Representation in memory and acquisition of knowledge from text and picture: Theoretical,...

Educational Psychology Review, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1993

Representation in Memory and Acquisition of Knowledge from Text and Picture: Theoretical, Methodological, and Practical Outcomes

Guy Denhi~re, 1 Denis Legros, 2 and Isabeile Tapiero 3

Over the last 10 years, text comprehension research has undergone profound theoretical and methodological upheaval. Today, psychologists study language and texts because they present the trace markers of structures and cognitive operations. A text is no longer seen as a vehicle for conveying constructed meaning. Rather, text has been redefined as merely a structured sequence of stimuli, which activates both domain-related knowledge triggered by text information and linguistic knowledge. We present the theoretical views and experimental findings of the TEXTIMA group, characterized by the importance of the connectionist concepts.

KEY WORDS: text and picture processing; knowledge representat ion and acquisition; cognitive process; diagnosis; connectionism; simulation.

INTRODUCTION

Over the last 10 years, text comprehension research has undergone profound theoretical and methodological upheaval. For purposes of a fuller understanding of current trends and their underpinnings, this article presents the major investigations conducted by members of the TEXTIMA 4 unit in the 1980s.

1Directeur de recherche au C.N.R.S. Responsable de I'Equipe TEXTIMA, U.R.A. 1297 au C.N.R.S., Universit6 de Paris 8. 2, rue de la Libert6, 93526 Saint-Denis C6dex 02, France.

2Maitre de conf6rences ~ l'Iufm de Cr6teil. Equipe TEXTIMA, U.R.A. 1297 au C.N.R.S., Universit6 de Paris 8. 2, rue de la Libert6, 93526 Saint-Denis C6dex 02, France.

3Equipe TEXTIMA, U.R.A. 1297 au C.N.R.S.. Universit6 de Paris 8. 2, rue de la Libert6, 93526 Saint-Denis C6dex 02, (France) and Maitre de conf6rences ~ l'Universit6 de Lyon II, LE.A.C.M., 5 av. Pierre Mend~s-France, C.P. 11-69676 Bron C6dex.

4In French, the acronym TEXTIMA refers to "traitement du texte et de l'image" ("text and picture processing" in English).

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312 Denhi~re, Legros, and Tapiero

When psychologists began to investigate the cognitive activities individuals engage in during text comprehension, they were led to discard the classic approach of the time which consisted of validating linguistic models. Up to the early 1980s, most research on text processing operated on the assumption that the knowledge used to structure the information obtained from a text was language or linguistic-based.

Today, cognitive research on text processing has demonstrated that an approach based on the text or solely on linguistic knowledge is insufficient (Denhi~re and Baudet, 1988, 1992; Denhi~re and Rossi, 1991; Denhi~re, Baudet, Legros, and Verstiggel, 1991), and psychologists study language because it presents the trace markers of structures and cognitive operations. A text is no longer seen as a vehicle for conveying constructed meaning. Rather, text has been redefined as merely a structured sequence of stimuli, which activates both domain-related knowledge triggered by text information and linguistic knowledge. When a learner acquires knowledge from a text, the cognitive representations generated are those of the objects, states, events, actions, and relations presented in the text (see Baudet and Denhi~re, 1991). Consequently, we believe that after processing a text, a reader has constructed cognitive representations that are not only text representations but rather representations of what is being expressed in the text.

ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE FROM TEXT

Knowledge Representation in Memory

In the most general sense, we mean by knowledge acquisition the construction of a stable mental representation of a possible world. This representation is stored and maintained in memory and can be retrieved for later use. Numerous empirical findings have shown that prior knowledge is critical to the acquisition of information (see Denhi~re and Desch~nes, 1987; Denhi~re, Cession, and Desch~nes, 1986).

