Madurai alone would provide enough feed to start asignificant aquaculture industry in the region.

After collecting and drying waste products from food producers, Kumaraguruexperimented by using varying proportions of different types of food and addingother products such as flour to the mixtures. Using U of G facilities, he analysedthe mixtures for protein and carbohydrate content and other properties. Afterdeveloping a feed for tilapia (an important food fish in his region of India) that hebelieved was acceptable, he put it to the real test -- feeding it to fish at his homeuniversity.

The results? "Preliminary tests show that the growth rate of fish fed the waste-based food is comparable with that of fish raised on commercially available feed,"says Kumaraguru. He also notes that fish fed the new product seem to stay ashealthy as those fed commercial feed.

He is hopeful that, after more tests, the new feed-processing method will not onlyhelp solve Madurai's waste problem, but will also help introduce a new industry toIndia.

"Aquaculture is in its original stage in India. This feed could play an important role

in the direction it takes."

Kumaraguru's research, conducted in collaboration with zoology professor BillBeamish, is sponsored by the Canadian International Development Agency and theNatural Sciences and Engineering Research Council.

Back toContents... Toward a sustainable fishery

By: Lisa Chandler

n the face of the virtual collapse of Atlanticfisheries, government officials, fishers and

industry people are scrambling to come up withviable alternatives. Aquaculture may be one, andalthough it might bring much-needed wealth to theregion, a U of G researcher cautions that there maybe a price tag attached.

Prof. Isobel Heathcote of the School of Engineeringand Faculty of Environmental Sciences is co-ordinating the planning of a comprehensivemultidisciplinary study to devise a framework forsustainable marine resource utilization. Thatsustainablity can be achieved by treating aquatic lifeas something that, like field crops, must be tendedand renewed, she says.

"Aquaculture is like agriculture of the sea. If we areto develop a truly sustainable fishery, now is the appropriate time to develop abetter understanding of the linkages in the marine environment so that we do notrepeat the same mistakes that have been made with cod fisheries," she says.

Together with several other Guelph colleagues and researchers from a number ofother Canadian universities, Heathcote plans to study many facets of the Atlanticfishery, including not only environmental assessments of traditional fisheries, newfisheries and aquaculture, but also their social, economic and legal implications.

The Huntsman Marine Science Centre, located near New Brunswick's Bay ofFundy, will be home base for much of the research. Heathcote hopes to developshared field sites in Passmoquoddy Bay so that researchers from differentdisciplines can compare and exchange data from the same locations.

The researchers are particularly interested in investigating the effects ofintroducing alien species and structures -- like the large floating cage enclosuresused by aquaculturists -- into the coastal environment. Central to their work isdeveloping an understanding of how the various physical, chemical and biologicalcomponents of the marine environment interact, and how stable ecosystemsrespond to natural and human forces such as commercial harvests.

Marine extraction activities of all kinds have the potential to affect the coastalenvironment, including water chemistry, community and population structure,genetic diversity and reproductive success. Aquaculture, in particular, canimpoverish gene pools and promote interbreeding of natural species with newlyintroduced aquaculture species, which leads to altered community structure.

"The dynamic relationship between the natural bay ecosystem and the artificial

environment of enclosures is still poorly understood," says Heathcote. "In thisproject, we are trying to develop a kind of marketable expertise in sustainableaquaculture that will be of use to the East Coast fishery and abroad."

Atlantic Canadian students will benefit from instructional materials to bedeveloped from the project. There are plans for a textbook and for computer-aidedinstruction packages on CD-ROM. In addition, there is potential for developingtechnology-transfer programs for Asia and other coastal nations.

Back toContents... No place like home

By Anne LeBold

ocal commercial strains ofspring-spawning rainbow

trout fare the best for aquaculture,say U of G researchers.

In a study designed to help improve the genetic background of breeds used inaquaculture, Prof. Ian McMillan and research associate Laura McKay, Animal andPoultry Science, monitored the development of various local and imported strainsof rainbow trout.

By comparing growth and sexual maturation rates, they aimed to help local fishfarmers understand which spring-spawning strains would best complement existingfall/winter-spawning programs. Ultimately, they hope their findings will createmore year-round fish production as the industry uses successful breeding strategiesfrom other agricultural sectors.

"Aquaculture is a reasonably new area in Ontario," says McMillan. "Fish havesome unique characteristics, but we would like to adapt breeding programscurrently used in areas such as cattle and swine so they could be used in a fishsituation."

The researchers looked at four lines of spring-spawning trout: an imported commercial line of rainbow trout from the U.S. West Coast; a localcommercial strain, managed to spawn in the spring through the use of artificiallighting; a commercial strain developed by a local farmer who crossed fast-growing winter spawners with slow-growing spring spawners; and a non-commercial spring-spawning strain two to three generations removed from thewild.