A noticeable step has been carried out in the description of those representations by the introduction of the concept of mental models (Johnson-Laird, 1983), or situation models (Van Dijk and Kintsch, 1983) to formalize the representations of the world which are built through individual experiences and which are used during the reading of a text. The experimental results are consistent with the assumption that mental models or situation models affect comprehension and memorization of text (Garnham, 1983). Nevertheless, the domains referred to by these models (e.g., states, events, actions, etc.) and the learner's representations of the domains have been imprecisely described. We believe that formal definitions

Memory and Acquisition of Knowledge 313

of both the domain and the learner's representations are necessary to study text comprehension and knowledge acquisition from text

Therefore, to describe the representation of complex domains as well as the representation the learner constructs, we have worked out a conceptualization in terms of systems. The focus on learning leads us to con- ceptualize three types of systems:

1. Relational systems represent stative situations: states which include components or objects of a possible world; for example, for the starter system of an automobile engine, the network of components and their relations (part-whole, made of, location, etc.).

2. Transformational systems represent complex events: transformational sequences of stative situations; for example, for the starter system of an automobile engine, the sequence of actions and events related by temporal and causal relations which intervene between the initial state and the final state (the rotation of the flywheel gear).

3. Teleological systems represent structures and behaviors of organ- isms: sets of interrelated functional units. When they are components of a technical or a biological device, they will be referred to as functional systems. Complex technical objects such as a production system are exemplars of the functional system. When the functional units are credited with in- tentionality, they will be considered as intentional systems. This model in- tegrates knowledge of human cognitive functioning, in particular knowledge related to the construction of representation of states, events, and actions, as well as knowledge related to the construction of local and global coherence of representation (Denhi~re and Baudet, 1988; Baudet and Denhi~re, 1991). In addition, this model has numerous applications; it can serve, for example, to construct individualized learning support systems and can aid in the detection, understanding, and correction of malfunctions of functional systems.

Validation of the Model

Several studies have been conducted to test psychological hypotheses based on the learner's representation of a functional system, for example, the starter system of an automobile engine (Baudet and Denhi~re, 1991; Denhi~re and Baudet, 1992). The method uses a series of tasks: causal questioning; incomplete event triplets and multiple-choice questionnaires about the existence of events; and temporal, causal and teleological relationships between events. These vary in their level of requirements regard- ing information retrieval in memory for subjects who differ in their level of prior knowledge.


Learners with a high level of knowledge construct a representation organized in functional systems and subsystems, whereas learners who show a less well-developed knowledge about the system construct a representation organized as a functional system but not in subsystems. In con- trast with experts, their representation differs in terms of fewer real units represented (number of components and temporal and causal relations) and in terms of the structure of these units (types of relations and or- ganization in subsystems, e.g., circulation of electric current in the elec- tromagnetic contactors coils; magnetization of the magnetic core, moving of the gearing system of the starter's pinion, etc.). The learners, for example, who receive no instruction concerning a starter system but who have general knowledge about car mechanics make no distinction between the starter system and adjacent systems (ignition system, energy supplying system).

Such findings are compatible with the hypothesis that acquiring knowledge about a functional system is an activity that culminates in the construction of a coherent network which corresponds to the description of the functional system we propose. The notion of system is an attempt to provide a conceptualization which can generate a precise description of representations of world domains. It opens promising means of exploration for the study of nonverbal information processing (pictorial for example) by providing a general analytical framework.

Written or pictorial texts are designed to differ in the relations they set up between local coherence and global coherence. These differences are assessed for their effects on learning (Baudet and Denhi~re, 1991; JheanLarose, 1990). In a relational-state system, pictures of the system present individuals and the stative relations between them. In a transformational system, illustrations represent changes in states by the representation of initial and final states and/or by pictorial cues showing changes brought about on the initial state. In a teleological system, illustrations represent the relational and transformational features of this system.

Three types of pictures--realist ic , schematic, and symbolic (see Denhi~re and Mandl, 1988; Denhi~re, Baudet, and Blaizet, in press) - -were used by Jhean-Larose (1990) to construct pictorial texts representing the working of a functional system (e.g., the starter system). Their differential effects on the construction of the representation of three types of systems --relational, transformational, and te leological- need to be tested empiri- cally. We are currently working on establishing semantic equivalence between pictures and the propositions representing the different elements in the systems.


Pictures can refer to concepts and interconceptual relations of the micro-structure and the macro-structure of the cognitive representation of a domain. In our model, they refer to the units and to the systems' coherence features which describe the domain and its cognitive representation. As a consequence, the cognitive functions of pictures in a hypertext will vary as a function of their relationship to the semantic micro- and macrostructure of the texts.

Illustrations can facilitate the representation of microstructure concepts by making them more concrete. They can facilitate text interpretation by enhancing the meaning of the semantic microstructure and the macrostructure of the text, because they provide elements of meaning which are not captured in text-only presentations.

Jhean-Larose (1991) studied the effects of the semantic structure of t e x t s - - a s defined by our analysis into sys tems- -on the learner's construction of token and type representations as a function of his/her level of initial knowledge and beliefs about car mechanics. Two groups of 36 subjects participated in the experiment. The groups (novices vs. experts) were formed on the basis of responses to a knowledge questionnaire about the starter system. Initial mental representation data were obtained on five tasks which differed in retrieval demands. Subjects were given two learning texts which presented the same events, actions, and states of the starter system of an automobile but differed in coherence (transformational or functional) features, determined by analysis of the referential domain. The first text conveyed causal coherence through connectives expressing interpropositional causal relationships; the second text conveyed teleological coherence through connectives expressing interpropositional goal-oriented relations. After reading the text, subjects were given the same five assessment and representation tasks administered prior to reading.

The findings indicated a differential effect for the semantic structure of the text and type of presentation of information on the acquisition of knowledge. Paradoxically, a causal text resulted in better learning of the teleological structure than did a teleological text. This finding may show that the mastery of the transformational structure of a functional system is the precondition for mastery of its teleological structure (see Baudet, Jhean-Larose, and Legros, 1992).

Acquisition and Transfer of Knowledge

Tapiero (1991, 1992) constructed a text entitled "Manatee" that consisted of two main topics: "breathing" and "reproduction." These two topics were paired by a number of sentences preceded and followed by three


introductory and closing sentences. Three experimental groups and two control groups participated in the experiment. The three experimental groups read the two topics in a counterbalanced order, whereas the two control groups only read about reproduction. After reading the text at their own pace, sentence by sentence, subjects in two of the three experimental groups performed a recall task relative to the first topic read (breathing or reproduction) during 10 minutes and then performed a recognition task on the second topic read (breathing or reproduction). The third experimental group performed the recall and recognition tasks on the same topic (reproduction). Immediately after reading, one of the two control groups performed a recall task while the other group performed a recognition task. The results showed a significant effect for the relative importance of statements on reading and recall but not on recognition. Second, the performances on recognition 10 minutes after reading were comparable to immediate recognition when the recall preceding the recognition task con- cerned the same topic. These results are consistent with those obtained by Tiberghien and Lecocq (1983) in their studies on word recognition, in which they demonstrated that the activation of information about a knowledge domain facilitates the availability and consequently the accessibility of all information related with that domain.

Simulation of Acquisition Performance

Several simulations have been developed taking into account four levels of text representation: the surface structure, the syntactic structure, and the local and global semantic structure, using the model of construction- integration proposed by Kintsch (1988, 1991). Two parameters of the model have been tested: strength of the interpropositional relationships between units of the same level (p), and the number of propositions needed to en- sure intersentential coherence (s). The nature of the interpropositional relationship, argument(s) overlap, minimal coherence, and causal coherence in the connectivity matrix describing semantic coherence have been manipulated. The connectivity matrix is composed by n rows and columns corresponding to concepts and proposi t ions plus the inferences and elaborations that were made at both the local and global level and their interconnections (see Kintsch, 1991, p. 119). The nature of the interconcept or interpropositional relationships is displayed in each cell by a relative number. Text comprehension is assumed to be organized in cycles, roughly corresponding to sentences. In each cycle, a new net is constructed, includ- ing whatever is carried over in the short-term buffer from the previous cycle. Once the net is constructed, activation is spread around until the


system stabilizes. An activation vector representing the initial activation values of all nodes in the net is postmultiplied repeatedly with the connectivity matrix. Usually, the system finds a stable state rapidly. Thus, there is a basic, automatic construction-plus-integration process that normally is suf- ficient for comprehension. As Kintsch (1991) stated "The result of the integration process is a new activation vector, indicating high activation values for some of the nodes in the net and low or zero values for many others. The highly activated nodes constitute the discourse representation formed on each processing cycle" (p. 121).