Their findings pointed to better growth in the local commercial cross-bred strainand the local commercial light-manipulated strain. They exhibited higher averageweights of 1,437 grams and 1,035 grams respectively, whereas the imported strainweighed on average only 666 grams. In addition, the imported strain had highermortality rates than the cross-bred strain, plus early sexual maturation among themales (which, because mature males fight and damage each other, lowers theircommercial value).

McKay warns that fish farmers should "be careful how they use the imported strainin breeding programs by selecting heavily for later maturation and high growthrates."

Under commercial conditions, the imported strain showed a growth rate about halfas good as when they were raised in optimal conditions, showing that rearingenvironment plays as key a role as genetics does in fish production.

The non-commercial strain of rainbow trout fared the poorest, displaying the

lowest rates of growth and the highest levels of mortality.

This study is sponsored by the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and RuralAffairs and the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources.

Back toContents... Plotting a genetic roadmap for fish

By Anne LeBold

ene mapping for better breeding andconservation is the wave of the future in

the fish world, say U of G researchers.

Profs. Moira Ferguson and Roy Danzmann,Zoology, are searching for -- and in some cases,have found -- genetic "polymorphisms" ormarkers. Their goal is to localize anddifferentiate between genes associated withgrowth, spawning times, rates of development,maturity and temperature tolerance in rainbowtrout, the most common aquacultural species inCanada.

The researchers say their work will benefit fish farmers and breeders, who will beable to cross-breed more effectively when they can isolate and identify the geneticmarkers for desirable traits. In addition, conservationists will be better able tomanage and preserve genetic variability among wild fish stocks.

"The goal is to implement marker-assisted selection in the fish industry in the sameway it is used in other industries such as barley, oats and tomatoes," saysDanzmann.

Using molecular genetic techniques to magnify tiny samples of extracted DNA, theresearchers hope to map markers on specific genetic regions in fish cells. Thesemarkers will provide "landmarks" so the researchers can determine which markersare associated with which traits.

For this study, they're using DNA extracted from mitochondria (the parts of thecell that produce energy) as markers. Danzmann and Ferguson are focusing onlyon female genes because mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited. All offspringwill inherit their mother's mitochondrial DNA marker, but only the daughters passthe marker to the next generation.

Mitochondrial DNA analysis has enabled the researchers to identify certainmarkers for different spawning times (spring vs. fall) and markers for variablegrowth rates. From an aquacultural perspective, this discovery means that iffarmers wanted a fall-spawning stock with a high growth rate, they could breedonly the fish that displayed the markers for these traits.

In addition to rainbow trout, Ferguson and Danzmann have studied geneticmarkers in other salmonid species such as brook trout, Atlantic salmon and pinksalmon. All these species have a tetraploid origin, which means they have doublesets of genetic information, unlike the single set of most back-boned animals.

Because of that origin, salmonid fish have one set of genes that may not be

necessary for normal development.

Sometimes, one set of genes is "silenced" or not expressed. In other instances, bothsets of genes are expressed. The researchers are examining how these differencesaffect physical characteristics in the fish.

"The basic knowledge gained from this research will further our understanding ofthe mechanisms of gene transmission, regulation and expression and the influenceof specific chromosomal regions on physical traits in these tetraploid organisms,"says Danzmann.

This research is sponsored by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources throughits Renewable Resource Research Grant Program, the Department of Fisheries andOceans and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council.

Back toContents... Developing `community friendly' aquaculture

abroad

By Leigh Funston

quaculture can contribute to rural development through improved nutrition,job creation and the use of otherwise underutilized resources. But there's

poor understanding of all the variables at play in technology transfer. A U of Ggraduate student has created a framework for developing countries to help marryaquacultural operations and local needs.

Caroline Poussart of the University School of Rural Planning and Developmentspent seven months in rural Colombia conducting a comparative study of threefishing villages where aquacultural projects had been implemented. Her research,carried out in collaboration with Prof. Harry Cummings, was aimed at makingrecommendations to optimize the introduction of aquaculture.

Although the fishing industry has declined in recent years, consumer demand forfish products has increased, sparking new interest in aquaculture. The costs ofraising fish are lower than those involved in raising land-dwelling animals. Inaddition, conditions are more controllable and production predictions are morereliable than those associated with wild aquatic resources. That makes fish farmingattractive to rural communities hard hit by the collapse of fishing and otherindustries.

But attempts by development agencies to help develop aquaculture in such areashave often fared badly because the technology is not adapted to the specific regionit's being transferred into, says Poussart. What must be considered is the type ofaquaculture best suited to a particular community and the most beneficial sector ofthat community for implementing the new technology, she says.

To that end, Poussart has developed a framework of guidelines based on herresearch at the three model villages. Taking into account the strengths andweaknesses she observed in the introduction of aquaculture in those communities,she's made recommendations for developers working in the field. She targetsseveral key areas.

* Making realistic financial predictions. Aquaculture is not an economic cure-all,and a thorough analysis should be conducted to ensure that participants in thefledgling industry perceive that the benefits of taking part in the aquacultureproject -- both monetary and others such as learning new skills -- will justify theirlabor, time and financial investment.

* Integrating as much of the population as possible into the industry. Poussart saysthat in addition to defining those members of the population to be directly involvedin their projects, planners should develop secondary or support activities for othermembers of the community and make a concerted effort to assess the potential roleof women and non-fishers in the industry.

* Inviting input from the community. Residents of the targeted area are planners'

greatest source of information about the community's historical and currentcircumstances and should be involved from the initial stage of the project.

Poussart is hopeful that her framework will be useful to development organizationsand government agencies that have already implemented aquaculture projects orare considering doing so. She notes that the collapse of fisheries has putcommunities that prove adept at initiating fish farming in a unique position in thisimportant growth industry.

"As the world demand continues to grow, any increase in aquatic production in thefuture will come from aquaculture."

Poussart's research was sponsored by the International Development ResearchCentre. Additional institutional support was provided by Colombia's NationalFisheries and Aquaculture Institute and Aquaculture Regional Network.

Back toContents... Scaling up

By Bernard Van Der Stichele and Steve O'Neill

ntario fish farms produce about 2,700 tonnes of rainbow

trout a year. It takes a lot of food to raise that many fish, and one-third oftheir intake is eventually converted to waste. To maintain good fish health, thatwaste must be removed.

Engineering professor Peter Chisholm and graduate student Andrew Ireland areexploring new environmentally sound ways to design waste-management systemsfor aquaculture operations, using the commercial-scale facilities at the AlmaAquaculture Research Station.

Much of a fish's body waste dissolves or settles to the bottom of rearing tanks.Chisholm and his research team have designed unique transport systems tocontinuously remove the settled solids from the tanks. Through their process,dissolved and suspended solids are directed to a controlled settling zone outsidethe rearing tanks, where they are allowed to settle on the floor of "clarifiers."

"In the clarifiers, solids compress, resulting in large concentrations that can then beeasily removed," says Chisholm. Ultimately, this ends up as fish fertilizer, and thecleaned water is recycled back into the culture tanks.

Chisholm's team is working to develop a system that reduces waste in the water tomeet the Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy's (OMEE) quality standardof five ppm of suspended solids and 0.05 ppm of phosphorus. The commercialscale-size facilities at Alma have enabled them to broaden their scope fromlaboratory-sized experiments to full-scale fish culture operation-sized projects.

This research is supported by the Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy andthe Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs.

Back toContents... Char from afar

By Steve O'Neill

n Icelandic fish may lend a hand -- or perhaps a fin -- to Canadianaquaculture.

Zoology professor David Noakes is looking at different varieties of arctic charnative to Iceland in hopes of finding one suited to being raised on fish farms here.

"We're looking specifically for characteristics that would make the fish suitable foraquaculture," says Noakes. "The Icelandic environment offers a unique setting inwhich to study the fish."

Although varieties of char are found in the waters of the Canadian Arctic, Noakessays they're more difficult to study there because the dispersal of the fish can affectsampling over a wide cross-section. In Iceland, the fish dwell in the smaller self-contained environments of lakes, which makes it easier for researchers to studyvarious populations.

Fundamental evolutionary differences play a key role in Noakes's research.Icelandic lakes, for example, contain various varieties of char, all from differentevolutionary stages. In one lake alone, researchers have identified four types ofchar.

"The four are so different in terms of size, color, feeding patterns and proportionthat to look at them, even an expert would think that each is a different species," hesays. One variety reaches a maximum length of about seven centimetres, whereasone of its "cousins" can grow to well over 50 cm.

These genetically determined differences may prove beneficial to aquaculture; onevariety may have characteristics such as adaptability or disease resistance thatmakes it more suited to being farmed than another. "Understanding these basicdifferences allows us to make practical decisions," Noakes says.

His research is funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council,the Department of Fisheries and Oceans and the Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources.

Back toContents... First in the field

World's first fish epidemiology PhD aidsOntario aquaculture

By Steve O'Neill

s aquaculture grows as an industry inCanada, expertise has to be available to

facilitate the expansion. A U of G professor who isthe world's first PhD fish epidemiologist is helpingto provide that expertise.

Prof. Meg Thorburn, Population Medicine, isparticularly involved with Ontario aquaculture,assessing the reasons for (and benefits of) usingchemical and other approaches to prevention andcontrol of fish diseases. She says her relationshipwith farmers amounts to an information exchange that benefits both parties.