The simulation of the different types of sentences-to-be-recognized (old, syntactic variation, paraphrase, inference, and distant distractor be- longing or not to the same situation model) follow the same principles as those used to simulate discourse comprehension. Then, the final activation values of the different types of sentences-to-be-recognized are compared with the probability of correct responses (Kintsch, Welsch, Schmalhofer, and Zimny, 1990; Tapiero, 1992).

Other simulations have been carried out on acquisition and transfer of knowledge performances (measured by a cued-recall task) by subjects with two levels of initial knowledge (Tapiero and Denhi~re, 1991, Tapiero, 1992). In this extension of Kintsch's construction-integration model (1988), the values of 3 parameters, s, p, i, were systematically manipulated, where s corresponds to the number of propositions likely to be stored in memory from one processing cycle to the next; p corresponds to the strength of the interpropositional relationships described in terms of distance in a coherence network; and i corresponds to the representation of the cued recall. The correlations (Spearman Rho) between recall performances and the simulations were generally good and indicated the major configurations for the values of the three parameters.

APPLICATIONS: CONSTRUCTION OF COGNITIVE DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEMS

Diagnosis of Cognitive Functioning Reading and Text Comprehension: The DIAGNOS Battery

In a critical overview of several reading and text comprehension tests, Denhi~re (1983) pointed to the total lack of semantic analysis of the texts, questions, or response protocols and hence the impossibility of analyzing what had been understood. The main idea behind the design of the diagnostic method of cognitive activity is the contention that it is im- p o s s i b l e - b o t h theoretically and empir ical ly-- to approach the issue of


individual differences adequately without first of all referring to the models and concepts of general psychology. This approach enhances identification of the fundamental dimensions which will need to be researched and differences which should be validated. It helps avoid setting the prob- lem solely in terms of observation, and promotes examination of differences in terms of causality.

Denhi~re and Baudet (1989, 1990) developed tasks to tap specific processes as defined by cognitive models of text processing. These tasks, which composed the DIAGNOS battery, can be used to model individual behavior which can then be compared to the model of a standard individual who is representative of a given sample. The results from these tasks have explanatory power in particular with regard to dysfunctionality, because performance can be attributed to specific mental structures and cognitive operations implemented by the subject. They also serve to iden- tify states of semantic information at different phases of processing: input, which leads to the construction of meaning from the information conveyed in the text (comprehension); storage in memory of this meaning; and output (Baudet and Denhi~re, 1989; Denhi~re and Baudet, 1989). The findings help form a diagnosis of cognitive functioning in text comprehension. Differences in performance can then be attributed to the structures and operations implemented during processing. These differences can be due to different cognitive structures or operations, or to differential assignment of cognitive resources to structures and operations over the course of processing (Denhi6re, 1984; Tapiero, 1989).

Reading times can be interpreted as a measure of comprehension activity in the initial stage of processing. Numerous studies have shown that reading times vary as a function of reader knowledge and of the semantic structure of the text (Denhi~re and Baudet, 1988; Tapiero, 1989). An effect on these variables can only be the result of knowledge of the semantic structure of texts as part of the reader's cognitive activity. If reading times actually reflect processing activity at the input stage, a difference in reading times between a control group and a given individual should be a measure of differences in processing.

Explicit judgments of the relative importance of information serve to determine the hierarchy that an individual establishes in his/her representation. This can be compared with the hierarchy drawn up by a "standard" individual, and can be used to characterize differences in a given individual's assignment of importance and the knowledge he or she can mobilize.