"We're trying to identify the best ways of minimizing losses due to disease," shesays. "As epidemiologists, our ability to do so depends entirely on the goodwill ofthe fish farmers who provide us with the background information. In return, weprovide them with information on aquacultural subjects like disease control andhelp them develop record-keeping methods for inventory and health-managementpurposes."

Thorburn is also working to develop a mathematical model of disease prevalencein specific Canadian geographical zones. Government regulations currently dictatethat aquaculturists exporting fish outside their province must submit a sample oftheir fish populations for disease testing. The present tests are lethal and --Thorburn says -- not always accurate in determining whether a disease is present.

She hopes that by designing a model based on information from government andother sources, she can "map" diseases according to their prevalence in particularareas. This could allow the government to make predictive judgments about thelikelihood of diseases being present on farms, according to zone.

"Canada needs to restructure the way it deals with fish disease control," saysThorburn. "The present system really isn't very fair to aquaculturists."

In addition to developing the predictive model, she is researching other aspects ofdisease detection and prevention in the aquaculture field, such as how farmers'attitudes towards consumer acceptance and environmental impact affect theirdecisions to treat disease with drugs, as well as the socio-psychological variablesaffecting their decisions to consult veterinarians.

Because aquaculture is still new to Ontario, Thorburn is in the unique position ofhelping to lay the groundwork for an emerging industry.

"The research we're conducting reflects the fact that aquaculture is still very muchin the beginning stages," she says. "Because of that, this is an often frustrating, butvery exciting time."

Thorburn's research is supported by the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food andRural Affairs, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, the Department ofFisheries and Oceans and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council.

Back toContents... Drawing a `bead' on fish disease

by Anne LeBold

n the battle between fish disease and immunity,microbiology professor Roselynn Stevenson is

wielding some powerful artillery.

In her research in fish pathology, Stevenson istesting a new pathogen-detection techniquecalled the immunomagnetic capture method,which gathers disease bacteria through the use ofmagnetic beads. This new approach to diseasedetection will be useful in testing for pathogensin feces found in the aquatic environment and infish themselves.

"I hope the new magnetic beads will provide a better appreciation for thedistribution of bacterial pathogens in fish stocks and the environment," she says.

Here's how the process works. The beads -- tiny plastic-covered magnets about thesize of dust particles -- are coated with antibodies proven to recognize specificdisease bacteria. The antibody-coated beads are combined in a test tube withsample tissue or feces. When the beads come in contact with the target diseaseagent, the bacterium attaches itself to the antibody-coated bead. The bacteria canthen be isolated from large samples of water, fish or sediment.

When the sample is exposed to a magnetic field strategically placed near one sideof a test tube, the bacteria-covered magnetic beads are attracted to the magnet andcongregate on that side of the vessel, away from the rest of the material (feces,tissue, other bacteria) in the sample. The specific pathogenic bacterium anddifferent fish immune responses to that pathogen can then be examined.

The beads were developed in Norway by Dynal, Inc., for use with human diseaseand food research. Stevenson is among the first to apply them to fish research.

U of G is under contract with the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR)to monitor fish health, which gives Stevenson's work source material and practicalapplication. She says Guelph's strong interdepartmental network of aquatic scienceresearchers has made it the prime facility in the province for this kind of testing.

Stevenson's research is multifaceted. In addition to studying detection andcharacteristics of fish diseases such as bacterial kidney and enteric redmouthdiseases, she's looking at the immune responses of fish. Taking into account suchfactors as stress levels, aquatic environment and disease virulence, this study zerosin on the immune system cells in vivo (in live fish) and in vitro (cell samples in alaboratory petri dish).

Fish immune systems are much simpler than those of humans. They have only onetype of immunoglobulin (or antibody) as opposed to five in humans. This means

the fish immune system fights diseases with fewer tools at its disposal than thehuman system.

Stevenson is studying the implications of this phenomenon, especially foraquacultural sites and hatcheries, where there is potential for disease to spread likewildfire because of the high concentration of fish.

In addition, some commercial fish are raised in cages located in natural waterways,allowing sediment from the cage-culture sites to come into direct contact withnatural fish environments. So the new immunomagnetic beads are a useful strategyfor monitoring any release of pathogenic bacteria into the surroundings ofaquacultural sites to ensure environmental safety.

"Canadians are recognizing the benefits of aquaculture as a source of food andexport products," says Stevenson, "yet they're equally concerned about thepotential harmful impact of fish farms on natural environments and natural stocks."

Her research is supported by the OMNR, the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Foodand Rural Affairs, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans and the NaturalSciences and Engineering Research Council.

Back toContents... 911 for fish

Fish pathology lab provides worldwide diagnosis

By Anne LeBold

or fish farmers with sick fish, U of G'sdiagnostic lab is the cream of the crop.

The fish diagnosis laboratory in the OntarioVeterinary College is known among aquaculturists,aquariums (both public and private) and researchersas the finest and the fastest. According to Prof.Hugh Ferguson, Pathology, the lab does everythingneeded to get a diagnosis -- fish examination,water-quality analysis, pathogen isolation, evenconsultation over the phone. And diagnostic resultsare usually faxed out in 24 to 48 hours.

"We are the only lab in Ontario that provides thatkind of full service," says Ferguson. "The diagnostic work that our lab does is aresearch resource in its own right because we're still at the stage of defining manydiseases. Our research is driven by the diagnostic service, so we always work onrelevant problems. For example, we're the only lab in the world that has beensuccessful at experimentally reproducing bacterial gill disease."

Bacterial gill disease is a problem in hatcheries worldwide and is the mostcommon gill disease in reared fish in Ontario. Ferguson's lab has isolated thebacterium that causes the disease and has determined the precise environmentaland nutritional conditions under which fish contract it. Because researchers havelearned how to cause bacterial gill disease, Ferguson can study the reasons the fishget sick, as well as ways to treat the disease.

"We are in a unique position to look at ways to control and treat disease," he says.

When there is a fish kill for unknown reasons in Ontario, material comes intoFerguson's lab to be analysed. But Ontario fish people aren't the only ones whoseek his advice. Recently, the lab responded to a "die-off" of various fish speciesin the reefs around Barbados, identifying within 24 hours that an effluent dischargefrom a break in a sewage pipeline was the underlying culprit. The lab also showedthat the parasite Brooklynella was partly responsible for the problem; this was thefirst time the parasite has been linked with die-offs in wild fish populations.

Ferguson has done diagnostic work for fish farmers as far away as Australia,Norway and Chile. He provides diagnostic support for farmers on the east and westcoasts of Canada and has worked with the hatcheries on Manitoulin Island. The labhas treated bluefin tuna at the New England Aquarium in Boston and sharks fromthe Mystic Aquarium in Connecticut.

Ferguson works with postdoctoral fellows and PhD students John Lumsden,

Vaughn Ostland, Phil Byrne, Marty Haulena and John Derksen. The fish pathologylab is partly a cost-recovery operation and receives additional support from theOntario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs.

Back toContents... Controlling viral disease

By Tammy Grime

ore than 20 years have passed since U of G'sMicrobiology Department put fish bacteriology

on the map by establishing Canada's first centre forbasic microbiological fish research -- the only onethat could, at that time, certify disease-free fish forexport. After research revealed that fish, like otheranimals, suffer from viral diseases, the departmentagain took the initiative and hired Peter Dobos toconduct research in that area.

"I wanted to study a virus that could be grown intissue culture in the lab and was of economicimportance to the Canadian fish industry," says Dobos. "I chose infectiouspancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV), and I've been studying it ever since."

IPNV kills salmon and trout in their early stages of development. When Dobosbegan his study, virtually no information about the virus existed.

What he discovered was startling. IPNV resembled no other known virus andcouldn't be classified into any of the established viral families.

He became the self-described "grandfather" of a new group of viruses. "I namedthem birnaviruses: the `bi' for two strands and `rna' for ribonucleic acid (the virus'sgenetic material), meaning a virus with double-stranded RNA. This is a veryunusual genome for any organism to have."

After cloning and sequencing the RNA of the virus to better understand theorganization of its genetic information, Dobos set out to create a vaccine toimmunize fish populations against it. Vaccines, which can be taken up through thegills, have proven successful in combatting other fish diseases.

"The trouble with IPNV is that there's a very small window of opportunity toimmunize the fish -- only fish up to six months old are susceptible," says Dobos."It's difficult to tell if the vaccine actually works or if the fish is just maturingwithout contracting the disease."

Cost is also a factor. So far, IPNV vaccines are more expensive than the fishthemselves!

So Dobos is taking a new approach. His goal is to find out just how the virusinfects fish cells. Specifically, he's looking at how the virus attaches to cells, whichcells contain "IPNV receptors" -- specific proteins present on cell surfaces towhich the virus attaches to initiate the infection process -- and which cells do not.With that information, farmers could selectively breed fish with few or noreceptors; their resistance to the virus could eliminate the need for a vaccine.

Dobos's ongoing research is supported by the Natural Sciences and EngineeringResearch Council.

Back toContents... Working with 007

Detective 007 helps solve disease mystery

By Anne LeBold

"detective" antibody numbered --appropriately enough -- 007, will be put into

service by U of G researchers to control a killerparasite in fish.

A team led by Prof. Patrick Woo, Zoology, isdeveloping methods of detection, prevention andtreatment for Cryptobia salmositica or cryptobiosis,a parasitic disease that's killing fish on the westcoast from northern California to Alaska.

"The parasite Cryptobia salmositica is a threat toour salmon fisheries in certain areas," says Woo."Although we don't yet have the figures for Canada,we know that in some hatcheries in Washington state, 50 to 60 per cent of chinookbrood stocks die from this disease. Part of the reason is that we don't have avaccine to protect fish and there is no treatment once a fish is infected."