The re-ordering task consists in presenting pieces of information from a text in random order and asking the subject to put them in order to form a coherent text. This task identifies the coherence of meaning constructed


by the reader. It contrasts with the explicit judgments of the relative importance of information because it does not emphasize the hierarchical relationships between pieces of information but rather identifies the chain of temporal and causal relationships likely to be established at the micro- and macrostructural levels.

At the output stage, free recall is the most commonly used task to assess comprehension and memorization of a text. The text and the recall protocols are submitted to predicate analysis which serves to describe the semantic content of a text through a set of semantic units, the propositions (Denhi6re, 1984; Le Ny, 1979). Predicate analysis serves to compare recalled information with the information presented in the text.

Cued-recall tasks consist of presenting a text to an individual and providing h i m / h e r - after a variable lapse of t i m e - with certain pieces of information drawn from the text and asking him/her to produce the information they evoke. Protocol analysis focuses on what is recalled on the basis of a cue. This serves to construct a model of meaning coherence of the individual, which can be compared against a model of the coherence of the target text.

A recognition task consists in presenting information from the source text interspersed with distractors which vary in syntactic and semantic dis- tances from the original information. Subjects are asked to decide which information comes from the original text. The aim is to detect whether loss of information observed at recall can be accounted for by availability or attributed to differences in accessibility of information in memory. Com- parison of performances on this type of task shows that some differences are due to differences in accessibility of information. Comparison of performances of a given individual after different delays for the same task can be used to evaluate changes in semantic information during the storage phase.

These tasks: reading times, explicit judgments of importance, reordering, free recall, cued-recall, and recognition constitute the DIAGNOS battery designed to diagnose cognitive activity in text comprehension (Denhi6re and Baudet, 1990). The tasks, presented on computer, tap the cognitive operations implemented during the three phases of semantic information processing: input, storage, and output. Babinet and Hardouin (1990) showed that the origin of the 10- and ll-year-old children's difficulties in text comprehension came from different sources. Some children exhibit difficulties at the input stage: they don't correctly organize the information and don't adjust their reading times as a function of the relative importance of information. For others, the difficulties come from the output stage: they are unable to retrieve the information stored in memory.


Such a diagnosis of cognitive functioning in text processing is a precondition for structuring learning and remedial activities (Dessailly, 1990). Diagnosis serves to pinpoint which cognitive structures and activities involved in semantic information processing novice learners, and in particular, learners with specific difficulties, should learn to develop and master. The battery of diagnostic tasks can be seen as models for tasks that can be used to establish the structures and operations required to attain learning goals. Concrete applications have been carried out in clinical psychology. Dessailly (1990) compared the performances obtained by a patient in a free-recaU task and a cued-recall task. The results showed no main differences between the two tasks, suggesting that the main difficulty concerns the accessibility of information in memory, as a consequence of the lack of global coherence in the construction of the semantic macrostructure. This conclusion is made possible because children and adults enhance their recall when they are given relevant recall cues (see Denhi~re, 1988).

Construction of Individualized Learning Support Systems

Poitrenaud (1987) designed a system of questioning and information presentation called QASH (Questioning and Acquisition of Hierarchical Structures). This program, developed on a Macintosh, serves to model our domain representation in terms of a system and to test our hypotheses on representations and operations involved in the learning process. QASH software is used to assess the learner's initial state of knowledge needed to reach the desired final state (Denhi~re and Baudet, 1992).

The software is made up of four files containing, respectively, the state- ment (verbal or pictorial), questions and response options, a linearization of the question tree in the form of attribute-value pairs, the response-analysis grid, and the texts (written or pictorial) associated with the learner's questions and responses. Operators (identity, set equality, inclusion) are used to classify responses as true, true by default, true by excess, and false. Question man- agement (verbal or pictorial) and upcoming presentation of information (verbal or pictorial) are both governed by the results of this analysis.