Woo first described the disease in 1979. He found that it suppresses the immunesystem and causes anemia, anorexia, abdominal distention and eyeball protrusion.Until recently, there's been no rapid diagnostic technique for Cryptobia.

Antibody 007 was developed by graduate student Christiana Verity. Woo andVerity have found that it can detect cryptobiosis within a week of infection. Theycall it the antigen "capture" technique. The antibody attaches to the specificCryptobia parasite and allows researchers to determine that an infection is present.

Woo and graduate student Sen Li have developed a DNA probe to differentiate thesalmositica pathogen from other species of Cryptobia. A DNA probe is anartificially produced piece of DNA that attaches itself specifically to the Cryptobiasalmositica DNA.

Using antibody 007 and the DNA probe will make field work easier, says Woo.Blood samples from a large number of fish can be gathered on filter paper andtested for the disease so researchers don't have to take the fish back to thelaboratory for examination.

Woo has three approaches to protecting fish from cryptobiosis. First, he and Lihave developed a live vaccine to protect rainbow trout for at least 30 months.Second, in work with zoology professor Moira Ferguson and graduate studentGlen Forward, Woo has found that some fish have a genetically determined innateimmunity to Cryptobia infection. That's good news for aquaculturists, who shouldbe able to breed their stocks for resistance.

Woo is now working on a third approach -- fish chemotherapy. Conventionalchemotherapeutic drugs kill both pathogenic and healthy cells. He and graduatestudent Shujuan Feng have produced another antibody called 001, which attachesto the surface of the Cryptobia pathogen. This antibody can be fused to a chemodrug for Cryptobia that Woo has developed and carries the drug directly to theparasite like a guided missile. That reduces the amount of drug needed, the adverseside effects and the accumulation of the drug in the fish, which is important if thefish is going to be eaten by humans.

Woo's research is sponsored by the Natural Sciences and Engineering ResearchCouncil and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

Back toContents... A voice for fish immune cells

By Anne LeBold

here are different types of immune cells infish. To create vaccines that stimulate every

facet of the immune system, pharmaceuticalcompanies need to know which cells attack whichdisease-causing organisms. Microbiology professorsLucy Mutharia and Roselynn Stevenson andbiomedical sciences professor Herman Boermansare working towards giving immune cells a voice.

Every immune-cell population has a certainmolecule on its surface membrane that distinguishesit from other populations of immune cells.

Some of the immune cells produce antibodies.These are B-cells. Other immune cells, calledmacrophages, "eat" bacteria, digest them and breakthem up into small molecules. These molecules bind to a third immune-cellpopulation called T-cells, which are activated or armed to remove the bacterium orvirus.

T-cells are co-ordinators of the immune system. When activated, they secreteinterferons and interleukins, which jolt the B-cells and the macrophages intogreater action. The activated T-cells recognize and kill any host cells that might beinfected with a bacterium or virus.

Fish are exposed to any toxins that flow into lakes and rivers, such as pesticide andherbicide run-off and industrial waste. Fish exposed to certain toxins becomeimmunodeficient, meaning they can't fight the bacteria properly. Mutharia says thatlabelling and sorting the T-cells, B-cells and macrophages according to theirsurface molecules will enable the researchers to see which part of the fish immunesystem is affected by toxicants and what vaccines can do to help immunodepressedfish.

"If we had a reliable means of identifying the different immune-cell populations --telling a B-cell apart from a T-cell or macrophage -- we could study the affectedcells in immunodepressed fish and investigate ways to overcome theimmunodepression," she says.

The researchers also test fish from various populations, especially those frompolluted lakes and rivers, to see if their immune responses differ depending ontheir environment.

Mutharia says this research lays the groundwork for creating better fish vaccines,which are in demand for both aquacultural and conservation purposes. Theproblem with current vaccines is that although researchers understand how theystimulate antibody production, their effect on different types of fish immune cells

is a mystery.

"Our final goal is to improve fish health management and develop better vaccines,"she says. "Use of these flagging molecules is what has been missing in fishimmunity research."

This research is sponsored by the Natural Sciences and Engineering ResearchCouncil.

Back toContents... On the brink of extinction

By Steve O'Neill

turgeon, from whose eggs much caviar has traditionally made, may be wipedout in Russia because of overfishing. U of G researchers are working to

ensure that the same thing doesn't happen in Canada.

Profs. David Noakes and Bill Beamish of the Department of Zoology are usingtheir expertise to make recommendations on how to increase Canada's depletedsturgeon population. Once abundant in the Great Lakes and an important foodsource for native people in the area, sturgeon have now been all but eradicatedthrough fishing and environmental irresponsibility.

"The sturgeon is biologically endangered," says Noakes. "In Canada andworldwide, it's a species living at the edge of extinction."

The fish, which was once a resource more lucrative than furs to trading companies,has always been particularly sensitive to environmental change, he says. Hebelieves Canada should learn a lesson from Russia, which is depleting its sturgeonpopulation to produce caviar, and implement stricter regulations and develop newways of rehabilitating the remaining population before it's too late.

"We're working to create a strong new culture of sturgeon, since the original onehas been largely eliminated," says Noakes. "With government support, it's possiblethat we can develop a self-sustaining population that can restore harvests for nativepeople and eventually repopulate the Great Lakes."

This research is sponsored by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, OntarioHydro, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans and the Natural Sciences andEngineering Research Council.

Back toContents... Tracking cold-blooded polar giants

By Jeff Stuart

ith apologies to 19th-century English poetRobert Service . . .

There are strange things done in the midnight sun,by the men and women who moil for mysteriouscreatures in one of the world's harshestenvironments.

Some 3,000 kilometres north of Guelph on theisland of Igloolik, NWT, neoprene-garbed scubadivers venture into the subzero Arctic Ocean to seekand study "polar giants." They're invertebratesfound here at the top of the Earth that, for reasonsunknown, grow to be up to five times bigger thansimilar species found in more temperate waters.

At Igloolik's Arctic Science Research Centre,zoology professor Jim Ballantyne, an assortment of analytical equipment and ateam of student researchers from Guelph -- including me -- arrive at the peak ofsummer for two to three intense weeks of physiological studies. It's the fourthsummer that researchers from our laboratory have made the expedition.

The mushroom-shaped research centre -- designed to look like a snowy owl -- isone of three science institutes in the Northwest Territories supported by theDepartment of Indian and Northern Affairs. It looks out on treeless, mostlygrassless terrain leading down to the ocean, where even in the continuous light ofthe arctic summer, the water temperature hovers at -1 C. Each day, our "dive team"-- Ballantyne, divemaster Todd Gillis and graduate students Paul LeBlanc, Jan denDulk, Kimby Barton and I -- braves the icy chill and enters the underwater realm.

Below the surface, we're greeted by some of the polar giants. Pycnogonids, seaspiders that are a few millimetres long in temperate waters, grow here to 10 timesthat length. Ten-centimetre-long sea roaches called isopods, which dwarf theirtwo-centimetre southern cousins, look eerily prehistoric as they scuttle across thesubstratum. Isopods literally hundreds of times the size of closely related speciesfound in warmer oceans creep by.

Why are so many of these animals relative giants? That's one of the questions ourteam is trying to answer. Little is known about the physiology of the cold-bloodedanimals of the Arctic Ocean; Ballantyne has been drawn here by the mystery everysummer for the last four years. Some of the other questions we address are:

How did the physiological processes of these organisms adapt to the extreme coldof the Arctic Ocean?

What are the limits of cold tolerance and why?

What are the implications of polar warming for these animals?

Each day, we collect the likes of arctic char and sculpins along with invertebrates,including the polar giants as well as smaller snails, clams and a stunninglygraceful swimming mollusc called a pteropod or "sea fairy." In the researchcentre's biology lab, we analyse and manipulate blood, enzymes, cells andmitochondria (tiny energy-producing structures found in all animal cells). Weexplore how -- and the extent to which -- enzymes have changed to accommodatethe low temperature, while keeping their essential functions. We measure bloodconstituents and analyse cell membranes to compare them with those of closelyrelated species found in aquasystems to the south.

As exploration of the world's extremities progresses, life is repeatedly found wherenone was expected, from hydrothermal vents thousands of meters underwater tothe tops of the highest mountains. Solving the mysteries of the Arctic Ocean isessential to understanding how animals adapt to those extremes, as well as tounderstanding organisms closer to home.

This research is sponsored by the Natural Sciences and Engineering ResearchCouncil and the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs.

Back toContents... Seals or scapegoats?

A U of G zoologist has uncovered a newspecies -- the scapegoat.

By Jo-Ella Van Duren

rof. David Lavigne claims the governmentis using seals as scapegoats for its own past

mismanagement of cod stocks and that a renewalof the seal hunt isn't going to help solve theproblem. In fact, he says, Ottawa ignoredwarnings from its own commissioned scientiststhat it was overfishing -- not seals -- that was responsible for cod depletion.

"Advisers to the federal government warned in the late 1980s that cod stockswould drop if fishing was not limited," says Lavigne. "Instead, catches remainedhigh, and by the time the moratorium on cod fishing was imposed in 1992, thepopulation had crashed."

Fisheries Minister Brian Tobin announced in February that the seal population offnorthern Newfoundland had grown too large and needed to be culled throughhunting. As a result, the government is issuing personal licences to sport huntersthat don't restrict hunting according to species or age. To Lavigne, thisannouncement perpetuates the popular misconception that seals actually competewith the fishing industry.