To test our hypotheses on hierarchical knowledge representation, we performed an experiment with 7- and l 1-year-old children (Tapiero, Denhi6re, and Poitrenaud, 1988) on a (proto-)typical sea-mammah the dol- phin. The main results show that for 7-year-old children, the correct response times decrease as a function of the hierarchy, whereas no effect is observed for 11-year-old children. This study is a first step in the identification of the information to be provided to the subject according to his/her state of knowledge.


The Principles of Questionnaire Construction

Questionnaire construction and implementation in QASH are both governed by domain analysis into a functional system. The goal structure serves task questions at different levels of the representational hierarchy of system functioning. The correctness of responses to questions at a given level determines the presentation of questions on the next lower level. The questions correspond to the three features of all functional systems: relational, transformational, and teleological features.

Principles of Micro Text Presentation

The type of learner response to each question determines the type of explanatory text that appears on the screen. When the learner gives the right answer, no information is presented; when the wrong answer is given, all the information associated with the question is presented.

Example: Questions on the Starter System

Questions start on the superordinate macroevent of the structure which corresponds to achieving the goal of the starter system (i.e., starting the flywheel). The first question deals with the existence of this event (does the event: "rotation of the flywheel" belong to the starter system?). If the response to this question is correct, the first group of questions deals with the relational aspects of the event system. The questions deal first with the existence of two entities: the "dented crown of the flywheel" and the "starter pinion" taken in this event. Questions concern the relevant attribute-value pairs for the description of these entities, their form in the present case, and the stative relationship--localization (relative position) between the two entities. The second set of questions on the transformational features of the event system is then asked. The questions deal with changes in the localization relationship between the two entities (movement of the starter pinion to engage and disengage the flywheel) and the attribute "motion" to the two entities (shift from stationary position to rotation). All the subordinate events give rise to questions whose structure follows the principles presented above (see Baudet and Denhi6re, 1991, p. 173- 175).

Because of the superordinate position of this macro-event, the third feature - - the teleological feature of the system - - cannot be tested through questions. These studies served to develop a vocational school course designed for analysis of complex technical objects (automobile mechanics, soldering


workstations, electronic equipment) which led to the creation by the students themselves of an individualized learning support system for QASH technical knowledge (Blaizet, Ch6ritel, and Legros, 1991; Legros, 1991, 1992; Legros and Terrage, 1991; Legros, Baudet, and Denhi6re, in press).

CONCLUSION

The relations between linguistic representations and mental representations, long overlooked by linguistics and often misconstructed by psychology, have become the focus of current model building. Cognitive semantics, a new branch of cognitive science, has developed in part to re- spond to these shortcomings. Its goal is to elaborate coherent models of mental representations which are both more general and more fine-grained (Denhi~re and Francois, 1990; Francois and Denhi~re, 1990; Verstiggel and Denhi~re, 1990). The most striking difference between cognitive semantics and more ad hoc artificial intelligence models is that the former use coherence models which can satisfy the constraints of both the linguistic and the cognitive system.

The success of models that depart from classic views on text comprehension (Kintsch, 1988; Kintsch, Welsch, Schmalhofer, and Zimny, 1990) and more specifically, findings from the simulation developed by Tapiero, have had a profound impact on our research program. This formalization allows the experimental study and the simulation of the respective contributions of the levels of text representation: surface structure, syntactic structure, local and global semantic structure, situation model, and/or prior knowledge in comprehension and memorization (Denhi~re and Baudet, 1992).

Our research program combines experimentations and simulations on (a) the phonological and phonetic structures of lexemes, (b) the morpho- syntactic structure of statements, and (c) the local and global semantic structure, with groups of subjects differing in their initial level of knowledge. The simulation of prior knowledge and of its effect on learning con- stitutes a priority.

Connectionist models (McClelland and Rumelhart, 1986) should help to improve models of comprehension and learning as regards activation of knowledge, because knowledge is no longer seen as configurations of information in memory with a prestored structure which is available in memory as units. Rather knowledge is seen as emergent structures, generated by task context, where each instantiation corresponds to a new construction. This construct makes it possible to use cognitive semantics methodology to explore the relationship between speech acts as denotation, knowledge, belief, intention, and mental acts, which are intentional states and events.


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