"People tend to believe that there is only one type of seal, and that there are toomany eating too much and they are therefore competing with cod fishermen," saysLavigne.

To address these misconceptions, he notes that six species of seals live in northernNewfoundland waters and that only the grey and possibly harp seals haveexperienced a notable increase in population in recent years. He also citesscientific studies refuting the notion that seals have inefficient metabolism andneed to consume more food than most mammals. Most important, he says that harpseals eat more than 120 species of fish and invertebrates and that cod actuallymakes up only a small part of their diet.

"In 1991, government scientists said there is little evidence that seals areresponsible for the depletion of cod," says Lavigne. And in 1994, "othergovernment scientists concluded that cod depletion can be attributed to one factorand one factor alone -- overfishing."

In addition, he notes that the traditional seal hunt is no longer commercially viable.This year, the government is subsidizing the hunt by buying seal meat at the rate of20 cents a pound. Tobin has announced that he intends to continue the subsidynext year. Lavigne sees this as a waste of taxpayers' money. Usually, thissubsidized meat is used to produce animal feed. He believes there are cheaper,

more abundant sources of animal feed than subsidized seal meat.

Then why hunt seals? Lavigne suggests there may be an ulterior reason for therenewal of the hunt. There's a big demand for seal penises in Southeast Asia,where they are believed to have aphrodisiac properties. Seal penises sell for about$9 each. Lavigne believes the availability of seal hunting licences encourageshunting of the animals for parts and could lead to a serious depletion of thepopulation.

Lavigne's research is sponsored by the Natural Sciences and Engineering ResearchCouncil and the International Marine Management Association.

Back toContents... The copepod effect

Answers to important environmental questions may be hidden in shell of tinyorganism

By Anne LeBold

he secret to energy exchange between water and air may be locked inside thebodies of microscopic animals called copepods. A U of G scientist thinks he

may have found the key to unlock those secrets.

Zoology professor John Roff, working with graduate student Russ Hopcroft andcolleagues at the University of the West Indies, is measuring copepods' growthrates to follow how carbon moves through aquatic food webs and gets locked intothe ocean floor. Growing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are the majorcause of the greenhouse effect, global warming and air pollution. Understandinghow the carbon cycle works may be the first step in solving global atmosphericproblems.

"The increase in carbon dioxide levels is the number one global environmentalconcern," says Roff. "Understanding carbon cycles in marine ecosystems isabsolutely fundamental to understanding the global carbon dioxide problem.Copepods are a major player in that cycle."

Copepods are mini-crustaceans with oar-like legs. They range in length from oneto 10 millimetres.

They are important vehicles for repositioning carbon in the ecosystem because theyeat phytoplankton, tiny aquatic plants that absorb carbon dioxide from theatmosphere. Larger copepods egest the accumulated carbon as fecal pellets thatsettle to the ocean floor; smaller species release most of their carbon back into theenvironment by respiration. The larger the copepod, the more carbon sedimentationthat results.

Roff wants to quantify the process. Specifically, he's trying to determine theproduction rate of copepods -- the amount of energy (in this case, carbon) theorganism passes to other levels of the food web. To do that, he has to know therate at which the animals grow. Measuring the growth rates of organisms as smallas copepods is complicated, but Roff has developed ways to do it, based on thebiological function of shell moulting.

The shells of all crustaceans are made of a tough material called chitin that, aftercellulose, is probably the most abundant complex organic substance on the planet.When the animal grows, it sheds its old chitin and produces a new shell. Thatmeans the growth rate of the animal is directly proportional to the rate of chitinsynthesis.

When a crustacean like a copepod is ready to shed, it secretes digesting enzymes,including chitobiase, into the space between the skin and the shell. The chitobiasehelps break down about 75 per cent of the old shell, which is then absorbed back

into the animal for incorporation into a new shell. The rest of the shell falls off,revealing the new one.

Roff has developed several ways to measure moulting rates. His biochemicalmethod involves measuring how much chitobiase is secreted. In a test tube, hecombines samples of the animals with chemicals that become fluorescent whenthey come in contact with chitobiase.

Another technique is the first proven radiochemical method that directly measuresanimal growth. The rate of chitin synthesis is measured by feeding the animalsalgae treated with radioactive carbon 14 (14C). By monitoring the rate of 14Cincorporated into the chitin, Roff can monitor the shell-making process and growthrates.

He hopes his work is an important step in obtaining a global view of energyprocessing and the carbon cycle. To date, he's done fieldwork in Jamaica, theArctic, the Red Sea and the North Sea and on the east coast of Canada. Until weunderstand the global carbon cycle, we can't understand the impact of civilizationon it, he says.

Roff's research is sponsored by the Natural Sciences and Engineering ResearchCouncil.